New Zealand Official Yearbook 94

The oldest rocks in New Zealand are found in Nelson, Westland and Fiordland. They have been dated back to the Paleozoic era about 570 million years ago.

Almost three-quarters of New Zealand is covered by sedimentary rocks, created by the interplay of the earth movement and erosion. The most common forms of sedimentary rocks in New Zealand are sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, conglomerate and limestone. As well as the sedimentary rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure metamorphic rocks (schist, gneiss and marble), and intrusive igneous rocks (granite, gabbro, diorite and serpentine). Volcanic rocks (basalt, andesite, rhyolite and ignimbrite), are the products of the many volcanic eruptions that have characterised New Zealand's geological history.

Apparent in the New Zealand landscape today is the evidence of episodes of intense mountain building of between six million and one million years ago. During this period the mountain chains were pushed up and there was movement and displacement of the earth's crust along faults. Due to this activity well-preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault scarps (steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high) are visible in the landscape of some regions. Fault movements continue to the present day and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century.

Erosion has transformed the landscape during this time, carving detailed patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys and gorges. The deposition of debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have eaten back the headlands and built beaches, spits and bars. Glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the valleys occupied by most of the South Island lakes. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation, and later melting, of global glacial ice. These changes affected the erosion and deposition of the rivers and were responsible for the formation of many prominent river terraces.

Volcanic activity over the past few million years has played an important part in shaping the landscape. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times were in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty coast. The most recognisable volcanoes in New Zealand now occur in the North Island, where a number are still active. They include Ruapehu, Tongariro, Ngaruahoe, White Island and Mount Tarawera. Others such as Mount Taranaki (or Egmont), and Rangitoto may be considered dormant at present although they are still regarded as significant hazards.

Compared with some other countries lying in the almost continuous belt of earthquake activity around the rim of the Pacific—such as Japan, Chile and the Philippines—the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate, although earthquakes are common. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on average about once a year, a shock of magnitude 7 or above once in 10 years, and a shock of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century.

Within New Zealand at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region covers the whole of the North Island except Northland peninsula, and the part of the South Island north of a line roughly passing between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes southern Westland, western Southland, and western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 kilometres. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and are widely scattered throughout the country.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic Region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 kilometres at the northern end, and decreases evenly to a depth of about 200 kilometres before the southern boundary of the region is reached.

In geophysically disturbed regions (those with both volcanic and earthquake activity), large earthquakes are rare, although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, very numerous and all of similar magnitude. These are known as ‘earthquake swarms’ and although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result.

Earthquakes 1993. The largest earthquake in New Zealand in 25 years occurred in Fiordland on 10 August. It had a magnitude of 7.1, was located just offshore near Doubtful Sound, and was 20 km deep. The last earthquake to reach this magnitude in New Zealand was the Inangahua shock in May 1968.

Fiordland is a very active part of the country, where the Pacific Plate overrides the Australian Plate, the latter plunging very steeply in a south-easterly direction. This configuration is reversed in the North Island, where it is the Pacific Plate that plunges beneath the Australian Plate, towards the north-west.

The 10 August earthquake was felt over most of the South Island, most strongly in Te Anau and Manapouri. Being in such a sparsely populated area, it caused little damage, although there were a number of landslides in the epicentral area. Reports from Doubtful Sound indicate a severity of shaking sufficient to cause minor structural damage. The nearest town of any size was Te Anau, 73 km away, and effects there were not severe.

The earthquake was followed by many thousands of after shocks. Portable seismographs which were installed to record these in detail by augmenting the permanent network have yielded a wealth of data which will enable the physical process of earthquake occurrence in that part of the country to be analysed in detail.

The same evening there was an earthquake near Gisborne which did considerably more damage. It was of magnitude 6-4 and released less than 10 percent of the energy in the Fiordland shock. Its effects were also tempered by the fact that it occurred at a depth of about 70 km. Nevertheless, there was considerable minor damage in the Gisborne area, particularly in Ormond which was close to the epicentre. Portable seismographs were installed to record the aftershocks, which were relatively few because of the depth of the event. It is a well-established fact that deep earthquakes do not have large sequences of aftershocks.

One other earthquake reached magnitude 6 during the year: at Tikokino in southern Hawke's Bay on 11 April (magnitude 6-1, depth 35 km). The severity of shaking near the epicentre was similar to that in Gisborne, in this case sufficient to bring down several chimneys. This earthquake occurred just north of the area near Dannevirke which has been quite active in recent years (especially 1990) but seems not to be closely related to that sequence. The East Coast of the North Island is another very active area.

On 10 May an earthquake of magnitude 5.3 occurred near Otira. It was felt at modest intensities from Westport to Christchurch. A sequence of moderate earthquakes occurred midway between Christchurch and Kaikoura at the beginning of September. There was one of magnitude 5.0 on 2 September, one of 5.2 on 3 September, and many smaller shocks. They were felt quite sharply in Cheviot and the surrounding towns. This area is known for the magnitude 7.0 damaging shock in 1901.

Earthquakes near the Chatham Islands are rare, but one of magnitude 4.5 occurred there on 31 March. It was felt throughout the islands, dislodging some pictures and causing minor superficial damage.

Deep earthquakes are more prolific in New Zealand than shallow ones, and 1993 was no exception. The western Bay of Plenty usually has a number between 200 and 300 km depth, and this year there were four exceeding magnitude 5.5: on 3 January (5.7), 16 March (5.8), 3 August (5.8) and 1 October (5.6). All were felt in Tauranga and the surrounding area. A number of other deep earthquakes exceeded magnitude 5.5 elsewhere in the deep earthquake zone that underlies the North Island. Southern Taranaki residents felt magnitude 5.7 shock on 19 March; it was centred 182 km deep beneath Waverley. But as is usual with deep earthquakes, none of these caused any damage due to the depth.

1993 was another very significant year for weather in New Zealand. It was another cold year, with very dry weather in most northern areas of the North Island.

Another cold year. The national average temperature for the year was 11.9°C, making 1993 the third coldest year in the last 50 years (0.6°C below the long term average). This temperature is calculated from selected indicator stations throughout New Zealand. In the last half century only 1992 and 1945 were colder with 11.7°C. 1946 and 1976 shared the same temperature as 1993 (11.9°C). Temperatures in 1993 were below average in all but four months.

