THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1986-87

New Zealand lies in the south-west Pacific Ocean and consists of 2 main, and a number of smaller islands, whose combined area of 268 000 square kilometres is similar to the size of Japan or the British Isles.

The main North and South Islands are separated by Cook Strait, which is relatively narrow. They lie on an axis running from north-east to south-west, except for the low-lying Northland peninsula. The administrative boundaries of New Zealand extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude, and from 162 degrees east to 173 degrees west longitude. In addition to the main and nearby islands, New Zealand also includes the following small inhabited outlying islands: the Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres east of Christchurch; Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north east of the Bay of Islands; and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island. New Zealand also has jurisdiction over the territories of Tokelau and the Ross Dependency, which are described in ^{chapter 4}.

New Zealand is more than 1600 kilometres long and 450 kilometres wide at its widest part, and has a long coastline for its area. The coast is very indented in places, providing natural harbours.

New Zealand is also very mountainous, with less than a quarter of the land below 200 metres. In the North Island the main ranges run generally south-west, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Cook Strait, with further ranges and 4 volcanic peaks to the north-west. The South Island is much more mountainous than the North Island. A massive mountain chain, the Southern Alps, runs almost the length of the island. There are many outlying ranges to the Southern Alps in the north, and the south-west of the South Island. There are at least 223 named peaks higher than 2300 metres. There are also 360 glaciers in the Southern Alps. The largest are, on the east, the Tasman (length 29 kilometres), Murchison (17 kilometres), Mueller (13 kilometres), Godley (13 kilometres) and the Hooker (11 kilometres), and, on the west, the Fox (15 kilometres) and the Franz Josef (13 kilometres).

New Zealand's rivers are mainly swift and difficult to navigate. They are important as sources of hydro-electric power and many artificial lakes have been created as part of major hydro-electric schemes. New Zealand also has numerous natural lakes of great scenic beauty.

New Zealand lies in an area of the world that is characterised by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. The ring of fire, as this area is known, forms a belt that surrounds the Pacific Ocean and is the surface expression of a series of boundaries between the plates that make up the surface of the earth. Plate tectonics is a theory that is used to explain the fundamental geological features of the earth. According to the theory the crust of the earth is made up of a series of plates, rather like a jigsaw puzzle. Although these surface plates are rigid, the rocks of the underlying layer of the earth, its upper mantle, are partially molten. This provides the convection mechanism for movement of the overlying plates. Over millions of years these plates have moved in relation to each other, colliding together, pulling apart, or sometimes sliding past each other. Because the boundary between the Indian-Australian plate and the Pacific plate runs through New Zealand, the processes resulting from their collision have had a profound effect on New Zealand's geology. When 2 plates collide, one is pushed beneath the other in a process known as subduction. The zones of subduction are defined by 2 deep sea trenches to the north and south of New Zealand, which are connected by the Alpine Fault. The size, shape and geology of New Zealand reflects the long process of construction and deformation along this plate boundary.

Rock types. The interplay of earth movements and erosion has created the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. With erosion of the land, sand, mud, gravel and other debris was carried out to sea, where it accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke and conglomerate. The shells and skeletons of sea creatures also accumulated and formed thick layers of limestone. Most sedimentary rocks are formed in near horizontal layers called strata. Earth movements later raised the rocks above the sea to form land, and the strata were in many places tilted and folded by pressure. Seas advanced and retreated over the New Zealand area many times and the sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see time scale). Their age is revealed by the fossils they contain as well as by various radioactive techniques.

As well as the sedimentary rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure metamorphic rocks, (schist, gneiss and marble) and intrusive igneous rocks, (granite, gabbro, diorite and serpentine). Many of these metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. The metamorphic rocks were developed by the action of heat and pressure on the thick sediments (up to tens of thousands of metres) deposited in huge elongated sea basins (geoclines), which continued to sink as the deposits accumulated. When these sediments were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressures and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are characterised by large crystals, and have a course grained texture. They are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain-building; some, however, may result from intense metamorphism of sediments.

Volcanic rocks, (basalt, andesite, rhyolite and ignimbrite) are the products of many volcanic eruptions that have characterised New Zealand's geological history. The most recognisable volcanoes in New Zealand now occur in the North Island, where a number are active. They include those in Tongariro National Park, White Island and Mount Tarawera. Others such as Mount Taranaki (or Egmont), and Rangitoto may be considered dormant at present although they are still regarded as significant hazards. Sporadic episodes of volcanic activity have also occurred in the South Island with Timaru, Lyttelton, Oamaru and Dunedin ail having basaltic volcanoes less than 13 million years old.

Geological history. The oldest rocks in New Zealand are found in Nelson, Westland and Fiordland. They were formed in the Paleozoic era, most perhaps as long as 570 million years ago, but some in Westland may be older. They include thick, geoclinal sedimentary rocks which suggests that to yield the great volume of sediments a large landmass existed nearby at that time, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period, probably until the early Cretaceous period, an expensive geocline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of the late Paleozoic, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic ash were included in the materials that accumulated in the geocline. In the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, probably derived from some landmass west of present New Zealand. These rocks have been compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone), and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geoclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand, elsewhere the geocline was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled, broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous landmass. Some of the geoclinal sediments, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of the Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by high temperatures and the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geocline was subjected. This intense folding of the strata occurred approximately 100 million years ago in the mid-Cretaceous period. Slowly the mountains were eroded and gradually a land of low relief was produced. The sea gradually advanced over the worn down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge the land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary era, the land became so reduced in size that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white foraminiferal limestone accumulated. During this time, New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period. By the Oligocene period most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. Scattered remnants of this Oligocene limestone are used for most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.

