New Zealand Official 1992 Year Book

The oldest rocks in New Zealand are found in Nelson, Westland and Fiordland. They have been dated back to the Paleozoic era about 570 million years ago.

Almost three-quarters of New Zealand is covered by sedimentary rocks, created by the interplay of the earth movement and erosion. The most common forms of sedimentary rocks in New Zealand are sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, conglomerate and limestone. As well as the sedimentary rocks of various ages. New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure metamorphic rocks (schist, gneiss and marble), and intrusive igneous rocks (granite, gabbro, diorite and serpentine). Volcanic rocks (basalt, andesite, rhyolite and ignimbrite), are the products of the many volcanic eruptions that have characterised New Zealand's geological history.

Apparent in the New Zealand landscape today is the evidence of episodes of intense mountain building of between six million and one million years ago. During this period the mountain chains were pushed up and there was movement and displacement of the earth's crust along faults. Due to this activity well-preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault scarps (steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high) are visible in the landscape of some regions. Fault movements continue to the present day and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century.

Erosion has transformed the landscape during this time, carving detailed patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys and gorges. The deposition of debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have eaten back the headlands and built beaches, spits and bars. Glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the valleys occupied by most of the South Island lakes. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation, and later melting, of global glacial ice. These changes affected the erosion and deposition of the rivers and were responsible for the formation of many prominent river terraces.

Volcanic activity over the past few million years has played an important part in shaping the landscape. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times were in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty coast. The most recognisable volancoes in New Zealand now occur in the North Island, where a number are still active. They include Ruapehu, Tongariro, Ngaurahoe, White Island and Mount Tarawera. Others such as Mount Taranaki (or Egmont), and Rangitoto may be considered dormant at present although they are still regarded as significant hazards.

Compared with some other countries lying in the almost continuous belt of earthquake activity around the rim of the Pacific—such as Japan, Chile and the Philippines—the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate, although earthquakes are common. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on average about once a year, a shock of magnitude 7 or above once in 10 years, and a shock of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century.

Within New Zealand at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region covers the whole of the North Island except Northland peninsula, and the part of the South Island north of a line roughly passing between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes southern Westland, western Southland, and western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the Earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 kilometres. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and are widely scattered throughout the country.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 kilometres at the northern end, and decreases evenly to a depth of about 200 kilometres before the southern boundary of the region is reached.

In geophysically disturbed regions (those with both volcanic and earthquake activity), large earthquakes are rare, although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, very numerous and all of similar magnitude. These are known as ‘earthquake swarms’ and although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result.

Earthquakes 1990. There were two earthquakes of Richter magnitude 6.0 or greater in the New Zealand area during 1990 and six exceeding 5.5. The largest earthquake of the year, with a magnitude of 6.3, occurred on May 13 near Weber in Southern Hawke's Bay. It had been preceded, on February 19, by a shock of magnitude 5.9 and was followed by a long sequence of aftershocks, including one of magnitude 5.7 on August 16. Surprisingly, Dannevirke, only 20 kms away, suffered only slight damage.

An earthquake of magnitude 5.8 was felt near Lake Tennyson, north of Lake Hanmer in north Canterbury on February 10. Another earthquake of 5.5 followed within 30 minutes, and after that a long sequence of smaller aftershocks.

Two earthquakes at about 150 kms beneath Rotorua were recorded in 1990: one on March 28 of 6.0 magnitude and another of 5.6 on October 19. On August 14 there was an earthquake 130 km beneath Lake Taupo registering 5.7. Due to the great depth of these earthquakes, they were felt only modestly and caused no damage.

A swarm of earthquakes occurred near Cape Palliser, from October 5 to 15. The largest of these registered at 5.0, and all were sufficiently close to Wellington to cause concern. Many other small earthquakes were recorded, the largest was recorded near Lake Te Anau on 10 July with a magnitude of 5.1.

Earthquakes 1991. There were two earthquakes exceeding Richter magnitude 6 in New Zealand, in 1991, one near Taupo on 12 July (6.4) and one north of Wanganui on 9 September (6.3). Both were of intermediate depth (71 and 87 km respectively) and this reduced their damaging effects significantly. The September shock, felt from Coromandel to Christchurch, resulted in about 2500 claims to the Earthquake and War Damage Commission, mostly from Wanganui. The July shock was also felt as far south as Christchurch, but only at moderate intensities.

There were two more earthquakes exceeding magnitude 6 offshore: 140 km north-east of East Cape on 20 November, and 40 km north of Tauranga but 285 km deep, on 16 November. Neither was felt very strongly onshore.

On 29 January there were two shallow earthquakes within five hours, both about 15 km south of Westport in the area of the lower Buller Gorge. They have been named the Hawk's Crag earthquakes, and were the subject of a field survey and subsequent analysis. Their magnitudes were 5.6 and 5.8. They caused some minor structural damage in Westport, Waimangaroa and Inangahua. On February 15 an earthquake of magnitude 5.5 occurred off the coast from Greymouth. It was felt throughout much of the northern and western South Island, although no damage was reported.

A deep earthquake (106 km) occurred to the south of Patea on 9 June. The magnitude was 5.8, and it was felt from New Plymouth to Greymouth. Earthquakes at that depth are common in the South Taranaki Bight.

Southern Fiordland experienced an earthquake of magnitude 5.0 on 5 September. It was centred near the head of Dusky Sound, and was reported felt as far east as Dunedin. Focal depth was 74 km. On 31 October an earthquake of magnitude 5.0 occurred near East Cape, shaking goods from shelves in Ruatoria.

LOCATION OF EARTHQUAKES

Most years in New Zealand are accompanied by at least some significant and memorable climate events. In 1991 these events included flooding, a period of extended dry weather, an exceptionally cold period during winter (in the South Island), and a number of tornadoes and high wind events. For the year, rainfall was 25 percent below average in Northland and Bay of Plenty (Kawerau had its driest year since records began in 1954). Wetter than usual weather prevailed in Wanganui, Manawatu, the North Island central plateau, Fiordland, Southland and central Otago.

The national average temperature for New Zealand of 12.4C was 0.1C below average, the lowest since 1983. Temperatures were 0.5C below average in Fiordland, central Otago and the North Island central plateau.

Skies were cloudier than usual overall, especially along the West Coast of the South Island were sunshine hours were the lowest since records began in 1913. It was also much cloudier than usual in Manawatu.

The most significant weather events were:

There were three major floods during the year, the worst affected regions were Westland, Otago and Wairarapa.

Westland. Torrential rainfall (almost 700 mm) on 28 and 29 January, caused the worst flooding at Kaniere (inland from Hokitika) in 30 years. About 100 people evacuated Kaniere, while further south 140 people evacuated Franz Josef. This rainfall event, together with rain on most days throughout the month, caused Hokitika's January rainfall (555 mm) to be the highest in 125 years.

Otago. Easterlies on 17 and 18 February brought high rainfall (over 100 mm) and severe flooding to coastal areas of Otago, from Dunedin southward. The damage amounted to $1.5 million and was the worst flood in the area since 1980.

Wairarapa. Heavy rain in south-easterly conditions caused severe flooding throughout the Wairarapa, from 8 to 11 March. Rainfall was exceptionally high (257 mm) at Castlepoint. Both the Tauherinikau and Waiohine Rivers burst their banks, and flood waters and slips isolated Castlepoint, Riversdale, Tinui and Mauriceville, where stock losses were severe.

This event contributed to the highest March rainfall for more than 50 years in many parts of Wairarapa, and central and southern regions of the North Island.

The El Niño is a very negative phase of the southern oscillation Index (which is a measure of pressure difference over the Indonesian and South Pacific ocean area). Negative phases of the southern oscillation during autumn and winter usually give more southerly winds than usual, with drier weather to inland and western regions of the South Island. An El Niño weather pattern contributed to an extended period of low rainfall along the west coast of the South Island and in the southern lakes area from March through July.

WEATHER

Sunshine hours (annual average to 1990)

There was no significant rainfall on the West Coast during the first three weeks of March. Hokitika's rainfall (39 mm) for the month was the lowest for March since 1866, and Franz Josef's (37 mm) the lowest March rainfall since 1926. The very unusual pattern of dry weather continued through to the end of July, accompanied by high power demand during several weeks of extremely cold weather. The level of the South Island hydro-lakes fell to the lowest levels since the 1950s.