As in 1992, the El Niño weather pattern was present, but waned as the year progressed. Volcanic ash from Mt Pinatubo has been present in the atmosphere, but dropped to a quarter of the maximum 1992 levels by the end of 1993. Both these influences and cold oceans around New Zealand caused the weather to be colder. However, it must be remembered there are many factors that can cause our climate to vary.

During 1993, cold south-westerlies and more anticyclones in the Tasman Sea occurred. There was also a lack of northwesterly winds which bring warmer weather.

Temperatures were most below average (by 1°C) in Rotorua, Gisborne and Hawke's Bay, with Rotorua and Gisborne having their second coldest year on record, with near record low mean annual temperatures measured.

Temperatures were near average along the Kaikoura coast, in north Canterbury, west Otago and Southland. In all other regions they were 0.5 to 0.9°C below average.

The highest extreme temperature for the year was 34.1 °C at Timaru on 18 January. Winter saw temperatures fall to -11.5°C at Lake Tekapo on 25 August, higher than the extremely low value of -15°C measured at Ranfurly during the winter of 1992.

Extremely dry in the north. 1993 was an exceptionally dry year in most northern regions of the North Island. Record low rainfall (about half average) occurred in the western Bay of Plenty, due to dry weather in most months. Only 727 mm of rain occurred in Tauranga, the lowest since records began in 1898. Only about two-thirds the usual rainfall occurred in the Auckland and Rotorua areas, making it the driest year since 1919.

Rainfall was also below average over the remainder of the North Island, as well as inland areas of both south Canterbury and Southland. This contrasts with the wetter conditions in Marlborough, western Otago, coastal Southland, and most alpine regions of the South Island, with rainfalls 10 to 25 percent more than average.

Of the four main centres, Wellington was the wettest with 1,164 mm and Christchurch the driest with 603 mm. Auckland amassed 775 mm and Dunedin (Airport) 670 mm. Milford Sound was the wettest spot in New Zealand with 6,430 mm, while Clyde (central Otago) recorded only 489 mm.

Sunny in the south, cloudy in the north. 1993 was a sunny year for most areas along the east coast of the South Island, with sunshine hour totals about 5 percent more than average. However, cloudier skies prevailed in some northern and western areas of the North Island, especially Auckland and King Country, where totals were as much as 10 percent below average. Other regions of New Zealand enjoyed close to average sunshine hours. Motueka was the sunniest centre recording 2,384 hours, followed by Nelson and Blenheim tied with 2,329 hours.

Of the four main centres Christchurch was the sunniest with 2,128 hours, then Wellington with 2,015 hours. Auckland recorded 1,903 hours and Dunedin 1,749 hours.

When the air pressure is abnormally high in the Indonesian region, it is correspondingly low in the South Pacific and vice versa. This phenomenon is called the 'southern oscillation‘. When southern oscillation episodes occur, the usual weather patterns in the southern Pacific, including New Zealand, are significantly altered.

An index, called the southern oscillation index, has been constructed using pressure recordings from Tahiti and Darwin. Usually there is a lag of some months between a major excursion of the oscillation, either positive (La Niña) or negative (El Niño), and a characteristic weather regime developing. The period of the southern oscillation is very irregular, varying between about two and 10 years with an average period of three to four years. However, once established, significant El Niño and La Niña episodes can persist for six to 12 months.

In general, very negative values of the oscillation index (El Niño's) are associated with an increase in the frequency of southerly winds over New Zealand in winter, and south-westerly winds during spring and summer.

The most significant El Niño this century occurred over the spring and summer of 1982-1983, when the oscillation index reached its largest negative value this century and rainfall was well below average in Gisborne and Hawke's Bay.

The latest El Niño event (1991 through 1993), along with other oceanic and atmospheric influences, has been a major factor influencing the colder weather that has prevailed over the past few years.

The above graph shows three-month running means of the southern oscillation index (SOI) to the end of 1993. Negative phases of the SOI are closely linked to El Niño episodes.

The New Zealand landscape is now dominated by introduced animals and plants. Over 1,500 exotic plants grow wild, some (like rye-grass, browntop, gorse and sweet briar), over large areas. Although introduced plants have seldom colonised extensive areas of native vegetation, wild animals (deer, pigs, goats, possums, stoats and rats) are widespread, and some introduced birds, such as blackbirds, occur everywhere. Urban vegetation is largely exotic and domestic stock dominate agricultural areas through the lowlands.

Introduced plants and animals have greatly increased the diversity of species in New Zealand. However, their increase has been associated with a decrease in the area dominated by native species. Today a large number of native species are very rare and seldom seen. In recent years the urgency for measures to ensure the survival of endangered species has become a world-wide concern.

The Governor-General is the representative of the Sovereign in New Zealand and exercises the royal powers derived from statute and the general law (prerogative powers). The powers of the Governor-General are set out in the Letters Patent 1983, and it is for the courts to decide on the limits of these powers. The Governor-General's main constitutional function is to arrange for the leader of the majority party in Parliament to form a government.

The Crown is part of Parliament and the Governor-General's assent is required before Bills can become law. The Governor-General is required, however, by constitutional convention and the Letters Patent, to follow the advice of ministers. In extraordinary circumstances the Governor-General can reject advice if he or she believes that a government is intending to act unconstitutionally. This is known as the reserve power.

The Sovereign appoints the Governor-General on the Prime Minister's recommendation, normally for a term of five years.

A feature of New Zealand's constitution is that, although it is a monarchy in form, it operates democratically because of a long political tradition of parliamentary government and a network of constitutional principles. The Government cannot act effectively without Parliament, because it cannot raise or spend money without parliamentary approval, and for most categories of expenditure this approval takes the form of an annual vote of funds to the Government. Parliament therefore has to be assembled regularly and has the opportunity to hold the Government to account. Under the two-party system, however, the Government effectively controls proceedings in Parliament and cases of Government members voting with the Opposition are uncommon.

The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. This Act protects certain fundamental rights and freedoms in New Zealand. These rights include freedom of religion, speech and assembly and the right to protection against discrimination as well as fundamental principles of criminal procedure such as the right of access to lawyers and the right to a fair trial.

The rights and freedoms in the Act are not absolute and may be subject to justified limitations. But the Act provides that any limitations must be reasonable, prescribed by law, and demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society.