After the Oligocene submergence, earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and were rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described by Sir Charles Fleming (Tuatara, June 1962) as follows: “The pattern of folds, belts and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic ... the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds. ... We can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago ... a kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margin seems to have gone on.” The thick deposits of soft grey sandstone and mudstone that now make up large areas of the North Island and some parts of the South Island, are the deposits that accumulated in the many sea basins that developed in the later Tertiary.

Recent geological history. Late in the Cenozoic era, in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods, another great episode of mountain-building took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and New Zealand's other main mountain chains. It was during this period that the general size and shape of the present islands of New Zealand was determined. Much of the movement during this mountain-building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the Earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movement of the Earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of metres. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each less than a few metres. The blocks adjacent to “transcurrent” faults moved both vertically and laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved, tilted fault blocks bounded by fault scarps (steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high). From Milford Sound to Cook Strait, an almost unbroken depression, formed by river valleys, and low saddles on the intervening ridges marks the site of New Zealand's Alpine Fault. Contrasting rock types occur on either side of the fault. This is exemplified by the separation by 480 kilometres of a Permian ophiolite, an association of igneous rocks, which occurs in Nelson and Western Otago. Fault movements continue to the present day and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features, such as scarplets or offset ridges, or streams, show where the movement has been occurring over recent centuries.

Erosion has eaten into the landscape forms during this time, carving detailed pattern's of peaks, ridges, valleys and gorges. The deposition of the debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, spits and bars. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the valleys occupied by most of the South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruaphehu, where remnants survive, on Mount Taranaki and the Tararua Range. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation and later melting of the glacial ice, affecting the erosion and deposition of the rivers and thus being responsible for the formation of many prominent river terraces.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in shaping the landscape. “Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, also achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand has been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty coast; andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later, to build the volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8000 cubic kilometres of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite pumice and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau, which is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world. Mount Taranaki is an andesitic stratovolcano, with the remnants of 3 other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of andesitic composition associated with a number of alkaline eruptive centres. The largest is Pirongia, a basaltic andesite cone some 900 metres high. Auckland city and the area just south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in Pleistocene and Holocene times, and many small scoria cones can be seen there. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones. From these volcanic outpourings some valuable mineral resources have been derived. The ironsands mined on the west coast of the North Island are concentrations of magnetite and ilmenite, which have been eroded out of the volcanic rocks.

Compared with some other parts of the almost continuous belt of earthquake activity around the rim of the Pacific such as Japan, Chile, and the Philippines, the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate, although earthquakes are common. It may be roughly compared with that prevailing in California. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on the average about once a year, a shock of magnitude 7 or above once in 10 years, and a shock of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century, but in historic times only 1 shock (the south-west Wairarapa earthquake in 1855) is known to have reached this magnitude.

Other natural disasters and accidents are together responsible for more casualties than earthquakes, the most serious seismic disasters in New Zealand having been the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 in which 256 deaths occurred, and the Buller earthquake of 1929 in which there were 17 deaths. The total resulting from all other shocks since 1840 is less than 15 deaths. The last earthquake to cause deaths occurred at Inangahua in 1968, when 3 people died.

The process of earthquake occurrence is understood in terms of a large volume of the Earth's crust being subjected to strain by the relentless movement of the great plates of the Earth's surface against each other. The strain eventually exceeds the strength of the rock, which ruptures. Energy is radiated outwards in the form of elastic waves, which can be felt at places near the origin, and detected by sensitive instruments at greater distances. In large shallow earthquakes the rupture may appear at the surface, forming or renewing movement on a geological fault. In regions where the majority of earthquakes are very shallow, such as California, there is a tendency for the earthquake origins to cluster near geological fault traces, but in regions of deeper activity, such as New Zealand, this is not so. There is little activity near the Alpine Fault, which stretches for some 500 kilometres from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti, and is considered one of the world's largest and most active faults.

Within New Zealand at least 2 separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region covers the whole of the North Island except the Northland peninsula, and the part of the South Island north of a line passing roughly between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes southern Westland, western Southland, and western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the 2 main islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the Earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 kilometres. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and are widely scattered throughout the country. In historically recent times, the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions have been significantly more active than the rest of New Zealand, but neither the Central Seismic Region, which lies between them nor the Northern peninsula has been free from damaging shocks. The details of the present pattern are not necessarily unchanging, and could alter significantly after the occurrence of a major earthquake. Because of this, because of the broader geographical setting, and because of the distance to which the effects of a large earthquake extend, it would be highly imprudent to treat any part of New Zealand as completely free from the risk of serious earthquake damage.

Many active regions of the Earth have only shallow earthquakes, but in others shocks have been known to occur at depths as great as 700 kilometres below the surface. It is thought that these deep shocks originate within the edges of crustal plates that have been drawn down or thrust beneath their neighbours. Such deep events are common in both the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions of New Zealand, but their relative positions with respect to the shallow activity and to other geophysical features are rough mirror images. This is believed to indicate that in the North Island, the edge of the Pacific Plate lies below that of the Indian Plate, while in the south of the South Island the Pacific Plate is uppermost and the Indian Plate has been thrust beneath it.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic Region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 kilometres at the northern end, and decreases evenly to a depth of about 200 kilometres before the southern boundary of the region is reached. Along the whole of the system, there is also a regular decrease in depth from west to east. In northern Taranaki, near the western limit of this activity, a small isolated group of shocks at a depth of about 600 kilometres has also been recorded. In the Central Seismic Region only shallow shocks are known. The maximum depth of earthquakes appears to be less than 150 kilometres in the Fiordland Region where the deep activity is more concentrated than in the north, lying close to Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri.