There was a break in the El Niño pattern and a change to more normal westerly weather patterns at the beginning of August. The West Coast suffered much rain, while conditions during August were the wettest at Queenstown since 1890 and in other South Island areas since the 1920s. Rainfall and melting snow caused the level of the lakes to rise.

This was in contrast to the conditions occurring in the east of the North Island, where it was the driest August for Napier since 1931 and for Gisborne in over half a century. The lack of rain in Gisborne and Hawkes Bay continued until October, when over the period 28 October through to 5 November there were two periods of substantial rainfall (up to 200 mm).

Frequent southerly winds affected the South Island during winter with temperatures for June the lowest in many places since 1976. Exceptionally cold weather, accompanied by showers of hail and snow, prevailed in southern and eastern regions on 20 June. A clearance in the weather was followed by severe frosts in inland Canterbury and Central Otago.

Considerable snow cover in South Island high country areas, together with calm nights, kept both day and night temperatures exceptionally low. This was apparent during the first half of July, when frosts were more severe than in June.

July began with an unofficial minimum air temperature of −21.6°C at Moa Creek (Central Otago), which was lower than the official record low of − 19.7°C at Ophir (also in Central Otago) in July 1943. Temperatures as low as − 13°C and − 15°C were measured at Twizel (inland south Canterbury) and Lauder (Central Otago) on 15 July. The Shotover River near Queenstown froze over on 18 July for the first time this century. Temperatures for July were the lowest in over 60 years in much of Central Otago and the MacKenzie country.

Cold south-west winds brought heavy snow to South Island ski fields and high country areas of Canterbury and Otago from 23 to 25 July.

Heavy snow contributed to frequent avalanches on major ski fields during winter, and caused the loss of life on Mt Ruapehu. The Milford road was closed for two weeks (6–20 August) due to an avalanche and avalanche risk. This resulted in the loss of thousands of dollars to the tourist industry.

A number of tornadoes caused damage to property in Northland and Auckland on 24 April when a band of thunderstorms passed over the region; one man was critically hurt. Tornadoes were also seen in Bay of Plenty on 30 April.

High winds during August, attributed to tornadoes, occurred at Motueka during the morning of 16 August, and at New Plymouth on 18 August where winds left a 2 km long trail of destruction. Damage was estimated at $1 million.

On 1 October, the Cook Strait ferry Aratika was buffeted by high waves and southerly winds (gusting up to 130 km/h) during its voyage from Picton to Wellington. The rough conditions through the Strait caused the ferry to turn back and shelter for some hours in Cloudy Bay (near Blenheim).

When the air pressure is abnormally high in the Indonesian region, it is correspondingly low in the South Pacific and vice versa. This phenomenon is called the ‘southern oscillation’. When southern oscillation episodes occur, the usual weather patterns in the southern Pacific, including New Zealand, are significantly altered.

An index, called the southern oscillation index, has been constructed using pressure recordings from Tahiti and Darwin. Usually there is a lag of some months between a major excursion of the oscillation, either positive (La Niña) or negative (El Niño), and a characteristic weather regime developing. The period of the southern oscillation is very irregular, varying between about two and 10 years with an average period of three to four years. However, once established, significant El Niño and La Niña episodes can persist for six to 12 months.

In general, very negative values of the oscillation index (El Niño's) are associated with an increase in the frequency of southerly winds over New Zealand in winter, and south-westerly winds during spring and summer.

The latest El Niño event, which began in March 1991, resulted in very low rainfall along the West Coast and in South Island hydro-lakes (from May through July). The El Niño also brought very dry conditions to Gisborne and Hawkes Bay from July through late October.

The most significant El Niño this century occurred over the spring and summer of 1982–1983, when the oscillation index reached its largest negative value this century and rainfall was well below average in Gisborne and Hawkes Bay.

The Governor-General is the representative of the Sovereign in New Zealand and exercises the royal powers derived from statute and the general law (prerogative powers). The powers of the Governor-General are set out in the Letters Patent 1983, and it is for the courts to decide on the limits of these powers. The Governor-General's main constitutional function is to arrange for the leader of the majority party in Parliament to form a government. Almost all the powers of the Governor-General are now statutory.

The Crown is part of Parliament and the Governor-General's assent is required before bills can become law. The Governor-General is required however, by constitutional convention and the Letters Patent, to follow the advice of ministers. In extraordinary circumstances the Governor-General can reject advice if he or she believes that a government is intending to act unconstitutionally. This is known as the reserve power.

The Sovereign appoints the Governor-General on the Prime Minister's recommendation, normally for a term of five years.

A feature of New Zealand's constitution is that, although it is a monarchy in form, it operates democratically because of a long political tradition of parliamentary government and a network of constitutional principles. The Government cannot act effectively without Parliament, because it cannot raise or spend money without parliamentary approval, and for most categories of expenditure this approval takes the form of an annual vote of funds to the Government. Parliament therefore has to be assembled regularly and has the opportunity to hold the Government to account. Under the two-party system however, the Government effectively controls proceedings in Parliament and cases of Government members voting with the Opposition are uncommon.

The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. This Act protects certain fundamental rights and freedoms in New Zealand. These rights include freedom of religion, speech and assembly and the right to protection against discrimination as well as fundamental principles of criminal procedure such as the right of access to lawyers and the right to a fair trial.

The rights and freedoms in the Act are not absolute and may be subject to justified limitations. But the Act provides that any limitations must be reasonable, prescribed by law, and demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society.

Unlike some similar documents in other countries the Act is not supreme law. Rather, it is an ordinary statute which can be amended or repealed by simple majority in Parliament. Nor do the Courts have the power to strike down legislation on the basis that is inconsistent with the rights set out in the Act.

However, this does not mean that the Act is a mere statement of rights. The Attorney-General is charged under the Act with the responsibility of alerting Parliament when any provision in a bill before Parliament is inconsistent with those rights. And where the interpretation of a statutory provision is ambiguous, the Courts are required to interpret the provision in a manner consistent with the rights and freedoms in the Act. The Act came into force on 25 September 1990.

Electoral reform. The Electoral Poll Bill was introduced to the House of Representatives on 9 May 1991 and referred to the Electoral Law Select Committee. The bill provides for a poll on electoral reform to be held no later than 30 September 1992. The poll would be divided into two parts. The first part would require voters to choose one of two proposals. The proposals are to either retain the present electoral system or to change it. The second part of the poll would ask voters to select one of three reform options as their most preferred electoral reform option. The reform options are the preferential voting system, the mixed member proportional representation system and the supplementary member system.

If a majority of voters vote for the retention of the present system no further poll on the matter will be held. If a majority of voters vote for a change to the present system then a further poll will be conducted in conjunction with the 1993 General Election. This poll would ask voters to choose between the present first-past-the-post system and the reform option most preferred by voters at the 1992 referendum.

The Electoral Amendment Act 1991 made some significant changes to the composition and procedures of the Representation Commission. The Representation Commission is the body responsible for determining New Zealand's electoral boundaries.

The Act makes provision for the appointment of additional Maori members to the Commission for the purpose of defining the boundaries of Maori seats.

The Act also enables all parties represented in Parliament and any party that achieves five percent of the votes cast at the previous general election to make submissions to the Commission. Previously only parties represented in Parliament and independent Members of Parliament could make submissions.

Privacy of information. In August 1991, the Government introduced the Privacy of Information bill. The bill is currently being studied by a select committee of Parliament. Its purpose is to promote and protect individual privacy in general accordance with the 1980 OECD Guidelines on the protection of Privacy and Transborder flows of Personal Data.

The bill provides that requests by natural persons for information about themselves are to be dealt with in accordance with the new Act rather than the Official Information Act when the relevant sections of the new Act come into force. These sections which are modelled on Parts II and IV of the Official Information Act extend entitlements to access to personal information to information held by private sector agencies. The right of review by the Ombudsmen in respect of refusal of personal information requests is to be replaced by a complaints procedure involving the proposed new office of the Privacy Commissioner. If settlement of the complaint cannot be secured by the Commissioner proceedings may be taken to the Equal Opportunities Tribunal, renamed the Human Rights Tribunal. The Official Information Act is amended accordingly in the bill.

