Pressures to the south of New Zealand were much lower than usual during January, March, and September and strong west to southwest winds were unusually frequent. However during April, June, July, October, and November pressures were often higher than usual over, and south of New Zealand and as a result easterly winds were frequent during these months.

Rainfall was below average over most of the North Island and in some eastern South Island areas. Napier recorded only 59 percent of its usual rain, establishing a new record for low rainfall. Over most of the South Island and about Wellington rainfalls were above average, particularly in the central high country of the South Island. At Mt John and Alexandra rainfalls were about 150 percent of the average, making 1983 the wettest year on record at these places.

Eastern North Island areas experienced temperatures that were marginally warmer than usual but over the remainder of the country temperatures were approximately 0.5C below average.

Sunshine totals were below average almost everywhere, with most places recording between 85 percent and 95 percent of their usual sunshine. The only places to record more sun than usual were Rotorua and Christchurch, both of which received about 105 percent of their normal sunshine.

The early history of the people of New Zealand and the coming of the Maoris is shrouded in myth and based on orally-transmitted traditions. It is difficult to establish the period when the voyages of the Polynesian people to New Zealand began. Tradition has it that the first voyager to visit New Zealand was Kupe in about 950 A.D., and according to some Maori tribes it was he who named the land Aotearoa (“land of the long white cloud”). Finding no other inhabitants Kupe returned to Hawaiki, the legendary homeland of the Maori. Following his return there were various waves of migration to New Zealand, and the names of the canoes and of their captains and crews are still remembered by the Maoris and are important features of their history and genealogy.

Linguistic and other evidence indicates that Hawaiki was situated in Eastern Polynesia, which makes their voyages impressive and bears testimony to the sophistication of their vessels and navigation.

From the people of each canoe arose tribal groupings claiming common descent and symbolic unity. About 10 major tribes evolved, divided into many subtribes. All tribes can claim their ancestry back to members of one or more of the canoes, and many of the more familiar canoes such as Aotea, Te Arawa, Tainui, and Takitimu have become synonymous today with tribal groupings and territories.

The Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island and the population was organised into descent groups of different scale-tribes (iwi), subtribes (hapū), and extended families (whānau). The main themes in this society were mana (prestige), tapu (sacredness) and utu (the principle of equal return, often expressed in revenge).

The bases of Maori society have changed profoundly from the original subsistence economy in pre- European contact times.

The introduction of European disease and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing, and now forms 9 percent of the New Zealand population.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north he came into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain (then Lieutenant) James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages.

First European Settlements—Whaling stations sprang up along the New Zealand coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident art Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty.

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and the pacification of warring tribes.

Early Constitutional Developments—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs. Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty over the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and over the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of Native Affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers, and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisers in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the growing hostilities between Pakeha and Maori. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the “self-reliant policy” whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

Colonisation—The first body of European immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

Founder of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10 000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3801 in Wellington. 2895 in Auckland, 2500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 263 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125 000 (as against 55 000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200 000 with people from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain under the Vogel policy of assisted immigration and public works development.

War Over Land—After the death of Hobson in 1842, the Colonial Office appointed Captain George Grey as Governor and provided him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers' needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the Census of Population revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led McLean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris, and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers' government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. The war had died down by 1870 and during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister some measure of reconciliation began. However, although a substantial portion of the confiscated land was subsequently purchased or returned, land transactions remained a source of bitterness and potential hostility between Maori and settler.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally and began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500 000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established the degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British markets, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and substantial emigration, but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was on social justice.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new farming class in which the “cow-cockie” was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey introduced measures to strengthen the primary producer, of which the extension of rural credit was typical.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War (1914–1918) broke out, leading to a Coalition Government and an Imperial Commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydroelectric schemes and highways.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A Coalition Government was formed in 1931 to meet the crisis. Partly as a result of measures taken by this government and partly as a result of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935. The election of a Labour Government, under the leadership of Michael Savage, in 1935 led to change in administrative policy and a renewed emphasis on social problems.

War and Post-war—The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were mat with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

At the 1949 election the Labour Government was defeated after holding office since 1936. It was succeeded by a National Government, under the leadership of Sidney Holland.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk. Following Kirk's untimely death in 1974, W. E. Rowling became Prime Minister. At the 1975 election there was a dramatic reversal of the position 3 years earlier, and the National Party under Robert Muldoon was returned to power with a substantial majority. The new Government faced growing economic difficulties and rising unemployment as a result of economic recession overseas, steep rises in oil prices, and the loss or shrinkage of traditional markets for agricultural products. At the 1978 election and again in 1981 the National Party retained power with greatly reduced majorities. In 1984 following a snap election the Labour Party gained power under the leadership of David Lange.

Later Constitutional Developments—In 1907, in recognition of an emerging sense of nationality and an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, New Zealand had been given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony.

A further step in the evolution of New Zealand into full nationhood came in 1947, when New Zealand belatedly adopted the Statute of Westminister, which had been passed by the United Kingdom Parliament in 1931. The draft of this statute had been submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. Its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries.

Some surviving doubts concerning the authority of the New Zealand Parliament over the Constitution were resolved when, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, the United Kingdom Parliament passed a Constitution Amendment Act authorising the New Zealand Parliament to amend any of the provisions of the Constitution Act of 1852.

In 1950 the Prime Minister, Sidney Holland, initiated a constitutional change when the Legislative Council, the “second house” of the General Assembly, was abolished on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function.

The present Constitution and recent developments are dealt with later in this section under the heading, “The Constitution of New Zealand”.

DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS—The emergence of a distinctive and independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually regarded as dating from 1935, following the election of a Labour Government under Michael Savage.

The contrast between the policies followed in the 1920s and those adopted under the Savage Government from the close of 1935 is most clearly illustrated by the New Zealand attitude to the League of Nations. From the foundation of the League following the Peace Conference at Versailles, Massey and those who followed took the view that the League was no place for a loyal Dominion to voice views that contradicted Imperial policy. With the coming to power of the Savage Labour Government there re-emerged a willingness to take an independent line that had lain largely dormant since the death of Seddon. New Zealand spoke strongly for the principle of collective security and collective police action on a succession of issues (Abyssinia, Spain, China) at a time when the United Kingdom and other powers were following a policy which would later be described as appeasement.

Despite these differences there was no suggestion that New Zealand was departing from its historically close association with Britain. The course it would follow in the event of war was never in doubt. When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms which reflected New Zealand's sovereignty as well as its ties with Britain:

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear beside Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we are one and all a band of brothers, and we march forward with a union of hearts and wills to a common destiny.”

Post-War Policies—The Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world. The New Zealand Government established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and made a beginning in stationing its own diplomatic representatives in countries where New Zealand's interests made their presence necessary. In particular, New Zealand sought to foster good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increase the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

Woven into post-war policy was the traditional New Zealand belief in the principles of collective security and international justice, which the United Nations was pledged to support. There was also the belief that the international community should give high priority to the welfare and political advancement of dependent peoples and to the elimination of poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

There have been several periods of expansion in the establishment of New Zealand posts overseas. Aside from the three posts set up during the Second World War (Washington, Ottawa, Canberra) to maintain consultations with our closest allies, the first main period of expansion came in the 1950s as a consequence of the recognition that our security was closely bound up with that of South-east Asia. Following the signature of the ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in 1952, and the Manila Treaty in 1954, diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of Asian countries. By the end of the 1950s five New Zealand posts had been set up in Asia and the substance of our bilateral relations had broadened considerably.

A second period of expansion in the 1960s led to the setting up of a number of diplomatic posts in Western Europe in response to the need to defend New Zealand's essential economic and political interests as Britain negotiated its terms of entry into the European Economic Community. At the same time a more gradual expansion was under way in the Pacific. As island states became independent and as the extent of New Zealand's economic and political relations in the South Pacific increased, a number of South Pacific posts were opened. A fourth phase, still under way, is closely related to New Zealand's search for new trading opportunities as the degree of dependence on traditional markets gradually declines. The diversification both in the range of goods exported and in markets led to the strengthening of posts in certain areas—particularly in Asia and the Pacific—and the opening of posts in the Middle East, Latin America, and China, in addition to the reopening of the post in the Soviet Union. An extensive network of multiple accreditations has allowed New Zealand's overseas representatives to cover several countries from the one base.

While New Zealand's overseas relations continue to grow, economic constraints in recent years have resulted in a continuing reappraisal of the pattern of overseas representation. This has led to the closure of 3 posts (Port of Spain, Toronto, New Delhi), and staffing reductions in remaining posts.

In response to developing New Zealand interests elsewhere, a post was opened in Mexico in 1983, and another is planned to open in Saudi Arabia in 1984. As at November 1983, New Zealand has 45 posts overseas, details of which are given in the Official Section of this Yearbook.

Commonwealth—As a member of the Commonwealth, New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 48 other countries in a wide variety of activities, both governmental and non-governmental. The value to New Zealand of its Commonwealth links is derived not only from the practical benefits of what the Commonwealth does, but also from the heterogeneous composition of the association. Its 49 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. The Pacific region is now well represented in the Commonwealth: Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Kiribati, and Vanuatu are full members, along with Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru and Tuvalu have special membership status. The Cook Islands and Niue are not eligible for full membership because of their continuing constitutional association with New Zealand. They cannot therefore attend Commonwealth heads of government meetings, but they are entitled to participate in Commonwealth meetings dealing with those subjects for which their governments are responsible.

The belief of member counties in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965 to be the main agency for multilateral communication among Commonwealth governments. The Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and coordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, financed by voluntary contributions to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

Besides contributing to the budget of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, New Zealand provides financial support to a number of other inter-governmental Commonwealth organisations which promote co-operation in specific areas. New Zealand also contributes to the Commonwealth Foundation, which was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links in the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

Western Europe—New Zealand has a great deal in common with the countries of Western Europe in terms of historical experience (notably immigration links), democratic political systems, shared values, and related life styles. Nowadays the community's importance as a market for agricultural exports tends to emphasise the economic aspects of the relationship; the European Community is New Zealand's largest export market and trading partner.

Nevertheless the range of bilateral contacts between New Zealand and the individual countries of Western Europe in all fields is steadily expanding. The benefits of exchanges and co-operation with Western Europe generally, and the European Economic Community in particular, have come to assume greater significance in the wider international setting of New Zealand's political and economic objectives.

In terms of the New Zealand/Community relationship, they reflect above all a fundamental appreciation on New Zealand's part of the progress achieved to date by the community's members (currently comprising 10 states, and shortly to become 12, following the accession of Spain and Portugal in 1986) in co-ordinating and co-operating in the conduct of their mutual affairs.

So far this has been predominantly in the economic sphere (the EEC now constitutes the world's largest trade grouping). But the community also has steadily expanded its interests in broadening and making more effective co-operation at the political level. New Zealand, like other countries with already well-established ties to individual community members, will be following developments in European political co-operation closely.

The community of broad interests between New Zealand and Western Europe is further underlined by New Zealand's participation in such multilateral co-operative and consultative organisations as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Energy Agency (IEA).

Altogether in Western European circles there is now appreciably greater attention to New Zealand's region of the world (encompassing South-east Asia, the South Pacific, and Antarctica).

Soviet Union and Eastern Europe—Relations and trade with the countries of Eastern Europe have been developed in recent years, and this has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand's diplomatic representation in the area. New Zealand's Ambassador in Vienna is accredited to five East European countries (Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic); and the Ambassador in Rome is accredited to Yugoslavia. Relations with the U.S.S.R. have been adversely affected by the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979 and Soviet attitudes to developments in Poland, but the Soviet Union has become a major market for New Zealand's exports.

Middle East—Involvement in the Middle East has increased markedly within the past decade. For more then 30 years New Zealand has watched the Arab-Israeli conflict with concern, if from a distance. Recognising the implications for world peace this country has contributed personnel to United Nations truce observation teams. Early in 1982 it also supplied a small contingent to the Sinai peace keeping force. New Zealand has consistently upheld Israel's right to exist and, equally consistently, the rights of the Palestinian people to self-determination.

Since 1973, when Middle East members of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) emerged as a major economic force in the world, the area has increasingly assumed a direct and immediate importance for this country. Although 63 percent of New Zealand's crude oil imports in 1982–83 came from Indonesia, the growing wealth of the Persian Gulf region (due largely to substantial increases in the price of oil) has created new markets for New Zealand exports. These include manufactured goods and agricultural products. In 1982 the region absorbed a considerable amount of New Zealand's total sheepmeat exports. The Middle East, moreover, represents a significant source of investment finance.