Both earthquakes and volcanoes are found in geophysically disturbed regions, but large earthquakes are rare, although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, all of similar magnitude, and very numerous, known as “earthquake swarms”. Although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result. There is not often a simultaneous volcanic outbreak, but swarms are rare in non-volcanic regions. In New Zealand they have occurred in the volcanic zone that includes Mount Ruapehu and White Island, the Coromandel Peninsula, parts of Northland, and Taranaki.

Earthquakes are recorded by more than 30 seismographs in New Zealand, and others throughout the south-west Pacific as far north as Western Samoa and south as the Antarctic. The network records small earthquakes in New Zealand and large earthquakes anywhere in the world. After analysing the records obtained, seismologists can not only determine the epicentres and focal depths of local earthquakes, but also, in supplying data to international data centres, make a valuable contribution to worldwide studies of earthquake occurrence, earthquake mechanism, and the structure of the Earth. The passage of earthquake waves through the Earth is the prime means of sounding its deep interior.

Seismological research in New Zealand falls into the following areas: Studies of the earthquake source and the process of earthquake occurrence (Details of the records produced by seismographs are used to infer the character of the rupture process at the earthquake source. These studies use not only locally recorded seismograms but also others from greater distances. The possibility of earthquake prediction is also being investigated.); The use of earthquakes as a tool to determine the structure of the Earth (Detailed maps of earthquake epicentres and vertical cross-sections of earthquake regions are used to infer the structure of the New Zealand area. Accurate measurements of the velocity of seismic waves provide constraints on this structure.); Estimation of the severity of the hazard presented by earthquake activity (The history of earthquake occurrence provides estimates of likely future activity, when analysed together with geological evidence of faulting. This estimate of hazard is done on both a national scale and for specific sites.); The use of earthquake recording equipment to detect underground nuclear explosions (The seismograph station in Rarotonga is well placed to record underground explosions at Mururoa in the Tuamotu Archipelago. Larger tests are also recorded in New Zealand. Yields are estimated on the basis of experience with previous tests.).

New Zealand lies in the mid-latitude zone of westerly winds, in the path of an irregular succession of anticyclones, which migrate eastwards every 6 to 7 days. The centres of these anticyclones generally track across the North Island, more northerly paths being followed in spring, and southerly paths in autumn and winter. Anticyclones are areas of descending air, and settled weather, with little or no rain, which may bring clear skies, or low cloud and fog. Between the anticyclones are troughs of low pressure, which extend northwards from low pressure depressions moving eastwards far to the south of New Zealand. Within these troughs there are often cold fronts, oriented northwest to south-east, which produce one of the commonest types of weather sequence over the country: as the front approaches from the west, north-westerly winds become stronger and cloud increases, followed by a period of rain for several hours as the front passes over, and then a change to cold showery south-westerly winds.

The presence of an axial mountain chain extending the length of the country has a major effect on the climate of its various regions, and produces much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east, than from north to south. In some inland areas of the South Island, just east of the mountains, the climate is distinctly 'continental' in character, with large daily and seasonal temperature extremes, despite the fact that no part of the country is more than 130 kilometres from the sea. Ophir in Central Otago has the greatest temperature range of 55°C.

Winds. The prevailing wind direction is westerly, although in individual months easterlies may predominate, and north of Taranaki the general flow is south-westerly. In the North Island winds generally decrease for a period in the summer or early autumn, but in many parts of the South Island July and August are the least windy months. The blocking effect of the mountain ranges modifies the westerly wind pattern. Wind strength decreases on the western side, but increases through Cook Strait. Foveaux Strait, and about the Manawatu Gorge. Air is also forced upwards over the ranges, which results in a warm drying (föhn) wind in the lee areas to the east of both islands. Wellington averages 173 days a year with wind gusts greater than about 60 kilometres per hour, compared with 30 for Rotorua, 31 for Timaru, and 35 for Nelson. Sea breezes are the predominant winds in summer in many coastal places, such as Canterbury, where the north-easterlies are almost as frequent as the predominant south-westerlies.

Rainfall. The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall ranges from as little as 300 millimetres in a small area of Central Otago to over 8000 millimetres in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part lies between 600 and 1500 millimetres. The only areas with average rainfalls under 600 millimetres are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges, and include most of Central and North Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu, where the average rainfall is 700-1000 millimetres a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 millimetres. Over a considerable area of both islands rainfall exceeds 2500 millimetres a year. For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. However, predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards: it is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island, but over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. Rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased west of, and in, the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, with a complementary decrease of rainfall in the lee of the ranges. Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 130 rain days a year (days with at least 1.0 millimetre of rain)—except to the east of the ranges where in places there are fewer than 110 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 millimetres generally have about 80 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply, rain days exceeding 200 a year in Stewart Island and Fiordland. On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, its reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agriculture. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn, when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay. The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 millimetres, which occurred at Rapid Creek (Hokitika), where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 millimetres.

Areas with a marked lower annual rainfall can be subject to very heavy daily falls: such areas are found in northern Hawke's Bay and north-eastern districts in the Auckland province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district, Otago, and Southland, daily falls reaching 80 millimetres are very rare.

Temperature. Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°C in the far north to 12°C in the south of the South Island. Temperatures also drop, by about 2°C per 300 metres, with altitude. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature, are the warmest months of the year, and July is the coldest. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°C on a few afternoons in most summers. The extremes for New Zealand are 42°C. which has been recorded in 3 places, at Awatere Valley (Marlborough), Christchurch, and Rangiora (Canterbury); and —19°C at Ophir (Central Otago). The annual range of mean temperature (the difference between the mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months) is small. In Northland and in western districts of both islands it is about 8°C and for the remainder of the North Island and east coast districts of the South Island it is 9° to 10°C. Further inland the annual range exceeds 11°C in places, reaching a maximum of 14°C in Central Otago, where there is an approach to a 'continental' type of climate.