At the heart of the parliamentary system lies the power to make laws that is vested by the Constitution Act 1986 in the Parliament of New Zealand, which consists of the Sovereign in right of New Zealand (normally represented by the Governor-General) and an elected House of Representatives.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act 1986 forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Crown. Although the reasons for this provision are historical, it is also used by governments to defeat legislation brought forward by individual members which ministers are unwilling to support or adopt. On the other hand, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval.

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights 1689, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in office by the Governor-General.

The House meets in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening when the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne, read by the Governor-General in the absence of the Sovereign, and a closing prorogation by proclamation.

Because control of the House's business lies with the Government, many of the rules and customs of the House are designed to ensure that members are given a full opportunity to debate any aspect of government proposals. A central figure in Parliament is the Speaker, who is elected to act as an impartial chairman when the House is in session. The Speaker controls debates and the conduct of members, and ensures the Standing Orders are complied with. The Speaker is assisted by the Clerk of the House of Representatives who notes all proceedings of the House and of any committee of the House, and provides advice on parliamentary law and custom.

Parliamentary opposition. As the name suggests, it is the job of the opposition party with the highest number of seats to oppose the Government. Its role is to present itself to the people as an alternative government. It will attack government policy and attempt to demonstrate inefficiency, and government or departmental mismanagement. The party system means it is unlikely that the Opposition could bring down a government by a no-confidence vote—there has been no instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the history of the New Zealand Parliament since 1928.

The House of Representatives is characterised by having two large, dominant parties, with the majority party forming the Government and the minority party forming the Opposition. In recent years, however, members of a third party have been elected to Parliament, and from time to time members have left one of the parties and have continued to sit as independent members. Because of the growth of a largely two-party system and the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics.

Process of legislation. Proposed laws are placed before the House in the form of draft laws known as ‘bills’. There are three types of bill: public bills, which deal with the most important subjects of a public and general nature (most public bills are introduced by the Government); local bills, which are promoted by local authorities to give themselves special powers or validate unlawful action they may have taken; and private bills, which are promoted by private individuals or companies also to give themselves special powers.

The procedure for passing a public bill in the House of Representatives is for it to receive a first reading, which is a formal introductory stage, allowing a maximum debating time of two hours. Almost all bills are then sent to a select committee. Detailed scrutiny of legislation and facets of executive activity, e.g., expenditure of public money, is carried out by select committees which consist of a small number of members, and report their findings and recommendations to the House. Since 1980 all Government bills are referred to a select committee unless they are certified by the Speaker as ‘money bills’ (or are particularly urgent). This procedure enables the public and interested bodies to make submissions, in the expectation that better laws will result. Following its deliberations the select committee will report the bill back with any proposed amendments.

On the second reading the formal debate will occur on the principles of the bill. Following this the bill is considered by the whole House ‘in committee’, clause by clause. This may involve considerable debating time. The entire bill is considered in this way and formally reported back to the House for its third reading, with any amendments that have been agreed.

Debate may also take place on the bill's third reading, after which it is forwarded to the Governor-General for approval. On receiving the Royal assent the bill becomes an Act of Parliament and part of the law of New Zealand.

The various stages of the bill do not always follow any set time pattern. Weeks or even months can elapse between readings. Local and private bills pass through similar stages to those for a public bill, however in these two types of bills the person or body promoting the bill must also advertise the bill before it can be introduced.

Sessions of Parliament. The first session of the 43rd New Zealand Parliament was called following the General Election of 27 October 1990 and sat from 28 November 1990 to 19 December 1990. The first session concluded when Parliament was prorogued on 18 January 1991, and a new session was called to discuss the outbreak of hostilities on the Gulf. New Zealand's first female Governor-General, Her Excellency Dame Catherine Tizard, delivered the speech from the Throne at the opening of the second session of the 43rd Parliament on 22 January 1991. The House had, on 19 December 1990, adjourned until 19 February 1991. As no power was then vested in the Speaker (or in anyone else) to appoint an earlier meeting time while the House stood and adjourned, the only way in which an accelerated meeting could be effected was by the Crown proroguing Parliament and summoning it to meet in a new session.

One hundred and twenty nine public Acts were passed during the second session of the 42nd Parliament and nine during the first session of the 43rd Parliament.

Parliamentary Service.(Te Ratonga Whare Paremata.) The Parliamentary Service provides administrative and support services to the members of Parliament and the House of Representatives. The service is not a department of the executive government nor is it responsible to a minister. It is controlled by the Parliamentary Services Commission which consists of the Speaker of the House of Representatives as chairperson, and six members, three of whom are members of the Government and three from the Opposition.

Among the services provided by the Parliamentary Service are:

Salaries and allowances of parliamentarians. These are set out in Table 2.5 below. An electorate allowance is also paid at a rate dependent on the nature of each member's electorate, e.g., urban, rural, or semi-rural, and ranges from $7,600 to $18,600. A day allowance of $52 is payable where indicated for each day on which a member attends a sitting of Parliament or a committee, and a night allowance of up to $118 for each night a member requires overnight accommodation away from home by reason of such attendance. Instead of receiving night allowances for each night spent in Wellington on parliamentary business, a member may elect to receive a Wellington Accommodation Allowance to cover costs incurred in retaining or maintaining accommodation. The maximum amount that can be claimed in a period of six months is $6,200.

PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION
Average number of votes cast per seat at general elections

Members of Parliament.Table 2.6 shows the percentage of women members of Parliament, and members of both sexes of various ages elected in the 1990 general election compared to the voting population.

Table 2.7 lists members of the House of Representatives at the end of August 1991. The final results of the 1990 general election were printed in the report The General Election (printed as Parl. paper E.9).

The executive government of New Zealand is carried out on behalf of the Sovereign by the ministers of the Crown, who make up the members of the Cabinet and the Executive Council, and control the state services. Ministers are responsible to Parliament for their official actions by constitutional convention, and are required to be members of Parliament by the Constitution Act 1986.

After a general election the Governor-General invites the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives to accept office as Prime Minister, and form a government. On the new Prime Minister's advice the Governor-General appoints a number of members of Parliament as ministers, generally with responsibilities for various areas of government administration (portfolios). The Governor-General may also appoint parliamentary undersecretaries, who are not ministers and not members of the Executive Council, to assist ministers.

Cabinet and the Executive Council. The Cabinet and the Executive Council have separate functions. All members of Cabinet are members of the Executive Council, as are the ministers not in the Cabinet.

The Executive Council is a formal body with formal functions, whereas the Cabinet is an informal body with deliberative functions; the Executive Council tenders advice to the Governor-General on the basis of policy formulated in the Cabinet. The council is established under Clause VII of the Letters Patent and is the main legal vehicle for promulgating government decisions that will form part of the law, such as statutory regulations, which are made by Order-in-Council.

The Cabinet is in effect, the highest council of Government. It is the main vehicle by which the executive decides on major policy issues and legislative proposals, and it coordinates the work of ministers. The Cabinet has a system of communities which can examine subjects in detail and recommend specific policy measures to Cabinet.

The proceedings of the Cabinet are informal and confidential, which encourages consensus decisions. By constitutional convention the Cabinet accepts collective responsibility for its decisions, which ensures that ministers will have the support of the Government as a whole in Parliament for their legislative and other proposals. The Cabinet Office provides services for the Cabinet and its committees. The current Secretary of the Cabinet is also the Clerk of the Executive Council.

Persons 18 years and over have the right to vote in parliamentary elections. Enrolment as an elector is compulsory, but voting is not. To qualify for enrolment persons must (i) be at least 18 years old; (ii) be New Zealand citizens or permanent residents; (iii) have lived continuously in New Zealand for at least a year at some time; and (iv) have last lived continuously for one month in the electorate they are to be enrolled in. Maoris, including persons of Maori descent, may choose to enrol for either a Maori or general electorate, but may make the choice only at certain times. The electoral rolls are maintained by New Zealand Post.

Voting. The conduct of polls is the responsibility of the Department of Justice, and is controlled by a returning officer in each electorate, who arranges voting facilities and staff, conducts the election, supervises counting of votes, and declares the result. Generally only persons whose names are validly enrolled before an election are qualified to vote. Most electors cast their votes at polling booths in their electorates on polling day, but they may vote as special voters at booths outside their electorate. Special votes may also be cast before polling day at issuing offices or at home because of sickness, travel, or similar reasons. Provision is also made for voting overseas.

