New Zealand Official Yearbook 1996

The oldest rocks in New Zealand are found in Nelson, Westland and Fiordland. They have been dated back to the Paleozoic era about 570 million years ago.

Almost three-quarters of New Zealand is covered by sedimentary rocks, created by the interplay of the earth movement and erosion. The most common forms of sedimentary rocks in New Zealand are sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, conglomerate and limestone. As well as the sedimentary rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure metamorphic rocks (schist, gneiss and marble), and intrusive igneous rocks (granite, gabbro, diorite and serpentine). Volcanic rocks (basalt, andesite, rhyolite and ignimbrite), are the products of the many volcanic eruptions that have characterised New Zealand's geological history.

Soil is a product of its environment: its composition depends on the parent ingredient, the climate, the length of time it has weathered, the topography, and the vegetation under which it has formed. The complex soil pattern of New Zealand is a result of the many different kinds of rock, and the various conditions under which the soils have formed. Climate varies from such extremes as the subtropical climate of North Auckland, the cold uplands of the alpine regions, and the semi-arid basins of Central Otago. The country's topography is equally varied, with 50 percent of the land classifiable as steep, 20 percent as moderately hilly, and only 30 percent as rolling or flat. The natural vegetation ranges from kauri forest to subalpine scrub, and from tussock grassland to broadleaf forest. Occasionally, occurrences such as river floods on alluvial plains, sand drifts, or a volcanic ash eruption interrupt and alter the pattern of soil development.

TAUPO VOLCANIC ZONE
Cone and caldera volcanoes

Apparent in the New Zealand landscape today is the evidence of episodes of intense mountain building of between six million and one million years ago. During this period the mountain chains were pushed up and there was movement and displacement of the earth's crust along faults. Due to this activity well-preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault scarps (steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high) are visible in the landscape of some regions. Fault movements continue to the present day and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century.

Erosion has transformed the landscape during this time, carving detailed patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys and gorges. The deposition of debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have eaten back the headlands and built beaches, spits and bars. Glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the valleys occupied by most of the South Island lakes. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation, and later melting, of global glacial ice. These changes affected the erosion and deposition of the rivers and were responsible for the formation of many prominent river terraces.

Volcanic activity over the past few million years has played an important part in shaping the landscape. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times were in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty coast. The most recognisable volcanoes in New Zealand now occur in the North Island, where a number are still active. They include Ruapehu, Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, White Island and Mount Tarawera. Others such as Mount Taranaki (or Egmont), and Rangitoto may be considered dormant at present although they are still regarded as significant hazards.

Compared with some other countries lying in the almost continuous belt of earthquake activity around the rim of the Pacific—such as Japan, Chile and the Philippines—the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate, although earthquakes are common. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on average about once a year, a shock of magnitude 7 or above once in 10 years, and a shock of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century.

Within New Zealand at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region covers the whole of the North Island except Northland peninsula, and the part of the South Island north of a line roughly passing between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes southern Westland, western Southland, and western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 kilometres. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and are widely scattered throughout the country.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic Region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 kilometres at the northern end, and decreases evenly to a depth of about 200 kilometres before the southern boundary of the region is reached.

In geophysically disturbed regions (those with both volcanic and earthquake activity), large earthquakes are rare, although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, very numerous and all of similar magnitude. These are known as ‘earthquake swarms’ and although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result.

Earthquakes 1995. Another busy year for earthquakes continued the pattern of increased activity since 1990. The 6 February Waitangi Day earthquake, of Richter magnitude 6.8, was felt from Auckland to Christchurch and also in the Chatham Islands. This earthquake was located 86 km offshore from East Cape, so damage was relatively minor for an event of this size. The mainshock was followed by many aftershocks, the largest occurring four days later with a magnitude of 6.2—a fairly large earthquake in its own right. Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences (IGNS) staff are still working on locating the aftershocks, with some 2,000 located within the first week. Fairly large earthquakes that occurred in Fiordland in 1993 and near Arthur's Pass in 1994 were also in remote areas, so we have been fortunate that none of these were located near a major population centre.

An earthquake that occurred during National Radio's Morning Report programme on 23 March was widely felt throughout the country. It was located at the northern end of the Marlborough Sounds at a depth of 76 km, and was of magnitude 5.9. It is unusual for an event of this size to be felt from Auckland to Dunedin, but part of the felt extent can be attributed to the fact that Morning Report listeners were alerted to the shaking. It also gave people the rare opportunity to experience the propagation time of seismic waves in that the earthquake was felt in Dunedin and Auckland about two minutes after it was felt in Wellington. Damage was only minor with goods knocked off shelves in some Nelson shops.