New Zealand in recent years has made continuing efforts to broaden its range of contacts with Middle Eastern countries. At the same time, those countries have themselves taken a closer interest in New Zealand and the South Pacific and have expanded their diplomatic representation in the area. Egypt and Israel have embassies in Wellington, while Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Libya have cross-accreditation from Canberra. New Zealand established resident missions in Iran and Iraq in 1975, and in 1977 established a consulate-general in Bahrain, with commercial responsibilities in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf emirates, and the Yemens. The pattern of representation is rounded out by the cross-accreditation of the ambassador in Rome to Egypt and to Saudi Arabia. An embassy is to be established in Jeddah during 1984.

Closer relations between New Zealand and the Middle East have been marked by a growing appreciation of each other's concerns. This has been fostered by visits in both directions by ministers, officials, and businessmen. Also, a growing number of tourists, students, and sports teams are coming to New Zealand, a trend that is expected to continue.

Africa—Contacts with African countries have been mainly within the Commonwealth and the United Nations. It is in these settings that the major political and economic issues relating to the emergence to independence and the subsequent development of African countries have been presented. These forums have also been where New Zealand has joined with the international community in opposing South Africa's policy of apartheid or racial separation.

New Zealand does not have resident diplomatic or consular representation in Africa. The New Zealand Ambassador in Athens is cross-accredited as High Commissioner to Tanzania and Kenya. The High Commissioner in London is accredited to Nigeria.

New Zealand's policy on sporting contacts with South Africa continues to be the subject of considerable international attention. The Government joined with other Commonwealth governments in June 1977 in a statement, commonly known as the Gleneagles Agreement, which condemns apartheid (especially apartheid in sport) and pledges each Government to do all it can to discourage sporting contacts with South Africa or any other country where sports are organised on the basis of race. Gleneagles also seeks the support of individuals and sports organisations in the pursuit of this objective. In October 1982 the Commonwealth Games Federation adopted into its constitution a Code of Conduct which expressly sets out the responsibilities of Commonwealth sportsmen and sporting bodies under Gleneagles and provides for exclusion from participation in future Commonwealth Games of those who do not meet those responsibilities.

In a variety of ways, New Zealand has contributed to the economic and social development of African countries—with bilateral assistance and by contributions to Commonwealth and other multilateral programmes. Support for political development has also been given, most notably in contributions during 1980 to Commonwealth monitoring forces and observer teams in both Zimbabwe and Uganda.

New Zealand's total trade with African countries amounts to only a modest percentage of its global trade, but there has been growth in the volume of both exports and imports. Trade surveys have been undertaken in East, North, and West Africa to identify commercial opportunities. The major New Zealand exports are milk powder, tallow, butter, fish, and wool. The main imports from Africa are cocoa, coffee, sisal, vegetable oil, tanner extract, and tobacco.

Asia—During the last 25 years there has been a considerable expansion in New Zealand's relations with countries in Asia. New Zealand has a direct interest in the maintenance of peace and the growth of prosperity in the area. It enjoys a close relationship with Japan, the Republic of Korea, and with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN): Indonesia, Malaysia,

Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Since the establishment of relations with the People's Republic of China in 1972, New Zealand's contacts with China have been increasing.

Trade with Asia is becoming more and more important to New Zealand. Private initiative, with Government assistance, has been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic and commercial relationships. A pattern of regular economic consultations with our main trading partners has been developed; bilateral economic agreements have been concluded.

New Zealand's growing interests and involvement in Asia are reflected in the changing pattern of its diplomatic representation. Prior to 1955, when New Zealand opened a post in Singapore, it had only one diplomatic mission in the region, in Tokyo. Representation has now been established in all five of the ASEAN countries, and in Peking, Hong Kong, and Seoul. Several of these missions are also accredited to other Asian capitals. The network thus created enables New Zealand to assess external events in the light of this country's own interests and needs, and to work directly with other countries in areas of common concern. New Zealand has also developed its political contacts with countries of the area in other important ways. Exchanges of visits by heads of state and government ministers and parliamentarians have increased, and the development of regular bilateral consultations has also been encouraged.

New Zealand has placed particular emphasis on supporting regional organisations for co-operation and consultation in both the political and economic fields. It is one of a group of nations closely associated with ASEAN, which it sees as a force for stability and economic development in South-east Asia. It has initiated a number of joint projects with ASEAN for development and trade co-operation. Recent developments in Indochina have had major implications for the stability of the region and have been of particular concern to New Zealand. The massive outflow of refugees from Vietnam and Kampuchea, and the political uncertainties stemming from the continued presence in Kampuchea of Vietnamese forces have together posed difficult problems for the countries of the region. New Zealand has consulted closely with the ASEAN countries over these developments.

The degree of cultural interchange between New Zealand and the countries of Asia has increased steadily. Where once New Zealanders looked largely to Britain for cultural inspiration and experience, now their horizons have broadened. Increased contacts with Asia have brought with them an awareness of what the cultural background of the countries there can offer New Zealand. Professional bodies, sporting associations, cultural groups, and universities today have links with similar organisations in Asia, as well as with more traditional partners such as Britain and Australia. The development of civil air links, and the concurrent growth of tourism, have also helped to bring a wider range of contacts.

Nowhere within the Pacific Basin has New Zealand's adaption to changed circumstances been more complete than in its relationship with Japan. Today that association is one of the most important that New Zealand has and it is friendly and rewarding for both sides. Its elements are varied—trade, fishing, and a growing range of cultural, educational, sporting, and personal ties. In many ways, the conditions for a developing trading relationship are ideal, for the two countries are located in different hemispheres, their economies are complementary, and each has in abundance some things that the other needs. New Zealand continues to seek improved conditions of access for certain important commodities, including dairy products, and on both sides there are expectations of continued and expanding trade and of closer involvement together in other settings. Meanwhile, the steady growth in the extent and cordiality of New Zealand's relations with the People's Republic of China further illustrates New Zealanders' changing preceptions of Asia. China is now our second largest market there and is important to New Zealand as a major power with a leading role in Asia.

South Pacific—New Zealand has a long history of interest and involvement in the South Pacific. In the latter part of the 19th century Prime Minister Richard Seddon harboured ambitions of a South Pacific empire controlled by New Zealand, and as a result of pressure from Seddon the administration of the Cook Islands and Niue, which were British colonial possessions, was handed over to New Zealand in 1901. The number of New Zealand Pacific dependencies increased when, following the establishment of the League of Nations, Western Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand troops at the outbreak of the First World War, became a mandated territory under the administration of New Zealand. In 1925 the Tokelau Islands (now known as Tokelau) then part of the Gilbert (Kiribati) and Ellice Islands (Tuvalu) Colony, were ceded by the United Kingdom to New Zealand.

Despite its geographical situation, the acquisition of overseas dependencies in the South Pacific, and the ethnic kinship of the Maori and Polynesian peoples, New Zealand's present identity as a South Pacific country was slow in developing for a number of reasons. Culturally, New Zealand has been closer to Western Europe than to the Pacific. For many years almost all of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom. Politically, New Zealand's outlook was oriented towards Europe and, more recently, South-east Asia. Also the Pacific Islands were, and in some cases still are, administered by other countries.

But during the 1960s there was a dramatic emergence of new nations in the South Pacific. New Zealand led this development with moves in its own territories.

In Western Samoa, which had become a United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, political and constitutional development was carried forward in accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people. This culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. The Cook Islands voted under United Nations supervision in 1965 to become a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand. Niue achieved a similar status in an act of self-determination in 1974. Under their respective constitutions the Cook Islands and Niue governments have full legislative and executive competence over all their affairs. The constitutional relationship provides for the exercise by New Zealand of certain responsibilities for the defence and external relations of the Cook Islands and Niue (in the former case, in consultation with the Cook Islands Prime Minister). This does not confer upon the New Zealand Government any rights of control: the Cook Islands and Niue governments retain legislative and executive powers in these fields as in all other matters.

The relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand was elaborated in the 1973 Exchange of Letters between the then New Zealand Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. Norman Kirk, and the Premier of the Cook Islands, Sir Albert Henry. The Prime Minister's letter described the relationship as “one of partnership, freely entered into and freely maintained”. The central features of the partnership are common citizenship and the same head of state. The Cook Islands can at any time amend its constitution to end the “free association” status in favour of complete independence. These points apply equally to the relationship with Niue (though the Cook Islands now has its own Queen's Representative).

The Cook Islands and Niue not only have full constitutional capacity to conduct their own external relations and to enter directly into international arrangements and agreements, but they also in fact directly conduct certain aspects of their external relations. Their capacity to do so is limited only by the extent to which the governments of other states will accord them recongnition and deal with them. In practice, the Cook Islands and Niue have participated on an equal basis with sovereign states in the South Pacific. They are members of the South Pacific Forum, the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC), the South Pacific Commission, and the Forum Fisheries Agency. They have associate membership of ESCAP, and the Cook Islands has joined the Asian Development Bank. The Cook Islands has recently signed on a bilateral basis with the United States a maritime boundary delimitation treaty and it has applied to accede to the Lome Convention.

Tokelau is still included within the boundaries of New Zealand and is administered under the authority of the Tokelau Act 1948 and its amendments. Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens.

In accordance with United Nations resolutions on non-self-governing territories, New Zealand has committed itself to assisting Tokelau towards a greater degree of self-government and economic self-sufficiency. New Zealand has stated that it will be guided by the wishes of the Tokelauan people regarding political developments in the territory and the pace at which greater self-determination is introduced. The Tokelau Amendment Act 1982 was passed at the request of the General Fono, Tokelau's traditional decision-making body, imposing a community services levy on salaries, wages and honoraria paid by the Tokelau Administration.

The developments in New Zealand's territories are part of a wider pattern of political evolution in the region. In 1968 Nauru became an independent republic; in 1970 Fiji became independent; and in the same year Tonga rejoined the Commonwealth. In 1975 Papua New Guinea became fully independent after being self-governing since December 1973. In 1978 the Solomon Islands and Tuvalu (formerly the Ellice Islands) became independent. Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands) attained independence in 1979, and Vanuatu (formerly the New Herbrides) in 1980.

It is natural that New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours should have become very closely associated. One important reason has been the movement of Pacific peoples into New Zealand. Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens and move freely back and forth. New Zealand's historical association with Western Samoa, which is reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed in August 1962, and its close association with the Kingdom of Tonga, have resulted in a flow of immigrants and visitors from both countries. In 1982 a protocol was added to the Treaty of Friendship on the subject of citizenship.

New Zealand has also played an active role in building up regional co-operation in the South Pacific. A major step in this direction was the creation of the South Pacific Forum, which now comprises the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, and Vanuatu, together with Australia, and New Zealand. The Federated States of Micronesia has observer status. The first session comprising 5 of the present island members (Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, and the Cook Islands), as well as Australia and New Zealand, met at the invitation of New Zealand at Wellington in August 1971. Since then meetings have been held in Canberra (Australia), Suva (Fiji), Apia (Western Samoa), Rarotonga (Cook Islands), Nuku'alofa (Tonga), Nauru, Port Moresby (Papua New Guinea), Niue, Honiara (Solomon Islands), Taraua (Kiribati), Vila (Vanuatu), and Rotorua (New Zealand).

The South Pacific Forum provides the opportunity for the leaders of the South Pacific states to discuss common problems, exchange views, consider priorities, and plan programmes for mutual and regional benefit. The topics considered include such matters as regional trade, shipping, civil aviation, telecommunications, education, the law of the sea, fishing, disaster relief, and nuclear testing.

At the Canberra session of the South Pacific Forum in 1972 members agreed to establish the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) to deal with trade and relation matters. The main purpose of the SPEC is to advise Forum members on ways of promoting regional trade and free trade among Island members and to encourage collaboration in areas such as regional transport which will assist the economic development of the Island members. The headquarters of the SPEC are in Suva, Fiji.

At the Niue session of the South Pacific Forum in 1978 members agreed to set up the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, which is an organisation designed to facilitate the rational utilisation and conservation of the region's marine resources. The headquarters of the Agency are in Honiara, Solomon Islands.

Recognising that the development of the South Pacific island countries was largely dependent on the existence of regular and reliable shipping services, the governments of the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, and Western Samoa established the Pacific Forum Line (PFL) in 1977. Subsequently the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and Kiribati joined the Pacific Forum Line while both Australia and Niue, although not shareholders, have made financial contributions to it.