Voting is by secret ballot. A preliminary count of ordinary votes is available for each electorate on election night, and final results are normally available a fortnight later, once special and overseas votes have been received and counted. The candidate with the most votes is elected member of Parliament for the electorate concerned.

VOTER TURNOUT
Percentage of enrolled electors voting at general elections

Electoral boundaries. The boundaries of electorates are revised every five years after the Census of Population and Dwellings, and the new boundaries come into effect at the expiry of the parliamentary term during which the revision is finalised. The Department of Statistics supplies figures for revision purposes on the general electoral population. This is defined as the total electoral population except: (a) the Maori electoral population. (This is the number of adult Maoris enrolled in the four Maori electorates, adjusted to include children. Maoris have been defined since 1980 as persons of the Maori race of New Zealand including any of their descendants.); and (b) some temporary residents of various kinds.

The Representation Commission is responsible for defining the boundaries of electorates based on the population census. The commission has seven members. Four are officials, the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (the latter cannot vote). Two members are nominated by the House of Representatives to represent the Government and Opposition respectively, and the final member is appointed to chair the commission on the nomination of the other members. The appointments of the unofficial members lapse at the next census.

In determining the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, the commission's membership is supplemented by the Chief Executive of the Ministry of Maori Development and two nominations from the House of Representatives (one each from the Government and the Opposition) and appointed by the Governor-General. These additional members to the commission must be Maori.

The number of general electorates is based on a formula that allocates 25 electorates to the South Island. The general electoral population of the South Island is divided by 25, and the population quota for each South Island electorate is divided into the general electoral population of the North Island to give the number of electorates required in the North Island. In addition there is a fixed number of four Maori electorates.

Provisional boundaries are then settled, maps drawn up and the availability of boundary details announced in the New Zealand Gazette. Any objections and counter-objections to the provisional electoral boundaries are then considered by the Representation Commission, which makes a final decision on the boundaries that define the new electoral districts.

1990 ELECTORAL DISTRICTS - NORTH ISLAND

General election results. A triennial general election of members of Parliament was last held on 27 October 1990. The previous election was held on 15 August 1987. The total number of electors on the master roll for the 1990 election was 2,202,157. A total of 1,877,115 votes were cast; representing 85.24 percent of electors on the master roll.

1990 ELECTORAL DISTRICTS - SOUTH ISLAND

General Licensing Poll. In 1990 the national triennial liquor licensing poll was abolished.

Term Poll. A term poll was held in conjunction with the 1990 General Election. The voting issue was the length of the parliamentary term. The two options offered were either a continuation of the three year term or an extension of the term to four years. The voting was approximately 70 percent in support of retaining a three year term.

The Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908, provides that the Governor-General may, by Order-in-Council, appoint any person or persons to be a commission to inquire into and report upon any question arising out of, or concerning: (a) the administration of the Government; (b) the working of any existing law; (c) the necessity or expediency of any legislation; (d) the conduct of any officer in the service of the Crown; (e) any disaster or accident (whether due to natural causes or otherwise) in which members of the public were killed, injured, or were or might have been exposed to risk of death or injury; and (f) any other matter of public importance.

A royal commission is appointed by the Governor-General or by the Governor-General in Council or the Administrator of the Government, pursuant to the Letters Patent, but in other respects derives its powers from the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. Royal commissions are generally regarded as having greater prestige. A committee of inquiry may be set up by a minister to investigate some matter, but such a committee normally has no statutory basis, although there are ancillary powers in some instances.

Amendments to the legislation in 1980 conferred new rights to appear and be heard at an inquiry upon any person if he or she is a party to the inquiry or satisfies the commission that he or she has an interest in the inquiry apart from any interest in common with the public. In addition, any person who satisfies the commission that any evidence may adversely affect his or her interests has a right to be given an opportunity to be heard in respect of the matter. Usually such terms of reference for a commission are quite specific. It does not confer the right on almost anyone to become a party or participant in the inquiry.

The Department of Internal Affairs administers the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908 and provides basic services to commissions. These inquiries are not part of the justice system, nor are they part of the conventional administrative bureaucracy. The department retains important constitutional responsibilities, and is held responsible to ensure that complete independence and impartiality of the investigations is maintained.

Commissions of inquiry must report to the Governor-General, who in turn refers the findings to his or her ministers. The reports are usually published.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE
Ratio of male to female staff

Over the last six years Government has reformed the machinery of government, across both the state sector and, in particular, departments and agencies. The management reforms contained in the State Sector Act 1988 and the Public Finance Act 1989 are now consolidating. The new emphasis on outputs, rather than on inputs, has focused decision making on reaching the goals of the Government. The new financial reporting requirements provide much better information for those making decisions. The effectiveness of the reforms in improving performance in the public sector has been the subject of a recent review undertaken by the State Services Commission.

The process of state sector reform is continuing. In the area of science and technology the government's policy is to restructure the principal science departments, or parts of departments, into a series of research institutes that will be known as Crown Research Institutes (CRIs). The CRIs are intended to focus on future possibilities for New Zealand industries. These institutes will have a strong commercial orientation toward the long term technological needs of industry. Departments which will be affected by these changes are the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Department of Health and the Ministry of Transport. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries' farm advisory and management service is to be turned into a state-owned enterprise on 1 July 1992 to open the way for further commercialisation of business (see also chapter 13, Science and technology).

Government policy concerning state assets is to sell those it lacks reason to retain. The view of the Government is that public ownership of business enterprises does not provide the right incentives to manage such enterprises successfully. The sales of state assets is also a part of a fiscal strategy to reduce the level of public debt. Several state owned enterprises and trading units of government departments have been sold. Recent sales (in addition to those listed in the 1990 Yearbook) include Telecom Corporation of New Zealand and several state-owned forests.

Widespread changes to the role of the Government in social policy have been initiated. Significant changes in housing, welfare, health, accident compensation and superannuation are under way. The changes include:

The State Sector Act 1988 provides for a State Services Commissioner and a deputy to replace the former commission. The commissioner is also the chief executive of the department now known as the State Services Commission. The main functions of the commissioner are:

A further feature of the restructuring of government departments has been the separation of the policy and advisory functions from the operations, and the establishment of general policy ministries, e.g., Education, Health, Science and Defence.

Equal employment opportunities. The State Services Commission has the responsibility to promote, develop and monitor equal employment opportunity policies and programmes within the public service departments (under section 6 of the State Sector Act 1988).

An Equal Employment Opportunity programme, as defined in the State Sector Act, is a programme which “is aimed at the identification and elimination of all aspects of policies, procedures and other institutional barriers that cause or perpetuate, or tend to cause or perpetuate, inequality in respect to the employment of any persons or group of persons.”

Each department is required to develop and publish an annual Equal Employment Opportunity programme and to report to the commission on the extent to which the department has implemented the programme.

The commission provides advice and resources to departments on Equal Employment Opportunity, evaluates the presented programmes and monitors the progress reports. The information derived from these processes is then fed back to the departments to assist them in their planning.

Table 2.15 lists the departments of the public service as set out in the first schedule of the State Sector Amendment (No. 2) Act 1989.

The functions of central government are under a continual process of review. The following account of departments was correct as at December 1991.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of.(Te Manatu Ahuwhenua, Ahumoana.) The ministry provides policy advice to government designed to create a domestic and international environment favourable to the sustainable and productive use of New Zealand's agricultural and fisheries and resources. It also implements the Government's policies and programmes to drive maximum benefit to the nation from farming, horticulture and fishing.

MAF's programmes aim to protect our competitive advantage as an export nation by monitoring animals, fish and plants, and preventing the introduction of exotic pests and diseases. Also, through quality assurance, it ensures that our export primary produce meets agreed standards. See chapter 15, Agriculture and section 16.3 Fisheries.

Audit Office. See ‘Controller and Auditor-General’ below.

Ministry of Commerce.(Te Manatu Tauhokohoko.) The ministry has advisory, programme and administrative functions in business development, competition policy, business and intellectual law, tariff policy, trade remedies, communications, regional development, energy and resources, consumer affairs and tourism.

The ministry services the portfolios of Commerce, Communications, Consumer Affairs, Energy, Tourism, Industry and Business Development.

Conservation, Department of.(Te Papa Atawhai.) The department is responsible for the management of much of New Zealand's natural lands and water, as well as historic places and wildlife. In addition to managing national parks and reserves, farm and forest parks, the public aspects of harbours and foreshores, and marine reserves, the department is also the Government's advocate in conservation issues. See chapter 14, Land and environment.

