New Zealand Official Yearbook 1998

The oldest rocks in New Zealand are found in Nelson, Westland and Fiordland. They have been dated back to the Paleozoic era about 570 million years ago.

Almost three-quarters of New Zealand is covered by sedimentary rocks, created by the interplay of the earth movement and erosion. The most common forms of sedimentary rocks in New Zealand are sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, conglomerate and limestone. As well as the sedimentary rocks of various ages. New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure metamorphic rocks (schist, gneiss and marble), and intrusive igneous rocks (granite, gabbro, diorite and serpentine). Volcanic rocks (basalt, andesite, rhyolite and ignimbrite), are the products of the many volcanic eruptions that have characterised New Zealand's geological history.

Soil is a product of its environment: its composition depends on the parent ingredient, the climate, the length of time it has weathered, the topography, and the vegetation under which it has formed. The complex soil pattern of New Zealand is a result of the many different kinds of rock, and the various conditions under which the soils have formed. Climate varies from such extremes as the subtropical climate of North Auckland, the cold uplands of the alpine regions, and the semi-arid basins of Central Otago. The country's topography is equally varied, with 50 percent of the land classifiable as steep, 20 percent as moderately hilly, and only 30 percent as rolling or flat. The natural vegetation ranges from kauri forest to subalpine scrub, and from tussock grassland to broadleaf forest. Occasionally, occurrences such as river floods on alluvial plains, sand drifts, or a volcanic ash eruption interrupt and alter the pattern of soil development.

NEW ZEALAND VELOCITY MAP
The moving plates

Using GPS (global positioning systems) satellite surveying. Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences scientists have been able to measure the distance between any two points in New Zealand to within a few millimetres. By repeating these measurements over several years they can map the amount of movement as the New Zealand landmass shifts along the boundary between the Australian and Pacific tectonic plates.

The velocity map shows the amount of strain building up, particularly beneath the Southern Alps east of the Alpine Fault. The information in strain rate maps, together with other geological research, is expected to produce more accurate assessments of earthquake hazards in New Zealand.

Apparent in the New Zealand landscape today is the evidence of episodes of intense mountain building of between six million and one million years ago. During this period the mountain chains were pushed up and there was movement and displacement of the earth's crust along faults. Due to this activity well-preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault scarps (steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high) are visible in the landscape of some regions. Fault movements continue to the present day and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century.

Erosion has transformed the landscape during this time, carving detailed patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys and gorges. The deposition of debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have eaten back the headlands and built beaches, spits and bars. Glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the valleys occupied by most of the South Island lakes. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation, and later melting, of global glacial ice. These changes affected the erosion and deposition of the rivers and were responsible for the formation of many prominent river terraces.

Volcanic activity over the past few million years has played an important part in shaping the landscape. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times were in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty coast. The most recognisable volcanoes in New Zealand now occur in the North Island, where a number are still active. They include Ruapehu, Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, White Island and Mount Tarawera. Others such as Mount Taranaki (or Egmont), and Rangitoto may be considered dormant at present although they are still regarded as significant hazards.

Compared with some other countries lying in the almost continuous belt of earthquake activity around the rim of the Pacific—such as Japan, Chile and the Philippines—the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate, although earthquakes are common. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on average about once a year, a shock of magnitude 7 or above once in 10 years, and a shock of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century.

Within New Zealand at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region covers the whole of the North Island except Northland peninsula, and the part of the South Island north of a line roughly passing between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes southern Westland, western Southland, and western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 kilometres. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and are widely scattered throughout the country.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic Region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 kilometres at the northern end, and decreases evenly to a depth of about 200 kilometres before the southern boundary of the region is reached.

In geophysically disturbed regions (those with both volcanic and earthquake activity), large earthquakes are rare, although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, very numerous and all of similar magnitude. These are known as ‘earthquake swarms’ and although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result.

Principal earthquakes in 1997. It was another quiet year for earthquakes throughout New Zealand in 1997, the second successive year in which we have had no large damaging earthquake on land. On average we get one such event each year, but since earthquake occurrence is highly variable, in some years we get more, while other years are quiet. In 1997 most activity was concentrated around the middle of the country, and we also experienced gentle shaking from very large earthquakes well to the north of the New Zealand.

Wellington was shaken several times by a swarm of earthquakes near The Brothers, just off the Marlborough Sounds, in June. The largest of these was magnitude 5.2, and was felt from the northern South Island to Taranaki. In all there were seven events larger than magnitude 3.5 over a period of two weeks. This swarm was located near to a swarm that occurred in 1950, when the largest event was magnitude 5.7—sufficient to cause minor damage in Wellington.

Another swarm near Seddon in October, while somewhat smaller than The Brothers swarm, with a maximum magnitude 4.4, was very shallow and caused damage to the contents of nearby houses. We do not understand exactly why earthquakes sometimes occur in swarms with no clear mainshock, as opposed to a clear mainshock followed by aftershocks. One reason may be that the fault that is slipping is rough, and so it breaks in a series of smaller earthquakes. The pressure of fluids within the earth is also thought to play a role.