The Pacific Forum Line presently charters three vessels, the Forum New Zealand, the Forum Samoa and the Fua Kavenga, owned respectively by New Zealand, Western Samoa, and Tonga. The headquarters of the line are in Apia.

The Pacific Forum Line has incurred substantial financial losses since it began operations in 1978. Together with other governments in the region, New Zealand has made additional contributions to help the line overcome its financial difficulties. Under an agreement negotiated with the European Investment Bank and endorsed by the 1982 Forum, measures have been taken to put the line on a sound financial basis. New Zealand agreed to contribute half the US$12.6 million required from Forum members. New Zealand and Australia also agreed to fund jointly a new feeder service to Kiribati and Tuvalu managed by the PFL.

The South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA), which provides that Australia and New Zealand will grant duty-free and unrestricted access on a non-reciprocal basis for most of the products exported by the Forum island countries, was signed at the 1980 Forum. The agreement has since been ratified by New Zealand and a number of other Forum countries and entered into force for these countries on 1 January 1981. SPARTECA also includes provisions relating to economic, commercial, and technical co-operation, aimed at enhancing the export capabilities of the Forum island countries. A Regional Committee on Trade has been set up under the agreement to review its operation regularly.

The South Pacific Commission, created in 1947 by the Canberra Agreement of which New Zealand is a signatory, is the other major regional body. Representatives from 27 governments and territorial administrations from within the South Pacific Commission comprise the South Pacific Conference. The Conference which meets annually decides the work programme of the commission. Since its establishment the commission, which is primarily a technical assistance organisation, has accomplished much in promoting the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples as well as in helping to build a sense of regional identity. The commission's annual budget (which in 1983 will total approximately $4.5 million) is financed for the most part from proportional contributions by participating governments— Australia, the Cook Islands, Fiji, France, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Western Samoa. Other member governments contribute on a voluntary basis.

The United Nations and its specialised agencies are also an important source of technical assistance in the South Pacific. The independent countries of the region are members of various UN bodies, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has offices in Fiji and Western Samoa.

Australia—New Zealand's most comprehensive bilateral relationship is with Australia. Geographical proximity and shared foreign policy and defence interests reinforced the important historical, cultural, and Commonwealth ties between the two nations that have given rise to this unusually close and mutually beneficial relationship. New Zealand established a diplomatic office in Australia in 1943, very early in its diplomatic history, and in 1944 the Canberra Pact was signed. This paved the way for a tradition of joint consultation and co-operation that reflects the interdependence of the two nations' interests and the goodwill and friendship of their peoples.

In matters of foreign policy, in defence and in the economic field, the degree of co-operation also reflects the importance of each country to the other and a need for continuing close working contacts. Regular and increasingly frequent ministerial and official meetings have taken place, with a minimum of formality, to cover almost the entire range of government activity. Moreover, the two countries are bound together by innumerable personal contacts, widespread family ties, and by institutionalised links in business, finance, education, the professions, and in nearly all fields of national activity. A significant ingredient in the relationship which facilitates these contacts is the free movement of people between the two countries under the trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement.

New Zealand and Australia share a common foreign policy objective in acting to promote stability and development in the South Pacific and South-east Asian regions in their immediate vicinity, as well as a more general interest in co-ordinating their positions on major international political and economic questions of current concern in the United Nations, the Commonwealth, GATT, and elsewhere. In the economic context, Australia is a major trading partner for New Zealand which is in turn Australia's largest single market for manufactured exports. Trade has significantly expanded and the two economies have become increasingly related under the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), dating from 1965–66. In the defence field, the former ANZAC partners continue to co-operate closely, both in relation to training programmes and exercises and the provision of equipment and other supplies, and in terms of the broader issues of defence policy, especially in their common membership of ANZUS.

In 1978 the Deputy Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. B. E. Talboys, paid an extensive visit to Australia. During the visit, Mr Talboys and the Prime Minister of Australia made a joint press statement (the Nareen Declaration) which underlined the determination of both governments to co-operate and consult closely in many fields. The Nareen Declaration also provided for the establishment of an Australia-New Zealand Foundation in both countries to promote the bilateral relationship publicly.

The foundation was set up in 1978. It has an annual budget of $60,000 and has sponsored, as part of its work, studies on closer economic relations between Australia and New Zealand, a workshop on trans-Tasman migration, and a number of other research projects and publications, as well as cultural exchanges between Australia and New Zealand.

In March 1980 the then Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon and the then Australian Prime Minister the Rt. Hon. Malcolm Fraser, issued a joint communique announcing a set of agreed principles on which the two countries intended their future economic co-operation to be based and according to which the bilateral relationship could be strengthened. This announcement set in train over two years of intensive negotiations on the detail of a new set of arrangements for closer economic relations (CER) between the two countries. On 14 December 1982 the two governments recorded an understanding on the framework of a new treaty to replace NAFTA. The terms of the new agreement, which applied from 1 January 1983, will eventually result in all goods produced in either country being traded between the two countries free of duties and import restrictions. The agreement also contains provisions permitting the development of co-operation in a range of fields to bring about a closer economic relationship.

Americas: United States—Continuing and close contact with the United States is an essential part of New Zealand's foreign policy. The United States remains New Zealand's principal security guarantor, is a major trading partner, and has an important influence on the New Zealand way of life. The two countries share a common English-speaking heritage and a friendship of long standing, both in peace and war.

Since the opening in Washington in 1941 of New Zealand's second diplomatic mission, close consultations have been held with the United States on many bilateral questions and international issues of common interest. Basic similarities in political philosophy and social and economic processes have encouraged the development of close governmental relations, which have been supported by increasing contacts, both official and non-official, across a broad range of activities.

This comprehensive bilateral relationship finds expression in political, strategic, economic, and cultural fields. Under ANZUS New Zealand looks to the United States for assistance in the maintenance of its national and regional security. In turn, where national interests coincide, New Zealand is able to offer the United States active support for constructive international and regional diplomatic efforts. On the economic side, the United States is one of New Zealand's major trading partners. For some products, notably beef, it is this country's largest export market. Regular intergovernmental consultations are held to review the trading relationship. Programmes for scientific and technical co-operation, and academic and cultural exchanges, serve to maintain an awareness of New Zealand in the United States and to promote a vigorous and beneficial interchange of ideas and experience.

Canada—With a common British heritage and long association through the Commonwealth, New Zealand and Canada have traditionally enjoyed a close and easy relationship. Since New Zealand established diplomatic representation in Canada in 1942, the association has been marked by ministerial and official exchanges in many fields in which the two countries' shared democratic traditions and similar attitudes have provided a strong basis for bilateral consultation and co-operation. Similarly, in the international field, and particularly in Commonwealth and United Nations contexts, New Zealand and Canada have a sound record of co-operation. New Zealand's particular interest and involvement in the South Pacific and Canada's in the Caribbean, have provided a basis for the exchange of experience, and both countries take a close interest in developments within the Pacific Basin.

The new trade and economic co-operation agreement concluded in September 1981 provides the basic framework upon which trade and economic relations between the two countries will be developed in future. The 1981 agreement retains the Customs tariff rates currently applying to goods traded between the two countries and, in addition, makes provision for regular consultations with the objective of encouraging a further expansion of trade and economic and technological co-operation. Canada remains one of New Zealand's important trading partners, being at present the second largest market for New Zealand beef and veal.

Caribbean and Latin America—Relations with the Caribbean centre on mutual Commonwealth interests and a useful export trade, largely in dairy products and meat. Since 1974 the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa has been cross-accredited to Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Barbados, and Guyana. New Zealand has given technical assistance to these four Commonwealth countries and to the multilateral Caribbean Development Bank under a modest aid programme. Resident representation, a trade commission in Trinidad and Tobago, was established in 1958, but closed early in 1982 because of the decline in the proportion of New Zealand's exports going to the Caribbean.

Latin America is a region of increasing importance for New Zealand. Relations with the region, limited in the past by geographical orientation and linguistic and cultural differences, developed rapidly in the 1970s. In 1972 the New Zealand Government opened diplomatic missions in Chile and Peru, primarily to support an expanding trade in dairy products with these countries. By cross-accreditation, diplomatic relations have since been established with Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. The official visit to Mexico in 1980 by the Prime Minister, the then Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, and a high-level economic mission, has led to a rapid expansion of economic and political relations with that country. A resident diplomatic mission was opened in Mexico City in 1983.

Trade in dairy products, meat, and agricultural technology from New Zealand to Latin America has increased steadily, the principal trading partners in these commodities being Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela. Agriculture is the main field of co-operation. New Zealand maintained a modest but successful pasture and livestock development project (until its completion in mid-1982) under its aid programme in the highlands of Peru. Other interests shared with Latin American countries include Antarctica, the law of the sea, and alternative and renewable sources of energy.

UNITED NATIONS—New Zealand was a founding member of the United Nations and, since the organisation's inception on 24 October 1945, successive governments of this country have strongly supported the development of the UN as a major instrument for maintaining peace and security, for developing friendly relations among countries, for promoting international co-operation aimed at solving economic and social problems, and for ensuring respect for human rights. As a consequence, New Zealand has played an active and prominent role in the UN system.

With the expanding work within the UN's six main organs (the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and the International Court of Justice), the increase in UN related bodies, and the growth in the range and complexity of functions undertaken by the specialised agencies, New Zealand has had to adopt a more selective approach, concentrating its efforts on areas where it can play a useful and productive role and where matters of particular relevance are involved.

General Assembly—The New Zealand delegation to the 38th session of the General Assembly, held from 20 September to late December 1983, was led by the Prime Minister. The session discussions centred on recent events concerning the Middle East, Central America and the Caribbean, global economic issues, racism and apartheid, Southern Africa, refugees, arms control and disarmament, and human rights. In these areas New Zealand sought to make constructive contributions in either supporting, co-sponsoring or speaking in favour of resolutions which would help to remove international tension, establish economic and political justice for the deprived, and provide humanitarian relief or development assistance to the needy. New Zealand began a 3-year term on the Economic and Social Council in January 1983.

In addition, New Zealand, as outlined below, took an active part in discussions on a wide range of international issues in other UN forums.

Arms Control, Disarmament, Peacekeeping—At the 38th session of the General Assembly, New Zealand co-sponsored a number of resolutions dealing with arms control and disarmament, including a resolution calling for the implementation of a comprehensive nuclear test ban. The need for progress in this area of arms control and the responsibility of the nuclear powers to resume their negotiations remain as pressing as ever.

Support also continued for UN peacekeeping operations: four New Zealand officers currently serve in the Middle East with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation; and New Zealand's financial contribution to UN peacekeeping operations in 1983 was in the order of $1.08 million.

International Economic and Development Activity—During 1983 north-south issues remained a feature of almost all aspects of international economic activity. Within the United Nations framework attention focussed on these issues at the sixth United Nations Conference in Trade and Development in Belgrade in June, where the Prime Minister led the New Zealand delegation. They also received attention in other meetings, including the Williamsburg Summit, the Commonwealth Finance Ministers' Meeting in Trinidad and Tobago, and the annual meetings of the IBRD and IMF.

On development issues, New Zealand continued to stress the special requirements of the South Pacific Island countries, many of which are not represented at the United Nations. It also welcomed increased assistance to the South Pacific from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), to which the Government contributed $1.45 million in 1983.

International Legal Issues—During 1983 New Zealand participated actively with other consultative parties in the informal meetings aimed at establishing an Antarctic Minerals Regime. As a result of these meetings, considerable international attention has focussed on Antarctica. At its 37th session the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution calling on the Secretary-General to conduct a study of the continent.

New Zealand's position on Antarctica is based on the Antarctic Treaty 1959. The treaty establishes a system of peaceful international co-operation in Antarctica which includes effective environmental conservation measures and a comprehensive disarmament regime. Of prime importance to New Zealand, the treaty also removes the potential for disputes between states exercising sovereignty in parts of Antarctica (refer to section 37 of this Yearbook on the Ross Dependency) and those which do not. It does not, however address the question of resources. While no minerals in commercially exploitable quantities have been proven to exist, a major discovery would in the absence of settled rules bring back the potential for conflict in a way which could undermine the Antarctic Treaty. For this reason New Zealand is an active participant in the minerals meetings.

Humanitarian Issues—A continuing concern in international measures to find solutions to the problem of the rapidly expanding numbers of refugees led to New Zealand's working closely with the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in resettling Indochinese refugees. In 1983 the Government made a regular annual contribution of $100,000 to the UNHCR, and in addition provided $120,000 to the UNHCR's General Programme Appeal to assist refugees in Africa, Asia, and Central America. The Government also made a $120,000 voluntary contribution to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). In addition, part of the $700,000 annual contribution made by this country to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) goes towards refugee relief.