Crown Law Office. The Crown Law Office is the legal adviser to, and provides counsel in court for, the Government and ministers in matters affecting the Crown and government departments. The Solicitor-General, who heads the office, performs most of the statutory and ex-officio duties of the Attorney-General and is entrusted by statute with various specific rights, duties and functions. The range of the Crown Law Office's legal work corresponds with the activities of the Government itself.

Cultural Affairs, Ministry of.(Te Manatu Tikanga-a-Iwi.) The aim of the ministry is to maximise understanding, appreciation, access and participation in New Zealand arts and culture both in New Zealand and overseas, and to promote the enhancement of New Zealand's cultural identity.

The ministry provides advice to Government and the Minister of Cultural Affairs on cultural matters and discharges services relating to the Cultural Affairs portfolio.

Customs Department. The department is charged with the administration of border control and some indirect taxation, and the tendering of advice to the Government on these and associated matters. The department performs a number of roles under the Customs Acts and other enabling legislation. These include: the administration of the tariff at the border, protecting New Zealand's borders by exercising the required control over the export and import of goods and international passengers in accord with the immigration, emigration, quarantine, and other statutory and government policy requirements (with particular attention to controlled drugs); and providing a service to commerce through the effective administration of customs procedures, and the facilitation of cargo movements. In managing its role the department balances these requirements to ensure that there is movement of people and trade, while the border is maintained. See section 22.1, Administration and development of trade.

Defence, Ministry of. The ministry provides advice on defence policy, reports to the Minister of Defence on the performance of the armed forces, and is responsible for the procurement, replacement expenditure or repairs which entail major changes to capability or involve major re-equipment. See section 3.4, Defence.

Education, Ministry of.(Te Tahuhu o te Matauranga.) The ministry is responsible for providing policy advice to the Minister of Education on all aspects of education from early childhood to tertiary; overseeing the implementation of approved policies and ensuring the optimum use of resources devoted to education. See chapter 8, Education.

Education Review Office.(Te Tari Arotake Matauraga.) The purpose of the Education Review Office is to improve the educational performance of schools and early childhood centres through independent evaluation of the standards of achievement of all learners. The performance of schools and centres is checked against the goals and objectives set out in their charters. The office also comments, conducts special reviews and reports on Special Education Service, Early Childhood Development Unit, Ministry of Education, the teacher advisory services of the Colleges of Education, home-based schooling and registration of private educational institutions. See section 8.1, Education.

Environment, Ministry for the. (Te Manatü mō te Taiao.) The ministry advises Government on all forms of environmental administration. This includes: policies for influencing the management of natural and physical resources and ecosystems, so as to achieve the objectives of the Environment Act 1986; possible consequences for the environment of proposed developments by either the private or public sector, particularly any developments not adequately covered by legislative or other environmental assessment requirements; and ways of providing effective public participation in environmental planning and policy formulation.

To carry out its role, the ministry gathers information and may conduct and commission research necessary for formulating advice to the Government. It also provides the Government, its agencies, and other public authorities, with advice on: the application, operation, and effectiveness of legislation relevant to achieving the objectives of the Environment Act; procedures for assessing and monitoring environmental impacts; pollution control and the management of pollutants; identification and likelihood of natural hazards, and the reduction of their effects; and the control of hazardous substances, during the management of their manufacture, storage, transport, and disposal.

As well, the ministry works towards the resolution of conflicts relating to policies and proposals which may affect the environment. It also provides and disseminates information on environmental policies.

Besides the Environment Act 1986, the ministry administers the Ozone Layer Protection Act 1990 and the Resource Management Act 1991, plus it also has responsibility for regulations made pursuant to the Resource Management Act. See section 14.2, Environmental and resource management.

External Relations and Trade, Ministry of.(Te Manatü Ähuatauga Täwähi, Tauhoko.) The Ministry of External Relations and Trade conducts the Government's business with the government's of foreign countries, and with international organisations. It reviews New Zealand's relations with other countries as a whole and advises the Government on where advantages to New Zealand lie. The ministry draws together the various aspects of New Zealand's national interests, including relevant domestic interests, to achieve most benefits for New Zealand in relation to the Government's security, political, trade and economic objectives.

The ministry administers a network of posts overseas to promote positive political relationships, transact official business and support the international operations and initiatives of the government. See section 3.1, Relations with other countries.

Forestry, Ministry of. (Te Manatü Ngäherehere.) The ministry is responsible for providing forestry sector services and policy advice to the Government. Its mission is to ‘promote the national interest through forestry, including the wood-based industries’. Its functions include research, advice on forestry policy to the Government, advisory and information services, and the collection of forestry related statistics. Other responsibilities of a regulatory nature include quarantine and forest disease control. The research functions of the ministry will be transferred to a new Crown Research Institute in 1992.

Government Superannuation Fund.(Te Putea Penihana.) The function of the fund is to administer the Government Superannuation Fund Act 1956.

Health, Department of.(Te Tari Ora.) The Department of Health is the Government's principal agent and adviser on health. The principal functions of the Department are: (a) to provide the Minister of Health with analysis of health issues and expert advice on health problems; (b) to develop and promulgate health policy; (c) to administer health legislation, regulations and the public funding of health programmes; (d) to ensure the provision of essential health services; (e) to encourage positive interaction between the funders, providers and users of health services; (f) to fund programmes which promote health and prevent disease; (g) to collect and disseminate health information; (h) to monitor and review the outcome of health policies and programmes; and (i) to oversee the effective and efficient provision of health services to ensure that public funds are used appropriately and to best advantage to achieve the outcomes which the Government is seeking. See chapter 7, Health and safety.

Housing Corporation.(Te Kaporeihana Whare.) The corporation is the primary government agency for providing subsidised housing assistance and is the Government's principal adviser on housing issues. Its major activities are the provision of rental housing and housing finance for low-and modest-income earners. It also provides home improvement loans, mortgage guarantees and refinance/'second chance' lending. Other activities include the purchase, development and sale of land; construction and sale of houses; management of its rental housing stock; loans and subsidies for housing for the elderly; and assistance for urban renewal and redevelopment.

The corporation administers the ‘Homestart’ scheme, which provides deposit-gap assistance for first home purchase. A programme for lending on multiply-owned Maori land uses the house rather than the land as security.

A number of lending activities are administered by the corporation either on an agency basis or in its own right. These include: loans to state servants on transfer, rehabilitation concessions to ex-service personnel; subsidies for hostel accommodation for young people; and loans for private schools and medical centres.

The corporation also administers the Residential Tenancies Act 1986. It provides information on tenancy law for landlords and tenants, maintains a tenancy mediation service and acts as an office for the Tenancy Tribunal. See chapter 19, Housing and construction.

Inland Revenue Department.(Te Tari Taake.) The main function of the Inland Revenue Department is to assess and collect various taxes and duties. The principal tax is income tax, which is collected in part by pay-as-you-earn (PAYE) deductions from salaries and wages, in part by the payment of provisional tax during the year of derivation of income, and in part by an end-of-year assessment. Of the other revenues collected the most significant are goods and services tax, stamp duty, estate and gift duties, fringe benefit tax, and totalisator duty. The department also collects accident compensation levies on behalf of the Accident Compensation Corporation. See chapter 25, Public sector finance.

Internal Affairs, Department of.(Te Tari Taiwhenua.) The mission of the department is to provide services to the Government and the community that relate to the nation's identity, heritage and administration. It provides services that: (a) protect and develop essential aspects of the nation's character, identity and heritage, including the public record and citizenship rights; (b) support the Crown and Government agencies, taking into account the provisions of the Treaty of Waitangi, and including the establishment and nurture of new agencies; (c) provide the link between central and local government; (d) help people to develop their communities; (e) safeguard the public interest in certain leisure activities; and (f) protect people against disaster, and promote fire and building safety.

Iwi Transition Agency.(Te Tira Ahu Iwi.) This agency was disestablished on 31 December 1991. Its functions were taken over by the Ministry of Maori Development. See section 5.4, Maori society.

Justice, Department of. The department has a wide variety of functions including: administration of courts; registration of land transactions, births, deaths and marriages; control of prisoners, probationers and parolees; law reform; commercial affairs (including administration of the Companies Act 1955); electoral work; and administrative work for the many authorities and tribunals. The tribunals, authorities, and committees serviced by the department help administer Acts, or advise the Government. The Department of Justice is responsible for the administration of about 160 acts of Parliament.