A magnitude 5.3 event near Cape Turnagain off the east coast of the North Island on 8 November shook goods off shelves in Waipawa.

By far the largest earthquakes affecting the country during the year were located well to the north of New Zealand, in the Tonga-Kermadec region. This is one of the world's most active zones of deep earthquakes, with large events every year. On 26 May, a 450 km-deep magnitude 7.6 earthquake occurred near the southern Kermadec Islands. This was felt throughout the country from Auckland to Dunedin, but because of its depth and distance from us, the shaking was quite minor. In the following three days six other felt earthquakes occurred over the length of the country, perhaps triggered by the large event to the north.

On 21 September another large earthquake occurred to the north of the country. This event had a magnitude of 6.9, was shallow, and was located near to Raoul Island, where it caused a rockfall and damaged a water tank.

Finally, on 14 October, a 166 km deep magnitude 7.1 earthquake occurred 820 km north of Raoul Island. This was felt in Wellington over 2,200 km away.

Earthquake risk. The Earthquake Commission engaged Works Consultancy Services (WCS) to study the results of the worst foreseeable disaster that could reasonably be anticipated within a generation. WCS confirmed that this event was a 7.5 Richter scale earthquake along the Wellington fault line within the city limits. It has a probability of occurring within the next 50 years of between 8 and 11 percent, and would affect 150,000 residential properties from Palmerston North to Nelson as well as infrastructure (roads, bridges and services).

The IGNS Seismological Observatory is part of a global earthquake data exchange network. IGNS routinely reports all arrival times of earthquake waves from New Zealand and elsewhere in the world, and the locations it calculates for regional earthquakes. This information is sent to the International Seismological Centre in England and the National Earthquake Information Centre in Colorado, USA. IGNS receives from the US centre by Internet, within an hour or two, the preliminary locations of large New Zealand earthquakes.

1997 was another year with extreme climate events in New Zealand, bringing record low rainfall in parts of Buller, Nelson and Marlborough, and very dry conditions in Marlborough, south Canterbury and Manawatu. The year ended with extremely dry conditions and agricultural drought in Marlborough, and parts of Canterbury and Hawke's Bay. New Zealand had a sunny year overall, especially over central New Zealand but it was cool.

A mix of La Niña and El Niño patterns was responsible for several of the extreme climate events with new records of rainfall and temperature. The tail end of the La Niña pattern caused four tropical cyclones to affect the New Zealand area from January to March. There were many flood-producing heavy rainfall events and as the year progressed New Zealand had an Indian summer.

The weak La Niña climate pattern, which waned in the late summer of 1996-97, was replaced by a very strong El Niño climate pattern which strengthened during winter and persisted for the remainder of the year. This pattern originated in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, where a pool of very much warmer-than-normal ocean water developed.

The El Niño influence on New Zealand's climate became most noticeable from winter onwards, with many more anticyclones over Victoria and Bass Strait. It produced more westerlies over southern New Zealand and to the south, and more southerlies over the rest of the South Island and central New Zealand. This produced the dry patterns in the north of the South Island and higher rainfall in the south of the South Island. It was also responsible for the cooler conditions overall, and the rather sunny year.

Rainfall. 1997 was the driest year since records began in 1932 in the Awatere Valley (Marlborough), and since the 1940s at Nelson and Westport Airports. Other extremely dry locations occurred in Marlborough and south Canterbury. These areas recorded only 60 to 75 percent of normal rainfall.

It was particularly wet in Coromandel and Hawke's Bay. with rainfall ranging from 120 to 140 percent of normal. It was also wet in remaining eastern North Island regions, as well as Southland, Fiordland and much of Otago. Most other regions recorded between 75 and 100 percent of normal rainfall.

Of the four main centres, Wellington was the wettest with 1,156 mm and Christchurch the driest with 571 mm. Auckland amassed 1,149 mm and Dunedin 840 mm. Clyde was the driest town NIWA measured in New Zealand, with only 392 mm. Milford Sound was the wettest populated location measuring 6,655 mm.

Temperatures. It was cool overall, particularly in the south and east of the North Island and eastern regions of the South Island, from Canterbury to Southland, where mean temperatures were mostly between 0.5 and 1.0°C below average. Throughout the remainder of the country mean temperatures were average to 0.4°C below average. The warmest centre was Whangarei, with a mean temperature for 1997 of 15.6°C.

The national average temperature, calculated by NIWA, was 12.3°C, which was 0.3°C below normal. This compares with a 1996 national average temperature of 12.5°C.

The highest extreme temperature for the year was 34.1°C recorded at Timaru Airport in hot north westerlies on 15 December 1997. The lowest temperature for the year was minus 8.8°C, measured at Lauder in Central Otago on the morning of 16 July 1997.

WEATHER

It was a very cold September with the lowest mean monthly temperatures on record occurring at Waimate with 6.1°C. 3.3°C below normal, and the Chatham Islands. 7.7°C, 1.6°C below normal.

