THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1965


Table of Contents

DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS

The first quarter of the shield depicts four stars as representative of the Southern Cross, then three ships symbolising the importance of New Zealand's sea trade; in the second quarter is a fleece representing the farming industry. The wheat sheaf in the third quarter represents the agricultural industry, whilst the crossed hammers in the fourth quarter represent the mining industry.

The supporters on either side of the shield consist of a Maori Chieftain holding a taiaha (a Maori war weapon) and a European woman holding the New Zealand Ensign.

Surmounting the Arms is the St. Edward's Crown which was used in the Coronation ceremony of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. The crown symbolises the fact that Her Majesty is Queen of New Zealand under the New Zealand Royal Titles Act 1953.

(These Arms may not be used except with the consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs.)

PREFACE

The New Zealand Official Yearbook seeks to present as completely as possible within one volume a wide range of information on the administration and national economy of New Zealand, as well as on social aspects. In the selection and presentation of material there is kept in mind the use of the Official Yearbook not only as a standard reference work by the general public, but also as a source of material for students and research workers. Information on New Zealand is being increasingly sought by administrators and universities overseas, and the Official Yearbook now goes to over 70 countries. This is a natural development as international relationships grow and the Official Yearbook helps present New Zealand to the world in which this country has expanding interests.

In this issue there is a section on the Maori people as shown by the population census in 1961.

The photographic section features a wide range of opportunities for outdoor recreation in New Zealand.

New introductions have now been added to many sections. This should be helpful to students by providing a background guide to which detailed information can be related.

Additional detail on many subjects may be obtained from publications of the Department of Statistics. These are listed towards the end of this Yearbook and are available from the Government Printer.

I desire to express my appreciation to officers of this and other Government Departments for their assistance in preparing material and to the Government Printer and his staff for cooperation in the printing of this volume. My thanks for their comprehensive contribution to the production of the Yearbook are extended to Mr J. B. McKinney, m.a., admin, prof., Editor of Publications, and members of the Editorial Branch and Statistical Draughting Unit of the Department of Statistics.

GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN

Department of Statistics, Wellington, 18 June 1965.

MAPS AND DIAGRAMS

Maps
General Map of New Zealand and Island TerritoriesInside Back Cover
Geology-North Island10
South Island11
Mean Annual Rainfall18
Mineral Resources472
Factory Production North Island491
South Island492
Electric Power Stations and Transmission System North Island563
South Island564
Diagrams
Seasonal Temperature Pattern22
Population58
Vital Statistics88
Principal Causes of Deaths109
Infant Death Rate115
School Population215
Railways325
Motor Vehicles Licensed and Motor Spirits Consumption334
Civil Aviation351
Holdings in Regional Areas by Type of Farming393
Gross Farming Income398
Butter! at Production402
Meat Production404
Wool Production407
Area and Yields of Wheat for Threshing422
Production of Roughsawn Timber457
Pulp and Paper Industry459
Factory Production513
Building Permits542
Growth of Demand for Electricity561
Electricity Generation569
Prices and Sales of Butter in United Kingdom586
Prices and Sales of Cheese in United Kingdom587
Retail Trade616
Direction of External Trade623
Value of External Trade with Individual Countries631
Value of Exports New Zealand Produce640
Volume of Exports New Zealand Produce640
Retail Prices Index Numbers710
Share Prices727
Final Expenditures740
Distribution of Private Outlay742
Balance of Payments by Monetary Areas770
Changes in Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand772
Revenue from Taxation795
Trading Banks Deposits and Advances871
Trading Banks Classification of Advances873
Notes in Circulation875
Overseas Reserves894
New Mortgages907
Life Assurance New Business926
Life Assurance Total Assets933
Membership of Industrial Unions of Workers102
Industrial Accidents1023
Arrivals and Departures by Sea and Air1057

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

.. figures not available not yet available = space left blank

... not applicable

- amount too small to be expressed

x revised

VALUES

All values arc shown in New Zealand currency.

MEASURES

Unless otherwise stated, a ton is a long ton (2,240 lb).

ROUNDING

On occasions figures are rounded off to the nearest thousand or some other convenient unit. This may result in a total disagreeing slightly with the total of the individual items as shown in tables. Where figures are rounded the unit is in general expressed in words below the table headings, but where space does not allow this the unit may be shown as 000 for thousand, etc.

FISCAL YEARS

Figures for fiscal years ended 31 March (the fiscal year) are indicated in the text and headings of tables; otherwise figures are mainly for calendar years.

ABBREVIATIONS

bd. ft.board feet
chchains
ctd.continued
cu. ft.cubic feet
cwthundredweight
d.pence
Eeast
ftfeet
ggramme
galgallon
hhour
h.p.horsepower
in.inch
kWkilowatt
kWhkilowatt-hour
lbpound
mmile
minminute
mmmillimetre
Nnorth
n.e.i.not elsewhere included
n.e.c.not elsewhere classified
ozounce
£(000)thousand pounds
£(m)million pounds
s.shillings
Ssouth
sq. ft.square feet
sup. ft.super feet
Wwest
yyard

STATISTICAL AREAS

The boundaries of statistical areas are shown on the map inside the back cover.

Chapter 1. Section 1 PHYSIOGRAPHY

Table of Contents

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION-The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1,000 miles east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands-North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits-with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 530 statute miles to the east of Lyttleton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, exclusive of island territories, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 620 statute miles north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 370 statute miles south of Stewart Island.

New Zealand is also responsible for the administration of three island groups in the south-west Pacific-the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Tokelau Islands. These are incorporated within the boundaries of New Zealand. The principal island of the Cook Group, Rarotonga, is 1,870 statute miles north-east of Auckland, and Niue to the west of the Cook Islands is 1,550 statute miles from Auckland. Lying to the north-west of the Cook Islands are the Tokelau Islands. In all, there are 23 islands scattered over a vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean making up New Zealand's island territories. The territorial area reaches to within 8 degrees of the Equator and extends south to the Tropic of Capricorn, while in longitude it covers nearly 20 degrees (156 degrees west to 173 degrees west).

The Ross Dependency, some 1,500 statute miles to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south.

The administrative area of New Zealand can be classified as follows. In this Yearbook, in general, New Zealand refers to the group of islands shown in (a) only, unless it is expressly stated that the other islands as a whole or in part are included.

New Zealand:

* Situated off North Island.

†Situated off South Island.

(a) Exclusive of island territories-Area in Square Miles
North Island44,281
South Island58,093
Stewart Island670
Chatham Islands372
Minor islands-
Inhabited -
Kermadec Islands*13
Campbell Island44
Uninhabited (area in parentheses)263
There Kings*(2); Snares(1); Solander (½); Antipodes (24); Bounty (½); Auckland (234).
Total New Zealand, exclusive of island territories103,736
(b) Island territories -
Tokelau Islands, comprised of -Area in Square Miles
Fakaofo Island, Nukunono Island, Atafu Island4
Cook and associated islands, comprised of- 
Southern Group82
Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Mangaia, Mauke, Atiu, Takutea, Mitiaro, Manuae and Te-au-o-tu. 
Northern Group11
Palmerston, Pukapuka, Penrhyn, Suwarrow, Manihiki, Nassau, Rakahanga. 
Niue Island100
Total island territories197
(c) Ross Dependency(Estimated) 160,000
Total New Zealand, inclusive of island territories and Ross Dependency263,933

The total area of the foregoing groups, exclusive of the Ross Dependency, is 103,933 square miles. Elsewhere in this volume-viz, in the section on land tenure, settlement, etc.-the aggregate area of New Zealand appears as 66,390,700 acres-i.e., 103,736 square miles. The latter area does not include the Cook and associated islands or the Tokelau Islands. (Western Samoa, which had been administered as a trust territory since 1946, became an independent territory from 1 January 1962.)

The relevant Proclamations, defining from time to time the administrative area of New Zealand, are briefly referred to in Section 2.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline-Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 280 miles at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coastline is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use is made and the use of Tauranga harbour is expanding. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have-with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound-little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater construction, etc. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river mouths or by harbour-construction work.

Mountains-The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 650 ft contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft), Ruapehu (9,175 ft), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft), and Tongariro (6,458 ft), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 4,000 ft on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft), while no fewer than 16 peaks exceed 10,000 ft. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

As might be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a g-eater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps were an effective barrier to communication by land between the east and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaus determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor as extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Owing to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 9,000 ft in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (Feet)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu9,175
Egmont8,260
Ngauruhoe7,515
Tongariro6,458
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges- 
Tapuaenuku9,465
Alarm9,400
Southern Alps- 
Cook12,349
Tasman11,475
Dampier11,287
Silberhorn10,757
Lendenfeldt10,503
David's Dome10,443
Make Brun10,421
Torres10,376
Teichelmann10,370
Sefton10,359
Haast10,294
Elie de Beaumont10,200
Douglas Peak10,107
La Perouse10,101
Haidinger10,059
Minarets10,058
Aspiring9,957
Hamilton9,915
Glacier Peak9,865
De la Beche9,815
Aiguilles Rouges9,731
Nazomi9,716
Darwin9,715
Chudleigh9,686
Annan9,667
Low9,653
Haeckel9,649
Goldsmith9,532
Conway Peak9,510
Bristol Top9,508
Walter9,507
Grey9,490
Green9,307
Hutton9,297
D'Archiac9,279
Ronald Adair9,276
Hochstetter Dome9,258
Earnslaw9,250
Nathan9,200
Barnicoat9,183
Sibbald9,181
Arrowsmith9,171
Spencer9,167
The Footstool9,073
Rudolf9,039
The Dwarf9,025
Darran Range- 
Tutoko9,042

Glaciers-In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 1$1/4$ miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley (8 miles), and the Hooker (7$1/4$ miles), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 9 3/4 miles and 8½ miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft and 690 ft.