Labour, Department of. The principal responsibilities of the Department of Labour are to promote full employment through the provision of an employment service; to ensure, through the work of its field staff, that workers are employed under safe and healthy working conditions; to assist and promote good industrial relations; and to administer immigration legislation. Among the most important legislation administered are the Employment Contracts Act 1991, the Factories and Commercial Premises Act 1981, the Construction Act 1959 and the Immigration Act 1987.

Maori Affairs, Ministry of.(Te Manatü Mäori). This ministry was disestablished on 31 December 1991. Its functions were taken over by the Ministry of Maori Development. See section 5.4, Maori society.

Maori Development, Ministry of (Te Puni Kokiri). The ministry began operation on 1 January 1992, taking over the residual functions of the Ministry of Maori Affairs and the Iwi Transition Agency (both of which were disestablished on 31 December 1991). This new specialist agency has a narrower focus than previous similar departments, with the main initiatives being the improvement of Maori education, health, employment and economic opportunities.

The broader functions of the ministry include: policy advice to Government on matters affecting Maori; brokerage services to Maori people and agencies, to maximise access to resources in social services and economic resource development; monitoring the performance of other government agencies in meeting Maori needs; and maintaining existing programmes pending their successful placement in mainstream departments or agencies by 30 June 1993.

There are four units within the ministry: the Education Commission, the Health Promotion Unit, the Training Unit and the Economic Resource Development Unit. See section 5.4, Maori society.

National Library of New Zealand.(Te Puna Mätauranga o Aotearoa.) The Library's functions are to: co-ordinate the New Zealand network of libraries and provide collections to ensure there is sufficient depth in the country's collections to satisfy users' needs and that information is accessible and available; compile and make available in New Zealand and overseas bibliographic records of all published New Zealand material; advise the minister on all issues relating to libraries and library development; and to be the principal New Zealand link in international and co-operative library development. See section 10.3, Books and libraries.

National Provident Fund. The fund mainly provides superannuation to employees of local authorities, area health boards, and other governmental and quasi-governmental entities. See section 21.3, Insurance and superannuation.

Pacific Island Affairs, Ministry of. This small group advises the Minister of Pacific Island Affairs, while providing administrative back-up and co-ordination of the above council and other programmes. The ministry establishes and maintains liaison with and between Pacific Island communities in New Zealand and government agencies; monitors, reports and promotes issues related to the communities; and is developing a resource base on Pacific Island matters. See section 5.5, Pacific Island Polynesian population.

Police, New Zealand.(Ngä Pirihimana o Aotearoa.) The mission of the police is protecting life and property; preventing crime; maintaining the peace; detecting offenders by assisting and working together with the community and other agencies; and maintaining a police organisation capable of providing a high quality of service. The New Zealand Police is a state agency. See section 9.4, Police.

Prime Minister and Cabinet, Department of the. The department provides policy advice to the Prime Minister; constitutional advice and secretarial services to the Prime Minister and the Cabinet; support services to the Governor-General; communications services; and management for the Vice-Regal residences. The department consists of: the Policy Advisory Group, the Cabinet Office, the domestic and External Security Secretariat, Government House and, from 1 July 1991, the External Assessments Bureau which provides intelligence assessments on developments overseas to the Government.

An important function of the department is to help co-ordinate the work of the Government across departmental lines, to test the quality of advice coming from departments and to act as an ‘honest broker’ where there are conflicts over policy advice being offered by different parts of the bureaucracy.

Public Trust Office, The. The Public Trust Office provides a wide range of services as trustee, executor, manager, and attorney. It also acts as sinking fund or depreciation fund commissioner for many local authorities when so appointed, and additionally holds other funds on their behalf. It is also required to provide a number of statutory services irrespective of whether these are income earning.

Research, Science and Technology, Ministry of. Established in October 1989, the ministry's primary role is to provide advice to government on the development of research, science and technology policy. Other functions include the development and funding of national priorities; the review and assessment of research science and technology activity and opportunities; the maintenance of international science agreements; and the facilitation of programmes for the dissemination of information on research, science and technology. See section 13.2, Organisation of science.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of. The department's role is to advance, maintain, and apply scientific and technical knowledge for the benefit of New Zealand's social and economic development. DSIR and other government departments, which provide scientific research services, will be reshaped into 10 Crown Research Institutes. See section 13.2, Organisation of science.

Serious Fraud Office. The Serious Fraud Office, which became operational on 26 March 1990, is primarily an operational department whose role is to detect and investigate cases of serious or complex fraud and expeditiously prosecute offenders. Based in Auckland, the office is the only government department to have its Head Office outside Wellington. See section 21.2, Commercial framework.

Social Welfare, Department of.(Te Tari Toko i te Ora.) The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are (a) to administer Parts I and III of the Social Security Act 1964, the Social Welfare (Transitional Provisions) Act 1990, the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975, the Children and Young Persons and their Families Act 1989, the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1987, the Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1983 and the War Pensions Act 1954; (b) to advice the Minister on the Development of Social Welfare Policies for New Zealand; (c) to provide such welfare services as the Government may from time to time require; (d) to maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities; (e) to undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare; (f) to provide such administrative services as the Minister may from time to time direct to such boards, councils, committees, and agencies as he or she may direct; (g) to receive and disburse maintenance payments and enforce maintenance orders and registered agreements under the Family Proceedings Act 1980, and (h) under the Civil Defence Welfare Plan, in time of disaster–to make relief payments authorised by government to the homeless, and–to make payments authorised by government for hosts for billeting evacuees from a disaster area.

State Services Commission,(Te Kömihana o ngä Tari Käwanatanga.) See ‘State Services Commissioner’ above.

Statistics, Department of.(Te Tari Tatau.) The main functions of the department are: (a) to provide a statistical service relevant to the needs of governmental and community users, covering economic, demographic, and social activity; (b) to advise the Minister of Statistics on statistical policy matters; (c) to define and promote standard concepts, procedures, definitions, and classifications for use in official statistics; (d) to examine proposals by government departments for commencing or commissioning new statistical surveys, and to prepare submissions to the Minister of Statistics for approval or otherwise; (e) to review the collection, compilation, analyses, abstraction, and publication of official statistics produced in both the department and other government departments; and (f) to maintain liaison with international organisations or agencies requiring or making use of New Zealand official statistics.

Survey and Land Information, Department of.(Te Puna Körero Whenua.) The department is the principal government (civil and military) survey and mapping, and land information agency. Through the Office of Crown Lands the department is also the government's principal Crown land administering agency. The department's work includes control surveys as the basis for cadastral surveys and basic topographic mapping, land title surveys, investigations into the status of Crown land and Maori land, large scale topographical surveys for engineering and management purposes, land development servicing, fixing of marine and air navigation aids, aerodrome obstruction surveys, earth deformation studies, environmental planning of land, and a graphic support for the electoral system.

The main acts administered by the department are the Survey Act 1986, Public Works Act 1981, Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952, Land Act 1948, the New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946 and Crown Grants Act 1908. In addition in excess of 50 other statutes empower the department with specific responsibilities for land transactions. Proposals for the Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Bill are also collated by the department. See section 14.1, Land resources and ownership.

Tourism, Ministry of. This ministry operates from within the Ministry of Commerce, providing policy advice to, and representing, the Minister of Tourism and the Government on policy issues relevant to the tourism sector. It advises the Government on the outputs it purchases from the New Zealand Tourism Board, manages government grant schemes relating to the tourism sector, manages land at Rotorua and the Wairakei Tourist Park, and is responsible for the Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1991.

Tourism Board, New Zealand. The main functions of the New Zealand Tourism Board (formerly known as the New Zealand Tourist and Publicity Department) are to: market and promote New Zealand as a desirable destination overseas; promote and progress New Zealand's tourism development and initiate programmes to foster this development; administer jointly funded public and private sector marketing programmes; and undertake research of visitor arrivals, overseas tourism markets and regional tourism. The New Zealand Tourism Board is headed by a nine member private sector executive board via the Ministry of Tourism. The board has eight overseas marketing offices. See section 11.6, Leisure.