Sunshine. 1997 had much more sunshine than normal in the north of the South Island, especially Buller where hours were almost 120 percent of normal, as well as Nelson and Westland, where totals were about 110 percent of normal. It was also sunnier than average in western Bay of Plenty. Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, Wellington, Marlborough, Canterbury. Westland and Southland, where totals were at least 105 percent of normal. Most other regions experienced slightly-above-average sunshine.

Nelson was the sunniest centre in 1997, recording 2,680 hours. This has only been exceeded twice in NIWA's official historical records; 2,685 hours recorded at Blenheim in 1972 and the extreme 2,711 hours recorded at Nelson in 1931. Nelson began recording sunshine hours in 1930.

Blenheim was the second sunniest centre in 1997 with 2.613 hours, followed by Tauranga and Whakatane, both with 2,415 hours. Blenheim set a new New Zealand record for November with its sunniest (327 hours) since records began in 1930. Of the four main centres, Wellington was the sunniest with 2.168 hours and then Christchurch with 2,156 hours.

Indian summer. New Zealand had a rare Indian summer with warm days, light winds, hardly any rain, and plenty of sunshine, from the last week of April through the third week of May. It was extremely dry in the southwest of the North Island. Coupled with the settled weather and warm temperatures, there was little wind anywhere in New Zealand. Well above normal temperatures occurred, with record high May mean temperatures in the south west.

Floods and storms. There were at least 10 flood-producing rainfall events during 1997, some of which were severe. On 5 April in Fiordland heavy rainfall occurred in a 14-hour storm, with 331 mm recorded at Dumpling Hut (on the Milford Track) and on the same day. 100 mm in parts of Southland. Torrential rainfall occurred in a 6-hour storm on 24 May with 142 mm recorded at Beachlands, Auckland. The same weather system also brought high rainfall to Henderson (84 mm), Auckland Airport (81 mm), and Mt Albert (72 mm).

Heavy rainfall resulted in slips, severe flooding, and a state of emergency in the Wairoa region on 3 June. Unofficial reports of rainfall totalling 400 mm occurring within 24 hours (and 100 mm in 2 hours), were received from the area. Many stations in Northland, Auckland, Coromandel, eastern Bay of Plenty, Gisborne and Hawke's Bay measured rainfall totals ranging from 100 to 250 mm in the 48 hours to 9 am 3 June, and many Northland farms were affected by flooding. On 18 June heavy rainfall occurred in parts of Northland, Coromandel, Bay of Plenty, Wellington. Nelson. Marlborough. Golden Bay and Buller, with totals up to 100 mm to 9 am. Northland again experienced heavy rainfall on 30 June. The rain moved south to affect the Bay of Islands, and Coromandel Peninsula. with many sites recording at least 100 mm during the event. Purerua, in the Bay of Islands, measured 134 mm during the storm, of which 50 mm occurred within an hour.

From 1-3 July heavy rainfall in Coromandel, Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, and eastern Bay of Plenty (with 50 to 80 mm in many places) resulted in slips blocking the Napier to Gisborne railway line, and minor flooding on roads north of Wairoa and low lying rural areas. Heavy rainfall on 9 September in the far north, resulted in floods and slips, especially between Doubtless Bay and Whangaroa/Kaeo. Torrential rainfall and flooding, associated with a convergence zone over Coromandel, occurred in Whitianga on 24 September. Rainfall at Whitianga totalled 60 mm in the hour to 2 pm 24 September, 93 mm in the 2 hours to 2 pm 24 September, 193 mm in the 24 hours to 9 am 25 September, and 291 mm in the 48 hours to 9 am 25 September.

High rainfall in the Wellington region on 4 October resulted in the evacuation of about 50 people in Lower Hutt, and flooding of more than 60 homes along Hutt riverside areas. Isolated land slips closed some Wellington roads and SHI. Rainfalls of over 300 mm were recorded in the Tararuas, more than 200 mm in the Hutt catchment and about 90 mm was recorded in Lower Hutt in the 24 hours to noon on 5 October.

The year ended with heavy rain on the West Coast on 15-16 December with totals up to 370 mm recorded in 48 hours in the Greymouth/Hokitika catchment area. Flooding occurred in Greymouth.

Cyclones. Four cyclones of tropical origin occurred in the first three months of 1997. ‘Drena’ tracked to the west of New Zealand, later crossing the north of the South Island on 10 January. It produced gale northeasterlies in Northland and Auckland, with gusts to 124 km/h recorded at Mokohinau Island. The winds damaged power lines and ripped some roofs off houses. High tides and storm surges caused flooding of homes in Thames. High rainfall also occurred from Kaikoura to coastal Otago.

SOUTHERN OSCILLATION INDEX
Air pressure recordings from Tahiti and Darwin

The remains of tropical cyclone ‘Harold’ affected northern New Zealand at the end of February.