As will be realised, these glaciers are an important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilised for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers-Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago where the rivers are so utilised.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (Miles)
* Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern points of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.
NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean- 
Piako65
Waihou (or Thames)95
Rangitaiki95
Whakatane65
Waiapu (from source, Mata River)75
Waipaoa (from source, Waipapa Stream)70
Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)85
Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)95
Ngaruroro90
Tukituki70
Flowing into Cook Strait*- 
Ruamahanga90
Hutt35
Flowing into the Tasman Sea- 
Otaki30
Manawatu120
Rangitikei130
Turakina70
Whangaehu100
Wanganui180
Waitotara55
Patea75
Waitara85
Mokau85
Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)270
Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)115
Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)45
RiverLength (Miles)
SOUTH ISLAND 
Flowing into Cook Strait- 
Pelorus40
Wairau105
Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean- 
Clarence130
Conway30
Waiau-uha (or Waiau)105
Hurunui90
Waipara40
Ashley60
Waimakariri100
Selwyn50
Rakaia90
Ashburton70
Rangitata (from Source, Clyde River)75
Opihi50
Pareora35
Waihao45
Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)135
Kakanui40
Shag45
Taieri175
Clutha (from source, Makarora River)210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait- 
Mataura140
Oreti120
Aparima (Jacobs River)70
Waiau (from source, Clinton River)135
Flowing into the Tasman Sea- 
Hollyford50
Cascade40
Arawhata45
Haast60
Karangarua25
Cook25
Waiho (from source, Callery River)20
Whataroa35
Wanganui35
Waitaha25
Hokitika40
Arahura35
Taramakau50
Grey75
Buller (from source, Travers River)110
Mokihinui35
Karamea50
Heaphy25
Aorere (from source, Spee River)45
Takaka (from source, Cobb River)45
Motueka70
Waimea(from source, Wai-iti River)30

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means, but the amount of gold now extracted is comparatively small.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes-In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Owing to the excellence of their fishing, the North Island lakes possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength, in MilesGreatest Breadth, in MilesArea, in square MilesDrainage Area, in Square MilesApproximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per secondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Feet (Range in Brackets)*Greatest Depth, in Feet
* The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.
NORTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Taupo25172341,2704,4901,172 (5)522
Rotorua631203..920 (2)84
Rotoiti10313248852916 (2)230
Tarawera71472273981 (2)285
Rotoaira31 ¾5502401,852 (3)..
Waikaremoana126211656232,015 (45)840
Wairarapa124311,236..564
Rotoehu32317..968 (4)..
Rotoma3 ¼2 ¼12..1,036 (6)..
Okataina43425..1,018 (9)..
Okareka1 ¼1 ¼8..1,160 (4)..
Rotomahana41 ¾27..1,116 (22)..
Rerewhakaitu1 ¾3....1,441 (4)..
Tikitapu1¾½....1,364..
Artificial       
Ohakuri21¼1,8505,540942..
Atiamuri4¼½1,9805,830826..
Whakamaru13½½32,1556,160742..
Maraetai½2,3906,730618..
Waipapa6¼½2,507,010417..
Arapuni10½52,6557,310363 (2)..
Karapiro15¼32,8807,820176..
Whakamarino½¼1/10....900..
SOUTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Rotoiti94714402,020 (6)250
Rotoroa291459601,462 (5)499
Brunner15160..280357
Kaniere61 ¼611..429646
Coleridge11214216..1,672680
Summer6 1½130...... 
Tekapo11375503,0602,347 (25)620
Pukaki5325234,5201,640 (30)..
Ohau113234602,3101,730 (9)..
Hawea195465672,2401,133(53)1,285
Wanaka283749827,150915 (14)..
Wakatipu4831131,1506,1601,017 (7)1,239
Te Anau3861331,2759,730686 (15)906
Manapouri185551,78513,630608 (21)1,455
Monowai12111105495643 (13)..
Hauroko2227½2551,100513 (6)..
Poteriteri18181601,05096..
Waihola4 1 ¼32,200..(Tidal)52 
Ellesmere14870745..(Tidal)7
Artificial       
Cobb3¼¾281982,650 (50)..
Waitaki3½3,75012,150753..
Roxburgh20¼2 ¼6,01217,270430..
Mahinerangi9181202301,282..

GEOLOGY-The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt; this is a region where volcanoes are active and where the earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata; earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata are in many places tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over New Zealand many times, and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale); their age is revealed by the shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old-they were formed at depth in the earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the "roots" of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of feel thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed when huge, elongated sea basins (geo-synclines) were formed, in which tens of thousands of feet thickness of sediments accumulated; when these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have been intruded into the outer crust in molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent) Quaternary Tertiary10thousand
CenozoicPleistocene Quaternary Tertiary1million
CenozoicPliocene Quaternary Tertiary11 "
CenozoicMiocene Quaternary Tertiary25 "
CenozoicOligocene Quaternary Tertiary20 "
CenozoicEocene Quaternary Tertiary60 "
CenozoicPaleocene Quaternary Tertiary70 "
MesozoicCretaceous135 "
MesozoicJurassic180 "
MesozoicTriassic225 "
PaleozoicPermian270 "
PaleozoicCarboniferous350 "
PaleozoicDevonian400 "
PaleozoicSilurian440 "
PaleozoicOrdovician500 "
PaleozoicCambrian600 "

Geological History-Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks; this suggests that a large land mass existed at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood; for a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period-probably until the early Cretaceous period-an expensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place: although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand, the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous landmass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand Geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country; it embraces roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others: in the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white, foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated, in swamps on the surface of the old land; these became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered, remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: "The pattern of folds, welts and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic … the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds.… we can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago.… a kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margin seems to have gone on…" The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era-in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods-one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of feet; it must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each of a few inches or feet. The blocks adjacent to "transcurrent" faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps-steep faces hundreds or even thousands of feet high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements have built, carving the detailed landscape pattern of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other constructional forms; at the coast, waves have driven back the headlands, and built beaches, spits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range.

*"New Zealand Biogeography" by Charles A Fleming. Tuatara Vol. 10, No. 2, June 1962, pp. 53-108.

Volcanic activity of the past few millions of years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island; Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, achieved much of its growth then, too. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe; more than 2,000 cubic miles of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau.

The Geological Survey, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has built up this body of geological knowledge.

Geological Maps-The geological maps show the present distribution of major rock groups in New Zealand, brought about by the events and processes that have been summarised in previous paragraphs. (These maps were originally prepared for the New Zealand Encyclopaedia)

South Island

Older Rocks-Much of the late Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rock that once must have covered a large part of the South Island has been worn off by erosion since the Kaikoura Orogeny, and the "undermass" of old rocks has been exposed.

The oldest of these rocks lie to the west: Fiordland is made up mainly of metamorphic diorite, granite, and coarse schist, gneiss, and marble, with Ordovician graptolite-bearing slates in its southwest extremity; greywackes and argillites of possibly pre-Cambrian age occur in Westland and southwest Nelson, and further north in Nelson there are large areas of complexly folded Cambrian and Ordovician sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Large granitic masses, hundreds of square miles in area, occur in Westland, Nelson, and Stewart Island.

These ancient rocks terminate with an abrupt boundary (which shows clearly even on this small-scale map) extending from Milford Sound along the western margin of the Southern Alps. This boundary is the Alpine Fault, a great fracture that divides the South Island into two areas of dissimilar geological structure: to the west of it, and in Fiordland, are the granites and other ancient rocks just described; to the east, the undermass rocks are predominantly the sedimentary and marine volcanic rocks of the New Zealand Geosyncline, and their metamorphosed forms, of later Paleozoic and Mesozoic age. From Marlborough, through Canterbury to North Otago, the map shows an almost continuous expanse of these rocks; here they are mainly sparsely fossiliferous greywackes and argillite strata of Triassic and Jurassic age. On the Western flanks of the Southern Alps, and in Otago, these sedimentary rocks merge gradually with schist and gneiss. Those of the Southern Alps show on the map as a very narrow belt, cut off by the Alpine Fault, but the southern schists form a belt some 60 miles wide extending for about 150 miles across Otago. To the south, also, this schist mass merges gradually with sedimentary rocks of the New Zealand Geosyncline, here of Permian age: these strata, mainly tuffs and tuffaceous greywackes forming a belt that stretches across Southland, are the northern limb of a major downfold or syncline; Triassic and Jurassic strata occupy its core, making up much hill country of Southland. The southern limb rocks include much marine volcanic rock, and in the core of the syncline in western Southland a belt of dunite and serpentine is intruded and is well exposed in the Olivine and Red Hill ranges.

A sequence of rocks very like that of Southland is found also in eastern Nelson; hers, fossiliferous Triassic rocks and Permian sedimentary and volcanic rocks closely resembling those of Southland are found, and a belt of dunite and serpentine (the Nelson "mineral belt") intrudes them. It has been suggested that the Nelson and Southland rocks, which terminate abruptly at the Alpine Fault and its continuation as the Wairau Fault, were originally joined, and have been displaced some 300 miles by lateral movement at the fault.

Younger Rocks-On the eastern side of the South Island, upper Cretaceous and Tertiary strata survive only as small patches, the remnants of a once fairly complete cover of younger rocks. Thick geosynclinal Cretaceous strata are found in the Clarence and Awatere Valleys of Marlborough, but elsewhere in the eastern South Island the upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary strata are thin. They include foraminiferal limestone, greensands, sandstones, and other shell deposits formed during slow transgression by the sea. Oligocene limestone remnants mark the period of maximum transgression.

On the western side of the South Island the younger rocks are more widespread, and include some thick sequences that were formed in rapidly sinking basins. The oldest are the coal measures, mainly Eocene in age. They are overlain in some areas by thick lower Tertiary marine strata. In Southland, thick Tertiary strata occupy the Waiau Syncline, between Lake Te Anau and Foveaux Strait.

The map shows some large areas of Pleistocene to Recent terrestrial deposits in the South Island. The largest forms the Canterbury Plains, and consists of old shingle deposits of unknown thickness washed from the Southern Alps during the Pleistocene glaciation. Others occupy the Moutere depression of Nelson, and form Southland Plains, and intermontane basins, such as the McKenzie Plains, in the main mountain chains. Thick Pleistocene moraines form the main surface rocks of South Westland.