Unlike some similar documents in other countries the Act is not supreme law. Rather, it is an ordinary statute which can be amended or repealed by simple majority in Parliament. Nor do the Courts have the power to strike down legislation on the basis that is inconsistent with the rights set out in the Act.

However, this does not mean that the Act is a mere statement of rights. The Attorney-General is charged under the Act with the responsibility of alerting Parliament when any provision in a Bill before Parliament is inconsistent with those rights. And where the interpretation of a statutory provision is ambiguous, the Courts are required to interpret the provision in a manner consistent with the rights and freedoms in the Act. The Act came into force on 25 September 1990.

Electoral reform. The Electoral Referendum Act 1991 provided for an indicative referendum on electoral reform. The referendum was divided into two parts. The first part asked voters to choose between electoral reform or maintaining of the present first past the post system. The second part of the ballot asked voters to indicate which of four options for electoral reform they preferred: supplementary member, single transferable vote, mixed member proportional and preferential voting.

The referendum was held on 19 September 1992. Of the 1,217,284 people who voted (roughly 55 percent of the electorate) 1,031,257 or 84.7 percent, voted for change. A clear preference was shown for mixed member proportional representation which received 70.5 percent of the votes for change. The single transferable vote system got 17.4 percent of the votes, the preferential voting system 6.6 percent and the supplementary member system 5.6 percent of the votes.

A second referendum was held in conjunction with the 1993 general election where voters chose between the present first past the post system and mixed member proportional representation. Provision for that referendum is made in the Electoral Referendum Act 1993. Details of the mixed member proportional system are set out in the Electoral Act 1993.

Privacy of information. In August 1991, the Government introduced the Privacy of Information Bill. The Bill is currently being studied by a select committee of Parliament. Its purpose is to promote and protect individual privacy in general accordance with the 1980 OECD guidelines on the protection of Privacy and Transborder flows of Personal Data.

The Bill provides that requests by natural persons for information about themselves are to be dealt with in accordance with the new Act rather than the Official Information Act when the relevant sections of the new Act come into force. These sections which are modelled on Part IV of the Official Information Act extend entitlements to access to personal information to information held by private sector agencies. The right of review by the Ombudsmen in respect of refusal of personal information requests is to be replaced by a complaints procedure involving the new office of the Privacy Commissioner. If settlement of the complaint cannot be secured by the Commissioner proceedings may be taken to the Equal Opportunities Tribunal, renamed the Human Rights Tribunal. The Official Information Act is amended accordingly in the Bill.

The Privacy Commissioner Act 1991 established a privacy commissioner with the functions of overseeing compliance by the government agencies involved in the matching of government information with the statutory controls; and of performing a general watchdog role in relation to privacy. The Privacy Commissioner has no jurisdiction to deal with complaints by individuals that the statutory controls have been breached. The controls consist of requirements such as notice to the affected individual before action can be taken on the basis of a successful match, observation of time limits on the commencement of action after a successful match, and the establishment of technical standards for the conduct of matching programmes. The information that may be matched with the beneficiary records of the Department of Social Welfare and the Accident Compensation Corporation covers information relating to prison inmates, people arriving in and departing from New Zealand, illegal immigrants, taxpayers, recipients of student allowances and records of births, deaths and marriages.

Privacy Act 1993. This Act came into force on 1 July 1993. It carries forward from the Privacy Commissioner Act 1991 the provisions establishing the Privacy Commissioner and makes the commissioner a member of the Human Rights Commission. Twelve information privacy principles and four public register privacy principles were established. The 12 information privacy principles deal with the collection, security, use and disclosure of personal information, access to and correct of personal information and the assignment and use of unique identifiers. The four public register privacy principles place some controls on the availability of public register information and its subsequent use. Both sets of principles are subject to any other law on the matters covered. The principles apply to both public and private sectors. Jurisdiction is given to the Privacy Commissioner to grant exemptions from the principles, principally by way of codes of practice.

Also carried forward from the Privacy Commissioner Act 1991 are controls on information matching to apply to statutory matching provisions implemented by the public sector— for example, requirements such as notice to the affected individual before action can be taken on the basis of a successful match. The Privacy Commissioner is given jurisdiction to deal with complaints about breaches of the principles and about breaches of the information matching controls. The Privacy Commissioner Act 1991 was repealed.

At the heart of the parliamentary system lies the power to make laws that is vested by the Constitution Act 1986 in the Parliament of New Zealand, which consists of the Sovereign in right of New Zealand (normally represented by the Governor- General) and an elected House of Representatives.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act 1986 forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Crown. Although the reasons for this provision are historical, it is also used by governments to defeat legislation brought forward by individual members which ministers are unwilling to support or adopt. On the other hand, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval.

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights 1688, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in office by the Governor-General.

The House meets in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening when the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne, read by the Governor-General in the absence of the Sovereign, and a closing prorogation by proclamation.

Because control of the House's business lies with the Government, many of the rules and customs of the House are designed to ensure that members are given a full opportunity to debate any aspect of government proposals. A central figure in Parliament is the Speaker, who is elected to act as an impartial chairman when the House is in session. The Speaker controls debates and the conduct of members, and ensures the Standing Orders are complied with. The Speaker is assisted by the Clerk of the House of Representatives who notes all proceedings of the House and of any committee of the House, and provides advice on parliamentary law and custom.

Parliamentary opposition. As the name suggests, it is the job of the opposition party with the highest number of seats to oppose the Government. Its role is to present itself to the people as an alternative government. It will attack government policy and attempt to demonstrate inefficiency, and government or departmental mismanagement. The party system means it is unlikely that the Opposition could bring down a government by a no-confidence vote—there has been no instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the New Zealand Parliament since 1928.

The House of Representatives is characterised by having two large, dominant parties, with the majority party forming the Government and the minority party forming the Opposition. In recent years, however, members of a third party have been elected to Parliament, and from time to time members have left one of the parties and have continued to sit as independent members. Because of the growth of a largely two-party system and the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics.

In 1991 the number of parliamentary seats held by the National Party was reduced to 65 when two members left to become New Zealand Liberal, later part of the Alliance. This of the independents subsequently formed the New Zealand First Party and was joined by one of the New Zealand Liberal members. ‘Others’ now comprises two members for the Alliance, two for New Zealand First and one independent.