For the second year in succession Arthur's Pass has had more than its fair share of earthquakes. On 29 May a magnitude 5.5 earthquake rocked the township. This event was located near the aftershock zone of the June 1994 magnitude 6.7 earthquake, and triggered a landslide that closed the Otira Gorge road. On 24 November a magnitude 5.9 event was located some 20 km further to the east, just north of Cass. It caused some ground damage in the remote Poulter River area. It is possible that the Cass earthquake was triggered by stress changes associated with the 1994 event. This is another area of current research for IGNS scientists as it has important ramifications for short-term seismic hazard estimation and may also contribute important new information on how faults weaken when loaded.

Three other large earthquakes occurred during the year. On 4 June a deep magnitude 6.9 earthquake occurred 450 km to the north of New Zealand. This was felt in Hawke's Bay and Wellington. A shallow magnitude 7.1 earthquake near Raoul Island on 4 July caused strong shaking at Raoul, but was not reported as felt in New Zealand. Finally, a deep magnitude 6.4 earthquake, located 20 km south of Hawera, occurred on 20 September and was felt from Wanganui to Dunedin.

The eruption of Mt Ruapehu in September created nationwide interest. Three types of seismic activity typically accompany volcanic eruptions. These are volcanic tremor, caused by resonance in the volcano's plumbing system; low frequency earthquakes, often associated with actual eruptions; and “normal” earthquakes associated with movement of magma at depth. In this eruption, both tremor and low frequency earthquakes were common, but few “normal” earthquakes occurred, consistent with little movement of magma and a relatively small eruption. However, coincidental with the eruption were four small felt earthquakes within four days, located from Wanganui to South Westland. Their distance from Mt Ruapehu rules out any direct relationship to the eruption. A more likely candidate for related activity is a swarm of earthquakes that occurred near National Park in January and March, of which four were felt in Ohakune. The link between this swarm and the subsequent eruption is currently being studied by IGNS scientists.

The IGNS Seismological Observatory is part of a global earthquake data exchange network. IGNS routinely reports all arrival times of earthquake waves from New Zealand and elsewhere in the world, and the locations it calculates for regional earthquakes. This information is sent to the International Seismological Centre in England and the National Earthquake Information Centre in Colorado, USA. IGNS receives from the US centre by Internet, within an hour or two, the preliminary locations of large New Zealand earthquakes.

1995 was a year for climate extremes in New Zealand, being the wettest year ever in the north of the South Island and Central Otago, where records go back one hundred years. It was also a year of contrasting temperature patterns over the country. Mean temperatures were extremely high in Auckland, Waikato, eastern Bay of Plenty and some offshore islands, but below average in the south of the South Island, where it was sunny. Temperatures had recovered to pre-Pinatubo levels.

MT RUAPEHU ERUPTION
Main ashfalls

Drought from the previous year was still occurring in Hawke's Bay through January, and as the year progressed there were eight significant floods. Severe snowstorms occurred with extremely low temperatures in the south in June and July, with another significant snowstorm following in September. Heatwaves occurred in February and December.

In 1995 the absence of the Pinatubo effect and decay of El Niño was one of the main reasons for the year's climate being warmer than the previous three years.

Anticyclones were more frequent just northeast of the North Island. These gave northern New Zealand a higher than average frequency of mild northerlies and north westerlies, quite often of subtropical origin. At the same time more frequent troughs just east and south of the South Island gave cold outbreaks of sub-Antarctic air and cooler south westerlies over the south.

Wetter than usual. 1995 was an exceptionally wet year over much of the South Island, with 125 to 150 percent of average rainfall in northern, western and alpine regions, as well as Central Otago, and south Canterbury. It was the wettest year since 1878 at Hokitika, and the wettest in about 100 years of records in both Blenheim and Clyde (Central Otago).

The year was also wetter than usual in Coromandel and Tongariro, with rainfall between 125 and 135 percent of average. Auckland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty and other western North Island regions had between 110 and 125 percent of average rainfall.

Gisborne was the only region which was drier than normal, with rainfall 85 percent of average.

Of the four main centres, Auckland was the wettest with 1,349 mm and Christchurch the driest with 672 mm. Wellington amassed 1,340 mm and Dunedin 750 mm. More surprisingly Lincoln in Canterbury was the driest town with only 533 mm. The driest centre usually occurs in Central Otago. Milford Sound was the wettest location measuring 7,664 mm.

WEATHER

Sunshine hours (annual average)

Pedestrians take shelter against the wind in Customs Street, Auckland.

High mean temperatures. Mean temperatures were also extreme, being amongst the highest on record in Auckland, Hamilton and Whakatane. They were well above the 1961-1990 averages (by at least 0.5C) in Auckland, Waikato, eastern Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, and southern Wairarapa. Mean temperatures were also at least 0.5C above average at both Raoul and Chatham Islands.

Locations with extremely high mean temperatures for 1995 were Whakatane with 15.2C (equal highest with 1948), and Chatham Island with 12.2C (equal highest with 1878). Temperatures were up to 0.4C above average in Northland, western Bay of Plenty, most other North Island regions, and north Canterbury.

Warm year. The national average temperature was 12.6C, which was 0.1C above normal. This made 1995 the warmest year since 1990. The temperature was 0.1C above the 1961-1990 average and compares favourably with the cooler years from 1992 through 1994, with temperatures of 11.7, 11.9 and 12.3C respectively.