Banks Peninsula is the only large mass of young volcanic rocks in the South Island; there are smaller areas at Timaru, Oamaru, and in the Dunedin district.

North Island

Older Rocks-Unlike the South Island, the North Island has no large expanses of granite or of metamorphic rocks: the undermass rocks are almost wholly complexly folded and faulted greywackes and argillites of the New Zealand Geosyncline, predominantly Mesozoic in age.

The largest expanse of these hard rocks forms the main mountain backbone of the North Island, extending from Cook Strait to the East Cape area. Smaller areas of them are exposed between north Taranaki and Auckland; they include the richly fossiliferous strata of the Kawhia Syncline, a major downfold of the undermass rocks.

In North Auckland, deeply weathered undermass rocks, in part of Permian age, form low hill country in the east, particularly between Whangaroa and Whangarei harbours.

Younger Rocks-Over most of the North Island the older rocks are hidden by Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary rocks and by young volcanic rocks. In some areas the younger sedimentary rocks are thin and patchy; in others they are many thousands of feet thick over hundreds of square miles. The bulk of them are poorly consolidated sandstones, and grey mudstones to which the colloquial name "papa rock" is often applied.

The main areas with thick sequences of these young strata are the Taranaki-Wanganui-Rangitikei district, and the region east of the main ranges, including most of the Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, and Wairarapa districts. In both areas intensive oil prospecting of recent years has greatly added to knowledge of the structure.

In the Taranaki-Wanganui-Rangitikei district the strata dip gently south, so that increasingly young rocks are exposed in this direction, the lower Tertiary being seen only in the north. However, recent oil bores drilled to depths of about 13,000 ft at Kapuni in Taranaki, passed through a full sequence of strata from Pleistocene through all Tertiary stages, finally reaching Eocene coal measures.

In the eastern North Island the structure of the younger rocks is much more complex than in the western area. Upper Cretaceous strata are followed by Tertiary in many sedimentary basins large and small, with many unconformities. The southern part of the region is broken by many trans-current faults, and hard lower Cretaceous greywacke piercement bodies project from the younger rocks.

Younger rocks of South Auckland do not form such large basins as those just described. The oldest of these strata are the Eocene coal measures of the Waikato region. Upper Cretaceous strata, mainly mudstones, are the most widespread of the younger rocks of North Auckland.

Young volcanic rocks are widespread in the North Island. The largest area of them is the Central Volcanic District: north of the three great andesite volcanoes, Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro, lies the "volcanic plateau", an expanse of some 10,000 square miles made up of several thousand cubic miles of ignimbrite, rhyolite lava, and pumice. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world. Most of it has been erupted in late Pliocene and Pleistocene times. The belt of most recent activity in the Central Volcanic District is known as the Taupo Volcanic Zone; it contains all this country's active volcanoes, many inactive ones, and all the geysers and boiling springs.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition; the largest is Pirongia, some 3,000 ft high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; many small scoria cones are seen at Auckland city. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young scoria cones.

A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand contains geological maps of New Zealand and summaries of New Zealand's geology and landscape development. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 66, The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000, is a lengthier summary with a more detailed geological map and cross sections.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background-Earthquakes are geographically associated with active volcanoes and with major earth movements such as mountain building; these three types of disturbance are confined, for the most part, to certain limited regions of the world. Such disturbed regions, of which New Zealand is one, are evidently the site of some kind of development affecting the outer shell of the Earth. Little is yet known about the internal processes that give rise to these geophysical disturbances, nor are the relations connecting them understood in any detail.

Formerly earthquakes were believed to be caused by volcanic activity, but it is now recognised that volcanic earthquakes are restricted to small shocks in the immediate vicinity of the volcanism. In New Zealand, tremors of this kind are experienced in the zone of active volcanism that extends from Mount Ruapehu to White Island.

In some places geological faulting at the surface gives visible evidence that a major earth movement has occurred. Occasionally movement on a fault has been observed to occur simultaneously with an earthquake in the same vicinity. New Zealand provided one of the earliest examples of this to become generally known, when movement took place on the Wairarapa Fault at the time of the great Wellington earthquake of 1855. Such events as this have led to the idea that earthquakes in general are caused by fault movements, but it has proved difficult to find convincing evidence in support of this theory. It is noteworthy that there seems to be little earthquake activity along much of the Alpine Fault, which has been traced for 300 miles from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti and is classed by geologists as one of the largest and most active faults in the world. The nature of the connection between earthquakes and faulting is still somewhat obscure.

The great majority of the world's earthquakes occur at depths of less than 40 miles, and in many earthquake zones there are no shocks at any greater depth. A moderate number of New Zealand earthquakes are classed as intermediate in depth, i.e., originating at between 40 miles and 190 miles deep. The two deepest New Zealand earthquakes recorded so far occurred four and a half minutes apart on 23 March 1960, with a common focus 370 miles deep under north Taranaki; this is about 80 miles shallower than the deepest earthquake known.

It is difficult to compare the degree of earthquake activity in New Zealand with that in other regions because of the many differences that arise in earthquake type and mode of occurrence. New Zealand and California are often regarded as roughly similar, with an activity very much less than, for example, Japan or Chile.

Regional Distribution-There are two separate regions of earthquake activity in New Zealand. The larger, northern region may be roughly defined as lying between latitude 36½°S and 43½°S. It thus includes the northern half of the South Island, and all the North Island apart from the North Auckland peninsula; but the area from Kaipara Harbour to the lower Waikato River should be excluded. The southern active region lies to the west of longitude 169½°E, and incorporates Southland, western Otago, and southern Westland. Earthquakes have only occasionally been located in the parts of New Zealand lying outside these two regions.

Within the active regions the occurrence of shallow earthquakes is widely scattered. There has been a tendency, however, for the larger shallow earthquakes to lie towards the Pacific side of the northern active region and towards the Tasman side of the southern active region. Earthquakes with deeper foci are mostly confined to a narrow belt in the northern region, extending from the Bay of Plenty south-westwards to Tasman Bay.

The historical record is too brief to support a quantitative assessment of the frequency with which one might expect earthquakes to be felt at a given intensity in various parts of New Zealand. Considering the distances to which major earthquakes can be effective, in relation to the size of New Zealand, it would be imprudent to regard any part of the country as permanently exempt from the possibility of earthquake damage.

Outside the active regions there are many areas, however, where no damaging intensity has actually been experienced in historical times. Moreover, since the major shallow earthquakes on record have been rather widely distributed within the active regions, there appears to be no particular area of markedly intense seismicity.

The Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931 resulted directly or indirectly in 255 deaths. The total of deaths that have been recorded as due to other earthquakes since 1848 is 29.

Seismological Observatory-Earthquake recorders are operated continuously at the following stations by the Seismological Observatory, Wellington: Apia and Afiamalu (Samoa); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Suva (Fiji); Onerahi, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Gisborne, Wairakei, Tuai, Tarata, Tongariro, Bunnythorpe, and Wellington (North Island); Cobb, Kaimata, Gebbies Pass, Roxburgh, and Monowai (South Island); Hallett Station and Scott Base (Antarctica). The installations at the following stations include instruments for recording distant earthquakes: Afiamalu, Suva, Auckland, Wellington, Roxburgh, Hallett, Scott Base. At the Samoan and Antarctic stations preliminary readings are made locally and notified by radiogram. The analysis of records from all stations is carried out at the Observatory in Wellington.

The Observatory publishes regular reports of all significant earthquakes occurring in the New Zealand region; in a normal year there are about 200 such earthquakes, and about 100 of these are reported felt. The analysis involves using observations from stations in other countries as well as those from the local network, and the Observatory likewise contributes data to the international seismological agencies about distant earthquakes as well as large local ones. Details of tremors felt in New Zealand are supplied to the public and the press. In the study of felt earthquakes the instrumental results are augmented by "felt reports"; these are supplied by a large number of voluntary observers throughout New Zealand in response to a standard questionnaire issued by the Observatory.

Earthquake data are used by the Observatory for studying the fundamental characteristics of the Earth's crust in New Zealand, Antarctica, and the neighbouring oceanic regions, and also for contributing to geophysical knowledge of the Earth's deep interior.

Principal Earthquakes During the Year 1964-The largest earthquake of the year, of magnitude 6.4 (Richter scale) occurred on 8 March 1964, a few miles off the coast near Big Bay, to the north of Milford Sound. This earthquake is the largest shallow shock in New Zealand since that of 25 May 1960, which had a magnitude of 7.0 and occurred in the same locality. It was widely felt in Otago, Southland, and Westland, but no damage was reported.

Two large deep earthquakes occurred during the year beneath the Bay of Plenty. The first, of magnitude 6.2, took place on 22 February at a depth of 160 miles, and the second, of magnitude 6.1, on 25 May at a depth of 100 miles. Because of their depth, these shocks were not felt strongly.

Further shocks were felt in Northland in April, following the series of earthquakes there at the end of 1963. Large earthquakes originating to the south of New Zealand were felt in Southland on 13 September and 8 November.

An eruption of steam and mud at Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group on 21 November caused the island to be evacuated for a fortnight. A swarm of small earthquakes preceded the eruption, and in the initial stages on 10 November over 80 shocks were recorded per hour. The largest shock occurred on 14 November and had a magnitude of 5.7.

Another swarm, unaccompanied by volcanic activity started in the Taupo-Wairakei area early in December, and continued to the end of the year. The largest earthquakes had magnitudes approaching 5 and at the peak of the activity, on 11 and 12 December, over 100 shocks a day were recorded at Wairakei.

WEATHER INFORMATION-The collection of weather information and the provision of weather forecasts and climatic data for diverse interests in aviation, shipping, agriculture, Government Departments, and the general public are functions of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. By arrangement with the administrations concerned the Service performs similar functions for British territories in the Pacific.