New Zealand also continues to be concerned to ensure that measures taken within the UN to eliminate discrimination against women are fully implemented. In this regard, New Zealand participates fully in the activities of the UN Decade for Women and gives full support to those practical aspects of the Programme of Action for the Second Half of the Decade established at the mid-Decade Conference in Copenhagen in July 1980. A further contribution of $12,000 was made to a voluntary fund established by the UN to finance programmes and projects benefiting women in developing countries.

Human Rights—New Zealand is committed to the eradication of all forms of racism and racial discrimination. In August 1983 New Zealand participated in the second World Conference to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination, which was held in Geneva. Arising from the conference, the culminating activity of the Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (inaugurated by the UN in December 1973) was a recommendation for a Second Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination. This recommendation was endorsed at the UN General Assembly.

New Zealands' first report to the Human Rights Committee, required in terms of the International Convenant on Civil and Political Rights, was examined by the Committee in November 1983 at a meeting in Geneva, and was favourably received.

Specialised Agencies—The UN system encompasses 15 specialised and intergovernmental agencies which have been independently established with their own intergovernmental organs, secretariats, and budgets. The advantage of membership of these agencies is participation in the co-ordination and standardisation of international systems to handle and advance technical, financial, and development matters. New Zealand is a member of all fifteen, and its contributions to the individual agencies are generally based on the scale of assessments used by the UN organisation.

Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)—As an agricultural nation and founding member, New Zealand has taken a particularly active part in the FAO work to promote international food security. New Zealand in 1981 was elected for the fifth time as an FAO Council member. The country's assessed contribution for 1983 was $869,562.

General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)—New Zealand is a founder member of GATT, which is the only multilateral instrument that lays down agreed rules for international trade. As such, it comprises a contractual balance of trade rules and obligations. The latest round of GATT multilateral trade negotiations (the “Tokyo Round” 1973–79) resulted in a number of agreements on the reduction of tariff barriers and non-tariff trade restrictions.

The GATT framework remains a cornerstone of New Zealand's trading policy despite an imbalance in its treatment of agricultural trade. New Zealand is actively participating in the work of the Committee on Trade in Agriculture, which was established following the 1982 GATT Ministerial Meeting with a mandate to achieve liberalisation in the trade of agricultural products. The committee is due to report back to a ministerial session at the end of 1984.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)—New Zealand has been a member of the IAEA since 1957 and, although not a member of the Board of Governors, has customarily attended the annual conference of the Agency in Vienna in September. The great value in membership of this Agency is in the information provided by the IAEA on a range of peaceful uses of nuclear energy, including the use of isotopes in agriculture and industry. In 1983 the New Zealand contribution to the Agency budget was $288,863.

Intergovernmental Maritime Organisation (IMO)—New Zealand makes a regular contribution to IMO, which establishes international standards for maritime activities. Our 1983 assessment was $13,028.

International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)—Established in 1944, ICAO promotes international discussion of civil aviation questions, particularly in the safety, technical, economic, and regulatory fields. Through its membership of the organisation New Zealand has been able to join with other small countries in expressing its views on current aviation issues and, in this regard, is regularly represented at ICAO's regional and international meetings. New Zealand contributed $136,542 in 1983 towards ICAO's budget.

International Labour Organisation (ILO)—New Zealand supports the ILO's concern to protect the basic dignities and rights of the wage earners and also the organisation's endeavours on a tripartite basis to frame international conventions to improve working and living conditions. In 1983 New Zealand's assessed contribution was $508,221.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)—Membership of the ITU enables New Zealand to work to promote the most rational and efficient operation of worldwide telecommunications services. New Zealand's assessed contribution for 1983 was $295,094.

Universal Postal Union (UPU)—As an island nation in the South Pacific, New Zealand's membership of the UPU is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country. New Zealand's 1983 assessed contribution was $247,088.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)—New Zealand continues to be closely involved with the work of UNESCO. It has a Permanent Delegate, based at the New Zealand Embassy in Paris, and in late 1983 completed a 5-year term on the Executive Board. In 1983 New Zealand's assessed contribution was $820,339.

World Health Organisation (WHO)—New Zealand takes an active part in the work of WHO. New Zealand's assessed contribution for 1983 was $892,318.

World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)—The WMO provides a network for exchanging information on international weather systems. In 1983 New Zealand's assessed contribution was $140,606.

International Banking and Finance Agencies under the aegis of the UN—Membership of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, also referred to as the “World Bank”), the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation, enables New Zealand to participate in efforts to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of less developed countries. In the year ended 31 March 1983 New Zealand contributed $3.33 million to the International Development Association, the “soft loan” arm of the IBRD. Membership of these international financial agencies also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to financial information and to varied sources of funding for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes.

This country is also a member of one of the regional development banks of the UN—the Asian Development Bank—which fosters economic growth and co-operation in the Asia-Pacific region.

Contributions to UN—Contributions are based on capacity to pay, and New Zealand's assessed contribution rate for 1983, 1984, and 1985 of 0.26 percent required the country to pay $2,333,646 as its 1983 membership cost.

Contributions to the certain bodies established by the UN are on a voluntary basis. New Zealand's contributions for the year 1982–83 are shown in the subsection dealing with multilateral aid on a later page of this section. Along with many other countries New Zealand has been concerned about the rapidly rising operating and programme costs of the UN, its bodies, and the specialised and intergovernmental agencies. Accordingly, in the UN's Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary) and at the general meetings of the specialised agencies, New Zealand has sought to promote trim and efficient financial management through supporting or proposing the introduction of better budgeting techniques, the elimination of defunct programmes, applying savings made elsewhere to more effective programmes, and restraining the introduction of new institutions to an absolute minimum.

NEW ZEALAND'S AID AND OTHER RESOURCES FLOWS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES—During 1982–83 Official Development Assistance (ODA) amounted to $79.2 million, a 12.82 percent increase on the previous year's figure of $70.2 million. Bilateral and regional assistance totalled $56.791 million, with $10.982 million going to multilateral agencies.

The following is a summary of 1982–83 ODA expenditure:

Almost all of New Zealand's ODA is administered by the External Aid Division of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Geographic distribution of the 1982–83 assistance to developing countries followed the pattern of previous years, with over two-thirds going to bilateral and regional programmes in the South Pacific. The ASEAN group of countries (Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines) was the second region of bilateral aid concentration. The total programme involves the skills and experience of hundreds of New Zealanders, together with capital and technical back-up from New Zealand.

Government assistance to voluntary agencies in 1982–83 amounted to $578,189. This comprised the annual grant to Volunteer Service Abroad (VSA) and disbursements under the Voluntary Agency Support Scheme (VASS). Under VASS the Government provides a subsidy for approved projects undertaken by New Zealand non-governmental agencies in developing countries.

The total transfer of resources from New Zealand to developing countries in the calendar year 1982, as reported to the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD in Paris, was estimated (with some margin of allowance for unconfirmed data) at $157.34 million. This figure included private export credits and direct investment by New Zealand interests ($60.22 million) and transfers by New Zealand voluntary agencies ($8.90 million).

Bilateral ODA 1982–83—Under its bilateral (government-to-government) aid programmes, New Zealand responds to the development priorities established by the developing countries themselves, mainly in the South Pacific and South-east Asia. Project aid is the main form of assistance. Hundreds of projects are involved, and New Zealand inputs of expertise and/or material and capital resources are often committed for several years on end.

The main purpose of New Zealand's bilateral assistance is to help promote the economic and social development of the recipient countries by expanding their capabilities to raise the living standards of their peoples. Emphasis is placed on productive sector development such as livestock and pasture improvement programmes, assistance with crops, and the development of forestry, fisheries and energy resources. Advisors' assignments vary from a few weeks to several years. In 1982–83 the bilateral aid programme had about 70 long-term (2 years or more) advisors in the field, and several hundred on short-term assignments. The transfer of New Zealand expertise to developing countries is supplemented by the provision of bilateral aid study and training awards. In 1982–83 there were about 650 students in New Zealand and about 200 at “third country” institutions. The training is linked with specific requirements in the recipient countries. Bilateral assistance is complemented in the South Pacific and South-east Asia by programmes promoting regional development co-operation, particularly in the fields of forestry, education, livestock improvement, transport, communications and trade promotion. Bilateral assistance also includes emergency and distress relief.

The following country breakdown of bilateral ODA in 1982–83 shows the direction and scope of New Zealand assistance:

Multilateral ODA 1981–82—The multilateral programme enables New Zealand to make a contribution to development work which would usually be beyond the scope of the bilateral aid programme, either in terms of the scale of the projects or in their ability to help countries beyond the regions of concentration of the bilateral aid effort.

Multilateral disbursements in 1982–83 amounted to $10.9 million. To a large extent the pattern of disbursement to United Nations, Commonwealth, South Pacific, and international development finance institutions and agencies followed that of the previous year.

THE CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: Introduction—The history of the present constitution dates back to the declaration of British sovereignty in 1840. By the Treaty of Waitangi, 50 Maori chiefs ceded their sovereignty to the British Crown in exchange for guarantees contained in the Treaty. Territory not included in the Treaty was claimed on the ground of discovery. The constitution is wholly Anglo-Saxon in its origin and takes no account of Maori custom and usage.

Since its signing the Treaty has remained a contentious issue. Maori grievances focus on the following points: the full implications of the Treaty were not explained at the time; Maori translation of the Treaty was in parts misleading; and its promises have not been honoured.

From 1840 until the grant of responsible government in 1856 the colony was subject to gubernatorial rule. Attempts to persuade the Imperial government to establish representative institutions bore fruit in 1846 with the enactment of a Constitution Act (never fully implemented) superseded by a further Constitution Act in 1852, which created a bicameral General Assembly with limited powers and 6 provinces each with its own executive and unicameral legislature or provincial council. The system of government was unitary however—the General Assembly could legislate in areas in which the provinces had jurisdiction and could amend or annul provincial ordinances.

The 1852 Act constituted the governor as part of the General Assembly with the power to summon, prorogue, and dissolve it and to assent or refuse the assent to legislation passed by it. But the actual form of the executive government was omitted from the Act and left to the will of the governors and the Colonial Office. The appointment and tenure of the judges, and matters normally contained in a constitutional document were left to be decided by ordinary legislation.

Amendments to the 1852 Act stemming from political development reflect New Zealand's transition from colonial to fully-independent status within the period 1840–1973. Contemporary concern about the constitution centres on the operation of, and the balance between, the legislature and the executive rather than in the broader context of the merits of monarchy or republic.

The Constitution—The constitution is not a single written instrument granted to, or by, the people but a miscellany of statutory and customary law welded together and given coherence by the operation and observance of formal unwritten rules known as the conventions. The constitutional framework is erected on, and maintained by, the ordinary law as opposed to a supreme or basic law such as that found in most jurisdictions.

Certain statutes and statute-derived law have important constitutional significance. Among the more important are:

Such laws exist by force of the ordinary legislative process because of the basic canon of the legislative primacy of Parliament—the legal capacity of the legislature to make and unmake laws and the self-imposed collateral incapacity of any court or forum to impeach the validity of the legislature's exercise of that power when expressed as an Act of Parliament.

Although not as important in New Zealand as they are in the United Kingdom, the personal, i.e., prerogative powers of the Crown, almost all of which are exercisable by the Governor-General, remain part of constitutional law. A prerogative power may be abrogated only by statute.

On the foregoing basis, it is open to Parliament to change or abolish the constitutional framework on which it rests its primacy, and for a later Parliament to reverse that change, one aspect of the rule being that one Parliament cannot bind its successors. Consequently five provisions of the Electoral Act, which can be changed only by a vote of 75 percent of the members of Parliament, are entrenched in a political, rather than a strict legal, sense. The section which entrenches them could not act as a bar to the repeal of itself by simple majority, and thereafter the repeal or amendment of one or more of the five sections, also by simple majority.

On paper, major changes to the constitutional framework could be effected with comparative ease and speed, but constitutional history shows that those changes which have been made reflected shifts in social or political attitudes already evident.

PARLIAMENT AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES—The Constitution Act created a bicameral General Assembly empowered to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of New Zealand. Legislative competence was restricted, e.g., laws enacted were not to be repugnant to those of England; laws did not have extra-territorial effect; certain laws needed the Sovereign's assent; and all were subject to Royal disallowance. It was only with the passage of the Constitution Amendment Act 1947 (U.K.) and the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 (N.Z.) that the New Zealand Parliament obtained plenary legislative power, any residual doubts on the matter having been removed by a further amendment to the 1852 Act in 1973.