By-elections. The following by-elections were held during the life of the 43rd Parliament:

Tamaki Electoral District—held on 15 February 1992, following the resignation of the Right Honourable Sir Robert Muldoon. Clem Simich was elected and, having been sworn, took his seat in the House of Representatives on 3 March 1992.

Wellington Central Electoral District—held on 12 December 1992, following the resignation of the Honourable Fran Wilde. Christopher Laidlaw was elected and, having been sworn, took his seat on 23 February 1993.

Tauranga Electoral District—held on 17 April 1993, following the resignation of Winston Peters. He was re-elected, as an independent member, and, having been sworn, took his seat on 5 May 1993.

Process of legislation. Proposed laws are placed before the House in the form of draft laws known as ‘Bills’. There are three types of Bill: Public Bills, which deal with the most important subjects of a public and general nature (most Public Bills are introduced by the Government); Local Bills, which are promoted by local authorities to give themselves special powers or validate unlawful action they may have taken; and Private Bills, which are promoted by private individuals or companies also to give themselves special powers.

The procedure for passing a Public Bill in the House of Representatives is for it to receive a first reading, which is a formal introductory stage, allowing a maximum debating time of two hours. Almost all Bills are then sent to a select committee. Detailed scrutiny of legislation and facets of executive activity, eg expenditure of public money, is carried out by select committees which consist of a small number of members, and report their findings and recommendations to the House. All Government Bills are referred to a select committee unless it is an Appropriation Bill, an Imprest Supply Bill or a Bill that has been accorded urgency. This procedure enables the public and interested bodies to make submissions, in the expectation that better laws will result. Following its deliberations the select committee will report the bill back with any proposed amendments.

On the second reading the formal debate will occur on the principles of the Bill. Following this the Bill is considered by the whole House ‘in committee’, clause by clause. This may involve considerable debating time. The entire Bill is considered in this way and formally reported back to the House for its third reading, with any amendments that have been agreed.

Debate may also take place on the Bill's third reading, after which it is forwarded to the Governor-General for approval. On receiving the Royal assent the Bill becomes an Act of Parliament and part of the law of New Zealand.

The various stages of the Bill do not always follow any set time pattern. Weeks or even months can elapse between readings. Local and Private Bills pass through similar stages to those for a Public Bill; however, in these two types of Bills the person or body promoting the Bill must also advertise the Bill before it can be introduced.

Sessions of Parliament. The first session of the 43rd New Zealand Parliament was called following the General Election of 27 October 1990 and sat from 28 November 1990 to 19 December 1990. The first session concluded when Parliament was prorogued on 18 January 1991, and a new session was called to discuss the outbreak of hostilities in the Gulf. New Zealand's first female Governor-General, Her Excellency Dame Catherine Tizard, delivered the Speech from the Throne at the opening of the second session of the 43rd Parliament on 22 January 1991. The House had, on 19 December 1990, adjourned until 19 February 1991. As no power was then vested in the Speaker (or in anyone else) to appoint an earlier meeting time while the House stood and adjourned, the only way in which an accelerated meeting could be effected was by the Crown proroguing Parliament and summoning it to meet in a new session.

Parliamentary Service. (Te Ratonga Whare Paremata.) The Parliamentary Service provides administrative and support services to the Members of Parliament and the House of Representatives. The service is not a department of the executive government nor is it responsible to a minister. It is controlled by the Parliamentary Services Commission which consists of the Speaker of the House of Representatives as chairperson, and six members, three of whom are members of the Government and three from the Opposition.

Among the services provided by the Parliamentary Service are:

The Parliamentary Service is also responsible for managing the major project to strengthen and refurbish Parliament House and the Parliamentary Library. The project began in August 1992 and will be completed, at an estimated cost of $164 million, in time for members to occupy the restored building for the 1996 parliamentary year.

Salaries and allowances of parliamentarians. These are set out in below. An electorate allowance is also paid at a rate dependent on the nature of each member's electorate, eg urban, rural, or semi-rural, and ranges from $7,600 to $18,600. A day allowance of $52 is payable where indicated for each day on which a member attends a sitting of Parliament or a committee, and a night allowance of up to $118 for each night a member requires overnight accommodation away from home by reason of such attendance. Instead of receiving night allowances for each night spent in Wellington on parliamentary business, a member may elect to receive a Wellington accommodation allowance to cover costs incurred in retaining or maintaining accommodation. The maximum amount that can be claimed in a period of six months is $6,500.

Members of Parliament. shows the percentage of women Members of Parliament, and members of both sexes of various ages elected in the 1990 general election compared to the voting population.

lists members of the House of Representatives during the forty-third Parliament. The final results of the 1990 general election were printed in the report The General Election (printed as Parl paper E9). See section 2.7 for 1993 General Election results.

The executive government of New Zealand is carried out on behalf of the Sovereign by the ministers of the Crown, who make up the members of the Cabinet and the Executive Council. Ministers are responsible to Parliament for their official actions by constitutional convention, and are required to be members of Parliament by the Constitution Act 1986.

After a general election the Governor-General invites the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives to accept office as Prime Minister, and form a government. On the new Prime Minister's advice the Governor-General appoints a number of members of Parliament as ministers, generally with responsibilities for various areas of government administration (portfolios). The Governor-General may also appoint parliamentary undersecretaries, who are not ministers and not members of the Executive Council, to assist ministers.

Cabinet and the Executive Council. The Cabinet and the Executive Council have separate functions. All members of Cabinet are members of the Executive Council, as are the ministers not in the Cabinet.

The Executive Council is a formal body with formal functions, whereas the Cabinet is an informal body with deliberative functions; the Executive Council tenders advice to the Governor-General on the basis of policy formulated in the Cabinet. The council is established under Clause VII of the Letters Patent and is the main legal vehicle for promulgating government decisions that will form part of the law, such as statutory regulations, which are made by Order-in-Council.

The Cabinet is in effect, the highest policy making body of Government. It is the main vehicle by which the executive decides on major policy issues and legislative proposals, and it co-ordinates the work of ministers. The Cabinet has a system of committees which can examine subjects in detail and recommend specific policy measures to Cabinet.

The proceedings of the Cabinet are informal and confidential, and decisions are usually made by consensus. By constitutional convention the Cabinet accepts collective responsibility for its decisions, which ensures that ministers will have the support of the Government as a whole in Parliament for their legislative and other proposals. The Cabinet Office provides support services for the Cabinet and its committees. The current Secretary of the Cabinet is also the Clerk of the Executive Council.