Weather reports for use in forecasting are made at about 130 places within New Zealand and 50 in Pacific islands and collected by telegraph and radio, along with measurements of winds at upper levels made at eight radar wind-measuring stations and of temperatures made at seven radiosonde stations. Daily observations are made for climatological purposes at about 180 places in New Zealand and 60 in the islands. Rainfall measurements are made at a total of about 1,400 places within New Zealand and 110 outside the country.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually in the Meteorological Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in a climatological table included in the New Zealand Gazette.

CLIMATE-Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the broad belt of strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 60°S.

In the Australasian region there is no semipermanent anticyclone, as exists in subtropical latitudes in the Indian and eastern Pacific Oceans. Instead, a continual eastward migration of anticyclones takes place, roughly at weekly intervals. Most of the centres pass over or to the north of the North Island. The low-pressure troughs which separate successive anticyclones are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A period of disturbed weather accompanies the trough with a change to cold southerly or south-westerly winds as it advances north-eastwards over New Zealand. Conditions improve again with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. While this simple progression dominates the day-to-day weather, the situation frequently becomes much more complex. The troughs are unstable systems where depressions commonly form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that travel south-eastwards across New Zealand.

The anticyclones themselves continually vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their tracks are furthest north in the spring, on the average, and reach their southern limit in late summer or early autumn when most of the centres cross central or southern New Zealand. At this time of the year, too, northern and eastern districts of the North Island occasionally come under the influence of deep cyclones of tropical origin.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Australia, the nearest continent, is 1,000 miles to the west; Antarctica is 1,400 miles to the south. Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer, or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the oceans, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 80 miles from the sea.

Winds-Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the flow from the west turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the southeast. This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and a predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 20 miles or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast the wind comes most frequently from the north-east, partly because there is a persistent sea breeze from this quarter, but south of Dunedin south-westerlies predominate. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the south-east as well as the north-west. This "funnel" effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more from the south-west, and there is a noticeable reduction in windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These were all obtained by the use of Dines pressure-tube anemometers at well exposed sites, mostly aerodromes.

StationAverage Number of Days With Gusts ReachingYear of Data
40 m.p.h. or More60 m.p.h. or More
Nov-AprMay-OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia923320.61.11.78
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)2230520.81.62.419
Rotorua67130.20.10.316
Hamilton913220.00.60.68
Gisborne1724410.20.70.916
New Plymouth3549842.75.38.019
Palmerston North2523480.70.81.512
Wellington (Kelburn)787315117.411.228.68
Nelson2115360.50.20.718
Blenheim (Woodbourne)2417410.70.91.612
Hokitika1619351.51.73.214
Christchurch3126571.71.63.316
Taieri3126571.61.22.818
Invercargill5140915.24.49.614

NOTE-These are all aerodromes, with the exception of Auckland (Mechanics Bay) and Wellington (Kelburn).

Rainfall-The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rain-falls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 13 in. in a small area of Central Otago to over 300 in. in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 25 and 60 in., a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 25 in. are found in the South Island, to the east of the main ranges. These include most of Central and North Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 30-40 in. a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 60 in. Over a sizeable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 100 in. a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year, although its effectiveness in summer is, of course, much reduced. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island rain can be measured on at least ISO days a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places, fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 25 in. generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 per cent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (0.10 in. or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there arc only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn when very dry conditions may develop cast of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 22 in., which occurred at Milford Sound where the mean annual rainfall is 250 in. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in north-eastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 3 in. are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (INCHES) (1921-50)
StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Te Paki, Te Hapua3.33.63.35.66.57.27.35.64.53.83.03.156.8
Auckland3.34.12.84.34.85.55.54.33.84.23.23.148.9
Tauranga Airport3.53.53.85.04.95.65.04.83.84.63.33.451.2
Ruakura, Hamilton3.33.22.94.04.34.94.64.13.74.33.72.945.9
Rotorua4.43.93.44.65.55.54.64.84.44.93.93.853.7
Gisborne Airport2.83.23.03.45.03.94.93.92.92.62.22.039.8
Lake Waikaremoana6.26.16.06.78.67.37.77.06.05.45.24.776.9
New Plymouth4.74.13.75.05.36.46.25.94.85.84.54.861.2
Napier2.62.82.22.73.83.13.52.81.91.91.92.031.2
Wanganui2.73.02.22.83.13.42.93.02.53.22.72.934.4
Palmerston North3.03.02.43.33.53.93.13.52.93.83.33.339.0
Masterton2.52.72.22.74.14.03.94.23.13.12.62.938.0
Wellington (Kelburn)2.83.53.03.64.54.64.95.13.74.63.14.147.5
Nelson Airport2.72.32.63.03.43.12.93.62.93.62.73.135.9
Blenheim2.01.91.61.92.62.32.42.52.42.51.81.925.8
Hanmer3.53.73.33.44.83.53.74.04.04.33.33.845.3
Hokitika9.88.68.48.89.08.08.39.38.310.99.59.9108.8
Lake Coleridge2.62.42.12.82.82.63.13.13.13.22.42.833.0
Christchurch2.21.81.71.83.02.72.42.32.02.02.02.426.3
Timaru2.52.51.81.81.71.61.51.41.82.11.92.923.5
Milford Sound25.523.122.321.821.614.714.717.319.826.023.123.4253.3
Queenstown3.22.53.02.92.62.22.22.52.63.02.52.431.6
Alexandra1.81.51.21.30.90.80.70.60.81.21.11.313.2
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2.82.52.52.52.62.92.52.32.22.52.82.931.0
Invercargill Airport3.63.84.33.83.73.92.83.03.33.43.63.642.8

Thunderstorms-Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail-Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about five days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature-Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 59°F in the far north to 54° about Cook Strait, then to 49° in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 3° per 1,000 ft. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature, are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they rise to the nineties on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Fohn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 101° at Ashburton and-3° at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 15°F. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 17°-19°. Further inland it exceeds 20° in places, reaching a maximum of 25° in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Frost-It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these "Katabatic" drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (4 ft above the ground) has registered below 32°F only once in nearly 50 years, yet across the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as 10° are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow-The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above about 8,000 ft on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 2,000 ft even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 7,000 ft in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 1,000 ft of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 1,000 ft, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain permanently below 3,000 ft.

Relative Humidity-Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 per cent in coastal areas and about 10 per cent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 per cent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
per cent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne89629072
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch87618973
Hokitika95789375
Invercargill90729178

Very low humidities-between 20 and 30 per cent or lower-occur at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry "Canterbury Norwester" is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 85°. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine-The sunniest areas are to be found locally near Blenheim, Nelson, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2,400 hours per annum. Napier and the rest of the Bay of Plenty are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1,800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to 1,700 hours per annum, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours per annum. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations have been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

 SummerWinter
per cent
Auckland5749
Hamilton5244
New Plymouth5347
Napier5752
Wellington5242
Nelson5857
Hokitika4344
Christchurch4645
Dunedin4143
Invercargill4235

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages-The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAltitudeAnnual AveragesAir Temperature (Degrees Fahrenheit)
Rain Days (O.O1 in. or More)Wet Days(0.10in. or More)Bright SunshineDays of Screen Frost (min. air temp, less than 32° F)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
 fthours          
Te Paki. Tc Hapua -1901871122,140259.3736057467830
Auckland1601731002,090059.5735760468137
Tauranga Airport12152912,320957.2755755408529
Ruakura, Hamilton131168991,9802955.4745652378523
Rotorua1,006151962,0002653.7745452368724
Gisborne Airport13158832,210856.8765755409128
Lake Waikaremoana2,110196132..551.7684852378330
New Plymouth1601661132,110156.1695556437832
Napier5124622,280857.1745557398929
Wanganui72146872,120456.1715456418330
Palmerston North110172941,8101655.0715355398227
Masterton340172922,0603053.9745351368925
Wellington (Kelburn)415158972,010054.3685155427934
Nelson Airport6125742,4104453.2715354348223
Blenheim14108592,4303354.5745552368923
Hanmer1,270143891,9108849.6734848288915
Hokitika121941401,8601951.6665351367627
Lake Coleridge1,19511871..6950.0714849308818
Christchurch22116591,9903752.6705053349025
Timaru-56112571,9203951.9705051339024
Milford Sound16193163...3150.4654950347727
Queenstown1,080132751,9805450.1714649318623
Alexandra520100392,0808950.9744551289018
Dunedin (Musselburgh)5167781,7301251.6675052378628
Invercargill Airport01991091,6605349.1654948338222

NOTE: (1) Averages of rain days and wet days 1950-59; sunshine 1935-60; mean temperature 1931-60; other temperature data and days of screen frost, various periods-all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

Normal Seasonal Temperature Pattern-A feature of the seasonal pattern of temperature for New Zealand is the near symmetry about either the hottest summer months or the coldest winter months. In other words the summer-winter decline is an almost identical reversal of the winter-summer rise. This shows up clearly when temperatures for 100 climatological stations are averaged month by month. The first two months of the calendar year, the summer months of January and February, display the same average temperature, that of 61.3°F. This temperature is the highest average for any month, being approached by only the December average of 59.2F. Once February is past a decline sets in, the estimated average New Zealand temperature falling by 2.5°F from February to March to give a March average of 58.8°F. Thereafter, successive inter-monthly temperature drops of 4.4°, 5.4°, 4.2°, and 1.2°F finally produce a July average of 43.6°F, which makes this month the coldest of the year. Progressing through and past July the temperature steadily rises, the increments being successively, 1.8°, 3.4°, 3.8°, 3.2°, 3.4°, and 2.1°F, finally returning to the January mark of 61.3°F.

ESTIMATED NORMAL NEW ZEALAND NORMAL TEMPERATURE (°F)*
Calendar MonthMean Temperature
* Based on temperature normals for 100 climatological stations.
January61.3
February61.3
March58.8
April54.4
May49.0
June44.8
July43.6
August45.4
September44.8
October52.6
November55.8
December59.2

The following diagram illustrates the seasonal temperature pattern.