A depression of subtropical origin, ‘Nameless’, affected Northland, Auckland and Coromandel, with warm humid northeasterly conditions. Heavy rain combined with high tides resulted in flooding in Whangarei. Rainfall totalling 106 mm occurred in 24 hours, with 46 mm in a one-hour period. Another ex-tropical cyclone, ‘Gavin’, produced high seas in Northland, the Coromandel and Hicks Bay areas over the night of 11/12 March, with about 150 mm of rainfall in the Gisborne ranges. There was extensive flooding in the Motu area and 109 mm of rain caused surface flooding at Gisborne Airport. The cyclone produced high winds, gusting to 130km/h near East Cape (two houses in Hicks Bay lost roofs), and 100 km/h in very exposed parts of Auckland.

Snowfalls. North Canterbury experienced its first significant snowfall of the winter on 18 June with snow to sea level, and falls to l m deep in some inland areas (i.e. Arthurs Pass). Freezing fog blocked out much of the sun in much of Central Otago from 1-10 July, with extensive hoarfrost, making the region very picturesque. A cold snap on 2 August led to snowfall in high country areas, with road closures. Snow also fell to sea level in Southland. Cold southerlies continued through 5 August, with swells up to 6m and high winds through Cook Strait. On 14 August snow fell to low levels in Southland, with thunderstorms and heavy hail in Invercargill. Snow fell to sea level in Canterbury and Otago, settling in Christchurch on 21 August. The same storm moved northward, bringing significant snowfall to high country areas. Cold south-westerlies brought snowfall to northern Southland, south Otago, inland Canterbury and the North Island's Desert Road on 11 November.

Hailstorms. Severe hailstorms struck Hawke's Bay on 22 March, destroying several million dollars worth of fruit in up to 200 orchards. The hail resembled jagged 20 cent pieces or arrowheads. A notable electrical and hail storm occurred over Wellington during the early morning of 14 July resulting in a domestic terminal at the airport being flooded by melting hail.

The arrival of people in Aotearoa/New Zealand heralded times of rapid change. The introduction (intentionally or accidentally) of exotic plants and animals and the modification of habitat radically affected populations of native species. In the pre-1800 period following the arrival and expansion of Mäori, forest cover was reduced and some 34 species became extinct including moa, the adzebill and the flightless goose. In the much shorter post-1800 period of European settlement the area of forest was further reduced to around 25 percent of the land, 9 more birds became extinct and many more are threatened. Many new species were introduced (since 1840 over 80 species of mammal, bird and fish and more than 1,800 plant species) in many places totally changing the landscape and ecology.

Special articles

Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (IGNS); Brad Scott, IGNS, Taupo; MetService Ltd: Steve Wood, NIWA, Lauder; NIWA; Department of Conservation.

Bruce Beetham (b. 1936) was a history lecturer when elected leader of the feuding Social Credit Political League in 1972. After contesting the previously blue-ribbon National seat of Rangitikei in 1972 and 1975 he was mayor of Hamilton 1976-77, before entering Parliament in the 1978 Rangitikei by-election. Boundary changes, plus unpopular support of the government on the Clyde Dam project, saw him narrowly lose the seat in 1984. An articulate leader, he gained Social Credit 21 percent of the national vote at the 1981 general election though this meant only two seats in Parliament. He remained leader until 1986, overseeing the change to the New Zealand Democratic Party. After standing unsuccessfully in the 1987 general election he entered local politics with the Wanganui Area Health Board and the regional council. A tireless worker for his party and proportional representation, his efforts paved the way for MMP.

Sir John Bennett (b. Rotorua 1912) was committed to Mãori education and the retention of te Reo. He trained as a teacher in Christchurch and attended Canterbury University, going on to play a leading role in many community organisations, especially those devoted to education. He was one of the original members of the Mãori Education Foundation (1975) and it was from there that he started the Mãori language nest concept which became the Kohanga Reo movement. He was the founding chairman of the Kohanga Reo National Trust in 1982. To date more than 30,000 children have passed through the kohanga system, with almost half of all Mãori preschoolers attending kohanga. He was also a founding member of the Mãori Council.

Ted Coubray (b. Eastern Bush, Southland 1900) was one of New Zealand's leading pioneer filmmakers. Born five years after the birth of cinema, he was projectionist, cameraman, director, producer, sound-film pioneer and inventor. In the 1920s he ran a circuit cinema in Rongotea, and began filming local events to screen at movie sessions. He was assistant cameraman on the epic, The birth of New Zealand (1921) and in 1927 wrote, produced and directed the horse-racing feature film Carbine's heritage which screened simultaneously in three Auckland cinemas. He invented a film sound system in 1929 (the first in Australasia), continuing throughout his life to invent film equipment. He was a projectionist in the Hutt Valley during World War 2 and in the 1960s was manager-operator for Auckland Cinemas, retiring to Australia in 1973. (A documentary on Ted Coubray is being made.)

Arthur Cushen (b. Bluff 1920) was a world-level shortwave radio expert, with confirmed reception of 9,000 stations. He began monitoring shortwave radio for the BBC in 1942 and for Voice of America from 1972, and broadcasting services for Radio New Zealand International from 1960. In 1962 he founded New Zealand's first telephone news service. He was International Listener of the Year in 1960, 1980 and 1992. He became blind in 1954 and worked voluntarily for blind people for the rest of his life, establishing the Southland Branch of the Association of the Blind in 1962. He had written for the Electronic Australian Monthly since 1952, and New Zealand Listener and Southland Times for almost 40 years. His book The world in my ears, which sold in 70 countries, is available in braille and as a talking book.