Until 1950, Parliament consisted of the Governor-General, the Legislative Council, and the House of Representatives. Despite repeated proposals for reform the council remained an appointive chamber, and the decline in its capacity as a curb on the lower House and the Government was accelerated by the partisan nature of the appointments made. Each ministry sought to ensure that its supporters were in a majority. The council's demise was assured when the National Party, which had campaigned for abolition, was returned as the Government in the 1949 General Election. The necessary legislation was passed by both Houses and the council ceased to exist on 1 January 1951. Although it was intended that the council should be replaced by an elected second chamber nothing has so far come of the idea.

Parliament now consists of the Governor-General (the Queen when resident in New Zealand), and the 92-member House of Representatives. The role of the Governor-General, as part of the General Assembly, is purely formal and for all practical purposes “Parliament” is synonymous with “House of Representatives”.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Governor-General. Although the reasons for this provision are historic, it is also used by governments to defeat legislation brought forward by individual members which ministers are unwilling to support or adopt. On the other hand, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval.

Constitutional law includes the law and custom of Parliament, itself derived from a variety of sources. The Bill of Rights saves any proceeding in Parliament from being questioned in any forum, other than the House itself, and the Legislature Act 1908 provides that the powers, privileges, rights, and immunities of the House (and its committees and members) are those possessed by the British House of Commons on 1 January 1865. One aspect of the powers of the House is the ability to make rules for the conduct of its business. Most of these are contained in the Standing Orders although some are made on a sessional, and others on an ad hoc, basis. The traditional three readings given to a bill are part of Standing Orders, but it is open to the House to alter or suspend its rules at any time. The House has retained the right to punish breaches of its privileges, whether by members or citizens, from which there is no appeal (although the courts could be asked to decide whether the privilege claimed is one recognised by law).

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in his office by the Governor-General.

The House meets, as Parliament, in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening (the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne read by the Governor-General) and a closing prorogation by proclamation. Unless the House, by resolution made under the authority of the Legislature Act (1977 Amendment), carries forward business to the next session, all business before the House on prorogation lapses. Parliament is dissolved by the Governor-General or expires by efflux of time after 3 years.

Because control of the House's business lies with the Government, many of the rules and customs of the House are designed to ensure that members of the House are given a full opportunity to debate any aspect of a government's proposals. Control of the debates and the conduct of members is vested in the Speaker, whose rulings are binding unless overturned by the House.

Proposed laws are placed before the House in the form of draft laws known as 'bills'. There are 3 types of bills—public bills, dealing with the most important subjects of a public and general nature (most public bills are introduced by the Government), local bills, which are promoted by local authorities to give themselves special powers or validate illegal action they may take, and private bills, which are promoted by private individuals or companies also to give themselves special powers. The procedure for passing each of these types of bill through Parliament differs.

Detailed scrutiny of legislation and facets of executive activity, e.g., expenditure of public money, is carried out by select committees consisting of a small number of members, usually 7, which report their findings and recommendations to the House. Since 1980, all government bills stand referred to a select committee unless certified by the Speaker as “money bills”. The change was recommended by the Standing Orders Committee (see Parliamentary paper I. 14, 1979). This is intended to enable the public and interested bodies to make submissions, in the expectation that better laws will result.

In the context of the party system, it is unlikely that the Opposition would be in a position to bring down a government by means of a no-confidence vote—there is no instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the history of the New Zealand Parliament since 1928. The strength of the parties, especially that of the National and Labour Parties, is so great that many of the rules and customs of the House are based on there being two parties only in the House. The presence of third party members, as at present, has raised a number of problems in relation to speaking times, membership of select committees, and so forth.

Because of the growth of a largely two-party system and the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics. Caucus committees of both the National and Labour Parties travel around the country frequently, investigating issues of interest or concern to them. Although the existence of the caucuses and their committees is not recognised by the law, indirect recognition has been given, e.g., travelling allowances are payable to members when travelling as members of a caucus committee.

In the exercise of their functions and powers, the Speaker and the Chairman of Committees are assisted by permanent officials, headed by the Clerk of the House, charged with the administration of the House and the provision of advice on parliamentary law and custom.

The procedure for fixing the salaries and allowances of members and ministers was changed in 1977.

Responsibility now rests with the Higher Salaries Commission established by the Act of the same name.

The following table lists the salaries payable from 10 November 1981.

The following allowances are also paid:

The rate at which an electorate allowance is paid depends on the nature of each member's electorate, e.g., urban, rural, or semi-rural, and ranges from $4,500 to $9,250.

A day allowance of $12 is payable where indicated for each day on which a member attends a sitting of Parliament or a committee, and a night allowance of $26 for each night a member requires overnight accommodation away from home by reason of such attendance.

In addition to the foregoing allowances, a once-only setting up allowance is paid to members elected for the first time. The current rate is $350.

The Crown and the Governor-General—Constitutional law vests the executive power in the Crown, i.e., the Monarch acting through, or with the advice of, responsible ministers. Primarily because of political developments within the British Empire and, later, the Commonwealth, changes in the substantive law have left the constitutional position, but not the role, of the Monarch in some doubt. By virtue of the Royal Titles Act 1974, the present Monarch is styled “… Elizabeth the Second … Queen of New Zealand …” which, taken together with changes made to the Constitution Act in 1973, tend to suggest that the Queen of New Zealand is a separate legal entity from that of the United Kingdom, a suggestion which has found support in a 1976 Supreme Court decision. If such is the case, English or Imperial law which was thought to be part of New Zealand's law, e.g., the Regency Act 1937–53, may have ceased to be so.

Although not a viceroy, the Governor-General (appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister for a 5-year term) may lawfully exercise most of the Royal powers and functions, whether derived from the general law or statute. The 1983 Letters Patent reinforced by a strong convention, require him to accept and act on the advice of his New Zealand ministers. By convention the discretion or reserve powers which may be exercised by the Governor-General enable him in certain extraordinary circumstances to reject advice if he believed that a government was intending to act improperly or unconstitutionally. Events in Australia in 1975 have demonstrated how controversial the use of the reserve powers can be, and it is likely that a Governor-General would seek a political, rather than a legal, solution.

As part of the General Assembly, the Governor-General summons, prorogues, and dissolves parliament, and his assent to Bills passed by the House is necessary to transform them into Acts. As the Monarch's representative, he is the head of the Executive and his participation, albeit formal in nature, is required to give legal effect to decisions made by the Government or individual ministers.

Sir David Stuart Beattie assumed office as Governor-General on 6 November 1980. For further information on previous Governors-General refer to the 1982 Yearbook.

The Executive Government—The governance of New Zealand is executed by Ministers of the Crown in the name of, and on behalf of, the Monarch. The dual conventions that ministers are responsible to Parliament for their official acts and those of their officials and that the Government is responsible for its acts have been translated, indirectly, into statute. The Civil List Act 1979 provides that no person may be appointed or remain a minister or member of the Executive Council unless he is, concurrently, a member of Parliament.

Following a General Election, the leader of the party which has, or is most likely to secure, a majority of seats in the House is invited by the Governor-General to accept the office of Prime Minister and form a ministry. Although the selection process has varied between the two major parties, the respective leaders have final responsibility for the allocation of portfolios. Acting on the new Prime Minister's advice, the Governor-General appoints a number of members of Parliament as ministers with responsibility for one or more areas of government administration (portfolios), although in rare cases ministers are appointed without portfolio. In addition, a few members are appointed as parliamentary undersecretaries to assist ministers in specific areas. Under-Secretaries are neither ministers nor members of the Executive Council.

The Executive Council, constituted under the 1983 Letters Patent, consists of the ministers, any two of whom together with the person presiding (normally the Governor-General) form a quorum. The council is the legal vehicle for the promulgation of a government's decisions which are intended to form part of the law. It is also one of the primary means whereby the Government tenders formal advice to the Governor-General.

The membership of the council, following a snap election on 14 July 1984, remained at 20.

Unlike the council, the Cabinet owes its existence solely to convention. Although both institutions have the same membership (the Governor-General is a member of neither), their respective functions differ markedly. It is the Cabinet which determines or approves a government's legislative and administrative proposals and policies and co-ordinates the work of ministers.

To facilitate this process, a number of Cabinet committees have been set up, consisting of ministers whose responsibilities are related to the subject covered by the committees. Each committee has power within its terms of reference to make decisions. On 30 July 1984 the structure of Cabinet committees was changed and now includes committees on policy; social equity; development and marketing; transport, communications, and state enterprises; external relations and security; management and state employment; legislation; honours and appointments; and terrorism.

One important feature of the Cabinet is the informality of its proceedings and their confidentiality, thus allowing for a consensus of views to emerge without the need, in most cases, to take a vote. Cabinet discussion and agreement ensures the Government's support in the House for a minister's legislative or other proposals and supports the convention of collective responsibility.

The Cabinet Office is responsible for the servicing and co-ordination of the Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning, as well as providing liaison and advice within the interdepartmental framework. The Secretary of the Cabinet is also Clerk of the Executive Council.

The Judiciary—New Zealand has inherited the strong British tradition of an independent judiciary seen as a bulwark against unnecessary intrusion by the State in the lives of citizens. One means of maintaining that tradition is to provide superior court judges with security of tenure. Accordingly, the law provides that High court judges are appointed “… during good behaviour …” and are removable by the Governor-General in answer to an address from the House. Moreover, the salaries of High Court judges cannot be reduced while they remain in office. High Court judges must retire at the age of 68.

As from 1 April 1980 the name of the superior court of New Zealand, hitherto known as the Supreme Court, was changed to the High Court. At the same time, magistrates were renamed District Court Judges and their courts, District Courts. Appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Privy Council were not affected by the changes made.

District Court Judges are appointed, as with High Court judges, by the Governor-General on ministerial advice and are removable by him, without the need for an address from the House, for misbehaviour or inability. Although a District Court judge's security of tenure is not as entrenched as that of a High Court judge, nevertheless, the convention against arbitrary removal ensures his independence of action in the exercise of his judicial functions.

Judicial offices of specialist courts enjoy the tenure provisions of High Court judges or District Court judges depending on the ranking of their court within the judicial structure.

New Zealand courts apply the primacy of Parliament doctrine which, in the judicial context, means that a court will not question the validity of what purports to be an Act of Parliament. However, the doctrine has never prevented them from declaring legislation made by the Executive Council, under delegated authority from Parliament, outside the powers of the council or Governor-General, as the case may be, on the grounds that, in fact, no power to make that particular piece of subordinate legislation exists.

In the constitutional context, the growth and proliferation of tribunals and other administrative bodies as an answer to the complexities of modern administration, and the increasing regulation by successive governments of socio-economic affairs, has challenged the traditional, original, and supervisory jurisdictions of the High Court. In answer to parliamentary attempts to oust or restrict the Court's jurisdiction, the superior courts of many common law countries have dusted off hitherto unused writs and remedies and adapted them to meet modern demands.

The balance between the courts and the administrative agencies has been restored, partially, by the creation in 1968 of an Administrative Division of the Supreme Court (now the High Court) to hear appeals or review the law applied by these agencies, and the institution in 1972 of a simplified procedure to obtain judicial review. Conversely, New Zealand still lacks a coherent policy towards the role and ambit of the High Court's jurisdiction in the field of administrative law.

Because the High Court lacks the capacity to declare an Act unconstitutional or beyond the scope of Parliament's powers, the High Court judges have seen their supervisory jurisdiction over administrative acts as an important means of maintaining the balance of competing interests between the citizen and the State, and have taken steps to stem any erosion of that jurisdiction.

CONTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL: ROLE AND POWERS—The Controller and Auditor-General is an officer of the Crown appointed by the Governor-General on behalf of Her Majesty. Much like the judiciary, he/she is independent of the Executive, being obliged to report only to Parliament and only able to be removed from office by the Governor-General upon an address from the House of Representatives. He/she has a Deputy whose mode of appointment and tenure of office are the same. It is also laid down by statute that no Minister is in any way responsible for the carrying out or exercise by the Audit Office of its functions, duties, and powers.

With some exceptions, the Controller and Auditor-General functions through the Audit Office, which was established by the Public Finance Act 1977. The Audit Office is defined as the Controller and Auditor-General and any person under delegation or appointment by him to perform or exercise any particular function, duty, or power.