Sunshine. The sunniest places are near Blenheim, the Nelson-Motueka area, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2350 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country has at least 2000 hours, and even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1800 hours. Southland and coastal Otago, where sunshine drops sharply to about 1700 hours a year, lie on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months, although there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Hail, thunderstorms, and tornadoes. The number of severe hailstorms reported annually over the whole country averages 9, but this figure varies yearly from 4 to 20. Severe hailstorms occur widely throughout the country, but the areas most affected are Canterbury, the low country of central Hawke's Bay, and a small area south and west of Nelson. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally larger stones cause local damage to glasshouses and orchards. Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and western side of the country where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year. On the east coast of the South Island the average is commonly less than 5. Tornadoes show a similar pattern to thunderstorms except maximum frequency occurs in the Waikato and Bay of Plenty. An average of about 20 tornadoes and waterspouts is reported each year, but most of these are small.

Frost and snow. Local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. For example, at Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer has registered below 0°C only once in 65 years, while further up the harbour at Whenuapai aerodrome there are on average 8 screen frosts per annum. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the coldest winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago, the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island, but even in these areas night temperatures as low as −12°C are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild, and in both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all year round.

The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2500 metres on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 metres even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, where in some years it may lie for a day or two even at sea level, but in Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is about 2000 metres in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 metres of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 metres, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent, and have caused serious sheep losses during severe winters. In that area, however, it is rare for the winter snow line to remain below 1000 metres for extended periods.

Relative humidity. Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. The daily variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter. Very low humidity (from 30 percent down to 5 percent) occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps, where the föhn wind (the Canterbury nor-wester) is often very marked. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be oppressive, although temperatures rarely reach 30°C. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

The vegetation and wildlife of New Zealand are the product of not only natural factors during tens of millions of years, but also human factors over the last 1000 years. The New Zealand landmass is a fragment of the ancient southern continent of Gondwanaland, which has been isolated for over 100 million years, allowing many ancient plants and animals to survive. Although New Zealand has undergone many physical and climatic changes, such as mountain building, volcanic activity, and glaciation, parts of the landmass have remained in continuous existence with part of their original complement of plants and animals.

New Zealand is now a very diverse land and changes from being almost subtropical (“winterless”) in the north, to cool temperate, even subantarctic in the south, with a very wet, mild climate in the west, and a much drier, sometimes almost continental climate, in the east. A long exceptionally diverse coastline with many islands, produces habitats for coastal and lowland plants and animals, and there are extensive montane and alpine habitats as well. Geological variation has allowed species to adapt to soils derived from limestone, volcanic rock, serpentine, alluvial gravels, and peat. Such diversity has led to New Zealand being classified into over 260 ecological districts, each with a distinct blend of topography, climate, vegetation, and wildlife. Superimposed on natural diversity has been 1000 years of human activity; harvesting of naturally occurring species, introduction of species from elsewhere, and transformation of natural vegetation into farmland by fire, logging, and drainage. While 80 percent was forested before humans arrived, only 23 percent of the land remains forested, mainly in the mountainous hinterland.

Bio-geographicelements. The vegetation and wildlife is made up of different bio-geographic elements. The Gondwanaland element, consists of ancient plants and animals: conifers such as kauri (Agathis australis), frogs (Leiopelma), reptiles like tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus), large ground snails (Powelliphanta), and birds such as the kiwi and the now extinct moa. A tropical element includes the nikau palm, kie kie (Freycenetia), tree ferns, many northern forest trees, tropical snails (Placostylis), and earthworms. An Australian element includes many ferns, orchids, small seeded tree species like manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), insects, and birds (such as the nectar-feeding tui, parakeets, and many wetland birds). A Pacific element includes trees like pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa), numerous ferns, and migratory birds like the shining cuckoo. A subantarctic or circumpolar element includes beech (Nothofagus), which occurs also in South America and Southern Australia and was once present on Antarctica, and several characteristically southern bird groups such as penguins, albatrosses, and petrels. A South American element includes Fuchsia. A cosmopolitan mountain element entered New Zealand along the mountain and island chain from South East Asia and includes plants such as buttercups, daisies, veronicas and gentians. A cultural element of recent human origin comes from all parts of the world particularly Europe, North America and Australia, and consists of trees, horticultural plants, weeds, mammals, birds, and many other groups.

Northern (subtropical), central (temperate), and southern (subantarctic) marine areas can also be recognised, each with characteristic species; for instance rock oyster, blue mussel and dredge oyster, respectively. Bull kelp is a notable southern species. Some very unusual marine animals occur, including black coral and ancient brachiopods in the southern fiords, and recently discovered sea daisies—starfish relatives which live on sunken wood at 1000 metres depth. The complex sea floor means that shore, continental shelf, and deep water species occur close together, resulting in diverse marine life.