The highest temperature for New Zealand in 1995 was 37.0C, measured at Geraldine on 26 February. Fairlie recorded 35.0C. Dunedin had 34.6C on the same day; the highest there for any month since records began in 1853.

Sunshine. Most regions had near average sunshine in 1995. However, Otago and the Southern Lakes were much sunnier than usual with at least 110 percent of average sunshine, while Buller, south Westland, Southland and south Canterbury all had between 105 and 110 percent of average sunshine.

Nelson was the sunniest centre recording 2,394 hours, followed closely by Blenheim with 2,334 hours, and then Tauranga with 2,318 hours.

Floods. There were about twelve flood-producing rainfall events in New Zealand during 1995, some severe. On 29 March an hour of lightning preceded rainfall totalling 218 mm in the 6 hour period between 10.30am and 4.30pm in Whangarei City. On average, this amount of rainfall would normally occur only once every 100 years.

High intensity rainfall totalling 151 mm was recorded on 21 April in a 6 hour period in New Plymouth, with widespread flooding. Rainfall of that intensity has a return period of well over 100 years.

Heavy rainfall overnight 14 July, together with an abnormally high tide (partly due to extremely low atmospheric pressures, less than 980 hPa) raised water levels suddenly in Auckland, Waikato and Thames on the same day. This resulted in flooding in many areas, and a civil defence emergency was declared in Thames, where many homes were evacuated.

Heavy rain fell over a large part of southern New Zealand between 11 and 13 December. River levels rose rapidly with floodwaters inundating low-lying areas of Alexandra and Roxburgh (Central Otago), while abnormally high lake levels flooded the Queenstown shoreline area and threatened Wanaka residents. Major South Island rivers, such as the Waitaki and Clutha, as well as the Rangitata and Manuherikia rivers breached their banks in places.

The flooding was extensive in Alexandra (which recorded a 2-day rainfall of 103 mm) as the Clutha and Manuherikia rivers overflowed into low-lying parts of the town, and is believed to have been the worst in the 131-year history of the town.

A state of emergency was declared in the Hakataramea township (Waitaki Valley) where the stopbank was breached in a number of places and about 15 people were evacuated. The town's bridge was badly damaged. On the West Coast the Waiho bridge was washed out, leaving 200 tourists stranded at Franz Josef, with an Air Force helicopter running emergency services across the river. Franz Josef recorded a 2-day rainfall total of 592 mm, the highest there since records began in 1953.

Drought. Hawke's Bay rainfalls continued below average in January, for the eighth consecutive month. The drought ended in autumn.

This was the driest April on record in Dunedin, south Otago and Southland. Dunedin's April rainfall was the lowest since records began in 1853, Gore's since 1907 and Invercargill's since records began in 1900.

Heat wave. An exceptionally warm period occurred, with heat wave conditions in northern and eastern regions of the North Island from 1 to 8 December, and south western regions of the North Island from 21 to 23 December. Highest ever temperatures were measured at several centres including Levin, where the 28.5C on 21 December was the highest since records began in 1895.

SOUTHERN OSCILLATION INDEX
Air pressure recordings from Tahiti and Darwin

Record low temperatures. After a very cold southerly outbreak (at the end of June) left a widespread blanket of snow lying at low levels, an air temperature of −21.6C, the lowest New Zealand air temperature ever recorded, occurred at Ophir (Central Otago) during the early hours of the morning on 3 July. The previous extreme low air temperature for New Zealand (−19.7C) was also recorded at Ophir over the night of 1 July 1943.

A new all-time record low air temperature of −8.4C was recorded on 3 July at Queenstown, the lowest since records began in 1929.

Snowfalls. In early June 40 cars were trapped by heavy snow in the Hundalees area south of Cheviot, and many rural north Canterbury schools were closed. In mid June, late June and July there were further heavy snowfalls to low levels in the South Island.

Another bitterly cold southerly outbreak spread over New Zealand on 16 July, with snow to sea level in eastern North Island regions from Wellington to Gisborne, lying for the first time in living memory in Rotorua, and even seen on Kapiti Island. The Desert Road was closed for a record 10 days; Wellington region snowfall was the biggest since June 1976.

Again in September there were heavy snowfalls in inland south Canterbury, Otago and northwestern Southland (where major power cuts occurred), with about 50,000 lambs lost in the freezing weather; 50 cm fell at the Hermitage (Mt Cook), 45 cm at Tekapo, 40 cm in Te Anau. Snow also occurred in the Manawatu Gorge-Pahiatua Track area, the most in 20 years. More cold southerlies brought snow to high country areas in Southland, Otago and south Canterbury, with a further 50,000 lambs lost.