Brief Review of 1964: Year-In 1964 the year was unusually dry east of the ranges in both Islands, with mainly less than two-thirds of the average rainfall. It was the driest year in 70-100 years of observation in parts of coastal North Otago, including Oamaru, and also to the north and west of Napier. In parts of Central Otago it was equal with 1915 as the driest year. On and near the coast from Kaikoura to about Cheviot in North Canterbury rainfall was also about the same as in 1915, the previous driest year; and in this area it was less than half the average value, which is most unusual in New Zealand. In Waikato, Waitomo, North Taranaki, Nelson, and Buller rainfall was 15-30 per cent above average. Elsewhere it was close to normal.

Temperatures were mainly close to the average. However, on the Canterbury Plains they were a degree above average.

Sunshine was 200-300 hours below average on the West Coast and in Southland; Westport, Queenstown, Gore, and Invercargill all received the lowest hours on record. Northern districts of the South Island and western districts of the North Island received 100 hours less than average. The only districts favoured with above-average sunshine, by 40-100 hours, were Central and North Canterbury, Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and northern Northland.

Seasonal Notes-January was notable mainly for exceptionally strong and persistent winds from a westerly quarter, giving rise to most unpleasant conditions for holidaymakers. It was 2 degrees cooler than average and very dry in eastern districts. Rainfall was well below average in Northland for the fourth consecutive month, causing a severe drought.

In February Northland received some rain to alleviate the dry conditions, but in many areas there was not sufficient. Generally it was a very dry month, affecting especially Rotorua-Bay of Plenty, and Canterbury, Otago, and Southland.

March, like January, was notable for unusually strong and persistent westerly winds. It was also a wet month in most districts. Following heavy rain from the 9th to the 11th, very serious flooding occurred in and around Opotiki.

April was another dry month. At Napier the total rainfall from October to April was only 8.66 in., and in Hawke's Bay conditions became exceptionally dry. In May rainfall was still below average over the North Island, especially Central and Southern Hawke's Bay, and in some areas there was a serious shortage of winter feed. A cold spell from 18-20 May brought snow to the high country of both islands.

June was cloudier than usual and also comparatively dry in the South Island. Many farmers found it a favourable month. Some exceptionally low rainfalls were reported from North and Central Otago. A cold spell on the 9th and 10th brought snow to low levels in eastern districts of the South Island.

July, August, and September were all marked by an unusually high frequency of north-westerly to westerly winds, with cloudy, wet conditions in western districts and comparatively dry and for the most part sunny weather in eastern districts. July was an exceptionally cloudy month in many districts and also very mild. It was marked by frequent thunderstorms in the Auckland provincial district from the 9th to the 26th; snowfalls were reported on the ranges from the 8th to the 10th and between the 16th and 26th. Thunderstorms were again comparatively frequent in parts of the Auckland provincial district in August. Snowfalls were reported on the high country during 11-14 August and 26-28 August. However, the coldest weather of the year came on the first two days of September. Unusually heavy snow was reported in eastern and central districts of the North Island. Lambing had commenced under favourable conditions in August; but this snow in the North Island at the beginning of September caused considerable losses of sheep, especially new-born lambs. The ground became much too wet in western districts of the North Island. By contrast, in Canterbury and Otago there was a serious shortage of feed and rain was urgently needed.

The dry spell in eastern districts of the South Island persisted in October. The total rainfall for Oamaru from April to October was only 5.03 in., the lowest 7-monthly total for this station in nearly a century of observations. The total rainfall for Alexandra for the 12 months ended 31 October 1964 was 6.59 in., the lowest yet recorded for any part of New Zealand over a period of 12 months. On the other hand, wet conditions persisted in the Auckland provincial district. Unusually heavy rainfall in and east of the Tararuas on the 24th resulted in serious flooding in the Wairarapa.

November was a cloudy month. Good rains brought some relief to Canterbury and Otago; while in the North Island rainfall below average allowed some drying-out of the ground.

December was a warm month. In the North Island the warm temperatures with adequate rainfall produced unusually good pasture growth; but in Canterbury and neighbouring areas of Otago and Marlborough rainfall was once again quite inadequate and conditions were much too dry.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1964-The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1964 were taken at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e., 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationRainfallRain Days(.01 in. or More)Bright SunshineDays of Screen Frost*Air Temperatures (Degrees Fahrenheit)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily Minimum1964 Extremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
* Minimum air temperature less than 32° F.
 in.hours         
Te Paki, Tc Hapua55.321642,188159.272.261.455.948.978.330.3
Auckland51.471942,036 59.472.858.956.948.481.038.0
Tauranga46.291612,153256.972.958.053.644.681.331.0
Ruakura, Hamilton52.561871,9531555.571.255.749.943.081.025.3
Whakarewarewa, Rotorua59.931561,8311554.170.253.850.441.482.8 
Gisborne Airport29.151192,305457.176.159.053.341.891.0 
Lake Waikaremoana56.46182 252.468.550.550.240.185.3 
New Plymouth62.731452,038 56.165.956.754.145.178.0 
Napier22.071142,3391057.075.258.554.841.289.2 
Wanganui35.151512,18255.968.156.054.344.483.6 
Palmerston North43.481701,7421054.968.055.252.341.182.0 
Waingawa, Masterton31.591552,0512154.172.354.449.638.889.2 
Kelburn, Wellington45.951412,066 54.565.853.353.744.279.2 
Nelson Airport41.721292,2442553.268.153.649.937.483.527.4
Blenheim22.861012,4081854.872.556.051.637.886.526.8
Hanmer Forest35.081391,9709150.169.751.045.231.886.526.8
Hokitika121.222221,624952.062.052.648.539.176.329.2
Lake Coleridge28.41120 61 67.950.147.233.3 23.0
Christchurch16.56951,9613953.472.653.550.135.484.925.5
Timaru17.431021,8103853.073.451.950.034.387.725.9
Milford Sound227.62221 2150.158.450.446.238.575.629.3
Alexandra8.29811,9488750.971.747.949.429.287.818.6
Queenstown34.541301,6704749.365.746.946.633.382.024.0
Musselburgh, Dunedin23.691611,5821151.564.350.449.237.485.828.0
Invercargill Airport42.002031,4113249.263.050.246.233.682.822.4

For 1964 the mean sea-level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland 1015.1; Kelburn, Wellington 1012.0; Nelson Airport 1012.6; Hokitika 1012.5; Christchurch 1010.1; and Dunedin 1008.7.

Chapter 2. Section 2 HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND GOVERNMENT

Table of Contents

EARLY HISTORY: General-When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands at least 300 years previously. It is generally accepted that the Maoris came originally from South-East Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia the ancestors of the Maori sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand and these voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals they displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

The immediate effect of European contacts on the Maoris was the outburst of a series of tribal wars waged with greater ferocity and a vastly greater loss of life than was customary in pre-European tribal engagements. The high mortality could, of course, be credited to the acquisition of a more lethal weapon, the musket. The advantage lay originally with the coastal tribes as a result of their earlier contact with Europeans, the wars continuing until all tribes were equally well armed. These wars were later followed by wars against the colonists, but after 1870 the story has been one of unbroken peace between Maoris and Europeans.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing.

Other island groups, such as the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Tokelau Islands, had also long been inhabited by Polynesians from various successive migrations extending over considerable periods prior to their discovery by Europeans.

Discovery by Europeans-On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as "New Zeeland". Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land. His exploration was of necessity very cursory, for having explored only part of one coast he had no knowledge of the country's extent or shape.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain Cook sighted land on 6 October 1769, at Young Nick's Head, near Gisborne. On his first voyage Cook spent six months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can be best described by saying "he found New Zealand a line on the map, and left it an archipelago". Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the truculent Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Seven other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century amongst whom may be mentioned M. de Surville 1769, M. Marion du Fresne 1772, Captains Vancouver and Broughton 1791, Captain Raven 1792-93, Alejandro Malaspina and Jose de Bustamente y Guerra 1793, and Lieutenant Hanson 1793.

The European discovery of many of the islands of the Cook Group was made by Captain Cook in 1773. Rarotonga and Mauke were not officially discovered for another 50 years, although there were records of earlier visits by the Bounty under the control of the mutineers in 1789 and later, in 1814, by the Cumberland. Niue Island was discovered by Cook in 1774. The first recorded discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by Quiros in 1606. Of the remaining islands of the group, Atafu was discovered in 1765, Nukunono in 1791, and Fakaofa in the 1840s.

European Settlement and Colonisation-So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven of the Britannia landed a sealing party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over 12 months before being called for.

In the years that followed, whaling stations sprang up along the coast, and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. Attracted to New Zealand were deserters from whaling vessels and escaped convicts from Australia, who, in the absence of any jurisdiction, soon became notorious for their extreme lawlessness. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, obtained permission to send two of his protégés, Kendall and Hall, to the Bay of Islands to consider the desirability of establishing a mission station. Later they returned to Sydney for Marsden, who arrived in New Zealand to preach his first sermon at the Bay of Islands on Christmas Day, 1814. Of the many admirable activities undertaken by the missionaries, their action in having the Maori language "reduced to a rational orthography" deserves special mention.

In 1825 three separate, but abortive, attempts were made to found colonies; however for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling stations, although a number of Europeans gradually penetrated inland and resided there permanently, many marrying Maori women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived in Port Nicholson in January 1840, there to found the town of Wellington, just one week before Captain William Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty (see later). These settlers were brought out from England by the New Zealand Company, whose moving spirit was Edward Gibbon Wakefield.

It was hoped that, by producing a proper balance of capitalists and artisans, self-contained communities could be successfully established. However, owing to the unsatisfactory nature of the land purchases, considerable difficulty was experienced in these initial settlements, and friction grew up not only between the settlers and the Maoris, but also between the Governor and the settlers. Before his death in 1842 Governor Hobson had transferred his capital from Russell to Auckland, but this transfer was of little assistance to the colonists, who had extended their settlements to Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson.