Persons 18 years and over have the right to vote in parliamentary elections. Enrolment as an elector is compulsory, but voting is not. To qualify for enrolment persons must (i) be at least 18 years old; (ii) be New Zealand citizens or permanent residents; (iii) have lived continuously in New Zealand for at least a year at some time; and (iv) have last lived continuously for one month in the electorate they are to be enrolled in. Maoris, including persons of Maori descent, may choose to enrol for either a Maori or general electorate, but may make the choice only at certain times. The electoral rolls are maintained by New Zealand Post.

Voting. The conduct of polls is the responsibility of the Department of Justice, and is controlled by a returning officer in each electorate, who arranges voting facilities and staff, conducts the election, supervises counting of votes, and declares the result. Generally only persons whose names are validly enrolled before an election are qualified to vote. Most electors cast their votes at polling booths in their electorates on polling day, but they may vote as special voters at booths outside their electorate. Special votes may also be cast before polling day at issuing offices or at home because of sickness, travel, or similar reasons. Provision is also made for voting overseas.

Voting is by secret ballot. A preliminary count of ordinary votes is available for each electorate on election night, and final results are normally available a fortnight later, once special and overseas votes have been received and counted. The candidate with the most votes is elected member of Parliament for the electorate concerned.

Electoral boundaries. The boundaries of electorates are revised every five years after the Census of Population and Dwellings, and the new boundaries come into effect at the expiry of the parliamentary term during which the revision is finalised. Statistics New Zealand supplies figures for revision purposes on the general electoral population. This is defined as the total electoral population except: (a) the Maori electoral population. (This is the number of adult Maoris enrolled in the four Maori electorates, adjusted to include children. Maoris have been defined since 1980 as persons of the Maori race of New Zealand including any of their descendants.); and (b) some temporary residents of various kinds.

The Representation Commission is responsible for defining the boundaries of electorates based on the population census. The commission has seven members. Four are officials, the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (the latter cannot vote). Two members are nominated by the House of Representatives to represent the Government and Opposition respectively, and the final member is appointed to chair the commission on the nomination of the other members. The appointments of the unofficial members lapse at the next census.

In determining the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, the commission's membership is supplemented by the Chief Executive of the Ministry of Maori Development and two nominations from the House of Representatives (one each from the Government and the Opposition) and appointed by the Governor-General. These additional members to the commission must be Maori.

The number of general electorates is based on a formula that allocates 25 electorates to the South Island. The general electoral population of the South Island is divided by 25, and the population quota for each South Island electorate is divided into the general electoral population of the North Island to give the number of electorates required in the North Island. In addition there is a fixed number of four Maori electorates.

Provisional boundaries are then settled, maps drawn up and the availability of boundary details announced in the New Zealand Gazette. Any objections and counter-objections to the provisional electoral boundaries are then considered by the Representation Commission, which makes a final decision on the boundaries that define the new electoral districts.

General election results. A triennial general election of members of Parliament was last held on 27 October 1990. The previous election was held on 15 August 1987. The total number of electors on the master roll for the 1990 election was 2,202,157. A total of 1,877,115 votes were cast; representing 85.24 percent of electors on the Master Roll.

General Licensing Poll. In 1990 the national triennial liquor licensing poll was abolished.

Term Poll. A term poll was held in conjunction with the 1990 General Election. The voting issue was the length of the parliamentary term. The two options offered were either a continuation of the three year term or an extension of the term to four years. The voting was approximately 70 percent in support of retaining a three year term.

The Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908, provides that the Governor-General may, by Order-in-Council, appoint any person or persons to be a commission to inquire into and report upon any question arising out of, or concerning: (a) the administration of the Government; (b) the working of any existing law; (c) the necessity or expediency of any legislation; (d) the conduct of any officer in the service of the Crown; (e) any disaster or accident (whether due to natural causes or otherwise) in which members of the public were killed, injured, or were or might have been exposed to risk of death or injury; and (f) any other matter of public importance.

A royal commission is appointed by the Governor-General or by the Governor-General in Council or the Administrator of the Government, pursuant to the Letters Patent, but in other respects derives its powers from the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. Royal commissions are generally regarded as having greater prestige. A committee of inquiry may be set up by a minister to investigate some matter, but such a committee normally has no statutory basis, although there are ancillary powers in some instances.

Amendments to the legislation in 1980 conferred new rights to appear and be heard at an inquiry upon any person if he or she is a party to the inquiry or satisfies the commission that he or she has an interest in the inquiry apart from any interest in common with the public. In addition, any person who satisfies the commission that any evidence may adversely affect his or her interests has a right to be given an opportunity to be heard in respect of the matter. Usually such terms of reference for a commission are quite specific. It does not confer the right on almost anyone to become a party or participant in the inquiry.

The Department of Internal Affairs administers the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908 and provides basic services to commissions. These inquiries are not part of the justice system, nor are they part of the conventional administrative bureaucracy. The department retains important constitutional responsibilities, and is held responsible to ensure that complete independence and impartiality of the investigations is maintained.

Commissions of inquiry must report to the Governor-General, who in turn refers the findings to his or her ministers. The reports are usually published.

Since the mid-1980s the state sector has been substantially reformed and restructured. Until 1984 the business of the state was conducted by, and largely through, traditionally structured public service departments, which mixed policy, regulatory, service delivery and trading functions, supplemented by a few government-owned corporations, some of which also had mixed trading and regulatory functions. The public service was centrally managed through the State Services Commission, as employer of all departmental staff, and through The Treasury, as financial controller.

These broad principles were reflected in three important pieces of legislation:

Against the background of this legislation, a great deal of work has been carried out over the last eight years on grouping the business activities of the public service and the state sector agencies more consistently. As a result of this process many departments disappeared, some were replaced by new agencies, others had their functions and size altered dramatically, while a few were converted into state-owned enterprises, some of which have since been sold.

The scale of the change can be best seen in the shape and size of the public service. When the reforms began there were only two departments with fewer than 100 staff; now there are 11 of that size. Ten years ago the service was dominated by a dozen quite large departments, including Works and Development, Forestry, Energy, Education, Housing, Inland Revenue, Social Welfare and Justice. Now half of the public service works in just the last three. When the reforms began nearly 88,000 people worked in the departments of the public service; in 1993 the figure was just over 36,000.