Doug Dibley (b. Wellington 1896) was the last surviving Gallipoli veteran (see Les Leach). In 1915 he was working for an oil company in Wellington when he and a friend saw an advertisement seeking helpers at Trentham Military Camp, where there was a spinal meningitis epidemic. He recalled, “The next thing we knew they packed us off to Gallipoli.” He was a stretcher bearer and was evacuated on the last day of the big evacuation, sent to France, but contracted meningitis and was invalided to England. After returning to New Zealand in April 1918, he took up a rehab farm in Ngongotaha and later taking over his father-in-law's farm nearby, remained there all his working life. He served in the Home Guard during World War 2. Like many other returned servicemen he was opposed to wars and the suffering they caused.

Sir Leonard (Len) Hadley (b. Wellington 1911), an expert in labour negotiations, was an executive member of the Federation of Labour for more than 30 years as well as serving on industrial commissions and the Arbitration Court. The ‘back-room’ person of the FOL, he was an acknowledged expert on industrial awards and agreements who preferred bargaining and conciliation to confrontation. Hadley was national secretary of several unions: Photo-engravers, Motion Picture Projectionists and the Tobacco Workers, and for 30 years the Plumbers and Gasfitters Union. He was a director of the Reserve Bank for 26 years from 1959, and a founding trustee and president of the Wellington Savings Bank, and the union movement's first knight.

Ruth Hendry (b. Christchurch 1913) compiled the New Zealand Listener cryptic crosswords for 57 years and 19 weeks, believed to be a world record. RWH, as she was known, said it was acceptable to tease or baffle as long as clues were fair. At a time when few women had higher degrees she graduated in 1937 with an MA in French from Canterbury College. She worked as a woolbroker and later as an accountant until marriage. She swam, lifesaved and fenced as a young woman and later was a keen climber and tramper, interested in music and history, and involved with music and theatre administration in Christchurch. Her favourite clue was, “He won't eat more quickly (6)" [faster].

Sir Hepi te Heuheu (b. 1919) of Ngati Tuwharetoa held the last paramount chieftaincy in Mãoridom, taking over the title from his father at age 24. His early years had been spent as a bushman before farming family land near Taumarunui. As chairman of the Tuwharetoa Mãori Trust Board he oversaw the development and extension of their substantial economic base of tribal lands. His ancestor refused to sign the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, and these lands had been retained by the iwi. Sir Hepi exerted an influence in the Mãori world far beyond the shores of Lake Taupo. He persuaded the government to insert the Treaty protection provisions into the State-owned Enterprises legislation, was architect of the Mãori Congress, set up in 1990 as an autonomous iwi body, and called his own hui in 1994 (attended by more than 1,000 iwi representatives) to discuss the government's fiscal envelope proposals.

Jack Hinton (b. Colac Bay 1909) was New Zealand's last surviving Victoria Cross holder. He won the VC in 1941 during the pullout from Greece, when he was severely wounded and captured. He spent four and a half years as a POW in Germany, attempting escape three times. Jack had left home at 12 to be galley hand on an Antarctic whaling ship, later delivering groceries, working on farms, and during the Depression became a swagman. On his return to New Zealand he became manager of Auckland's ‘wildest’ hotel, The Thistle, going on to manage a number of hotels around the country. In later years he was a key guest at Anzac Day and military functions.

Henry Lang (b. Vienna 1919) came to New Zealand in 1939 with his mother Anna and noted architect stepfather Ernst Plischke. Educated at Victoria University he served with the RNZAF from 1944 to 1946. He joined the Treasury in 1958 rising to the position of Secretary from 1968 to 1976.

He revitalised the Treasury with young graduates from a range of disciplines encouraging wide-ranging debate. He was highly regarded throughout the public service. After the Treasury he established the Institute of Policy Studies at Victoria University and took up a number of professional directorships. Henry Lang was very interested and supportive of the arts and remained a keen skier into his seventies. He was awarded an Hon LLM by Victoria University and was a member of the Order of New Zealand.

Les Leach (b. Greymouth 1897) the second last surviving Gallipoli veteran (see Doug Dibley) died in Sydney. Les Leach was a butcher aged 16 when he enlisted in the army in 1913. He was wounded at Gallipoli and sent back to New Zealand. After recovering, he was shipped back to France where his skull was fractured in a shell burst. After recovering in an English hospital he was sent home. After the war he worked as a civil engineer, later owning commercial properties including an hotel in Akaroa and another in Auckland. He married at 70 and lived for a number of years in Auckland before moving to Port Macquarie in New South Wales.