Characteristics of vegetation and wildlife. Uniqueness is a feature of the natural life of New Zealand. Foremost is the absence, apart from 2 species of bat, of land mammals, which had not evolved at the time New Zealand became separate. Many flightless birds and insects have evolved. The most remarkable birds were some 12 species of moa, forest and shrub browsers, that took the place of large herbivores in other parts of the world. Moa became extinct during Maori times, but other flightless birds remain including kiwi, kakapo (a nocturnal parrot—the largest in the world), and weka (a scavenging rail). Flightless insects are numerous, including many large beetles and cricket-like weta. The absence of mammals also meant that birds became important as seed-dispersing agents, so that most forest plants bear small berries, including the giant conifers (Podocarps), the smaller canopy trees, and even some forest-floor herbs. Some alpine plants produce berries, dispersed by the New Zealand pipit and the kea (mountain parrot). As a consequence of the great physical and climatic upheavals which New Zealand has undergone the forest has been influenced by extinction. Coconut palms once occurred in New Zealand, and fossil remains of kauri, now limited to the northern North Island, have been found south to Canterbury. Some tropical plant groups are represented by a single species, surviving only on protected islands, or in the far north. Some, like Tecomanthe are known from only a single plant. Similarly, the range of bird species is very limited in comparison with other temperate land masses of similar size. The unique family of wattle birds contains only 4 species, one of these, the huia, is now extinct and considerable natural extinction seems likely. On the other hand, there has been great diversification among smaller life-forms, such as tiny forest-floor snails, spiders, aquatic caddis flies, lichens, mosses and liverworts. Of note is the diversity of alpine plants such as daisies (Celmisia, Senecio), veronica (Hebe), native carrot (Aciphylla) and buttercups. Many of these plants produce rosettes of large leaves, which seem to adapt the plants to cold, windy, subantarctic conditions in the relatively recently-formed high mountains. A second group of plants adapted to cold, windy conditions are cushion plants, some of which form remarkable mounds called “vegetable sheep”.

In the forest and along its margins divaricating shrubs occur with tangled and criss-crossed branches bearing tiny leaves. They sometimes represent the juvenile form of a typical adult tree, but more often are the adult itself. Nowhere else in the world is this peculiar growth form so abundant. It may be an adaptation to browsing by the now extinct moa, or it may help plants to adapt to cold or dry conditions.

Although many New Zealand plants and animals occupy very specialised habitats, frequent droughts, high winds, floods, and erosion mean that many species need to be highly adaptable. Many insects, such as native bees, gather food from a wide variety of sources, and some forest species, like beech, regenerate best after the parent forest has been destroyed. However, the overwhelming character of the wildlife is its dependence on forest, and its vulnerability to introduced predators such as rats. The forests and natural grasslands have been severely modified by introduced browsers such as possums, deer and goats. Some introduced plants, like marram grass, have taken over the places where native species would normally grow.

A vast proportion of the native animals and plant species are endemic and found only in New Zealand. Virtually all insects, spiders, snails and all earthworms are restricted to New Zealand, as are most birds and plants, most freshwater fish (27 species), and all reptiles (38 species).

Many figures in ^{Table 1.8} are approximate and may change after future scientific investigation.

Forests. Apart from mountains above bush-line, swamps, coastal dunes, and some dry inland basins, 80 percent of New Zealand was orginally forest-covered. The forests were reduced by a third by Maori clearance before European settlement, and a further third by European clearance over the last 150 years, so that now only 23 percent of New Zealand remains in forest. Much occurs in mountainous areas, and most is now protected.

There is a wide range of natural forest types. Around the coast is a fragmented narrow band of salt tolerant plants including mangroves, nikau palm and mostly tropical pacific species, such as karaka and pohutukawa. Coastal forests are particularly important wildlife habitats for marine birds (for example various petrels and penguins), and offshore islands form refuges for tuatara, flightless insects and snails. The characteristic New Zealand forest type is warm temperate evergreen rain forest, in the far north this is dominated by kauri (Agathis australis) and various hardwoods though little forest remains. Swamp forest dominated by the podocarp kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides) was once extensive, and remains prominent in western South Island. Elsewhere the podocarps (rimu, totara, matai, and miro) are associated with a diverse range of broad-leaved evergreen hardwoods, ferns, vines and epiphytes, forming dense and complex multi-storied communities. The species diversity gradually diminishes both with increasing altitude and increasing latitude. Evergreen beech forest is characteristic of the South Island generally above 300 metres altitude. These montane forests have fewer species than lowland forests, and extensive areas may be dominated by a single tree species. Bushline, usually of beech, is located generally between 1350 and 1500 metres.

A wide range of secondary forest types have developed since human arrival, notably kanuka forests east of the main divide, manuka and kanuka forests in northern New Zealand, and a range of broad-leaved hardwood and tree fern forest types on abandoned farmland.

Cool moist climates produce an abundance of ferns in New Zealand forests, not only giant tree ferns, but also filmy ferns which clothe tree trunks, and ground ferns.

Shrublands. Natural shrublands are rare and usually occur where soil or water factors restrict forest development, such as the margins of coastal estuaries and other wetlands, and rocky bluffs. Immediately above the bushline, a narrow band of diverse shrubland often occurs dominated by the heath Dracophyllum, shrub daisies, hebes, and alpine podocarps. The most extensive shrublands occur in once forested dryland of eastern New Zealand, where small-leaved sometimes spiny shrubs occur, notably matagouri (Discaria), tauhinu (Cassinia), and divaricating coprosmas. These shrublands are stages in the re-establishment of forest. Fernland, particularly bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum), once a staple Maori food, is very widespread throughout deforested New Zealand hill country. Like shrubland it serves as a nurse-bed for forest.

Wetlands. A rise in sea-level inundated coastal valleys formed during the ice-age. This created extensive estuaries, rich in worms, molluscs and eelgrass, which are important habitats for marine birds such as oyster-catchers. In the north the estuaries support dense groves of low mangroves, while elsewhere there are extensive rush, jointed-rush and sedge wetlands which are spawning grounds for whitebait or inanga (Galaxias species). The numerous rivers of New Zealand created extensive freshwater wetlands dominated by harakeke or flax (Phormium), raupo (Typha) and sedges. These have mostly been drained but are extensive in western South Island. Numerous small swamps and lakes have been formed to the lee of sand dunes deposited along western coasts by prevailing westerly winds. Lakes, swamps and bogs made by glaciers are features of the South Island high country.