The arrival of people in Aotearoa/New Zealand heralded times of rapid change. The introduction (intentionally or accidentally) of exotic plants and animals and the modification of habitat radically affected populations of native species. In the period following the arrival and expansion of Maori, forest cover was reduced and some 34 species became extinct including moa, the adzebill and the flightless goose. In the much shorter period of European settlement the area of forest was further reduced to around 25 percent of the land, 10 more birds became extinct and many more are threatened. The number of species introduced has escalated (since 1840 over 80 species of mammal, bird and fish and more than 1,600 plant species) in many places totally changing the landscape and ecology.

Harold Austad (b. 1900) When Harold Austad was made president for life of the New Zealand Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association in 1981, it was an indication of the respect he had earned as a longtime worker for New Zealand sport, including chairing the New Zealand Amateur Athletics Association's executive for 30 years. In 1960 he managed the New Zealand team to the Rome Olympics where Peter Snell and Murray Halberg both won gold medals. He held high offices in the Commonwealth Games Federation and the Association of National Olympic Committees, was awarded the Olympic Order Silver Medal by the International Olympic Committee, and was the first recipient of the New Zealand Olympic Order.

John Britten (b. 1950) Working from his Christchurch garage, John Britten built the motorcycle that caught the imagination of the world of bikes. Creating a revolutionary method that produced a chassis remarkable for its lightness and strength, his motorcycles set four world records and won several major titles, including the Daytona USA Battle of the Twins in 1994 and the international BEARS championship in 1995. When John Britten won the New Zealand superbike road racing series with a bike designed and made locally, it was an ambition he had long held. He is remembered with admiration for his ingenuity and passion, by many in and beyond the motorcycling circuit.

Morrie Davis (b. 1925) built a career as a skilled negotiator who paved the way for international air travel to and from New Zealand. He was instrumental in ensuring adequate airline facilities at the new Mangere airport and headed the selection team in the early 1970s when Air New Zealand was re-equipping with wide-bodied jets, acquiring the DC10s at a great saving to the airline. Morrie Davis had advanced to the position of chief executive at the time of the Erebus disaster in 1979. Justice Mahon's finding that the airline was responsible was a major setback for Air New Zealand and caused Morrie Davis to choose early retirement.

Relda Familton (b. 1943) For 17 years Relda Familton kept many New Zealanders company through what she called “the wee small hours,” as host from 1977 to 1994 of National Radio's all night programme. Her warm friendly voice was a familiar companion to a wide audience of appreciative listeners. Known also for her interest in dog breeding, Relda Familton first became a national figure as weather presenter on WNTV1 in 1964, then with Town and Around from 1967 to 1970, and for four years as television's racing presenter. In 1995 she was presented the Bill Toft Memorial Award as with Broadcaster of the Year.

Erich Geiringer (b. Vienna 1917) was a free thinker and a fighter on many fronts. As university lecturer, GP, writer, activist and talkback host he pursued reforms with a tenacity that brought him up against defenders of the status quo in many areas. Often at the forefront of popular thought, he campaigned among other causes for cervical smear testing in the early 1960s when the subject was taboo, for abortion law reform, and against nuclear weapons. A man of strong convictions, Erich Geiringer was a resolute member of the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War and international coordinator of the action against nuclear weapons taken by the WHO to the World Court in 1995.

Paul Gnatt (b. Vienna 1923) is remembered in the world of dance as the man who in 1953 founded New Zealand's ballet company. Trained in the Danish tradition, he first visited this country with the Borovansky Ballet of Australia and decided to settle here. As a teacher of ballet he influenced the development of many prominent New Zealand dancers. His other major gift to his adopted country was in taking ballet to the provinces. Paul Gnatt toured New Zealand with a small company of dancers and presented full-length ballets with very few props and a great deal of audience imagination.

Rangimarie Hetet (Ngati Kinokahu, Ngati Maniapoto) (b. 1892) was largely responsible for revitalising the disappearing art of Maori weaving. Her dedication to preserving and passing on the traditional skills and methods began at the request of the Maori Women's Welfare League in the 1950s. She was rewarded for the many years she gave to the cause by seeing new generations of weavers. Her love for the craft and strong determination kept her working into her 103rd year.

Bruno Lawrence (b. England 1941) Well-known actor and musician, Bruno Lawrence was part of popular contemporary culture in New Zealand. Drummer, actor and hippie, he was a founding member of many rock and jazz groups. The travelling Blerta bus became a familiar sight as it brought music, theatre and magic to the far reaches of the country. On the screen he became known for a variety of roles, including Smash Palace, The Quiet Earth and Utu. His was a face and a voice that summed up an era for many New Zealanders.

Eric McCormick (b. 1906) was a noted historian of New Zealand literature and art with a scholarly approach, an accessible writing style and an enthusiasm for New Zealand culture. In 1940 he wrote a centennial survey, Letters and Art in New Zealand, and from 1945 to 1947 was chief war archivist. Among his writings were two books on Frances Hodgkins and a biography of Alexander Turnbull. Eric McCormick also gave much of his time to communicating his knowledge to others, through WEA courses in the 1930s and as a lecturer at Leeds and Auckland universities.