Trade and Development Board, New Zealand. The New Zealand Trade Development Board's function is the development and expansion of New Zealand's foreign exchange earnings. It has an independent board drawn from predominantly private sector backgrounds. The board operates on a project basis with task-based teams of export consultants. There is a network of trade commissioners in our most significant overseas markets. See section 22.1, Administration and development of trade.

Transport, Ministry of.(Te Manatä Waka.) The Ministry of Transport promotes safe, efficient transport that is environmentally and socially responsible and enhances the economy. The Ministry is responsible for administering about 20 principal Acts including the Civil Aviation Act, the Shipping and Seamen Act and the Transport Act.

The Ministry has four operating divisions and a small corporate office. The divisions comprise units dealing with air, land and maritime transport and the Meteorological Service. The latter will be devolved with research activities going into a Crown research institute and forecasting activities being established as a State owned enterprise. There are proposals to establish a separate Civil Aviation Authority and to merge the Traffic Safety Service, currently part of the Land Transport Division, with the New Zealand Police.

Treasury, The. The principal functions of Treasury are to: provide the Government with independent economic and financial advice; implement the Government's economic and financial policies; control and account for the receipt and payment of government finances; and to provide financial information on the operations of the Government. It also includes the Government Actuary's Office.

Valuation New Zealand. The major activity of the department is to prepare valuation rolls for all districts in New Zealand, to keep these rolls up to date with changes in property holdings, ownership, occupancy, and development, and to revise the values at not more than five-yearly intervals. Since 1988 the department has been progressively introducing a three-yearly cycle. Between the five-yearly general revaluations, current market values of individual properties are assessed as required. Values set by the department are used by other authorities to levy rates, land tax, estate, stamp and gift duties, and also by most government departments and agencies involved in land transactions.

The department does research work on real estate markets and compiles house and rural price indexes. It provides an advisory service to local authorities on all matters relating to rating. The department's extensive property record system is used to furnish data for land use, town planning and similar surveys both to local authorities and other public sector organisations. See section 14.1, Land resources and ownership.

Women's Affairs, Ministry of.(Te Minitatanga mö ngä Wähine.) This ministry was established in 1984 to assist the Government to improve the status of women and to work towards the achievement of equality in all spheres of social, political and economic activity. The ministry's primary function is to advise the Minister of Women's Affairs. In carrying out this function the ministry provides specialist advice on legislative and other policy matters affecting the status of women and undertakes educational and information programmes designed to increase women's knowledge of and familiarity with the scope and processes of public policy-making. See section 5.3, Human rights, immigration and citizenship.

Youth Affairs, Ministry of.(Te Tari Taiohi.) This ministry was established to represent the youth of New Zealand; to ensure that the concerns of the young people (defined as people from the ages of 12 to 25) of New Zealand are heard by the makers of policies, services and legislation, and to allow young people to make a contribution to the cultural, social and economic development of this country.

One of the four main areas of the ministry is the Conservation Corps. This programme provides young people with opportunities for employment, training and personal development through skill acquisition and involvement in conservation activities of benefit to local communities.

In addition to the state service organisations there is a multitude of advisory bodies, statutory corporations, companies, councils, commissions, committees, tribunals and other organisations loosely connected to the Government.

Crown agencies. These organisation are defined in the Public Finance Act 1989. ‘Crown agency’ means any entity over which the Crown is able to exercise control as a result of—

State-Owned Enterprises. State-owned enterprises are companies established by the Government to mange its trading activities. The principle objective of every state enterprise is to operate as a successful business and, to this end, to be:

An annual statement of intent is signed between the shareholding government ministers and the board of directors of the respective state-owned enterprise. Performance of the enterprise is monitored against this statement.

In the July 1991 Budget the Government announced that the New Zealand Planning Council (Te Kaunihera Whakakaupapa Mo Aotearoa) would be abolished; the Planning Council was disestablished on 25 September 1991.

For 14 years, the Planning Council had provided a focus for better information and consultation on the key medium-term issues in New Zealand's development. The council's main task was to monitor and report on trends, prospects, issues, and options in relation to social, economic, cultural and environmental development. The council's work was built around expert monitoring and support groups. The groups included Economic, Population, and Social Monitoring Groups, Income Distribution Group, Maori Round Table, and the National Sectorial, Employment and Environmental Programmes.

The council reported directly to the Government, but retained independence from Government in its choice of work and in publishing its reports. The council's publications foster discussion and understanding of issues among private organisations and the public generally.

In 1990/1991 the council published many reports and papers including: The Australian Maori Population; The Fully Employed High Income Society; Where To Now? New Zealandin the 1990s; Expanding Our Horizons: New Zealand in the Global Economy; Small Business is Big Business and Making a Market for Energy Efficiency.

The Controller and Auditor-General is an officer of the Crown appointed by the Governor-General under the Public Finance Act 1977. The position is independent of the executive government and only the Governor-General, upon an address from the House of Representatives, can end the tenure. The Controller and Auditor-General and the persons acting under his or her delegation are collectively called ‘the Audit Office’.

The constitutionally important role of the Audit Office, as set out in the Public Finance Act, is to act as a monitor on behalf of Parliament and to control issues of money out of the Crown Bank Account. The Audit Office has to be satisfied that all issues from the Crown Bank Account for the government's expenditure requirements are within the appropriations and other authorities granted by Parliament. This role is crucial to the ability to Parliament to control the supply of funds to the Crown, and in certain circumstances the Audit Office may prevent the issue of money.

The Audit Office audits the financial statements of government departments, local authorities, and most government-controlled corporations, boards and companies. The office plays a key part in the accountability by these organisations. It also conducts periodic reviews of financial control systems, selected programmes or operations to ascertain whether resources have been applied effectively and efficiently in a manner consistent with the policies of the governing bodies.

Considerable emphasis is placed on reporting the results of this work. The most visible results are their financial audit reports tabled in Parliament each year.

If shortcomings are discovered during an audit, the principal recourse of the Audit Office is to report to the management of the organisation, to a minister, or to Parliament and its select committees. If there is a deficiency in money or stores, the Auditor-General has the power to surcharge the persons involved to recover the amount. This power is rarely used.

The Official Information Act 1982 is based on to the principle that information shall be made available unless there is good reason for withholding it. The purposes of the Act are: to provide proper access to official information to the people of New Zealand, to encourage their participation in the making and administration of laws and policies; to promote the accountability of ministers and officials; and to protect official information consistent with the public interest and the preservation of personal privacy.

With the exception of the Parliamentary Service, the Official Information Act covers all government departments, state-owned enterprises, and a range of statutory bodies. It does not include courts, tribunals (in relation to their judicial function), or some judicial bodies. All local authorities and statutory boards are covered under either the Official Information Act 1982 or the Local Government Official Information and Meetings 1987.

The Acts provide special rights of access to personal information. The definition of a ‘person’ can include a sole corporation and a body of persons. Where it is necessary to make a distinction between a human being and other entities legally described as ‘persons’, the former is referred to as a ‘natural person’.

Among the criteria to be considered, when judging whether information should be withheld, are that if the information is released will it prejudice the security, defence, or economic international relations of New Zealand; the maintenance of law and order; the security or defence of the Cook Islands, Tokelau, Niue, or the Ross Dependency; and the safety of any person. The protection of the privacy of natural persons is an important issue, however this consideration may be overturned if it is in the public interest to make the information available.

Ombudsmen can review a decision to refuse information; the investigation is private and free of charge. The formal recommendation of an Ombudsman is binding unless overridden by a minister in accordance with a formal procedure. This procedure necessitates the publishing of the surrounding facts in the New Zealand Gazette.

An information guide concerning access to personal and official information is available from the Official Information Unit of the Department of Justice. In order to provide sufficient data to ease the identification of material and assist in the lodging of requests, reference can be made to the Directory of Official Information. Published every two years, the Directory is a comprehensive guide to all the organisations covered by the Act including their structure, functions, policies, documents held, contact officers and other listings which facilitate the access of information.

The principal function of the Parliamentary Commissioner for Investigations (Ombudsman) is to enquire into complaints relating to administrative decisions of government departments and related organisations, education boards and all local authorities. Under the Ombudsmen Act 1975 there is provision for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, in either temporary or permanent positions.

All investigations undertaken by ombudsmen are conducted in private. When an ombudsmen believes a complaint can be sustained, they report their opinion to the government department or organisation concerned along with any recommendation for action. A copy of this report is also made available to the responsible minister. At the local government level, the ombudsman reports the finding to the organisation, and provides a copy of his report to the mayor or chairperson.