The role of the Audit Office embraces 2 main activities. The major and better known, is the audit of the accounts of all Government departments and local authorities, and most Government-owned or controlled corporations, boards, and companies. The lesser known but constitutionally important role is that of the control of issues of money cut of the Public Account to meet Government expenditure. No money can be issued out of the Public Account unless it is covered by some authority given by Parliament, and it is the responsibility of the Audit Office to ensure that the rule is observed.

In relation to its role as auditor of the public sector, the Audit Office is required to carry out financial audits, to review procedures, and is empowered to undertake examinations to determine whether resources have been applied effectively and efficiently. The Audit Office cannot question policies on which broad spending decisions are made. To enable it to carry out these functions, the Audit Office has a number of powers. These include rights of access to the books, accounts, and property of its clients, and the right to require persons to supply information or deliver up books and accounts in their possession, or under their control.

The Controller and Auditor-General has no general power of sanction to remedy shortcomings discovered during an audit. The principal recourse is to report to the management of the organisation, either by letter or in the formal audit opinion on financial statements, to a Minister, or to Parliament.

However, if the shortcoming involves a deficiency or loss of public money or stores, the Controller and Auditor-General has the power to surcharge the person or persons responsible to recover the amount involved. This power is used rarely.

OMBUDSMEN—The position of Parliamentary Commissioner for Investigations (Ombudsman) was created in 1962. Until 1968 the principal function of the Ombudsman was to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations only. In 1968 his jurisdiction was extended to hospital boards and education boards and, under the Ombudsmen Act 1975, it was further extended to all other local authorities and to certain national boards and organisations. Under the 1975 Act, provision was made for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, who could be permanent or temporary.

Complaints to the ombudsmen must be made in writing. Investigations are conducted in private, but an ombudsman can decide not to investigate where, for instance, the subject-matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject-matter of the complaint.

Where an ombudsman forms the opinion that a complaint can be sustained he is required in the case of a Government department or Government organisation to report that opinion and any recommendation that may be made to the department or organisation concerned and to make a copy of the report available to the responsible minister. In the case of a local organisation the ombudsman is required to report the opinion formed to that organisation and to make a copy of the report available to the mayor or chairman.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsmen during the latest available year is given in the following table.

ROYAL COMMISSIONS AND COMMISSIONS OF INQUIRY—The Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908, which has been amended from time to time as necessary, provides that the Governor-General may by Order in Council, appoint any person or persons to be a commission to inquire into and report upon any question arising out of, or concerning:

A Royal Commission is appointed by the Governor-General pursuant to his Letters Patent, but in other respects derives its powers from the Commissions of Inquiry Act. Royal Commissions, appointed as they are in the name of the Sovereign, are generally regarded as having a greater prestige and standing and accordingly they are presided over by a Judge or former Judge of the High Court or a person of equivalent judicial status.

A committee of inquiry may be set up by a minister to investigate some matter but such a committee has no statutory basis in the normal course of events, although there are ancillary powers in some instances.

Amendments to the legislation in 1979 and 1980 now confer new rights upon any person if he/she is a party to the inquiry or satisfies the commission that he/she has an interest in the inquiry apart from any interest in common with the public.

Usually the terms of reference for a commission are quite specific. While there is frequently a final term of reference which appears to include everything else, this term of reference must be considered in context. It does not confer the right on almost anyone to become a party or participant in the inquiry.

The Department of Internal Affairs, (originally the Colonial Secretary's Office), administers the Commissions of Inquiry legislation and provides basic services to the various commissions. These inquiries are not part of the justice system, nor are they part of the conventional administrative bureaucracy. The department retains important constitutional responsibilities and in this context is held responsible to ensure that complete independence and impartiality of investigations is maintained.

Commissions of Inquiry must report to the Governor-General, who in turn, refers the findings and report to his/her Ministers. It is frequently the custom for the report to be published and copies are available from the Government Printing Office.

Although a costly exercise, the role of Commissions of Inquiry in a parliamentary democracy with an unicameral system is a significant one. Besides serving as a valuable channel for public disquiet, a commission is able to weigh the submissions according to the accuracy with which they are formulated, make findings, seek comment, and arrive at considered conclusions.

Further information is available in the following publications: Royal Commissions and Commissions of Inquiry, published by the Government Printing Office in 1974; A Checklist: New Zealand Royal Commissions, Commissions and Committees of Inquiry 1864–1981, published by the New Zealand Library Association in 1982; and the Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956 and its amendments. Responsibility for the electoral process is shared between 4 Government departments. The Post Office maintains and prints electoral rolls and the Department of Justice is responsible for the conduct of the polls, electoral policy, and legislation. The Departments of Statistics and Lands and Survey provide geographical referencing material and mapping services. Following the population census (every 5 years) the boundaries of all electorates are revised, and new boundaries come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

To assist this revision, the Government Statistician is required to supply general electoral population figures to the Surveyor-General.

The term “general electoral population” means total population with the following exceptions:

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of a Representation Commission to define new electoral districts. The commission comprises eight members. Five of these are official members; the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, The Director-General to the Post Office, and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (who is without voting rights). Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government and one to represent the Opposition. The eighth member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The number of general electorates is based on population under a formula that allocates 25 seats to the South Island. The general electoral population of the South Island is divided by 25, and the quota thus obtained for each South Island electorate is then divided into the North Island general electoral population to give the number of electorates in the North Island.

The number of Maori seats is fixed at four.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. The objections are published and a further 2 weeks is allowed for lodgment of counter objections. Both objections and counter objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision is reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

Franchise—Since September 1974, persons 18 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives. (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights and the qualifying age had been lowered to 20 years in 1969.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 18 years and must (a) be a New Zealand citizen or a permanent resident and (b) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year and (c), except in special cases, have resided continuously for 3 months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 3 months or more in any other electoral district. Maoris and persons of part-Maori descent may elect to be included on either the General or the Maori electoral roll but their options are renewable only at prescribed intervals.

Voting—Voting is controlled in each electoral district by a Returning Officer appointed to arrange voting facilities and staffing, conduct the election, supervise the counting of votes, and formally declare the election result. A preliminary count of ordinary votes is available on election night and final results are generally available 2 weeks later after all overseas and special votes are received and counted.

Voting is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the electoral rolls compiled prior to an election are qualified to vote. All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday and polling booths are open from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any member of the armed forces aged 18 years and over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he or she last resided before leaving New Zealand.

The vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his/her district. He/she may however vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his/her district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc. Provision is also made for overseas voting.

Voting papers list the surnames of candidates nominated for the electoral district concerned and the elector indicates his/her preference by striking out the name of every candidate except the one for whom he/she wishes to vote. The candidate obtaining the highest number of votes is elected to represent that electoral district as a member of the House of Representatives.

Summary of Parliamentary Proceedings—

Parliamentary Representation—Parliamentary representation of Maoris, Pacific Island Polynesians and women are shown in the following table. The ages of Members of Parliament are also compared with that of the total population.

Legislation 1983—During the parliamentary session of 1983, 155 Public Acts were passed, compared with 185 passed in 1982.

GENERAL—Local government in New Zealand is characterised by 6 principles which are outlined below:

Local government in New Zealand does not involve itself in the funding, administration or management of education, social welfare, police, or urban fire services, and, except for a small number of specified urban areas, it does not involve itself in traffic control and enforcement. In the New Zealand context, these services are seen as being either the responsibility of central government, or of specialised agencies which are themselves closely involved with central government. For example urban fire services are provided for by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission (see Section 10B of this Yearbook) while education services are provided for through a variety of education boards and councils funded by central government (see Section 7A of this Yearbook). In the New Zealand context, neither the New Zealand Fire Service Commission nor these various education boards and councils are regarded as local authorities.

A particular feature of local government in New Zealand is the importance placed on its accountability to its electors. The emphasis in local government is on local accountability. This precludes central government from becoming directly involved in local government decision-making, (although in the case of catchment authorities there is some central government involvement through representation on each catchment authority). It also means that the decisions of local authorities cannot be reviewed or overturned by central government. Although hospital boards are funded from central government, they have always been locally responsible for the services they provide to meet the health-needs of the populations of their districts. With the advent in 1982 of a population-based system of funding hospital boards, greater emphasis has been placed on local decision-making and accountability in which central government does not have a role to play.

Although central government is unable to review decisions made by local authorities, this does not mean that local government decisions are not subject to review. There is, for example, provision for the Ombudsmen to investigate complaints regarding specific instances of maladministration in local government—a responsibility which they undertake in addition to their duties concerning complaints about central government maladministration. There is also provision for the Controller and Auditor General to carry out investigations regarding any financial misconduct or conflict of financial interest that may occur either on the part of local government officers or elected members. Such investigations can, in certain circumstances, result in automatic forfeiture of office and/or prosecution in terms of the Local Authorities (Members Interests) Act 1968 or the Local Government Act 1974. (The Controller and Auditor General is an officer of State who is directly responsible to Parliament on all matters affecting central government and local government which relate to financial management and control.) Apart from the issues of maladministration and misconduct, there is further scope for review of local government decisions in a limited number of areas by means of appeal to various judicial tribunals or to the District Court. The' Planning Tribunal acts as the appropriate appeal body on issues which concern land-use planning and related issues. Under the Local Government Act and related legislation, the District Court acts as an appeal body on some more minor issues relating to local government and property. (This responsibility is in addition to its normal function as the Court for minor civil and criminal proceedings.)

Apart from specialised tribunals and the District Court, local authorities are subject to the general power of judicial review of the High Court. The Administrative Division of the High Court has jurisdiction to consider appeals from the District Court and from judicial bodies, such as the Planning Tribunal. In the case of the Planning Tribunal, appeals are only on points of law. In addition, the Administrative Division of the High Court has general jurisdiction to consider applications for review arising from the exercise of any statutory power by any organisation, including any local authority. Under the Bylaws Act 1910 the Administrative Division of the High Court can quash or amend any bylaws of a local authority on the grounds that they are ultra vires of the local authority, or repugnant to the laws of New Zealand, or unreasonable.

The ability of a local authority to incur debts is also subject to control. Since 1926 all local authorities have been subject to loan-raising controls which are exercised by the Local Authorities Loans Board (a statutory board composed of 4 local government and 3 central government members). Since 1983, some local authorities and some categories of loans have been exempted by central government on the recommendation of the Local Authorities Loans Board. In addition, hospital and harbour boards are subject to capital expenditure controls. (In the case of hospital boards, these controls are exercised by central government, and, in the case of harbour boards, these controls are exercised by the National Ports Authority.) However apart from hospital and harbour boards, local authorities in New Zealand are not subject to any capital expenditure controls other than the loan-raising controls already referred to. In practice, where central government wishes to influence the policies of local government, its only effective means of doing so is through appropriate subsidy and grant schemes, the reason being that local authorities can, and do, finance most of their expenditure from local land taxes (rates), and/or charges from trading utilities under their control.

Local government in New Zealand falls into 4 broad categories:

TERRITORIAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT—Territorial authorities in New Zealand act as directly elected general purpose authorities with responsibilities for roading, water supply, sewage disposal, rubbish disposal, parks and reserves, libraries, community development, land subdivision, land-use planning, pensioner housing, health and building inspection, urban passenger transport, parking meter enforcement and civil defence. The present system of territorial local government in New Zealand has evolved since the abolition of provincial government in 1876. (From 1853, New Zealand had operated a system of provincial government with each province having its own provincial council able to pass its own enactments known as provincial ordinances, but in 1875 Parliament provided for the abolition of the provinces to take effect in 1876.) In 1876, Parliament passed the Rating Act, the Municipal Corporations Act and the Counties Act. These 3 Acts established a system of locally-elected general purpose territorial local authorities funded from local taxes on land (rates). Municipalities were provided for in urban areas, and these included 36 municipalities already in existence which had been incorporated under an earlier Municipal Corporations Act. The remainder of the North and South Islands, together with Stewart Island, was divided into counties, although in the more sparsely settled counties it was intended that no county councils would be immediately established. The last of these designated counties to come under the control of a county council was Fiord County. This happened in 1981 when it was included in the district of the Wallace County Council.

In 1901, Parliament authorised the establishment of a county council for the Chatham Islands (although the first elections for this county council were not held until 1925). In 1912, Parliament authorised the establishment of a county council for Great Barrier Island and in 1970 the Waiheke County Council was constituted covering Waiheke Island (formerly under the control of the Waiheke Road Board) and also covering a number of small islands in the Hauraki Gulf. Apart from some small usually uninhabited offshore islands, all of New Zealand is now covered by directly elected territorial local government—231 territorial authorities in total.