Peter McIntyre (b. 1910) gained a wide-reaching reputation from his work as Official War Artist depicting New Zealanders in battle, from Crete to Italy, during World War 2. He forged a successful career as a full-time artist, becoming a house-hold name mainly for his realist landscapes of New Zealand, the Pacific and North America. A series of books of his paintings for which he also wrote the texts were sellouts.

Noel Mangin (b. 1931) A bass singer of world renown, Noel Mangin left New Zealand in 1963 and did not perform here again until 1993. In his international career he travelled widely throughout Europe and America in addition to longtime residencies with both the Hamburg State Opera, where he was given the prestigious rank of Kammersaenger, and the Victoria State Opera of Melbourne where he was based for the last 18 years. Best known for the role of Osmin, the unpleasant harem guard in Mozart's Il Seraglio, Noel Mangin had a voice that was rich in emotion and a stage presence that gained him international respect.

Brian Poananga (Ngati Porou) (b. 1924) Major-General Brian Poananga's military career spanned more than 30 years and culminated in his appointment as Chief of General Staff in 1978.

In 1974 he was seconded to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for two years to set up New Zealand's first diplomatic mission to newly-independent Papua New Guinea. Remembered for his belief that the Army's main asset was people, Brian Poananga was proud of his Maori heritage, as shown by his final request to join his Ngati Porou iwi in the Turangarahui urupa.

Eru Pomare (Ngati Mutunga, Te Atiawa, Ngati Toa, Ngati Kahungunu, Rongowhakaata, Te Aitanga-a-Mahaki, Rongomai-wahine) (b. 1942) Wellington doctor and dean of Wellington Medical School, Eru Pomare used his considerable knowledge and skill to pass on to the public in general, and Maori in particular, the benefits of medical research. In the 1980s he introduced public awareness campaigns on melanoma and nutrition, an innovation that brought a new focus to the Cancer Society's work. Maori health was a priority for Eru Pomare. Concern at the gap between Maori and Pakeha levels of wellness prompted him to put much of his energy into correcting this anomaly.

Maui Pomare (Te Atiawa, Ngati Toa, Ngati Raukawa, Ngati Kahungunu, Rongowhakaata) (b. 1941) had a generosity and a commitment to Maori that meant his door was always open to the many who came seeking his extensive knowledge. Deeply involved with marae and various iwi boards, his expertise in whakapapa and Maori history, art and taonga were invaluable to the Museum of New Zealand: Te Papa Tongarewa and the Historic Places Trust. A man of quiet diplomacy, Maui Pomare was successful in securing the return of a number of tattooed Maori heads from museums and private collections overseas.

Gloria Rawlinson (b. Tonga 1918) arrived in New Zealand in the middle of a poliomyelitis epidemic. She was hospitalised for four years and spent the rest of her life in a wheelchair.

She first came to the attention of New Zealand readers through the publication of her poems, sometimes with illustrations by Minhinnick, in newspapers and magazines. She also wrote short stories, articles and a novel. Her home in Princess Street, Auckland, was a frequent gathering place for local writers. An article in 1935 by Robin Hyde celebrated the young poet. Gloria Rawlinson arranged an edition of Robin Hyde's poems in 1952 and worked for many years on a biography of her friend. In the 1960s she revisited the Pacific Islands and many of her writings describe their sensual beauty that affected her deeply.

Geoffrey Roberts (b. 1906) A former president of the International Air Transport Association and an honorary fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society of London, Geoffrey Roberts had a lifelong and influential connection with aviation. After distinguished World War 2 service with the RNZAF he was appointed general manager of TEAL (Tasman Empire Airlines Limited), which later became the international branch of Air New Zealand. He acted as director and ultimately chairman of Air New Zealand from 1958 until his retirement in 1975.

Wallace (Bill) Rowling (b. 1927) Bill Rowling was chosen to head the Labour government after the sudden death of Norman Kirk in September 1974, but was Prime Minister for only fifteen months until the 1975 election. Bill Rowling was an honest, strong and pragmatic politician who led the country through the difficult times of ‘oil shock’ and resultant economic crisis. A former teacher, Army education officer, university lecturer and Fulbright fellow, he entered politics in the early 1960s as MP for Tasman and in 1970 became president of the Labour Party. Bill Rowling was the first qualified economist to serve as Finance Minister. Leader of the Opposition from 1975 to 1983, he retired the next year, served a three-year term as ambassador in Washington, and remained active in public affairs.

Spencer Russell (b. 1923) In 1984 Spencer Russell was invited by Prime Minister Robert Muldoon to be the first ‘outside’ Governor of the Reserve Bank. Forty years in banking gave him a sound knowledge of his field and the confidence to pursue what he saw as necessary changes in the face of strong opposition. His support for financial reforms brought Spencer Russell into conflict with the Prime Minister who had recommended him. He oversaw the 20 percent devaluation in July 1984, removal of financial sector controls, liberalisation of the banking system and a new market-based style of monetary policy.