Following the death of Hobson, the existence of the colony became precarious, for, through lack of funds and weak administration, Maori aggression became a real menace. To c with the situation, the Colonial Office appointed Captain George Grey as Governor. Being well equipped with troops and funds, as well as being a man of vigour and perception, Grey soon restored order and won the confidence of both the settlers and the Maoris. During Grey's term two further organised settlements were made. In cooperation with the New Zealand Company the Free Church of Scotland sponsored the Dunedin Settlement of 1848, and the Church of England the Canterbury Settlement of 1850. These settlements, owing to their more favoured situations, their satisfactory land-purchase agreements, and their freedom from trouble with the Maoris, achieved a greater measure of success in carrying out the company's avowed aims.

After Grey's departure the question of relationship with the Maoris again came to the fore through the land-purchasing activities of the settlers-a situation aggravated by subsequent lack of consideration for the Maori system of land tenure. Following an incident at Waitara in the Taranaki district, where a dispute arose concerning land titles, war broke out in 1860 and lasted spasmodically till 1870. The recall of Grey did not solve the problem, as Grey, an autocrat, could not work with the elected Ministers, nor did his presence prevent the confiscation of land belonging to the Maoris, whether friendly or hostile. It was under the sympathetic administration of Sir Donald McLean as Minister for Maori Affairs that the dispute finally died down.

These hostilities were confined to the North Island; and, in the meantime, in 1861, large alluvial deposits of gold had been discovered in the South Island-leading to a tremendous influx of population and an alteration of the economic structure of the country.

No organised form of European colonisation has at any time taken place in the Cook Islands, Niue Island, or the Tokelau Islands.

SUBSEQUENT HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT (1870 ONWARDS)-The discovery of gold, by increasing the wealth of the South Island, allowed it to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion, especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally, but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool, which it has maintained to the present day.

These factors, together with freedom from strife with the Maori population, led after 1870 to a quickening in political activities. Under the leadership of Sir Julius Vogel a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction was begun. The provincial system, which really commenced in 1853, had largely outlived its usefulness; in fact, the parochialism of the provincial assemblies had frequently proved obstructive, and in consequence the system was abolished in 1875, local administration being provided for by the Counties Act and the Municipal Corporations Act of 1876.

Of great social significance was the passing in 1877 of the Education Act, making education free, compulsory, and secular, while the laying during that decade of the first cable between Australia and New Zealand was a major advance in communications. At this time party politics began to enter into the parliamentary system, and the slump conditions which prevailed in the eighties (due to a fall in the world price level) intensified the political atmosphere. By the abolition of plural voting in 1889, and the introduction of female suffrage in 1893, the way was opened for a practical expression of political convictions by all adult members of the community.

In 1891 Ballance, as Leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier, to be followed on his death in 1893 by Seddon, and during the next decade the legislative essays of this party evoked world-wide interest. The main aim of the legislation was social justice, and its principal manifestations were in land division, the establishment of the Court of Arbitration, and the introduction of old-age pensions. The policy of land division aimed at closer land settlement, and it was achieved by the compulsory subdivision of large estates, with subsequent loans to small independent farmers wishing to establish themselves. In inaugurating the Court of Arbitration the object was to eliminate strikes by giving labour a recognised bargaining status; and the enactment was in accord with the enlightened code of labour legislation passed at that time.

With the commencement of the refrigerated trade in 1882, the policy of closer settlement progressed rapidly, since the production of frozen meat and dairy produce for export encouraged more intensive farming. There thus arose a new farming class which in 1911, some five years after Seddon's death, was mainly responsible for the overthrow of the Liberal regime.

The policy of the succeeding Reform Party under Massey was one favouring agricultural production. Farming interests were given constant encouragement by a series of enactments of which the extension of rural credit was typical. Three years after the advent of the Reform Party the First World War, 1914-18, broke out, leading to the formation of a Coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports. War activities were marked by heavy casualty lists, in proportion to the population, and by enhanced cordiality in Imperial relations. One noteworthy outcome of the war commandeer was the precedent given for the establishment, after the war, of control boards to regulate the export of pastoral products.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921-24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reductions, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and from the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways.

Owing to the encouragement given to farming, pastoral production constantly expanded, so that New Zealand became one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. As a consequence, her national income was extremely sensitive to price fluctuations of these products; so that, with the advent of the depression in 1930, her economic position became extremely vulnerable. In order to produce balanced budgets, both public and private, various legislative remedies were attempted. In particular, enactments were provided for unemployment relief, for the suspension, in effect, of compulsory arbitration, for the establishment of a Reserve Bank, for a mortgage moratorium, for raising the exchange rate, and for reduction in interest rates and wages. With the recovery in price levels and consequent general economic revival, amendments were made to several of these Acts, removing the more stringent measures. The election of a Labour Government in 1935 led to a change in administrative policy, the preoccupation being mainly with social problems. Further amendments were made to the depression legislation, certain restrictive measures were removed, and other temporary adjustments made permanent.

The general climate of opinion and gradual maturity of outlook furnish the background in which certain distinctive trends appear in legislation passed since 1936.

The first major influence was a humanitarian attitude reinforced by a progressive economic policy. Evidence of this is implicit in the provision for a basic wage, and later for a minimum wage, employment-promotion legislation, amendments to workers' compensation, industrial conciliation and arbitration, mining, etc., legislation, the system of guaranteed prices for certain primary produce, the creation of farm industry reserves, and the rationalisation of production and marketing by the establishment of boards for certain items of primary produce.

The second major influence on legislation was conditioned by the outbreak of the Second World War, 1939-45. A vast body of legislation was placed on the statute book during the war period dealing with the control of manpower and materials, stabilisation of prices, wages, and rents, conditions of employment and suspension of certain peacetime features of industrial activity, discouragement of some industries and diversion to or encouragement of other industries, provision for rehabilitation, etc.

A third dominant trend was the acceptance of the principle that society should take active steps towards the improvement of the working, living, and social circumstances of its members. Foremost in this category was the Social Security Act and its later extensions providing for monetary benefits such as age, superannuation, family allowances, sickness, and unemployment, and by the provision of a system of medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Other legislative enactments under this heading include the provision for paid annual holidays, reduction of working hours, extension of workers' compensation insurance, improvement in safety and health and welfare conditions in industry, and extension of educational facilities and opportunities.

A fourth approach to law making resulting from maturity of outlook has been the increased participation by New Zealand in international affairs consequent on its acceptance of responsibility in the wider issues of the present era. Legislation authorising participation in United Nations activities generally and in particular emergencies, such as military service in Korea, Malaya, and elsewhere; the extension of New Zealand representation in overseas countries and with the United Nations; the greater frequency of Commonwealth consultation; extension of aid to less developed countries, e.g., participation in the Colombo Plan, all bear witness to this change in outlook.

Another influence on legislation presents some parallels to that last mentioned, but is more concerned with the domestic sphere. It is exemplified in the increasing interest taken in welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of New Zealand's island territories, such as the Cook Islands.

Contemporaneously with the expansion of the field of legislative interest, the economic and industrial development of the country has proceeded with marked impetus in recent years. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries have provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force. At the same time the basic industries of the country, those concerned with primary production, have increased output, assisted by the rapid application of technological improvements and research findings.

The history of New Zealand's island territories has been largely one of wise paternal oversight, particularly in the earlier periods, by the New Zealand Government and by the various missions established in the islands. More recently, successive Governments have in various ways encouraged the inhabitants to take an increasing share in the administration of their communities, thus paving the way for some form of self-government. Much attention has been paid to combating tropical diseases and to health problems generally; such island industries as citrus fruit and banana growing have been fostered and encouraged in various ways, with outlets being found for produce available for export. By and large, however, their economy is necessarily one of a subsistence type only, with financial and other assistance provided from Government sources for the expansion of educational facilities and opportunities, public works such as roading, conservation of water supplies by reservoir construction, communication facilities, etc.

Owing to limitations of space, the foregoing is but a brief résumé of New Zealand history. For detailed information, reference should be made to the many excellent books dealing with the subject, of which the more recent ones are listed in the Select Bibliography in this Yearbook.

SOVEREIGNTY-Following representations from Maori chiefs for protection from the prevailing turmoil and lawlessness caused by tribal warfare and the rough element around the whaling stations, the New South Wales Government appointed, in 1832, Mr James Busby as British Resident at Russell. Owing to the failure to supply him with any means of exerting authority, his appointment was largely ineffective. Finally the disorder, and the friction between the two races, became so intolerable that even the missionaries, who were opposed to annexation, made representations for British sovereignty.

On 29 January 1840, Captain William Hobson, RN, arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Maoris, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30 January 1840, and on 6 February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred by Hobson from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

With the gradual development of the country's economy, the acquisition of political and administrative experience, and the increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, the degree of self-government became more complete. In recognition of this and of a nascent sense of nationality, New Zealand was given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony, the new title taking effect on 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931 was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth Legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. In other words, its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the Legislatures of those countries. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminster.

As far as the island territories are concerned, the Cook Islands were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888, and in 1901 were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895. Niue Island is part of the Cook Islands, though separately administered, and became part of New Zealand in 1901 with the extension of boundaries to include the Cook Islands. The Tokelau Islands were placed under the protection of Great Britain in 1877, formally annexed at the inhabitants' request in 1916, and from 1925 were administered by New Zealand at the request of the United Kingdom Government. From 1949 they became part of New Zealand by virtue of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948.

NEW ZEALAND'S INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES-Though in the nineteenth century Sir Julius Vogel and the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon had original views about the policy which Britain and New Zealand should pursue in the Pacific area-views which they announced with vigour-New Zealand did not acquire the right to conduct an independent foreign policy until the end of the First World War when the full nationhood of the "Dominions" was recognised. For some years after this, however, successive New Zealand Governments chose not to exercise this right and (pursuing a passive role in the League of Nations and refraining from establishing diplomatic relations with foreign Governments, or with other members of the Commonwealth apart from Britain) preferred to make known any views on matters of foreign affairs only to the British Government and through the confidential channels of intra-Commonwealth consultation.