New Zealand's system of directly elected general purpose or territorial local government now comprises counties, district councils and municipalities. There are, in turn, 3 separate classes of municipalities (boroughs, town districts and cities). With the repeal of the Counties Act and the Municipal Corporations Act in 1980, all territorial authorities are now constituted under the Local Government Act. Particular features of all of the types of territorial authority mentioned above are as follows:

Counties—Counties were originally constituted by the Counties Act 1876. Generally, counties are concerned with the needs of rural areas. Initially, there were 63 counties but with increasing settlement this number increased to 129 in 1920. Since then, the number of counties has been reduced by mergers and at 1 April 1984 there were 90 counties. The members of each county council are responsible for electing once every 3 years one of their number to be the chairman of the county council. A complete table of counties with their populations and land areas is set out in Section 3A of this Yearbook.

Municipalities—The Municipal Corporations Act 1876 provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and fur the creation of new boroughs. Boroughs provide for the needs of concentrated populations and, until 1978, there had to be a population of at least 1500, with an average density of population of at least one person per 4000 square metres, before they could be constituted. By 1955, there were 146 boroughs in existence, but by 1 April 1984 there were 128 boroughs—this reduction having resulted from some boroughs being incorporated into adjoining boroughs or counties.

The town district represents a form of municipality that was originally provided for in the Town Districts Act 1881, and later in the Municipal Corporations Act, for areas that had a certain concentration of urban population but not sufficient to justify the formation of a borough. Since 1978, no new town districts can be constituted, and there are now only 3 town districts in existence.

The city is in legal terms merely a borough which has a population of more than 20 000 and has been designated as a city by the Governor-General by Proclamation. Provision for this was originally made in 1886 in the Municipal Corporations Act and the figure of 20 000 population as a requirement for city status has remained unaltered since 1886. In 1886 there were only 5 cities—Dunedin, Christ-church, Wellington, Auckland and Nelson. The Municipal Corporations Act 1886 provided that these 5 cities were deemed to have been cities from the year in which they had legally been incorporated as boroughs, although these cities had previously been recognised as such by provincial ordinances in the case of Dunedin, Wellington and Auckland, and by Letters Patent issued by Queen Victoria in the case of Christchurch and Nelson. By 1955 there were 15 cities (these being included in the figure of 146 boroughs already mentioned above) and in 1984 there were 27 cities (these being included in the figure of 128 boroughs already mentioned above).

Each borough and city has a mayor who is directly elected by the electors of the borough or city, while a town district has a chairman elected by the council of the town district. Apart from acting as the chairman at all meetings of the council, the legal powers of a mayor which directly relate to the function of the borough or city are no greater than the powers of any other member of the council of a borough or city.

A table showing the population and land area of each borough and city is set out in Section 3A of this Yearbook, and a separate table for town districts is also included in this section.

District Councils—This form of territorial local authority was introduced by the Local Government Act 1974 in recognition of the fact that nowadays many territorial authorities are neither wholly urban nor wholly rural District councils may now be constituted either by Local Government Commission schemes resulting in a merger of a county and a borough or a county and a city, or by a borough council or county council deciding to become a district council. The Governor-General may by Proclamation designate a district under a district council to be a city if, in his opinion, it is predominantly urban and it has a population of not less than 20 000. As at 1 April 1984, there were 10 district councils. Eight of these districts comprise areas which have resulted in a merger of a separate county and borough, or a separate county and city. Some districts have a chairman who is appointed in the same way as the chairman of a county council. Other districts have a mayor who is directly elected by the electors of the district in the same way as the mayor of a borough or city. A table showing the population and land areas of each of these districts is set out in Section 3A of this Yearbook.

SPECIAL PURPOSE LOCAL GOVERNMENT—During the late 19th century various special purpose local authorities were established to carry out specific tasks thought to be beyond the capacity of territorial local authorities. Special purpose local authorities differ from territorial local authorities in that a special purpose local authority is charged with only 1 major function. In the majority of cases the boundaries of special purpose local authorities bear little relationship to the boundaries of the districts of territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Most special purpose local authorities include all or part of a number of territorial authority districts within their own district. Sometimes territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as, and perform the functions of, special purpose local authorities. The more important special purpose local authorities are those administering harbours, hospital services, the retail distribution of electricity, and soil conservation and rivers control (including management and allocation of water resources). Other special purpose local authorities are involved in water supply, urban drainage and transport, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, land drainage, and in some areas the liquor and hotel trade. (Territorial authorities also function as harbour boards in 8 cases, as pest destruction boards in 37 cases, and as electric power supply authorities in 23 cases.) Most Special purpose local authorities are directly elected by the electors of the local authority's district, although a minority of special purpose local authorities are indirectly elected in that their membership involves representation from other local authorities that are themselves directly elected. Apart from catchment authorities, pest destruction and nassella tussock boards, there are no Government representatives on any special purpose local authorities, or indeed on any other type of local authority.

The major categories of special purpose local authorities and the number involved in each category are: hospital boards (29); electric power boards including 1 energy (electric power and gas) board (38); harbour boards (15); and catchment authorities (including the Waikato Valley Authority) (18). These categories of special purpose local authorities are found throughout New Zealand. Electric power boards and harbour boards are all directly elected local authorities. Of the 18 catchment authorities, 13 are directly elected catchment boards (although with some Government representation not exceeding one-third of the membership of any catchment board), 4 are indirectly elected catchment commissions with the majority of their members appointed to represent constituent territorial authorities and a minority of their members appointed to represent central government, and the remaining one is the Waikato Valley Authority which is also indirectly elected in the same way. As mentioned above, catchment authorities are responsible for soil conservation and rivers control (including management and allocation of water resources).

In addition to the special purpose local authorities already mentioned, there are various minor categories of special purpose local authorities which are found only in some parts of New Zealand. These include 30 directly elected liquor licensing trusts (which are community controlled liquor and hotel businesses), 60 directly elected pest destruction boards, 2 directly elected and 2 indirectly elected urban drainage boards, 24 directly elected land (rural) drainage boards, 6 directly elected river boards (2 of which are also land drainage boards), 2 directly elected charitable lands trusts, 1 directly elected transport board, and 1 directly elected rural water supply board. (The names of all directly elected special purpose local authorities are found in the Local Authority Election Statistics published by the Department of Internal Affairs.)

There are also a small number of indirectly elected special purpose local authorities. Apart from the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, all of the indirectly elected special purpose authorities referred to in Section 2C of the 1983 edition of the New Zealand Official Yearbook are still in existence.

REGIONAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT—In 1963, the Auckland Regional Authority was established under its own Act of Parliament as a directly elected regional council to carry out a range of regional functions within the Auckland metropolitan area and its immediately adjoining rural hinterland—an area which contains 26 percent of New Zealand's total population. The range of functions carried out by the Auckland Regional Authority includes the operation of the Auckland International Airport, urban public passenger transport, regional planning, regional parks and reserves, regional urban water supply, regional drainage, regional refuse collection and disposal, regional roads, community development, regional civil defence, and assistance to beach patrol rescue services and the regional orchestra. The Auckland Regional Authority also carries out within its region the various responsibilities that in other parts of the country are carried out by catchment authorities.

The only other regional council apart from the Auckland Regional Authority is the Wellington Regional Council (established in 1980), which contains within its region 10 percent of New Zealand's population. The Wellington Regional Council was established in terms of the Local Government Act 1974 and carries out within its region the various responsibilities that in other parts of the country are carried out by catchment authorities, as well as also being responsible for regional planning, regional civil defence, regional parks and reserves, regional urban water supply, forestry and urban public passenger transport planning.

In addition to the Wellington Regional Council, in the period 1977 to 1983, 20 united councils were established in terms of the Local Government Act 1974, each with its own region. The principle behind the establishment of these 20 united councils was that they were seen as providing a form of regional government for those regions that are generally accepted as not justifying the expense of a regional council. Particular features of united councils which distinguish them from regional councils are:

Most united councils also have an arrangement whereby their staff are seconded to them by 1 of the territorial authorities of the region—this territorial authority being known as “the administering authority”. (This is a situation which is unlike that which pertains to regional councils which employ their own staff and resources.)

Regional councils and united councils possess their functions through several means. First, every united or regional council has 2 mandatory functions—regional planning (under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977) and regional civil defence (under the Civil Defence Act 1983). Besides these 2 mandatory functions, the Local Government Act provides, with qualifications in some cases, that a united or regional council may undertake functions relating to regional reserves, forestry, regional roading, and community services. A united or regional council may, in certain circumstances, undertake the functions of any territorial authority or (where a special purpose local authority or the appropriate Minister of the Crown concurs) the functions of that special purpose local authority. A united or regional council is empowered to undertake exclusively any new regional function which Is not undertaken by any other local authority in the region. A united or regional council may also enter into an agreement with a constituent authority to undertake any function of that authority where, in the opinion of either party, that function would be more effectively and economically undertaken by the regional body. Finally, united and regional councils may enter into agreements with the Crown whereby they may exercise any function or provide any service for or on behalf of the Crown.

The regions of the 20 united councils and the 2 regional councils (Auckland and Wellington) cover all of the country, except for Great Barrier Island County which is not yet included in any region, and the Chatham Islands County which, because of its isolation, is specifically excluded from the requirement to be part of a region. A table listing all the regions, together with their populations, is set out in Section 3A of this Yearbook.

COMMUNITY LOCAL GOVERNMENT—This is a form of local government participation which is subordinate to territorial local government. The Local Government Act provides for the establishment of “communities” within the districts of territorial local authorities. Since 1976, a community may be constituted only in an urban area within the rural part of a territorial authority district that is predominantly urban in character, or in an urban area within a territorial authority district that is predominantly rural in character, or in the whole of the area of one or more offshore islands forming part of a territorial authority district. (These provisions are broadly in line with earlier provisions which had enabled “county towns” and “county boroughs” to be formed within counties, and most “communities” are in fact former “county towns” or “county boroughs”.) Notwithstanding the provisions for establishing “communities”, a number of towns in rural areas do not have “community” status, usually because these towns feel they are sufficiently large that their interests will not be overlooked by their territorial authority.

Although not local authorities in the true sense, each “community” has either a “district community council” or a “community council” of not less than 5 nor more than 12 members, elected by residents and ratepayers for a 3-year term. These “district community councils” or “community councils” are legally committees of their parent territorial authority. The differences between “district community councils” and “community councils” are as follows.

District Community Councils—The district community has direct representation on its parent territorial authority. By statute, except for certain reserved powers dealing with finance, staff and planning, a district community council may exercise all the powers and functions of its parent territorial authority. A district community council may be established only in respect of a community having a population of not less than 1500. As at 1 April 1984 there were 15 district community councils. These 15 district community councils together had the equivalent of 1.9 percent of New Zealand's population within their “communities”. A table listing these district community councils together with their populations and the name of their parent territorial authority is set out in Section 3A of this Yearbook.

Community Councils—A community council does not have direct representation on its parent territorial authority. Community councils derive their powers by delegation from their territorial authority, at its discretion, but powers dealing with finance, staff and planning cannot be delegated. In addition to exercising such powers as may be delegated to it, the general purpose of a community council is to coordinate and express to the parent territorial authority the views of the community on any matter of concern to it, and to undertake, encourage and co-ordinate activities for the general well-being of the residents of the community. Although a community council does not have direct representation on its parent territorial authority, it is entitled to have one of its members present at meetings of the council of the territorial authority with speaking rights on issues relating to the community. As at 1 April 1984, there were 119 community councils. These 119 community councils together had the equivalent of 2.8 percent of New Zealand's population within their “communities”. A table showing those community councils which have a population of 1000 or more and the name of their parent territorial authority is set out in Section 3A of this Yearbook.

GENERAL POWERS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Act under which they are constituted. As mentioned above, the Local Government Act is the main governing Act for territorial authorities, as it is for united, regional, district community and community councils. Special purpose local authorities are constituted under other Acts of Parliament.

There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Public Bodies Meetings Act 1962, the Local Authorities (Members Interests) Act 1968 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Other legislation applicable to territorial, regional and various other types of local authority includes the Rating Act 1967, the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, the Public Bodies Leases Act 1969, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Public Works Act 1981, the Reserves Act 1977, the Health Act 1956, the Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963 and the Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977.