The new public service is characterised by relatively small departments with quite sharply defined policy advice, regulatory and sectorial funding functions.

The latest phase of restructuring in the state sector has seen the Ministry of Transport shed most of its regulatory functions to focus on policy advice, the Area Health Boards replaced by a new network of Regional Health Authorities and Crown Health Enterprises, and the Department of Health change in focus to become the Ministry of Health.

Government policy concerning state assets is to sell those it lacks reason to retain. The view of the Government is that public ownership of business enterprises does not provide the right incentives to manage such enterprises successfully. The sales of state assets is also a part of a fiscal strategy to reduce the level of public debt. Several state-owned enterprises and trading units of government departments have been sold. The Government is currently reviewing a number of state-owned enterprises for possible sale.

Widespread changes to the role of the Government in social policy are continuing. The goal of Government is that an integrated approach be taken to social policy to achieve consistency in housing, welfare, health, accident compensation and education. This includes:

The State Sector Act 1988 provides for a State Services Commission and for the positions of a State Services Commissioner and Deputy State Services Commissioner.

The commission is government's principal advisor on public sector organisational development and human resource management. The State Services Commissioner is responsible to the Minister of State Services for management of the State Services Commission. Both the commissioner and the deputy commissioner are, however, required to act independently in matters about individual employees, and in some aspects of the appointment and employment of departmental chief executives.

The commissioner's principal functions relate to the Public Service. They include:

The commission also helps government to mange major changes in the state sector. The State Sector Act enables the Prime Minister to direct the commissioner to undertake other tasks and assignments that might be required to assist the Government in the management of the State sector.

Equal employment opportunities. Through the State Sector Act the Commission is responsible for promoting, developing and monitoring Equal Employment Opportunities (EEO) programmes in departments of the public service. The purpose of such programmes is defined in the Act as ‘...the identification and elimination of all aspects of policies, procedures and other institutional barriers that cause or perpetuate, or tend to cause or perpetuate inequality in respect to the employment of any persons or group of persons.’

Each department is required to develop and publish an annual EEO programme and to report to the commission about how well it has been able to implement the programme. The commission monitors progress and provides practical advice and support to departments to help them achieve their EEO objectives.

The functions of central government are under a continual process of review. The following account of departments was correct as at November 1993.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of. (Te Manatū Ahuwhenua, Ahumoana.) The ministry provides policy advice to government designed to create a domestic and international environment favourable to the sustainable and productive use of New Zealand's agricultural and fisheries and resources. It also implements the Government's policies and programmes to drive maximum benefit to the nation from farming, horticulture and fishing.

MAF's programmes aim to protect our competitive advantage as an export nation by monitoring animals, fish and plants, and preventing the introduction of exotic pests and diseases. Also, through quality assurance, it ensures that our export primary produce meets agreed standards. See chapter 16, Agriculture and section 17.3 Fisheries.

Audit Office. See ‘Controller and Auditor-General’ below.

Ministry of Commerce. (Te Manatū Tauhokohoko.) The ministry has advisory, programme and administrative functions in business development, competition policy, business and intellectual law, tariff policy, trade remedies, communications, regional development, energy and resources, consumer affairs and tourism.

The ministry services the portfolios of Commerce, Communications, Consumer Affairs, Energy, Tourism, Industry and Business Development.

Conservation, Department of. (Te Papa Atawhai.) The department is responsible for the management of much of New Zealand's natural lands and water, as well as historic places and wildlife. In addition to managing national parks and reserves, forest and farm parks, the coastal marine area (in partnership with regional councils) and marine reserves, the department is also the Government's advocate in conservation issues. See chapter 15, Land and environment.

Crown-owned entities. These are organisations (in some cases statutory officers) that while not departments of the public service or state-owned enterprises, belong to the Crown. They are named in a schedule to the Public Finance Act 1989. Some well-known Crown entities are the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council, the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, the Human Rights Commission and the New Zealand Fire Service Commission.

State-owned enterprises. State-owned enterprises are companies established by the Government to manage its trading activities. The principle objective of every state-owned enterprise is to operate as a successful business and, to this end, to be:

An annual statement of intent is signed between the shareholding government ministers and the board of directors of the respective state-owned enterprise. Performance of the enterprise is monitored against this statement.

In addition to the state service organisations there is a multitude of advisory bodies, statutory corporations, companies, councils, commissions, committees, tribunals and other organisations loosely connected to the Government.

The Controller and Auditor-General is an officer of the Crown appointed by the Governor-General under the Public Finance Act 1977. The position is independent of the executive government and only the Governor-General, upon an address from the House of Representatives, can end the tenure. The Controller and Auditor-General and the persons acting under his or her delegation are collectively called ‘the Audit Office’.

The constitutionally important role of the Audit Office, as set out in the Public Finance Act, is to act as a monitor on behalf of Parliament and to control issues of money out of the Crown Bank Account. The Audit Office has to be satisfied that all issues from the Crown Bank Account for the government's expenditure requirements are within the appropriations and other authorities granted by Parliament. This role is crucial to the ability to Parliament to control the supply of funds to the Crown, and in certain circumstances the Audit Office may prevent the issue of money.

The Audit Office audits the financial statements of government departments, local authorities, and most government-controlled corporations, boards and companies. The office plays a key part in the accountability by these organisations. It also conducts periodic reviews of financial control systems, selected programmes or operations to ascertain whether resources have been applied effectively and efficiently in a manner consistent with the policies of the governing bodies.

Considerable emphasis is placed on reporting the results of this work. The most visible results are their financial audit reports tabled in Parliament each year.

If shortcomings are discovered during an audit, the principal recourse of the Audit Office is to report to the management of the organisation, to a minister, or to Parliament and its select committees. If there is a deficiency in money or stores, the Auditor-General has the power to surcharge the persons involved to recover the amount. This power is rarely used.

The Controller and Auditor-General uses a mix of his own staff and chartered accounting firms to carry out individual audits in accordance with requirements laid down by him. Approximately 40 percent of the audits are currently tendered out on a competitive basis between private sector firms and the operational arm of the Audit Office.