Few pressures existed in the 1920s and early 1930s to impel New Zealand towards enunciating an independent foreign policy. The population was mainly British in composition and comparatively few were concerned to distinguish between New Zealand's interests and those of Britain. Nor had they much cause to do so: New Zealand had established a fruitful economic partnership with Britain, upon which country nearly all her material and cultural links were centred; and New Zealand's surest protector against dangers which it was incapable of meeting alone was the Royal Navy. It was, moreover, realised that New Zealand in her own right could make little impact on world affairs, whereas Britain was a great power capable of affecting the pattern of world events. New Zealand "foreign policy" therefore consisted chiefly in seeking to modify British policy in those few cases where New Zealand had a strong interest or a viewpoint rather different from that of Britain. A standing opportunity was provided by the system of confidential intra-Commonwealth consultation whereby Britain provided full information to the Dominions and sought their comments upon issues of international policy as they arose. In this way New Zealand tended to prefer a share of great power status to "independence" of foreign policy; this sufficed until the middle of the 1930s.

In practice, during the first 16 years after the First World War the New Zealand Government on only a few occasions thought it necessary to make significant efforts to bring about a modification of British policy. This situation resulted chiefly from the factors earlier outlined which made for an identity of interest and viewpoint between Britain and New Zealand. In part also it arose because few problems directly affecting New Zealand remained to be settled; in part it was because of a considered reluctance to give advice when the main consequences of accepting that advice fell upon Britain, not New Zealand; in part it was because New Zealand Governments tended to approach problems pragmatically rather than on grounds of principle, and were conscious of having no expert New Zealand Department organised to collect and appraise the facts on equal terms with the British Foreign Office; in part it was because New Zealand Governments, supplied by the Foreign Office with very much the same information as that on which the United Kingdom Cabinet based its judgments, viewed problems from a similar standpoint to that of the British Government. In short, most New Zealanders thought of external affairs in terms of Imperial unity and relied on British leadership of the Empire.

The emergence of an independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually held to date from 1935. Some Ministers in the new Government were deeply interested in world affairs in general, and the Government's approach was influenced by theory and principle. In particular, they held strong views on the principle of collective security and upon the League of Nations as the embodiment of that principle. In its method of championing the principles of collective security, pressing for the restoration of the authority of the League of Nations and, at a time when the United Kingdom Government was pursuing the policy which came to be known as appeasement, urging positive League action over Abyssinia, Spain, and China, the Government came to depart from the pattern of the previous 16 years: for, in addition to making its views known in confidential communications to the United Kingdom Government, it also stated them with vigour in the international forum of the Council and the Assembly of the League of Nations.

There was, however, no fundamental departure from the traditional policy of association with Britain. Moreover, the course that would be followed in the event of war was never in doubt. As early as 16 May 1938 a leading member of the Government had said, "If the Old Country is attacked, we are too … we will assist her to the fullest extent possible." When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms that were as true in 1939 as they would have been in 1914:

"Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear behind Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we are one and all a band of brothers, and we march forward with a union of hearts and wills to a common destiny".

But the Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world and made it necessary for New Zealand gradually to revise its foreign policy and its method of implementing that policy. Even though the basic attachment of New Zealanders to Britain was little affected, the fact became manifest that Britain was no longer a power able to determine events on a world scale and that, since New Zealand interests could no longer be protected by British actions alone, it did not suffice to confine New Zealand foreign policy to occasional attempts to persuade the British Government to take note of New Zealand views. Japanese aggression and, later, the rise of Communist China forced New Zealand to face the reality of its geographical location in the Pacific and to develop an additional relationship with the only other friendly power capable of protecting New Zealand-the United States of America-with the least possible prejudice to its association with the United Kingdom. To contribute to Anglo-American harmony is therefore a major preoccupation of New Zealand foreign policy.

To be woven into any post-war policy was the now traditional New Zealand belief in the principle of collective security and international justice, especially as symbolised by, though not yet embodied in, the United Nations. This was by no means an easy task in a world where the divisions of the cold war were reflected in competing regional alliances. There had to be a place, too, for belief in the ability of international cooperation to control armaments and to eliminate poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

During the war years New Zealand was admitted to the councils of the Allies and was expected to advance informed views. The Government honoured its responsibility and, having established in wartime the habit of participating in the making of international decisions, accepted it as natural that New Zealand should continue to participate in the development of a post-war world order and in subsequent international consultations. To this end New Zealand established (in effect from 1943) a professional Department of External Affairs and a career foreign service, and proceeded slowly to establish diplomatic missions in countries where New Zealand's interests merited protection. In particular, New Zealand sought increasingly to make its individual contribution to fostering good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and to increasing the measure of security and welfare in this area.

The threat to New Zealand's security, posed by the entry of Japan into the war at a time when the United Kingdom was fully committed in Europe, brought New Zealand into the closest relations with two of her Pacific neighbours, Australia and the United States. Recognition of the need for a greater measure of collaboration with Australia resulted in the signing in 1944 of the Canberra Pact which provided machinery for continuing consultation between the two Governments. Upon the entry of Japan into the war both New Zealand and Australia looked principally to the United States for protection. Relations among the three countries thus entered a new phase. The close association of wartime found expression in peacetime in the Anzus Treaty, in which, for the first time, New Zealand and Australia entered into a treaty of alliance and mutual defence with a foreign country. While neither Australia nor New Zealand was in favour of a vindictive or onerously restrictive peace settlement with Japan, they both made clear during the negotiation of the Japanese Peace Treaty their apprehension at the possibility of future aggression in the Pacific. The Anzus Treaty, which came into force in April 1952, was designed to allay these fears at the same time as it achieved the aim of both countries to enter into a close relationship with the major Pacific power. The treaty gives an assurance of United States support in the event of an armed attack from any quarter in the Pacific and so constitutes New Zealand's major safeguard from aggression in the area.

Since the signature of the Anzus Treaty, New Zealand has become a member of another regional defence system, the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation, SEATO. In joining SEATO, a body made necessary by the failure of the Great Powers to cooperate in carrying out the security functions entrusted to them by the United Nations Charter, New Zealand demonstrated further its new awareness of the international and strategic implications of its position in the South Pacific. In 1955, the Minister of External Affairs, the Hon. T. L. Macdonald, discussing New Zealand's foreign policy, said that the only possible threat to New Zealand's security could come from Asia, and in particular from the spread of Communist power in South-East Asia. "New Zealand's foreign policy grows," he said, "from the need to reconcile geography and history, economic fact and strategic fact. In practical terms at present this means that, without weakening the many links which bind us to Britain and the whole Atlantic community, we must increase our concern with South-East Asia."

This regional approach implied no weakening of the belief in the pre-eminent value of collective security organised on a world basis. New Zealand continued to place special importance upon its membership of the United Nations. It has been an active participant in the work of the General Assembly, has been a member of all Councils of the Organisation, has provided troops to the United Nations Force in Korea and military observers in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon, and has endeavoured to assist all efforts to attain the political and social objectives outlined in the Charter.

At the time of the formation of SEATO, New Zealand's interest in South-East Asia had already been expressed in social and economic terms. In 1950, New Zealand, along with a group of other Commonwealth countries, became a member of the Colombo Plan established to assist the countries of South-East Asia to improve their standards of living. To New Zealand, a pioneer in the field of social legislation and a country where wealth is spread throughout all levels of the population, the Colombo Plan has a special significance and contributions, large by New Zealand standards (if small when measured against the potential need), have been made to it. Despite this new concentration on South-East Asia, New Zealand continued and developed its efforts (as will be seen later) to promote action on a world scale to deal with social and economic problems.

New Zealand's geographical position and that of its island territories, the Cook, Niue and Tokelau Islands, also gives this country a direct interest in political, social, and economic developments in the South Pacific. This is reflected not only in New Zealand's membership of such regional organisations as the South Pacific Commission, but also in a wide and growing range of contacts with island people and an increased sense of involvement in their problems. The evolution of self-government and nationalism in the South Pacific reached a new stage when Western Samoa became the first independent Polynesian state on 1 January 1962. New Zealand's own colonial past and her liberal tradition of friendship for emergent peoples, together with the large number of Polynesian people who have settled in this country, mean that the islanders tend to look to New Zealand for leadership and encouragement. In particular, Western Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji already look to New Zealand as an important export market and as a source of administrative and technical assistance. Inevitably, New Zealand is going to be increasingly affected by what happens in the South Pacific region.

If, since the war, the facts of geography have had an important influence on New Zealand's attitudes towards foreign affairs, history and tradition continue nevertheless to mould its outlook. The historic links with the United Kingdom and with Western Europe and North America remain as strong as ever; and the economic links with the United Kingdom, New Zealand's best customer, remain strong. No situation is, however, constant. One of the key problems of external political and economic policy now presented to New Zealand arises out of the movement towards political and economic integration in Europe and the continuing possibility of Britain's membership of the European Economic Community. New Zealand must expand the volume and value of its exports of primary products if the standard of living of its rapidly increasing population is to be maintained and improved. In recent years it has become increasingly apparent, however, that the United Kingdom market is capable of only a limited expansion. The development of new markets in Asia and other less developed countries is hindered by low income levels as well as by consumption patterns in which the type of foodstuff exported by New Zealand does not figure prominently. New Zealand's foreign policy is likely to continue the endeavour to reconcile geography and history, economic fact and strategic fact.

Department of External Affairs-The External Affairs Act 1943 made provision for the appointment of a Minister of External Affairs charged generally with the administration of external and foreign affairs, including relations with other countries, communications with other Governments, representation abroad, and representation of other countries in New Zealand. The Act also authorised the appointment of a Secretary of External Affairs and (superseding the High Commissioner Act of 1908) dealt with the appointment of High Commissioners and of overseas representatives.

The functions of the Department were defined at its inception as follows:

  1. To act as a channel of communication between the Government and other Commonwealth and foreign Governments on matters relating to external affairs.

  2. To assist in negotiating treaties and international agreements.

  3. To direct New Zealand's overseas diplomatic posts.

  4. To deal with foreign diplomats, and to issue exequaturs to foreign consuls.

The Act thus established the Ministry of External Affairs as the normal channel of communication with the Governments of other countries. As, however, the new Department was in fact still a part of the Prime Minister's Department, no change in procedure, apart from the use of the changed nomenclature, was necessary.