Fred Shailes (b. 1923) had a long public service career in finance, in the 1970s introducing major changes to the way government expenditures were controlled. As Controller and Auditor-General from 1975 Fred Shailes improved Audit Office efficiency and financial management in government departments. He questioned the Muldoon government's use of borrowed funds to meet daily expenditure in 1982, and government spending on the Clyde Dam in 1982-83.

Colin Urquhart (b. 1908) held senior positions in the police force at a time when it was entering an era of change. He oversaw centralisation, the closing of small stations and increased motorisation of police patrols in his capacity as deputy commissioner and then commissioner of police. It was his responsibility to implement the recommendations of the National Survey of Police Stations' report to Parliament in 1969 which introduced policing methods still used today.

Ivan Vodanovich (b. 1930) As player, coach, All Black selector and NZRFU councillor Ivan Vodanovich was dedicated to the promotion of rugby and an active supporter of Maori rugby. When there was a world-wide move to use boycotts as a form of pressure against South African apartheid, he held a controversial stance in favour of sports contact. Ivan Vodanovich was instrumental in introducing coaching films into rugby training.

Gordon Walters (b. 1919) Acclaimed as a pioneer of non-objective art in New Zealand, Gordon Walters found much of his inspiration in Maori and Pacific Islands imagery. After studying in Australia and Europe, he returned to New Zealand in 1954 and remained here, working as a commercial artist with the Government Printing Office until launching his successful career as a full-time artist. His use of the koru became an identifying feature.

Bill White (b. Australia 1891) came to New Zealand in 1910. Aged 104 when he died, Bill White attributed his long life to his ability to keep his head up and his tail down. He served in both world wars, receiving many military decorations. He was a stretcher bearer with the force that landed on the beaches of Gallipoli in 1915, but said he never saw the sense in war.

Freda White (b. 1909) Freda White's unconventionality and her big heart made her legendary as a colourful character in racing circles. Her love of horses allowed for no fear and she rode all the difficult horses in trackwork for some of Palmerston North's leading trainers in the early days before setting up on her own. The best known among the many horses to carry her colours was Teak, bred, owned and trained by her. Winner of the Grand National and Wellington steeples, Teak was just on 16 and due to retire when he won the 1974 Hawke's Bay Steeplechase at his seventh attempt.

Ria Wi Neera (Ngati Toa) (b. 1900) Ria Wi Neera, or Aunty Leah as she was known, lived most of her life next to the Takapuwahia marae and in the midst of her whanau. Great-granddaughter of the eminent Ngai Tahu chieftain Taiaroa who fought Te Rauparaha at Kaiapoi, she married a direct descendant of Te Rauparaha in an arranged marriage designed to cement good will between Ngai Tahu and Ngati Toa. Ria Wi Neera was a revered kuia, an active participant in tribal and marae events and a founding member of the Maori Women's Welfare League.

The Governor-General is the representative of the Sovereign in New Zealand and exercises the royal powers derived from statute and the general law (prerogative powers). The powers of the Governor-General are set out in the Letters Patent 1983, and it is for the courts to decide on the limits of these powers. The Governor-General's main constitutional function is to arrange for the leader of the majority party in Parliament to form a government.

The Crown is part of Parliament and the Governor-General's assent is required before Bills can become law. The Governor-General is required, however, by constitutional convention and the Letters Patent, to follow the advice of ministers. In extraordinary circumstances the Governor-General can reject advice if he or she believes that a government is intending to act unconstitutionally. This is known as the reserve power.

The Sovereign appoints the Governor-General on the Prime Minister's recommendation, normally for a term of five years.

A feature of New Zealand's constitution is that, although it is a monarchy in form, it operates democratically because of a long political tradition of parliamentary government and a network of constitutional principles. The Government cannot act effectively without Parliament, because it cannot raise or spend money without parliamentary approval, and for most categories of expenditure this approval takes the form of an annual vote of funds to the Government. Parliament therefore has to be assembled regularly and has the opportunity to hold the Government to account. Under the two-party system, however, the Government effectively controlled proceedings in Parliament and cases of Government members voting with the Opposition were uncommon.

Electoral reform. The Electoral Referendum Act 1991 provided for an indicative referendum on electoral reform. The referendum was divided into two parts. The first part asked voters to choose between electoral reform or maintaining the present first past the post system. The second part of the ballot asked voters to indicate which of four options for electoral reform they preferred: supplementary member, single transferable vote, mixed member proportional and preferential voting.

The referendum was held on 19 September 1992. Of the 1,217,284 people who voted (roughly 55 percent of the electorate) 1,031,257 or 84.7 percent voted for change. A clear preference was shown for mixed member proportional representation (MMP) which received 70.5 percent of the votes for change. The single transferable vote system got 17.4 percent of the votes, the preferential voting system 6.6 percent and the supplementary member system 5.6 percent of the votes.