Ombudsmen also investigate recommendations made to a minister by any government department, organisation or employee. Similarly, they look into any recommendations made to a full council or board of a local organisation by any committee, sub-committee, officer, employee, or member. It is also the responsibility of the Ombudsmen to investigate any complaints on decisions for request of official information.

Ombudsmen have no authority to investigate complaints against private companies and individuals, decisions of judges, complaints directed at ministerial decisions, or at the full council or local government. They can also decide that certain complaints, although within their sphere, are better suited to other available avenues of administrative redress.

The local Government Commission was required by an amendment to the Local Government Act 1974 to prepare reorganisation schemes by 1 July 1989 for a new system of local government with the following features:

The commission's decisions on the restructuring of local government were contained in the final reorganised schemes, issued on 12 June 1989. The main features were the provision for:

Legislative reform. The Local Government Amendment Act (No. 2) 1989 inserted new parts in the Local Government Act 1974 dealing with the general structure of local government, its constitutional and electoral basis, and its organisational and accountability provisions.

For the first time, the legislation includes a statement on the purposes of local government. The relevant section provides:

The legislation also includes a significant new accountability regime. Local authorities are required to conduct their affairs in an open and proper manner, separate their regulatory and non-regulatory activities, and adequately inform local communities of their activities. Emphasis is placed on setting objectives and measuring performance. Each local authority is required to prepare a report outlining what it proposes to do over the next year, and how this will be financed, and at the end of the year, report on what it has achieved in terms of its objectives. Each local authority must operate a person policy complying with the principle of a ‘good employer’, as set out in the Labour Relations Act 1987.

The legislation also introduced provisions relating to the optional ‘corporatisation’ of local authority trading activities, excluding airports, seaports and any energy supply operation. Corporatisation is discretionary, but local authorities must consider any benefits, and be able to justify a decision–to the public or to competitors–not to corporatise. The Act has also been amended to require: (a) the corporatisation or establishment as a business unit of any local authority organisation carrying out subsidised road construction work; (b) the sale or other disposal by regional councils of any interest in the provision of public passenger transport; and (c) the corporatisation of any territorial authority public transport undertaking.

The 1989 reform of the structure of local government saw the number of regions reduced from 22 to 14, and now only the Chatham Islands County, because of its isolation, remains outside any region. All regional councils are directly elected, and have the following functions:

Some regional councils have also been allocated other functions, such as those formerly undertaken by harbour boards (other than those functions of harbour boards transferred to port companies) and land drainage boards.

Since the election of the National Government in October 1990, the role of regional councils has been under review, and at the time of going to press (January 1992), the Government is considering their future.

NEW LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOUNDARIES - NORTH ISLAND

NEW LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOUNDARIES - SOUTH ISLAND

Territorial authorities in New Zealand (city councils and district councils) are directly elected, general authorities with responsibility for a wide range of functions. These include: roading, water supply, sewage disposal, rubbish disposal, parks and reserves, libraries, land subdivision, pensioner housing, health and building inspection, urban passenger transport, parking controls, and civil defence.

Cities and districts. The Local Government Commission's final reorganisation schemes constituted 14 cities and 59 districts, with councils all headed by mayors.

New cities can now only be constituted by a reorganisation scheme where a new district is formed and that district–

Community boards are partly elected by the community and partly appointed by the territorial authority. Community boards can be established anywhere in New Zealand to serve any number of inhabitants, although the consent of the Local Government Commission is required. The commission's final reorganisation schemes established 159 community boards. Most of these communities cover the entire area of a ward or wards, but some only cover part of a ward.

Community boards must consist of between four and 12 members, with at least four elected. Up to a third of board membership may be appointed members, chosen from among the elected representatives of the territorial authority representing the ward or wards in which the community is situated.

The purposes of community boards are:

However, such functions as borrowing money, levying rates, making bylaws, the owning of property and the appointing of staff cannot be delegated.

Many types of special purpose local authorities were affected by the reform of the structure of local government. Of the around 400 special purpose authorities placed under the Local Government Commission's jurisdiction during the reform, only five remain. These are: the Aotea Centre Board of Management, the Auckland Electric Power Board, the Canterbury Museum Trust Board, the Council Office of the Auckland Institute and Museum and the Marlborough Forestry Corporation. Whole classes of special purpose authorities (most notably catchment boards, harbour boards, pest destruction boards and land drainage boards) disappeared. The functions of those abolished authorities have been reallocated to either regional or territorial authorities.

Local authorities derive their functions and powers from governing statutes. The Local Government Act 1974 is the main statute for territorial authorities, regional councils, and community boards. Special purpose local authorities come under other statutes. Several statutes apply to all local authorities, e.g., the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956.

Local authorities' powers to levy local taxes on land (rates) are contained within the Rating Powers Act 1988. Local authorities can make bylaws within limits defined in their governing Acts. Special purpose local authorities bylaws must be approved by the Minister of Local Government.

Local authorities can promote legislation about matters affecting areas within their jurisdiction which they are not empowered to deal with already. Where permanent or major additional powers are sought, a local bill must be prepared for the consideration of Parliament. If this is enacted its becomes a local Act, and applies only to the particular authority or authorities which promoted it.

Local government elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. The next elections will be held in 1992. All regional council, territorial authority, special purpose local authority and community board elections will be conducted at the same time.

In the year before an election regional and territorial authorities are normally required to review the number of members and the number and size of their electorates. In 1991 local authorities had the option of not conducting a review but keeping the membership and the wards or constituencies as in 1989.

Electorates are known as wards in the case of territorial authorities and constituencies in the case of regions. Territorial authorities had the option of deciding whether members would be elected by the electors of the district as a whole. Regions must be divided into constituencies.

The purpose of the review was to give effective representation to communities of interest and fair representation to electors. The review process provided for objections and appeals by the public and where necessary the final decisions were made by the Local Government Commission.

Voting procedures. Any territorial authority may decide whether an election is to be conducted by attendance at a polling booth or by post. The method of casting a vote is similar to parliamentary elections; the surnames of candidates are printed on the ballot paper and electors place a tick after the name of the candidate they wish to vote for.

Local authority franchise. Every parliamentary elector is automatically qualified as a residential elector of a local authority if the address at which the person is registered on the electoral roll is within the district of the local authority.

Ratepayer voting was re-introduced by the Local Government Amendments Act 1991. This entitles ratepayers who are not residents to enrol and vote in any region, district or community in which they pay rates. Rolls are compiled by territorial authorities, who usually compile the rolls and conduct the elections for other authorities as well. The information for the residential electoral roll is obtained from the parliamentary electoral database and the ratepayer roll is compiled from nomination forms sent to ratepayers.

Membership of local authorities. Any person who is a parliamentary elector may be elected to any number or combination of regional councils, territorial authorities and community boards. Vacancies may be filled either by election or appointment, dependent on the act under which the local authority was constituted.

Remuneration of members. Most boards and councils pay their chairperson or mayor an annual salary, while other members are paid a combination of a daily meeting allowance and an annual salary. Rates of remuneration payable to members are determined by the Minister of Local Government. Maximum and minimum salary and allowance levels are set, allowing the council or board the discretion to decide the actual rate within the prescribed limits.

The present (eighth) Local Government Commission comprises three members appointed by the Minister for Local Government. Since the enactment of major amendments to the Local Government Act in 1989, the general function of the Commission is to act as a quasi-judicial appeal authority to hear and determine:

In addition to the above roles, the commission is the determining authority for matters still requiring resolution following the implementation of the major local government reorganisation in 1989. In particular the commission may investigate property dealings of former authorities, and also approve changes in use of the special funds of former authorities.

Under the Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981 the flag, previously known as the New Zealand ensign, was declared to be the national flag of New Zealand. It is the symbol of the realm, Government and people of New Zealand. The basis of the New Zealand flag is the Union Flag (Jack) in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed stars with white borders.

The New Zealand coat of arms is pictured on the title page of this volume.

The coat of arms is protected under the Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981, and its lawful use is confined to official purposes.

God Defend New Zealand, the words written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods, was first performed in public in 1876 and adopted formally as the New Zealand national hymn in 1940. God Defend New Zealand, and the traditional God Save The Queen are the national anthems of New Zealand, both being of equal status as national anthems appropriate to the occasion.