A local authority's powers to levy local taxes on land (rates) are dealt with in Section 28 of this Yearbook. A local authority can make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act. In the case of a special purpose local authority these bylaws are subject to approval by a Minister of the Crown. In the case of territorial authorities and regional councils, their bylaws (apart from fire bylaws) do not require the prior approval of central government if they have been made solely under the Local Government Act. A local authority can promote Parliamentary legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government, it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts, it must submit the proposal to Parliament in the form of a local Bill. If it is approved by Parliament, the proposal then is enacted as a local Act. Thirteen local Acts were passed in 1983.

Elections—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, local government general elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. Relevant statistics from these elections are published by the Department of Internal Affairs in its publication Local Authority Election Statistics. The local government general elections were last held on 8 October 1983. All territorial authorities are responsible for conducting their own elections as well as the elections of those special purpose local authorities and the regional, community and district community councils whose districts cover all or part of the territorial authority districts.

Each territorial authority is required to use its electoral roll for regional council elections and community and district community council elections where applicable, and for the elections of all special purpose local authorities, other than land drainage boards, river boards and pest destruction boards.

Each territorial authority is required to choose once every 3 years whether its council is to be elected with the territorial authority district being constituted as one electorate; or, whether the territorial authority district should be constituted as separate electorates (known as “wards” in cities and boroughs, and “ridings” in counties); or, if the elections could be held with some members of the council elected from the district as a whole, and others from separate “wards” or “ridings” within the district. Where a territorial authority decides to divide its district into “wards” or “ridings” for electoral purposes, the council has the sole responsibility for determining the number of “wards” or “ridings” and the area, population and representation of each “ward” or “riding”.

In the case of the 2 regional councils and most of the elected special purpose local authorities, the district of the regional council or the special purpose local authority is divided into separate electorates— the boundaries of which usually coincide with territorial authority district boundaries. The electoral districts of regional councils and special purpose local authorities are determined on the basis specified in the various Acts of Parliament under which these authorities are constituted.

Voting Procedures—Under the provisions of the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, any territorial authority may determine whether an election or poll is to be conducted by personal attendance at a polling booth or by way of postal vote. Where the franchise is to be exercised by personal attendance at a polling booth, the territorial authority may decide to conduct the election or poll over a period of not more than 11 consecutive days instead of confining voting to a single day.

The method of casting a vote is broadly similar to that used for Parliament. The names of candidates are printed on the ballot paper and the elector must indicate on the ballot paper the name of the candidate or candidates for whom the elector wishes to vote. In so doing, the number of candidates chosen by the elector must not exceed the number of positions shown on the ballot paper. In addition in filling out a ballot paper an elector may not allocate more than 1 vote for any candidate, nor is there any provision for an elector to otherwise indicate a preference for any candidate.

Franchise for Electors—In general, the franchise extends to all persons aged 18 years or over who are New Zealand citizens or are permanent residents (as defined in the Electoral Act), and who either possess a ratepayer qualification or have resided for 3 months in the district of the local authority concerned. (In the case of persons who do not have a ratepayer qualification but who have resided for 3 months in the district—these persons are deemed to be qualified to be residential electors.) Each legally defined property has attached to it 1 ratepayer qualification, and this is irrespective of the number of persons who own the property or the status these persons have. Unless the owners of a property determine otherwise, the ratepayer qualification is exercised by the person whose name appears first in the Valuation Department's records for the property concerned, and this is so whether or not the person who holds this qualification resides within the district. No person can hold more than one ratepayer-elector qualification in each territorial authority district, nor can a person exercise a residential elector qualification in addition to a ratepayer-elector qualification. In the case of residential electors, these persons must have applied for enrolment at the office of their territorial authority, although if they are on the current published Parliamentary electoral roll and are still resident at the address which is shown on that roll, they can vote even though their names are not found on the territorial authority roll.

For regional councils the franchise is limited to those who are resident within the region and have a ratepayer-elector qualification or a residential elector qualification, and in the case of licensing trusts and the two charitable lands trusts the right to vote is similarly restricted to those who are qualified by residence within the district. (The significance of these variations is that persons who are ratepayers and who live outside the region or district cannot vote for these categories of local authority, although as absentee ratepayers they can still vote for the territorial authority in whose district they hold their qualification.)

Membership of Local Authorities—All persons eligible to vote are also eligible to stand for election for the council of the local authority concerned. Depending on the Act of Parliament under which the local authority is constituted, vacancies in the elected membership of the council of the local authority may be filled by either election or appointment. In the case of a territorial authority or a regional council, a petition by 5 percent of the electors of the district is sufficient to require the territorial authority to hold a by-election. In the case of most special purpose local authorities any vacancy in membership is filled by appointment by the territorial authority or territorial authorities whose districts comprise the special purpose local authority electorate in respect of which the vacancy exists.

As far as is known, the earliest case of involvement of a woman as a council member of a local authority was in 1893 when Mrs Elizabeth Yates was elected mayor of Onehunga Borough. In recent years there has been a significant increase in the number of women who are mayors, chairmen and members of councils of local authorities. With the holding of the 1983 local government elections women now comprise approximately 21 percent of the total membership of municipalities, and preliminary indications are that there have been increases in participation by women in the membership of other local authorities. (Figures on the extent of participation of women in the membership of various categories of local authorities are contained in the Local Authority Election Statistics published by the Department of Internal Affairs.)

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of councils of local authorities is governed by the Acts of Parliament constituting the various types of local authorities. Most local authorities pay their chairman an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority, while their other members are paid an allowance on a 'per meeting' basis. The maximum allowance payable to mayors and chairmen of territorial authorities varies according to the population of the territorial authority. The chairman and members of a united or regional council may also be paid such annual allowances as may from time to time be approved by the Minister of Local Government with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance.

PLANNING AND RELATED ISSUES—The Town and Country Planning Act 1977 provides for the making and enforcement of regional, district and maritime planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations

1978. Although the Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development, the statutory responsibility for planning under the Town and Country Planning Act lies with territorial authorities, regional and united councils in the case of district and regional schemes, and in the case of some maritime planning schemes it lies with harbour boards. On planning matters, the Planning Tribunal (which is a specialised judicial body) acts as the appropriate appeal body on issues which concern district land use planning, regional planning, the granting of water rights, the subdivision of land, the preservation of historic places, the making of local government financial levies on subdivisions and on development projects to finance public reserves, the taking of land for public works, the creation of pedestrian malls and the designation of regional roads and limited access roads.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORM—To promote reform of the structure of local government, a Local Government Commission was first established, as a quasi-judicial body, in 1946. The present Local Government Commission, constituted by the Local Government Amendment Act (No. 2) 1977, comprises a chairman appointed by the Minister of Local Government and 2 other members, one appointed by the Minister on the nomination of the New Zealand Counties Association and the other on the nomination of the Municipal Association of New Zealand. Where the Local Government Commission is to consider a proposal affecting a local authority other than a territorial authority, it may request the Minister of Local Government to appoint a person, having special knowledge of the functions undertaken by that local authority, to be a temporary member of the Commission.

The Local Government Commission undertakes investigations, prepares schemes and makes recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that:

The legislation sets out procedures to guide the Local Government Commission, with emphasis being placed on consultation on proposals at an early stage, prior to formulating a provisional scheme. After the hearing of objections to a provisional scheme, the commission may draw up a final scheme. A commission scheme may provide for the union of local authority districts, the constitution or abolition of any district, the adjustment of boundaries, or a transfer of functions from one local authority to another. A particular feature is provision for the appointment of conciliators by the commission to inquire into and negotiate on a proposal for a scheme, prior to any provisional scheme procedures being initiated.

The Local Government Act, as originally enacted in 1974, brought all special purpose local authorities (other than hospital boards, licensing trusts and charitable lands trusts) within the jurisdiction of the Local Government Commission. An amendment in 1976, however, removed the automatic jurisdiction of the commission in relation to special purpose local authorities, so that it may now include these local authorities in a provisional scheme where the appropriate Minister of the Crown or the special purpose local authorities concerned are agreed.

A further function of the Local Government Commission in the period 1977–83 was the establishment of regions throughout New Zealand, and this was also carried out using the scheme procedures already mentioned (although without the requirement to appoint conciliators).

All Local Government Commission final schemes are implemented either by an Order in Council promulgated by the Governor-General with the advice and consent of the Executive Council, or by an Act of Parliament to amend or repeal a special or local Act (where the local authority was originally established under its own special or local Act of Parliament).

In addition to the Local Government Commission scheme procedures mentioned above, a local authority can be abolished by an Act of Parliament without reference to the Local Government Commission. The only cases where this has happened in recent years was with the abolition of the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority in 1979 and the abolition of the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority in 1984. In both cases this action was taken by an Act of Parliament in the previous year and was consequential to a decision by Central Government to take over the responsibility for the financing and maintenance of these two sections of roading as part of the national roading system.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Books dealing with various aspects of the wide range of historical, constitutional, political, economic, and governmental matters touched on in this section will be found listed in the select bibliography of New Zealand books near the back of this Yearbook.

Parliamentary papers which may be found useful include the following:

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper A. 1).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Report of the Local Government Commission (Parl. paper G. 9).

Report of the Ombudsmen (Parl. paper A. 3).

Local Authority Election Statistics—Department of Internal Affairs.

By world standards New Zealand's population is small—3.2 million at the end of 1983. New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million late in 1973. Recent predictions are that the fourth million will not be reached until well into the twenty-first century.

Population growth has 2 components—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In its early years in New Zealand the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the Census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand-born to 49.8 percent overseas-born), and each succeeding census until 1951 recorded an increased proportion of the population being New Zealand-born. Since 1951 (when the New Zealand-born made up 86 percent of the population) the proportion has fallen slightly, mainly because increased international travel and tourism have meant that at each census increased numbers of overseas-born tourists and travellers have been included in the population as enumerated on census date. At the 1981 Census, data based on the usually resident population (that is, the population excluding tourists and other visitors) showed that 85 percent had been born in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population. New Zealand's rate of natural increase has, until recently, been relatively high compared with other countries whose population is predominantly of European origin.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate with a low point of 8.63 births per 1000 persons in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1000 in 1947 and 1961. In the 1960s the average rate was less than 16 per 1000, and the rate continued to fall throughout the 1970s, reflecting the continued fall in the birth rate, until it has now fallen below the previous low point recorded in 1935 (in 1982 the natural increase rate was 7.67). The fall in birth rate in the sixties and seventies is a feature that New Zealand shared with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States.

The natural increase in recent years is shown in the following table. A series of vital statistics is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

In the present century, migration has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during the two world wars and in times of economic difficulties. Gains and losses from external migration since the Second World War are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

The years since the late 1960s stand out because of the major changes in the levels and directions of net external migration. Also, Australia has replaced the United Kingdom as the country having the largest exchange of migrants with New Zealand.

Annual figures of the net inflow or outflow from migration since 1975 are shown in the following table and in more detail later in this section.

POPULATION STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the 5-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The population census, and other population statistics in New Zealand, represent the population physically present in the place of enumeration, at the time of enumeration. All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand. Though Tokelau is constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons it is administered separately. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing but the inhabitants are New Zealand citizens.

The most recent Census of Population and Dwellings in New Zealand was taken on 24 March 1981. The next will be taken on 4 March 1986.

The figures in the table following are intercensal estimates and exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population in the most recent intercensal period was unusually low. Before the 1976–81 period, the lowest rates were those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, of 1936–45, which included World War II, and 1966–71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns. However, the population increase of only 46 354 between the censuses of 1976 and 1981, covering years of net migration losses and low birth rates, represents a steep fall from any intercensal increase recorded during this century. It is the more significant because the increase of 266 752 during the previous intercensal period (1971–76) was the highest ever recorded in New Zealand.

Totals and increase rates from the five most recent censuses are shown below.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1975–82, are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook, 1981 and United Nations Population and Vital Statistics Report, Vol. XXXV No. 3.)

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population up to 2016 is given in the detailed alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to an incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality and migration levels. Also, difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change result from rapidly changing trends brought about by varying social, and especially economic, conditions.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

These national population projections incorporate alternative short-term assumptions involving changing annual levels of net immigration as described in the footnotes to the table.

Age-sex-specific projections, equivalent to those in the table below, are available from the Demographic Specialist Studies Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Christchurch.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in 3 parts as Volume 1, Location and Increase of Population, Part A. Population Size and Distribution, Part B. Population Density and Part C. Usually Resident Population of the Census of Population and Dwellings. In the case of the 1981 Census, prior to the publication of the subject-matter volumes a series of 10 Regional Statistics bulletins has been published, each giving final population, dwelling, and household statistics by population centre and subdivision for a major area of New Zealand.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands since 1901.