The Official Information Act 1982 is based on the principle that information shall be made available unless there is good reason for withholding it. The purposes of the Act are: to provide proper access to official information to the people of New Zealand, to encourage their participation in the making and administration of laws and policies; to promote the accountability of ministers and officials; and to protect official information consistent with the public interest and the preservation of personal privacy. Here, personal privacy refers to a sole corporation and a body of persons only.

With the exception of the Parliamentary Service, the Official Information Act covers all government departments, state-owned enterprises, and a range of statutory bodies. It does not include courts, tribunals (in relation to their judicial function), or some judicial bodies. All local authorities and statutory boards are covered under either the Official Information Act 1982 or the Local Government Official Information and Meetings Act 1987.

The Acts provide special rights of access to personal information. The definition of a ‘person’ can include a sole corporation and a body of persons. The protection of the privacy of natural persons is an important issue, however, this consideration may be overturned if it is in the public interest to make the information available.

Among the criteria to be considered, when judging whether information should be with-held, are that if the information is released will it prejudice the security, defence, or economic international relations of New Zealand; the maintenance of law and order; the effective conduct of public affairs; trade secrets and commercial sensitivity; personal privacy and the safety of any person.

Ombudsmen can review a decision to refuse information; the investigation is private and free of charge. The formal recommendation of an Ombudsman is binding unless overridden by a minister in accordance with a formal procedure.

An information guide concerning access to personal and official information is available from the Department of Justice. In order to provide sufficient data to ease the identification of material and assist in the lodging of requests, reference can be made to the Directory of Official Information. Published every two years, the Directory is a comprehensive guide to all the organisations covered by the Act including their structure, functions, policies, documents held, contact officers and other listings which facilitate the access of information.

The principal function of the Parliamentary Commissioner for Investigations (Ombudsman) is to enquire into complaints relating to administrative decisions of government departments and related organisations, Crown health enterprises and regional health authorities. Under the Ombudsmen Act 1975 there is provision for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, in either temporary or permanent positions.

All investigations undertaken by ombudsmen are conducted in private. When an ombudsman believes a complaint can be sustained, this opinion is reported to the government department or organisation concerned along with any recommendation for action. A copy of this report is also made available to the responsible minister. At the local government level, the ombudsman reports the finding to the organisation, and provides a copy of his report to the mayor or chairperson.

Ombudsmen also investigate recommendations made to a minister by any government department, organisation or employee. Similarly, they look into any recommendations made to a full council or board of a local organisation by any committee, sub-committee, officer, employee, or member. It is also the responsibility of the Ombudsmen to investigate any complaints on decisions for the request of official information.

Ombudsmen have no authority to investigate complaints against private companies and individuals, decisions of judges, complaints directed at ministerial decisions, or at the full council of local government. They can also decide that certain complaints, although within their sphere, are better suited to other available avenues of administrative redress.

This parliamentary office was established in 1987 as part of the restructuring of the government's administration of the environment.

The Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (Te Kaitiaki Taiao a Te Whare Pōremata) was also created in response to significant public demands for an independent authority to review and publicly report on the environmental effects of central and local government works and policies.

Authority for the appointment of the Commissioner and the functions, powers and duties exercised by the Commissioner are set out in the Environment Act 1986. Commissioner appointments are made by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the House of Representatives. The term of appointment is five years.

The principal functions of the Commissioner comprise:

The Commissioner is also responsible for carrying out inquiries requested by the House of Representatives and for providing reports on proposed legislation, petitions and other matters of environmental significance under consideration by the House. The commissioner's reports of investigation are published, the House advised of findings and advice is given to public authorities on ways to improve environmental management. With the exception of requests and directions made by the House of Representatives, the commissioner has the discretion to determine which reviews and investigations are conducted.

The office is small with an equivalent full-time staff of 12.

The Environment Act sets out matters for the Commissioner to consider when exercising the functions of the office. The matters are diverse, including the maintenance and restoration of important ecosystems, the protection of the heritage of the tangata whenua, the prevention of pollution and the effects on communities of actual or proposed changes to natural and physical resources.

The structure of local government was thoroughly reorganised in 1989. There are now:

In 1989 a statement on the purposes of local government was included in the Local Government Act 1974. This holds as central the recognition of the existence of different communities in New Zealand, and their separate identities and values; and the effective participation of local persons in local government. Also included was an accountability scheme, whereby local authorities are required to conduct their affairs in an open and proper manner, separate their regulatory and non-regulatory activities, and adequately inform local communities of their activities. Emphasis was placed on setting objectives and measuring performance.

Local authorities are encouraged to corporatise or privatise their trading activities (aside from airports, seaports and energy supply operations which are covered by separate legislation). The Act requires territorial authorities to corporatise or establish as a business unit any of their operations carrying out subsidised road construction work and corporatise any public transport undertaking. Local authorities are required to consider putting out the delivery of all services to competitive tender.

The regional councils are directly elected, set their own rates and have a chairperson elected by their members. Their main functions are:

Some regional councils also have other functions, such as those formerly undertaken by land drainage boards.

In 1989 regional councils in Auckland and Wellington inherited a number of public utilities and trading activities: in Auckland trunk sewerage, bulk water supply, rubbish disposal, buses, forestry, regional parks and regional roads; in Wellington bulk water supply, forestry and regional parks.

In 1992 the law governing regional councils was extensively amended to clarify the role of regional councils as regulatory authorities concerned with resource management and related functions, including public passenger transport planning in Auckland and Wellington. The differentiation between regional councils and territorial authorities is not so much hierarchical as functional, with the range of regional council functions being limited.

Also in 1992 the various operational services of the Auckland Regional Council were transferred to a new body, the Auckland Regional Services Trust. However, Auckland and Wellington regional councils both retain administration of regional parks and reserves.

The Nelson-Marlborough Regional Council was abolished from 1 July 1992 and its functions transferred to the territorial authorities of Marlborough District, Tasman District and Nelson City.

Territorial authorities. The 74 regional authorities consist of:

Territorial authorities in New Zealand are directly elected, set their own rates, and have a mayor elected by the people. They have a wide range of functions including land use consents under the Resource Management Act 1991, noise control, litter control; roading; water supply; sewage reticulation and disposal; rubbish collection and disposal; parks and reserves; libraries; land subdivision; pensioner housing, health inspection; building consent; parking controls; and civil defence.