Barbara Matthews (b. Lower Hutt 1917) with her husband J W (Jim) wrote the extremely popular “Garden with Matthews” syndicated newspaper column for over 30 years, the last appearing in 1987. The Matthews family developed four large gardens, of which the best known is in Waikanae where Barbara lived for 44 years. She helped launch and edit the New Zealand Gardener in 1944, remaining consulting editor for many years and was author of Growing native plants and co-author of New Zealand garden dictionary and other books. Barbara led the first garden tour to Britain in the 1970s and appeared on a television garden show. Her own love of nature and gardening, which she saw as an aid to health and youthfulness, was widely influential.

Erihapeti Murchie (born 1923 Arowhenua marae near Temuka) was a Human Rights Commissioner for eight years, representing New Zealand on the UN Working Group on indigenous peoples. She had trained as a teacher and later studied at Otago and Victoria Universities, gaining a BA in 1977. A mother of 10, she became national president and research director of the Mãori Women's Welfare League and was largely responsible for the influential 1984 report Rapuora—health and Mãori women. In addition to the many public positions she held in health and education she was a consultant to the Royal Commission on Social Policy, a trustee of the Mãori Arts and Crafts Institute, on the Massey University Council, and made memorable appearances in three productions of The pohutukawa tree. Most recently, she undertook an investigation into cultural safety training for nurses.

Matiu Rata (born 1934 Te Hapua) moved to Auckland with his mother and two brothers after the death of his father. At 15 he joined the Labour Party and worked as a seaman and trade union official. He was selected for the Northern Mãori seat for Labour in the 1963 by-election. With Labour's win in the 1972 election he was appointed Minister of Mãori Affairs and Lands. During this period he was instrumental in the establishment of the Waitangi Tribunal. In 1979 in opposition he resigned from the Labour Party, serving briefly as an independent before forming Mana Motuhake and losing his seat in a self-imposed by-election in 1980. He was executive director and chief negotiator of the Muriwhenua runanaga covering most of the far north tribes, and is credited with being the catalyst for the current Mãori renaissance, as well as being a prominent and successful advocate for Mãori fishing and land claims.

Eva Rickard (b. Raglan 1925) was a veteran Mãori activist whose first campaign was for the return of ancestral land taken for a Second World War airstrip. Post-war, the land became the Raglan Golf Course. She finally succeeded in 1983 and the course became a farm with a marae and training centre. In 1984 she led a 2,000-strong hikoi (march) to Waitangi, protesting that Waitangi Day celebrations be cancelled until all grievances were settled. She stood for Parliament for Mana Motuhake but left the party when it joined the Alliance and founded the Mana Mãori Movement in 1993. She was a fierce critic of other Mãori, criticising Mãori MPs, the Mãori Council and the Tainui Mãori Trust Board claiming they did not have a mandate for the $170 million raupatu settlement claim with the Crown. Eva Rickard worked at the Raglan Post Office from 1943 until 1979 with time out to have 9 children. She had a moko tattooed on her chin in late 1996—she felt she had earned it.

Emily Schuster (b. Auckland 1937) who was a guide and performer in cultural groups all her life, was the niece of Guide Rangi. A lifelong practitioner of traditional crafts, particularly weaving, she became supervisor of women's crafts at the Rotorua Mãori Arts and Crafts Institute in 1969. As the convenor of the Aotearoa Moananui-a-Kiwa Weavers group she teamed up with Diggeress Te Kanawa, travelling to the UK and USA documenting taonga held in museums. She represented New Zealand overseas at many conferences and gatherings, speaking on traditional Mãori crafts. She did a great deal of community work, being instrumental in raising funds for the memorial bridge, marae and dining room at Whakarewarewa.

Paul Temm (b. Auckland 1930) had a deprived childhood. He attended Holy Cross Seminary but left after two years, working in camps around Nelson to pay his way through law school and became a High Court judge. During his 30 years as a barrister he took six cases to the Privy Council in London. Appointed as a founding member to the Waitangi Tribunal in 1982, he was involved in landmark hearings like the Manukau Harbour claim and Kaituna pipeline case. After not being reappointed to the Tribunal he led the legal case for the successful Ngai Tahu Treaty claim, noting it was the biggest challenge of his career.

Frank Thorn (b. London 1916) came from a very poor, large family. He joined the British Merchant Navy at 15 but jumped ship in New Zealand and was fully involved in the 1951 waterfront confrontation. Ousted from the wharves, he worked at the Ngauranga freezing works, becoming branch secretary of the Meat Workers Union. From 1971 to 1993 he was secretary of the Clothing Workers Union and minor unions covering isolated groups of workers, many of them women, whom Frank Thorn represented using his colourful, good-humoured rhetoric rather than union muscle, (although he organised a celebrated sit-in at a Levin clothing factory). He served on the national executive of the Federation of Labour and was still a member of his union executive at 81.

The Governor-General is the representative of the Sovereign in New Zealand and exercises the royal powers derived from statute and the general law (prerogative powers). The powers of the Governor-General are set out in the Letters Patent 1983, and it is for the courts to decide on the limits of these powers. The Governor-General's main constitutional function is to arrange for the leader of the majority party in Parliament to form a government.