Dune lands. Active erosion of the land has created extensive coastal sand deposits, which have mainly been stabilised by marram grass, pines and lupins, and few remain in their natural state. One threatened dune species is pingao, a sedge used for traditional Maori weaving.

Grasslands. When Europeans arrived in the nineteenth century much of the eastern South Island was covered by short tussock grassland or silver tussock and fescue, which had become established after Maori fires removed forests. Before the Maori the only naturally occurring lowland tussock was in the dry interior of Central Otago. Pastoral farming and introduced grasses have now largely destroyed short tussock grassland. However at higher altitudes, especially above the bushline, extensive areas of tall snow tussock (Chionochloa) occur.

Alpine vegetation. Large-leaved herbs, mat plants, and cushion plants occur throughout the tall tussocks, and in places dominate and form herb fields of great beauty in flower. Scree supports a range of specialised, often fleshy, drought-resistant plants. Alpine bluffs support a scattered cover of shrubs, herbs and cushion plants, adapted to extreme climate and sometimes possessing very strange form such as the coral shrub (Helichrysum) and the vegetable sheep (Raoulia).

Introduced vegetation and wildlife. The New Zealand landscape is now dominated by introduced animals and plants. Over 1500 exotic plants grow wild, some (like rye-grass, browntop, gorse and sweet briar), over large areas. Although introduced plants have seldom colonised extensive areas of native vegetation, wild animals (deer, pigs, goats, possums, stoats and rats) are widespread, and some introduced birds, such as blackbirds, occur everywhere. Urban vegetation is largely exotic and domestic stock dominate agricultural areas throughout the lowlands.

Introduced plants and animals have greatly increased the diversity of species in New Zealand. However their increase has been associated with a decrease in the area dominated by native species. Today a large number of native species are very rare and seldom seen. Some of these are ancient and stamp uniqueness on New Zealand as a living museum. Urgent measures are needed to ensure the healthy survival of this unique heritage of international importance.

One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. This is the time 12 hours ahead of Co-ordinated Universal Time, and is named New Zealand Standard Time (N.Z.S.T.). It is an atomic standard, and is maintained by the New Zealand Time Service, DSIR. One hour of daylight saving, named New Zealand Daylight Time, which is 13 hours ahead of Universal Time, is generally introduced from 2 a.m. (N.Z.S.T.) on the last Sunday in October, until 2 a.m. (N.Z.S.T.) on the first Sunday in March next year. Time kept in the Chatham Islands is 45 minutes ahead of that kept in New Zealand.

1350 (about) Traditional date of “Great Migration”, the arrival of 7 canoes bearing Maori settlers from the Pacific.

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 James Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823-28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand”. Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel, HMS Driver, in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into 2 provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into 6 provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau Bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of 4 Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they killed Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (2) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31 774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, with loss of 34 lives.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England. Te Kooti pardoned.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Franchise extended to women. Special liquor licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand army contingent (the first of 10) sent to Boer War in South Africa.

1901 Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner”.

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communications established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s. Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner Control.

1913 Extensive strikes.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operation on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s. Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct 2-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s. Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family Allowances Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 256 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (Telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman airmail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors' Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. Labour Government assumed office for first of 4 successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored.

1938 Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain.

1940 Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy, RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine.

1941 Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia - New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrendered (15 August). South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Family benefit of £1 per week made universal as from 1 April.

1947 Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustments of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Referendum agrees to compulsory military training.

1950 Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. K-force sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront dispute. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Accession of Queen Elizabeth II.

1953 Armistice agreement signed in Korea. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited New Zealand.

1954 The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South East Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka rail tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Separate Court of Appeal constituted.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau-Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland.

1961 Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank For Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation.

1962 Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei.

1965 Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use.

1966 Labour force reached 1 000 000. Licensed television sets reached 500 000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £).

1968 T.e.v. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Jet aircraft introduced in internal air services.

1969 Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Bluff commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Oil strike offshore at Taranaki. Voting rights extended to 20-year-old persons.

1970 Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland.

1971 Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All 7 generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures.

1972 Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk.

1973 Britain joined European Economic Community. Wool Marketing Corporation established. Farm income equalisation scheme extended. Trade negotiations with China; embassy opened in Peking. New Zealand became member of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Agreement reached for development of Maui field of natural gas offshore from Taranaki. Timber and pulp mill opened at Whirinaki, Napier. New Zealand currency placed on “near float arrangement” of relationships with major trading partners. Colour television introduced. First step of Equal Pay Act in effect. New Zealand Shipping Corporation established. Construction of 100-megawatt Rangipo hydro-power station and 550-megawatt Huntly coal-fired power station approved.

1974 Tenth British Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch. New Plymouth thermal power station in operation. Fourth Cook Strait rail-ferry brought into service. Death of the Prime Minister, Right Hon. N. E. Kirk; succeeded in office by Right Hon. W. E. Rowling.

1975 Further Government participation in off-shore oil exploration announced. New trade deals established with Middle-East countries, Japan, and U.S.S.R. (Oct) Permanent stabilisation scheme for meat prices announced. Conversion of New Plymouth power station from oil to natural gas under way. National Government, under Right Hon. R. D. Muldoon, assumed office.