The 1992 refocussing of regional councils on a more limited range of functions established the territorial authority more firmly as the basic unit of multi-purpose local government in New Zealand.

In 1992 it was made easier for new districts to be established on the initiative of local people, in part by reducing the minimum size of new districts (from 20,000 to 10,000).

New cities can now only be constituted by a re-organisation scheme where a new district is formed and that district:

Unitary authorities. This type of authority is administered by a territorial authority, which also has regional powers. The 1989 reform legislation prevented any unitary authorities being established other than in Gisborne. However, the 1992 amendment not only created three more unitary authorities (Marlborough District, Tasman District and Nelson City) but made it possible for others to be created through local initiatives.

A community board is primarily an advocate for its community, and a means whereby the territorial authority can consult with the community. Any power the community board has is as delegated by the territorial authority, but cannot include such powers as levying rates, appointing staff, or owning property.

Community boards may be partly elected by the community and partly appointed by the territorial authority from among its own members, or may be entirely elected. Community boards can be established anywhere in New Zealand to serve any number of inhabitants, they may be established upon the initiative either of a given number of electors or of the territorial authority, or as provided in a re-organisation scheme. Community boundaries often coincide with those of wards (divisions of the district for electoral purposes). These boards have between four and 12 members each.

In 1989 the number of special purpose local authorities was greatly reduced. Catchment boards, harbour boards, pest destruction boards and land drainage boards (among others) disappeared, with their functions reallocated either to regional councils or, to a lesser extent, to territorial authorities. The categories remaining include: scenic and recreation boards, airport authorities and, for the time being, area health boards, hospital boards and electric power boards. There are also a few one off authorities including: the Aotea Centre Board of Management; the Canterbury Museum Trust Board; the Council of the Auckland Institute and Museum; the Marlborough Forestry Corporation; the Otago Museum Trust Board; and the Selwyn Plantation Board.

Auckland Regional Services Trust. This is a local authority unique to the Auckland region which has been established to assume ownership of the Auckland Regional Council's service-delivery activities and community assets. It is charged with disposing of those assets as soon as it is prudent to do so, except for bulk water and sewerage (which must not be sold) and applying proceeds to the retirement of debt.

The trust's first election was in October 1992. Its six members are elected by the regions electors. Local authority members and employees are prohibited from being trust members or directors of its companies and trust members may not be directors of those companies either.

The trust is funded by trading income, with any deficit up to 1995 to be met by the Auckland Regional Council. From 1995 the trust is expected to be self-sufficient. Surplus monies may be applied at the trust's discretion to a separate “community trust” (under the Trustee Act 1956), which the trust is required to establish by the time it starts making a surplus. The community trust will distribute its funds for charitable and other public purposes.

Local government elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. The next elections will be held in 1995. All regional council, territorial authority, special purpose local authority and community board elections are conducted at the same time.

In the year before an election regional and territorial authorities are normally required to review the number of members and the number and size of their electorates. In 1991 local authorities had the option of not conducting a review but keeping existing membership and the wards or constituencies until 1995.

Electorates are known as wards in the case of territorial authorities and constituencies in the case of regions. Territorial authorities had the option of deciding whether members would be elected by the electors of the district as a whole. Regions must be divided into constituencies.

The purpose of the review was to give effective representation to communities of interest and fair representation to electors. The review process provided for objections and appeals by the public and where necessary the final decisions were made by the Local Government Commission.

Voting procedures. Any territorial authority may decide whether an election is to be conducted by attendance at a polling booth or by post; however, postal voting was almost universal by 1992. The method of casting a vote is similar to parliamentary elections: the surnames of candidates are printed on the ballot paper and electors place a tick after the name of the candidate they wish to vote for.

Local authority franchise. Every parliamentary elector is automatically qualified as a residential elector of a local authority if the address at which the person is registered on the electoral roll is within the district of the local authority.

Ratepayer voting was re-introduced by the Local Government Amendments Act 1991. This entitles ratepayers who are not residents to enrol and vote in any region, district or community in which they pay rates. Rolls are compiled by territorial authorities, who usually compile the rolls and conduct the elections for other authorities as well. The information for the residential electoral roll is obtained from the parliamentary electoral database and the ratepayer roll is compiled from nomination forms sent to ratepayers.

Membership of local authorities. Any person who is a parliamentary elector may be elected to a regional council or territorial authority or community board. In 1992 a prohibition was introduced on a person being a candidate for both a regional council and a territorial authority or community board within that region. Vacancies may be filled either by an election or by appointment, depending upon the type of council, the circumstances of the vacancy and the wishes of the electors.

Remuneration of members. Most boards and councils pay their chairperson or mayor an annual salary, while other members are paid a combination of a daily meeting allowance and an annual salary. Rates of remuneration payable to members are determined by the Minister of Local Government. Maximum and minimum salary and allowance levels are set, allowing the council or board the discretion to decide the actual rate within the prescribed limits.

The Local Government Commission comprises three members one of when is the chairperson, appointed by the Minister for Local Government. The commission has two major functions. Firstly, as a quasi-judicial appeal authority to hear and determine:

Also, in accordance with amendments to the Local Government Act 1992, the commission assumed new responsibilities relating to the preparation and processing of reorganisation proposals for:

In addition to the above roles, the commission is the determining authority for matters still requiring resolution following the implementation of the major local government reorganisation in 1989. In particular the commission may investigate property dealings of former authorities, and also approve changes in use of the special funds of former authorities.

Under the Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981 the flag, previously known as the New Zealand ensign, was declared to be the national flag of New Zealand. It is the symbol of the realm, Government and people of New Zealand. The basis of the New Zealand Flag is the Union Flag (Jack) in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed stars with white borders.

The coat of arms is protected under the Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981, and its lawful use is confined to official purposes.

New Zealand has two national anthems: ‘God Defend New Zealand’ and ‘God Save the Queen’. ‘God Defend New Zealand’ is a poem written by Thomas Bracken and set to original music composed by John J Woods. It was first performed in public on Christmas Day 1876 and formally adopted as national hymn in 1840. In 1977, with the permission of Her Majesty the Queen, the Government adopted both ‘God Defend New Zealand’ and the traditional ‘God Save the Queen’ as national anthems of equal status in New Zealand to be used in the order appropriate to the occasion. (Refer to supplement to New Zealand Gazette published Monday 21 November 1977.)