The Crown is part of Parliament and the Governor-General's assent is required before Bills can become law. The Governor-General is required, however, by constitutional convention and the Letters Patent, to follow the advice of ministers. In extraordinary circumstances the Governor-General can reject advice if he or she believes that a government is intending to act unconstitutionally. This is known as the reserve power.

The Sovereign appoints the Governor-General on the Prime Minister's recommendation, normally for a term of five years.

A feature of New Zealand's constitution is that, although it is a monarchy in form, it operates democratically because of a long political tradition of parliamentary government and a network of constitutional principles. The Government cannot act effectively without Parliament, because it cannot raise or spend money without parliamentary approval, and for most categories of expenditure this approval takes the form of an annual vote of funds to the Government. Parliament therefore has to be assembled regularly and has the opportunity to hold the Government to account. Under the two-party system, however, the Government effectively controlled proceedings in Parliament and cases of Government members voting with the Opposition were uncommon.

Electoral reform. The Electoral Referendum Act 1991 provided for an indicative referendum on electoral reform. The referendum was divided into two parts. The first part asked voters to choose between electoral reform or maintaining the existing first past the post system. The second part of the ballot asked voters to indicate which of four options for electoral reform they preferred: supplementary member, single transferable vote, mixed member proportional and preferential voting.

The referendum was held on 19 September 1992. Of the 1,217,284 people who voted (roughly 55 percent of the registered electors) 1,031,257 or 84.7 percent voted for change. A clear preference was shown for mixed member proportional representation (MMP) which received 70.5 percent of the votes for change. The single transferable vote system got 17.4 percent of the votes, the preferential voting system 6.6 percent and the supplementary member system 5.6 percent of the votes.

In a second referendum held in conjunction with the 1993 general election, 1,917,883 voters (about 85 percent of the registered electors) chose between the first past the post (FPP) system and mixed member proportional representation. FPP received 884,964 votes (46.1 percent of the total vote) and MMP 1,032,919 votes (53.9 percent). Provision for that referendum was made in the Electoral Referendum Act 1993, and details of the MMP system are set out in that act.

Human Rights Act 1993. The Human Rights Act came into force on 1 February 1994. It amalgamated the Race Relations Act 1971 and the Human Rights Commission Act 1977 and added five new prohibited grounds of discrimination. There are now 13 prohibited grounds of discrimination: sex, marital status, religious belief, ethical belief, colour, race, ethnic or national origins, disability, age, political opinion, employment status, family status and sexual orientation. The areas in which it is unlawful to discriminate are the same as in the former legislation: employment; access to places, vehicles and facilities; provision of goods and services; provision of land, housing and other accommodation; and access to educational establishments. The act also contains provisions relating to racial disharmony, sexual harassment, and racial harassment.

The act modified procedures to assist with the resolution of complaints. The Human Rights Commission was restructured to include a Complaints Division dealing specifically with complaints. After investigating a complaint the Complaints Division may call a compulsory conference in order to identify the matters in issue between the parties and to explore the possibility of reaching an amicable settlement. Where a complaint cannot be settled and proceedings are commenced before the Complaints Review Tribunal the chairperson of the tribunal has the power to make interim orders to preserve the position of the parties pending final determination of the proceedings. If a party is dissatisfied with the decision of the tribunal and appeals to the High Court, there is a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal on a question of law.

At the heart of the parliamentary system lies the power to make laws that is vested by the Constitution Act 1986 in the Parliament of New Zealand, which consists of the Sovereign in right of New Zealand (normally represented by the Governor-General) and an elected House of Representatives.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act 1986 forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Crown. At the same time, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval. Private members are now able under Standing Orders to initiate proposals involving expenditure or taxation but the Government has an absolute right to veto such proposals if in its view they would have more than a minor impact on the Government's fiscal aggregates. Until the Constitution Act is amended, a positive recommendation from the Crown will still be required before the House may pass a bill making an appropriation.

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights 1688, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in office by the Governor-General.

The House meets in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening when the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne, read by the Governor-General in the absence of the Sovereign, and a closing prorogation by proclamation. Unless there is a new session, at the commencement of business in the second and third years of the parliamentary term, the Prime Minister's statement reviews public affairs and outlines the Government's legislative and other policy intentions for the year ahead.

The Speaker, elected by the House, is the principal presiding officer, maintaining order in proceedings and ensuring the Standing Orders are complied with. The Speaker is assisted by the Clerk of the House of Representatives who notes all proceedings of the House and of any committee of the House, and provides advice on parliamentary law and custom.

Standing orders. On 20 December 1995 the House of Representatives adopted new Standing Orders, or rules of procedure, and these were brought into force on 20 February 1996. The Standing Orders were adopted in anticipation of a House of Representatives to be elected under the Mixed Member Proportional System (MMP) at the general election of 1996. The background to the changes is set out in the Report of the Standing Orders Committee on the Review of Standing Orders (Parl paper I. 18a, 1995). Amendments were made in August 1996 (Parl paper I.18b, 1996).