1976 In February, cuts in subsidies on electricity, rail charges, and Post Office charges. (Apr) Subsidies on bread, eggs, butter, and flour abolished. (Jul) Wool Income Stabilisation Scheme introduced. (Aug) Price and rent freeze until end of year introduced. New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement extended for further 10 years. Controversy over New Zealand's sporting links with South Africa resulted in African nations walk-out at Olympic Games in Montreal. Storm caused severe flooding in Hutt Valley.

1977 The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visited New Zealand in February as part of the Silver Jubilee celebrations. New national superannuation scheme came into operation. New Zealand Planning Council formed. (Jun) Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference sponsored Gleneagles agreement on sporting contacts with South Africa. (Sep) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act passed, establishing 200-mile-wide economic zone around New Zealand coast. (Oct) Act passed establishing Ministry of Energy, combining functions of Mines Department, Electricity Department, and Ministry of Energy Resources.

1978 Merger of New Zealand Wool Board and New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation came into effect on 7 February. National Airways Corporation merged with Air New Zealand. Government approved programme for large-scale production of methanol from Maui gas by 1985-86 to cut oil imports. (Oct) Widespread floods in Southland. (Nov) National Party retains power at General Election with greatly reduced majority.

1979 (Apr) First stage of Maui gasfield development completed. Price control phased out over a wide range of commodities and services; replaced by price surveillance scheme. Severe landslip at Abbotsford. (Sep) Plans for Maui gas, including building of methanol plant, announced by Government. (Nov) Air New Zealand D.C. 10 crash on Mount Erebus in Antarctica, killing 257 passengers and crew. Twenty-fifth Commonwealth Conference held in Wellington.

1980 (Jan) Widespread flooding in Southland. New Zealand troops included in Zimbabwe peacekeeping force. (Mar) $500 million Eurodollar loan raised to finance a hydrocracker for expansion of Marsden Point oil refinery. Petrocorp given approval to build New Zealand's first methanol plant. (Apr) $600 million expansion of New Zealand Steel Ltd plant announced. (Oct) Remuneration Act repealed as part of 3-pronged wage policy agreement with Federation of Labour and Employers' Federation. Act passed legalising Saturday trading.

1981 (Apr) Butter deal concluded with EEC. Britain to import 94 000 tonnes of New Zealand butter in 1981, and 92 000 tonnes in 1982. (Jun) Government approved construction of oil pipeline between Marsden Point refinery and Auckland. Cost-of-living increase of 5 percent granted by Arbitration Court. (Jul-Aug) Controversial tour of New Zealand by South African rugby team. (Aug) N.Z. Dairy Board purchased 100 000 tonnes of surplus U.S. butter to prevent swamping of international butter market with surplus supplies. Crash of Silver Fern railcar resulted in 4 deaths and many injuries. (Oct) Major expansion of N.Z. Steel's plant approved. (Nov) General Election resulting in narrow victory for National Party. (Dec) Four-year trade deal on dairy products signed with U.S.S.R.

1982 (Jan) Government departments ordered to prune 3 percent from their budgets for 1982-83 financial year. (Feb) Contract for Motunui synthetic fuel plant signed. (Apr) Increased charges for postage, telephone rentals, state coal, electricity, and road user charges. Railway Department became New Zealand Railways Corporation. (Jun) Increases in motor vehicle fees and rail charges. Twelve-month wage, price, and rent freeze imposed from midnight 22 June. (Jun-Sep) Clyde dam controversy over water rights. Continued severe drought in Canterbury and North Otago. (Oct) EEC ministers agreed in principle to import quota of 87 000 tonnes of butter from New Zealand. Because of continuing market uncertainties, N.Z. Meat Producers Board announced it would buy all export lamb and mutton for expected period of 2 years. Plans for Aramoana aluminium smelter shelved indefinitely because of world glut of aluminium. (Nov) Australia and New Zealand reached final agreement on closer economic relations (CER), scheduled to be inaugurated on 1 January 1983. (Dec) Ammonia-urea plant at Kapuni commenced production.

1983 (Jan) First airfreight consignment of chilled New Zealand lamb sent to Britain. (Mar) Final signing

of Closer Economic Relations Agreement. New Zealand dollar devalued by 6 percent against all currencies. Introduction of Kiwi Savings Stock attracting 15 percent interest per annum. (Apr) New Zealand's triple A international credit rating reduced by Standard and Poor's Corporation. (May) Wage-Price Freeze extended until 29 February 1984. (Jun) Kiwi Savings Stock closed. (Jul) Official Information Act came into force. (Aug) Lending institutions slash interest rates on overdrafts, term loans and home mortgages. Second issue of Kiwi Savings Stock with interest rate of 10 percent per annum. (Nov) Regulations limiting interest rates on first mortgages on property to 11 percent, and subsequent mortgages to 14 percent imposed. Transport Amendment Act No. 2 introduced phased deregulation of land transport, and abolition of restrictions against competition with Railways Corporation. (Dec) Agreement to supply Iran with 140 000 tonnes of New Zealand lamb finalised. EEC ministers agree to import 13 833 tonnes of New Zealand butter for January and February 1984 until a decision is reached on a longer term arrangement. Industrial Relations Amendment Act abolished unqualified preference clause and introduced voluntary unionism from February 1984.