In a second referendum held in conjunction with the 1993 general election, 1,917,883 voters chose between the present first past the post system and mixed member proportional representation. The result is shown in table 3.14. Provision for that referendum was made in the Electoral Referendum Act 1993, and details of the MMP system are set out in that act.

Human Rights Act 1993. The Human Rights Act came into force on 1 February 1994. It amalgamates the Race Relations Act 1971 and the Human Rights Commission Act 1977 and adds five new prohibited grounds of discrimination. There are now 13 prohibited grounds of discrimination: sex, marital status, religious belief, ethical belief, colour, race, ethnic or national origins, disability, age, political opinion, employment status, family status and sexual orientation. The areas in which it is unlawful to discriminate are the same as in the former legislation: employment; access to places, vehicles and facilities; provision of goods and services; provision of land, housing and other accommodation; and access to educational establishments. The act also contains provisions relating to racial disharmony, sexual harassment, and racial harassment.

The act introduces new procedures to assist with the resolution of complaints. The Human Rights Commission is restructured and now includes a Complaints Division to deal specifically with complaints. After investigating a complaint the Complaints Division may call a compulsory conference in order to identify the matters in issue between the parties and to explore the possibility of reaching an amicable settlement. Where a complaint cannot be settled and proceedings are commenced before the Complaints Review Tribunal the chairperson of the tribunal has the power to make interim orders to preserve the position of the parties pending final determination of the proceedings. If a party is dissatisfied with the decision of the tribunal and appeals to the High Court, there is now a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal on a question of law.

At the heart of the parliamentary system lies the power to make laws that is vested by the Constitution Act 1986 in the Parliament of New Zealand, which consists of the Sovereign in right of New Zealand (normally represented by the Governor- General) and an elected House of Representatives.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act 1986 forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Crown. At the same time, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval. Private members are now able under Standing Orders to initiate proposals involving expenditure or taxation but the Government has an absolute right to veto such proposals if in its view they would have more than a minor impact on the Government's fiscal aggregates. Until the Constitution Act is amended, a positive recommendation from the Crown will still be required before the House may pass a bill making an appropriation.

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights 1688, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in office by the Governor-General.

The House meets in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening when the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne, read by the Governor-General in the absence of the Sovereign, and a closing prorogation by proclamation. Unless there is a new session, at the commencement of business in the second and third years of the parliamentary term, the Prime Minister's statement reviews public affairs and outlines the Government's legislative and other policy intentions for the year ahead.

The Speaker, elected by the House, is the principal presiding officer, maintaining order in proceedings and ensuring the Standing Orders are complied with. The Speaker is assisted by the Clerk of the House of Representatives who notes all proceedings of the House and of any committee of the House, and provides advice on parliamentary law and custom.

Standing orders. On 20 December 1995 the House of Representatives adopted new Standing Orders, or rules of procedure, and these were brought into force on 20 February 1996. The new Standing Orders have been adopted in anticipation of a House of Representatives to be elected under the Mixed Member Proportional System (MMP) at the general election due in 1996. The background to the changes is set out in the Report of the Standing Orders Committee on the Review of Standing Orders (Parl paper I. 18A, 1995).

Role of parties. It has been the role of the opposition party with the highest number of seats to present itself to the people as an alternative government, attacking government policy and attemptimg to demonstrate inefficiency, and government or departmental mismanagement. Under an electoral system providing majority governments it has been unlikely that the Opposition could bring down a government by a no-confidence vote—there has been no instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the New Zealand Parliament since 1928.

The House of Representatives has been characterised by two large, dominant parties, with the majority party forming the Government and the minority party forming the Opposition. In recent years, however, members of other parties have been elected to Parliament, and from time to time members have left one of the parties and have continued to sit as independent members or have formed new parties.

It is less likely under MMP that any single party will command an absolute majority in the House and be able to form a government on its own account. The new Standing Orders provide expressly for parties to be recognised in the House. This is reflected in various procedures, for instance in relation to voting. The principal of proportionality to party membership in the House is accorded weight, such as for participation in debate and the asking of oral questions.

Because of the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics.

Party representation. Since the 1993 general election the number of seats held by parties in the House of Representatives has changed as a result of eight members from National and three from Labour forming or joining new parties. The position as at 30 April 1996 was as follows: National, 41; Labour, 41; United New Zealand, 7; New Zealand First, 4; Alliance, 2; Christian Democrats, 1; New Zealand Conservative, 1; Independent, 1; vacant, 1.

The governing party, National, and United New Zealand entered into a coalition on 28 February 1996, while Christian Democrats continued to be Government-aligned.

The first change since the general election occurred in September 1994 when a member left National to become Right of Centre (subsequently renamed New Zealand Conservative) but maintained a coalition arrangement with the Government.

In October 1994 a member left Labour to be an independent and then formed Future New Zealand in November 1994. In May 1995 a further member left National, to launch the Christian Democrats. Another member left National to join the New Zealand Conservative member in June 1995 and in the same month United New Zealand was formed by 7 members, 4 of them from National, 2 from Labour (one latterly Future New Zealand). In February 1996 the founding member of the New Zealand Conservatives became an independent and in March 1996 an eighth member left National to join the two New Zealand First members.