Role of parties. It has been the role of the opposition party with the highest number of seats to present itself to the people as an alternative government, attacking government policy and attempting to demonstrate inefficiency, and government or departmental mismanagement. Under an electoral system providing majority governments it has been unlikely that the Opposition could bring down a government by a no-confidence vote—there has been no instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the New Zealand Parliament since 1928.

The House of Representatives has been characterised by two large, dominant parties, with the majority party forming the Government and the minority party forming the Opposition. In recent years, however, members of other parties have been elected to Parliament, and from time to time members have left one of the parties and have continued to sit as independent members or have formed new parties.

It is less likely under MMP that any single party will command an absolute majority in the House and be able to form a government on its own account. The current Standing Orders provide expressly for parties to be recognised in the House. This is reflected in various procedures, for instance in relation to voting. The principle of proportionality to party membership in the House is accorded weight, such as for participation in debate and the asking of oral questions.

Because of the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics.

Party representation. The general election held on 12 October 1996 did not produce an outright majority of seats for either of the two main political parties, National (previously in coalition with the United New Zealand party) or Labour. A coalition agreement was concluded between National and New Zealand First on 11 December 1996 and the new Ministry was sworn in on 16 December 1996.

In the first House of Representatives to be elected under the Mixed Member Proportional system (MMP), there were: National 44 (30 electorate, 14 party list); Labour 37 (26 electorate, 11 party list); New Zealand First 17 (6 electorate, 11 party list): Alliance 13 (1 electorate, 12 party list); Act New Zealand 8 (1 electorate, 7 party list); United New Zealand (1 electorate).

The first change after the general election occurred in April 1997 when Jim Gerard, List MP, resigned to take up the position of High Commissioner to Canada. He was replaced by Annabel Young, the next candidate on the National Party List, who took her seat in the House on 23 April 1997.

The second change occurred on 16 July 1997 when list MP Manu Alamein Kopu resigned from Alliance, reducing it to 12 MPs, but not from Parliament. (See the Report of the Privileges Committee on the question of privilege referred on 22 July 1997, relating to the status of Manu Alamein Kopu as a Member of Parliament (Parl Paper 1.15b, 1997)).

The third change arose from the resignation on 6 April 1998 of National MP and former Prime Minister Jim Bolger, to take up the position of Ambassador to the USA, giving rise to the by-election in the Taranaki/King Country electorate on 2 May 1998 at which Shane Ardern (National) was elected.

Legislative procedures. Proposed laws are presented to the House of Representatives in the form of draft laws known as “bills”. Classes of bills are: public bills, which deal with matters of public policy, most of them being Government bills but a number being non-ministerial Members' bills; local bills, which are promoted by local authorities to give them special powers or validate unlawful actions they may have taken and which affect particular localities; and private bills, promoted by individuals or bodies (such as companies or trusts) for their particular interest or benefit.

All types of bills follow a similar procedure in the House, with every bill being required by the Standing Orders of the House to be “read” three times. A local bill or a private bill must also comply with prescribed preliminary procedures, which entail advertising the bill before its introduction into the House. The number of Members' bills that may be introduced and proceed at any one time to second reading is limited to three, chosen by ballot.

Under the current Standing Orders a bill is introduced by being read a first time without any question put. The bill is then set down for second reading on the third sitting day following the first reading. The second reading of a bill is directed to the principles and objects of the bill. Debate on the second reading is limited to 12 speeches, in the case of a Government bill, or 6 speeches for other bills, of 10 minutes each.

After its second reading a bill is referred to a select committee of the House for consideration unless it is an Appropriation Bill, an Imprest Supply Bill, or a bill that has been accorded urgency for its passing. Formerly, bills were referred to a select committee directly after their first reading but that now happens only where in certain circumstances a bill is introduced while the House is adjourned.

Select committee consideration of bills provides an opportunity for the public and interested bodies to make submissions in the expectation that better law will result. Committees also carry out scrutiny functions in relation to such matters as estimates, financial reviews and petitions. A committee must finally report to the House on a bill within 6 months of the bill being referred to it, unless the House extends that time. In its report recommending amendments to a bill, the committee must distinguish between those adopted unanimously by the committee and those adopted by a majority.

Following presentation of a select committee report on a bill, the report is set down for consideration on the third sitting day following. At the conclusion of the debate on the report the House decides whether to agree to the amendments recommended by the select committee by majority. The House then decides whether the bill should proceed.

A bill which the House agrees should proceed is set down for consideration in a committee of the whole House next sitting day, unless the Business Committee decides that the bill does not require consideration in committee. “In committee” the bill is considered clause by clause.

Once a bill has been fully considered by the committee it is reported to the House with any amendments that have been agreed to. The House having adopted the report, the bill is then set down for third reading next sitting day. Debate on the third reading is limited to 12 speeches of 10 minutes each.

After a third reading has been given, the bill that has been passed by the House is forwarded to the Governor-General for the Royal assent. The bill then becomes an Act of Parliament and part of the law of New Zealand.

Sessions of Parliament. The first session of the 45th New Zealand Parliament was called following the General Election of 12 October 1996, and began sitting on 12 December 1996.