1984 (Jan) New Zealand Forest Products unsuccessfully renews its takeover bid for Wattie Industries, the biggest takeover bid in New Zealand's history. (Mar) Price freeze is lifted and the Government announces an $8 general wage increase. Bomb in Wellington's Trades Hall kills the caretaker. (Apr) The annual inflation rate drops to 3.5 percent, the lowest in 18 years. (Jun) Prime Minister Sir Robert Muldoon calls a snap election for 14 July. (Jul) The Labour Party wins the General Election. New Government devalues the New Zealand dollar by 20 percent and re-imposes the Price Freeze. Interest rate restrictions are lifted. (Aug) New Zealand Meat Board makes a $200-million-a-year lamb marketing agreement with a British company. (Sep) Economic Summit Conference held, including representatives from many sectors of the community. (Oct) Two-day Maori Summit Conference held. (Nov) Budget presented, including the introduction of the Family Care Scheme; an increase in taxation on additional income of those receiving National Superannuation; and lifting of the Price Freeze. Government lays down wage guidelines. (Dec) Riot erupts during a free rock concert in Queen Street, Auckland causing almost $1 million damage. New Zealand ratifies the United National Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.

1985 (Feb) A United States request for a port visit by a warship, USS Buchanan, was declined by the New Zealand Government because of uncertainty that it was nuclear armed. (Mar) On 4 March the New Zealand dollar was floated. It reached its lowest value of $US0.4365 on the same day and peaked at $US0.5928 on 14 August. (Apr) University Entrance examinations abolished as from 1987. (Jun) All Black rugby tour of South Africa cancelled. (Jul) The Greenpeace protest vessel Rainbow Warrior bombed and sunk. (Sep) Adult Information Adoption Bill passed.

New Zealand is a monarchy with a parliamentary government. Its constitutional history dates back to its status as a British colony. By the Treaty of Waitangi of 1840 the Maori people exchanged their sovereignty for the guarantees in the Treaty. New Zealand is now an independent state. Queen Elizabeth II has the title Queen of New Zealand, and the Crown is vested in the same person as the British Crown.

A constitution provides for the composition of the legislative, executive, and judicial organs of Government, their powers and duties, and the relationship between these organs. In New Zealand the constitution is not contained in a single document that can be referred to as “the Constitution”. Instead it is found in various New Zealand and United Kingdom statutes, constitutional conventions, and case law. A feature of constitutional documents in some countries is that the provisions in them are safeguarded by requiring a special procedure to amend them. Only one of the New Zealand constitutional Acts has a requirement of this nature (that is the Electoral Act 1956). Our constitutional provisions can therefore be amended or repealed by the same procedures as the ordinary law. Some sections of the Electoral Act 1956 require a 75 percent majority in Parliament to change them, or a majority of votes cast at a referendum. However, the 75 percent requirement could itself be abolished by a simple majority. In this sense, the protection is political rather than legal.

Important sources of constitutional law include: the Constitution Act 1852, which initiated parliamentary government; the U.K. Habeus Corpus Act 1679 and Bill of Rights 1688, which respectively protect the individual against arbitrary detention, and define some of the relative powers of the Crown and Parliament; the Electoral Act 1956, which provides procedures for parliamentary elections; the Letters Patent 1983, which set out the Governor-General's powers; the Public Safety Conservation Act 1932, which provides the executive government with wide powers, should an emergency be declared; the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948, which confers extensive powers on the Government to affect socioeconomic activity; and the Civil List Act 1979, which embodies the principle of responsible government, i.e., by persons responsible to the electorate.

Crown and Governor-General. The Governor-General is the representative of the Sovereign in New Zealand and exercises the royal powers derived from statute and the general law. Almost all of the Governor-General's powers are now statutory, and this has the effect of abridging any of the prerogative powers that cover the same ground. The Governor-General possesses only those prerogative powers delegated in the Letters Patent, and the courts may decide on the limits of the prerogative powers. Their role in New Zealand is residual. The Sovereign appoints the Governor-General on the Prime Minister's recommendation, normally for a term of 5 years. The Governor-General's main constitutional function is to arrange for the leader of the majority party in Parliament to form a government. By constitutional convention and the Letters Patent the Governor-General is required to follow the advice of ministers. By convention the Governor-General can in extraordinary circumstances reject advice if he believes that a Government is intending to act unconstitutionally. The Governor-General's powers to do this are known as the reserve powers. The extent of these powers in New Zealand is unclear. Events in Australia in 1975 demonstrated how controversial the use of the reserve powers can be.

Parliamentary tradition. A feature of New Zealand's constitution is that, although it is a monarchy in form, it operates democratically because of a long political tradition of parliamentary government and a network of constitutional principles. They developed during the course of British history, and were transferred to New Zealand. Some have legal status and some exist as constitutional conventions. The Crown is still the formal legal repository of much power. The Crown is part of Parliament, and the Governor-General's assent is required before bills can become law. Government administration is formally carried out by the Crown through its ministers and State servants. However the Crown must act according to its ministers wishes, and they must retain parliamentary support. The Government cannot act effectively without Parliament, because it cannot raise or spend money without parliamentary approval, and for most categories of expenditure this approval takes the form of an annual vote of funds to the Government. Parliament therefore has to be assembled regularly, and has the opportunity to hold the Government to account. Under the modern 2-party system however, the Government effectively controls proceedings in Parliament and cases of Government members voting with the Opposition are very uncommon. Judges are appointed by the Crown. There is a strong tradition of independence for judges and various mechanisms to protect it.

The executive government of New Zealand is carried out on behalf of the Sovereign by the Ministers of the Crown, who make up the members of the Cabinet and the Executive Council, and control the State Services. Ministers are responsible to Parliament for their official actions by constitutional convention, and are required to be members of Parliament by the Civil List Act 1979.

After a general election the Governor-General invites the leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives to accept office as Prime Minister, and form a government. On the new Prime Minister's advice the Governor-General appoints a number of MPs as ministers, generally with responsibilities for various areas of government administration (portfolios), and may also appoint parliamentary under-secretaries, who are not ministers and not members of the Executive Council, to assist ministers.