In April 1996 a ninth member left National and a fourth member left Labour, both joining New Zealand First, but the former National member who had joined New Zealand First in March resigned from the House.

By-elections. A by-election was held in the Selwyn Electoral District on 13 August 1994 following the resignation of the Honourable Ruth Richardson. David Carter was elected and, having been sworn, took his seat in the House of Representatives on 25 August 1994.

Legislative procedures. Proposed laws are presented to the House of Representatives in the form of draft laws known as “bills”. Classes of bills are: public bills, which deal with matters of public policy, most of them being Government bills but a number being non-ministerial Members' bills; local bills, which are promoted by local authorities to give them special powers or validate unlawful actions they may have taken and which affect particular localities; and private bills, promoted by individuals or bodies (such as companies or trusts) for their particular interest or benefit.

All types of bills follow a similar procedure in the House, with every bill being required by the Standing Orders of the House to be “read” three times. A local bill or a private bill must also comply with prescribed preliminary procedures, which entail advertising the bill before its introduction into the House. The number of Members' bills that may be introduced and proceed at any one time to second reading is limited to three, chosen by ballot.

Under the new Standing Orders a bill is introduced by being read a first time without any question put. The bill is then set down for second reading on the third sitting day following the first reading. The second reading of a bill is directed to the principals and objects of the bill. Debate on the second reading is limited to 12 speeches, in the case of a Government bill, or 6 speeches for other bills, of 10 minutes each.

After its second reading a bill is referred to a select committee of the House for consideration unless it is an Appropriation Bill, an Imprest Supply Bill, or a bill that has been accorded urgency for its passing. Formerly, bills were referred to a select committee directly after their first reading but that now happens only where in certain circumstances a bill is introduced while the House is adjourned.

Select committee consideration of bills provides an opportunity for the public and interested bodies to make submissions in the expectation that better law will result. Committees also carry out scrutiny functions in relation to such matter as estimates, financial reviews and petitions. A committee must now finally report to the House on a bill within 6 months of the bill being referred to it, unless the House extends that time. In its report recommending amendments to a bill, the committee must distinguish between those adopted unanimously by the committee and those adopted by a majority.

Following presentation of a select committee report on a bill, the report is set down for consideration on the third sitting day following. At the conclusion of the debate on the report the House decides whether to agree to the amendments recommended by the select committee by majority. The House then decides whether the bill should proceed.

A bill which the House agrees should proceed is set down for consideration in a committee of the whole House next sitting day, unless the Business Committee decides that the bill does not require consideration in committee. “In committee” the bill is considered clause by clause.

Once a bill has been fully considered by the committee it is reported to the House with any amendments that have been agreed to. The House having adopted the report, the bill is then set down for third reading next sitting day. Debated on the third reading is limited to 12 speeches of 10 minutes each.

After a third reading has been given, the bill that has been passed by the House is forwarded to the Governor-General for the Royal assent. The bill then becomes an Act of Parliament and part of the law of New Zealand.

Sessions of Parliament. The first session of the 44th New Zealand Parliament was called following the General Election of 6 November 1993, and began sitting on 21 December 1993.

Parliamentary Service. (Te Ratonga Whare Paremata.) The Parliamentary Service provides administrative and support services to the Members of Parliament and the House of Representatives. The service is not a department of the executive government nor is it responsible to a minister. It is controlled by the Parliamentary Service Commission which consists of the Speaker of the House of Representatives as chairperson, and six members, three of whom are members of the Government and three from the Opposition.

Among the services provided by the Parliamentary Service are:

The Parliamentary Service is also responsible for managing the major project to strengthen and refurbish Parliament House and the Parliamentary Library. The project began in August 1992 and it was completed, at an estimated cost of $164 million, in time for members to occupy the restored building for the 1996 parliamentary year. The building was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 2 November 1995.

Salaries and allowances of parliamentarians. These are set out in table 3.5 below. An electorate allowance is also paid at a rate dependent on the nature of each member's electorate, eg urban, rural, or semi-rural, and ranges from $7,600 to $18,600. A day allowance of $52 is payable where indicated for each day on which a member attends a sitting of Parliament or a committee, and a night allowance of up to $125 for each night a member requires overnight accommodation away from home by reason of such attendance. Instead of receiving night allowances for each night spent in Wellington on parliamentary business, a member may elect to receive a Wellington accommodation allowance to cover costs incurred in retaining or maintaining accommodation. The maximum amount that can be claimed in a period of six months is $6,875.

Members of Parliament.Table 3.6 shows the percentage of women Members of Parliament, and members of both sexes of various ages elected in the 1990 General Election compared to the voting population.

WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT

Table 3.7 lists members of the House of Representatives during the 44th Parliament. The final results of the 1993 General Election were printed in the report The General Election (printed as Parl paper E9).