Dealings with overseas Governments usually involve considerable interdepartmental coordination. Since the Prime Minister's Department has always been regarded primarily as a department of coordination, an intimate relationship has existed between the two Departments. The Prime Minister has for three periods found it appropriate to assume the portfolio of External Affairs and the Departments have in any case been run as a unit. The staff is held in common and, though some officers are engaged on work peculiar to one Department, the work of the majority involves both Departments. The Secretary of External Affairs is also Permanent Head of the Prime Minister's Department. In defence matters the two Departments have been closely associated. During the war, the Permanent Head was also Secretary of the War Cabinet. In that period the responsibility of the Prime Minister's Department for defence coordination was extended and developed; in discharging this responsibility the Permanent Head is now assisted by the Defence Secretariat of the Prime Minister's Department. This Secretariat works closely with the Defence Division of the Department of External Affairs, and the head of that Division is chairman of the body which coordinates military and civilian intelligence.

In the formulation and application of external affairs policy, close association with other Government Departments is necessary. Defence planning, for example, entails close liaison with the Ministry of Defence, participation in the Colombo Plan with the Treasury and with the many Departments which supply experts and training facilities, consular questions with the Department of Labour, and legal questions with the Department of Justice. Moreover, the Department is a clearing house for a wide variety of material provided by overseas posts for other Departments. As well as fulfilling its major function of acting as a channel of communication with other Governments, the Department thus acts as a coordinating centre for other Government Departments. The Department and its network of posts overseas also perform numerous services on behalf of Departments which are without overseas representatives of their own.

In the Official Section at the end of the Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representatives overseas are listed, as well as the official representatives of other countries in New Zealand. New Zealand in the Commonwealth-Despite the new emphasis in New Zealand's approach to international affairs resulting from its consciousness of the realities of its geographical position in the South Pacific, membership of the Commonwealth remains the central feature of its policy. Intimate association with the United Kingdom is the historical basis, and remains an important principle of New Zealand's external relations. The ties between New Zealand and the United Kingdom are embodied in the close association of the Commonwealth, membership of which has given New Zealand an international status that such a small and isolated community could not otherwise claim.

Although one of the oldest members, New Zealand, unlike some of its fellow members, did not seek to hasten the process of constitutional transition within the Commonwealth. At the Imperial Conference in 1930 the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. G. W. Forbes, stated that "We have felt that all times within recent years we have had ample scope for our national aspirations and ample freedom to carry out in their entirety such measures as have seemed to us to be desirable". There was little interest in the adoption of the relevant provisions of the Statute of Westminster enacted in 1931 to give legal endorsement to the transformation that had taken place in the relationship between Britain and the Dominions. It was not, in fact, until 1947 that the necessary formalities were completed in New Zealand by the passing of the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act.

Since that time there have been many changes in the Commonwealth association both in constitutional respects and in numbers of members. Whereas at the beginning of the Second World War there were only five members, (of whom one, South Africa, withdrew from the association in 1961), there are now 21. Besides the older Commonwealth countries of Britain, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, membership now includes India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Malaysia, Ghana, Nigeria, Cyprus, Sierra Leone, Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika and Zanzibar), Jamaica, Kenya, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, and four new members, Malawi, Zambia, Malta, and Gambia. The Commonwealth has become an entity embracing several continents and its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. New Zealand, itself a country where two races live side by side, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multiracial cooperation and understanding.

New Zealand has as yet exchanged representatives with only the following members of the Commonwealth: Australia, Canada, India,* Malaysia, and Britain.

The importance New Zealand attaches to the Commonwealth association has been given practical expression in its membership of a number of Commonwealth organisations, including the Commonwealth Air Transport Council, the Commonwealth Telecommunications Board, the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, the Imperial War Graves Commission, the Commonwealth Institute, the Commonwealth Economic Consultative Council, the Commonwealth Scientific Office, and the Commonwealth Education Liaison Committee. New Zealand has also taken an active part in the discussions to establish a Commonwealth Secretariat.

New Zealand and the South Pacific-It is not without significance that the first area of the world towards which New Zealanders developed a distinct and characteristic attitude should have been the South Pacific. This is New Zealand's immediate environment, its Polynesian peoples close kin to the New Zealand Maori, its islands nearest and most important in the lines of communication which link New Zealand with America and Europe. New Zealand is, moreover, the largest community in the area and cannot escape either a concern or a responsibility for what goes on there.

* The New Zealand High Commissioner in India is also appointed High Commissioner in Ceylon.

Within a decade of New Zealand's establishment as a British colony Bishop Selwyn had made it the base for Anglican missions in the South Pacific and Sir George Grey as Governor had begun to advocate a policy of expansion in the area. The increasing involvement of other powers and a desire to develop trade led Sir Julius Vogel in the 1870s to take up Grey's idea and to put forward various schemes for political and commercial expansion, which, however, found no favour in London. In the 1880s New Zealand joined the Australian colonies in an effort to preserve "Oceania for the Anglo-Saxons", and soon after the movement reached its peak in the robust opposition of Richard John Seddon to the bargaining away of Samoa in 1899.

The meagre fruit of half a century's agitation was the annexation in 1901 of the Cook Islands and their inclusion within the boundaries of New Zealand. Thereafter New Zealand's interest in the South Pacific declined as its trade, and its thoughts came to centre more and more on Great Britain. But though declining, the tradition was still strong enough to provide support for the Imperial Federation movement in the first decade of the twentieth century and, more practically, to inspire New Zealand on the outbreak of war in 1914 to occupy Germany's colony of Western Samoa.

At the end of the war Western Samoa, like other former German possessions, was retained by the occupying power under a League of Nations Mandate. New Zealand embarked on its new responsibility with greater enthusiasm than it had shown in the Cook Islands and much effort was devoted to solving the problems of the territory. The rate of change thus created, however, proved too rapid for the tradition-loving Samoans. In the late 1920s a series of unfortunate incidents occurred and, for some time afterwards, the pace slackened. The opening up in the late 1930s of air routes across the Pacific led New Zealand, along with other countries, to take an increased interest in some of the more remote islands in the area, but it was the outbreak of the Second World War which forcibly reminded the country of its situation.

Overnight half-forgotten islands became strategic points for the defence of New Zealand and its allies, and New Zealanders again became aware of the need to prevent them from falling into unfriendly hands. Accordingly, New Zealand joined with Australia in seeking ways to guarantee the future security of the area, and there emerged first the Canberra Pact of 1944 and later the 1947 Agreement to establish the South Pacific Commission.

Through the Commission the Governments administering territories in the South Pacific-Britain, the United States, France, Australia, New Zealand, and (until 1962) the Netherlands-have made a concerted effort to promote the economic and social development of the area and its peoples. In the 17 years of its existence the Commission has, within its budgetary limits, (it currently spends about £350,000 annually), done much valuable work, particularly in bringing the islanders together and developing a sense of community amongst them. Originally laying much stress on research, the Commission has come to concentrate mainly on providing technical assistance and on pooling experience of handling common problems of development. It maintains close working links with the United Nations Specialised Agencies which are taking an increasing interest in the region.

But New Zealand has not been content with promoting progress in the economic and social spheres only. At the San Francisco conference in 1945 it took a leading part in working out the trusteeship system embodied in the United Nations Charter, and subsequently the League of Nations Mandate for Western Samoa was replaced by a trusteeship agreement.

In accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people, a programme of political and constitutional development was launched which continued throughout the 1950s and which culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. The transfer of sovereignty did not, however, weaken the close and friendly relationship which had grown up between Western Samoa and New Zealand and this was confirmed in a Treaty of Friendship between the two countries signed in August 1962. In the educational as well as in other fields New Zealand assists Western Samoa and its aid over the next three years will amount to some £450,000.

Whilst Western Samoa was moving towards independence, constitutional development was taking place in New Zealand's other island territories. Following expert surveys a programme of economic and social development for the Cook Islands was formulated in 1955 and legislative assemblies for the Cook Islands and for Niue were set up in 1957. In 1962 the New Zealand Government gave these bodies full responsibility for allocating the large subsidies granted by New Zealand. In the same year possible alternatives concerning constitutional development were submitted to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly unanimously chose full internal self-government together with a continued association with New Zealand. In 1963 a "Shadow" Cabinet was set up and a Leader of Government Business elected. The following year the New Zealand House of Representatives passed the Cook Islands Constitution Act, with provision for the Act itself to come into force after a General Election in the Cook Islands in early 1965. If the Constitution is acceptable, the new Assembly, assured of New Zealand's financial assistance, will then be fully responsible for the internal affairs of the Cook Islands.

The independence of Western Samoa and the progress of the remaining New Zealand territories are indicative of broader changes in the South Pacific. Economic, social, and educational development has made the peoples of the area more self-conscious and desirous of managing their own affairs. At the same time developments in New Guinea have attracted international attention, and the intensification of interest in colonial questions in the United Nations is likely to bring the South Pacific into yet greater prominence. In the light of these changes New Zealand has taken the lead in proposing that both the organisation and functions of the South Pacific Commission be revised to bring its work more into line with needs and aspirations of the peoples of the area. At the same time the membership of the Commission itself is changing. In 1964 the original South Pacific Agreement was amended to allow the inclusion of independent countries which formerly lay within the Commission's territorial scope. In accordance with this, Western Samoa took its seat at the Twenty-Sixth Session of the Commission in October 1964.

New Zealand in the United Nations-It has been noted earlier that the first significant expression of an independent New Zealand foreign policy occurred in the League of Nations and was directed to supporting the principle of collective security. Support for this principle later and through the United Nations has remained a cornerstone of New Zealand's foreign policy.

The purposes which motivated the policy in 1935 were strongly held beliefs, rather than a set of principles developed from any careful assessments by a national foreign service. The beliefs were nevertheless a reflection of widely held concern over world events, a concern which the succeeding years were to reinforce. It was, therefore, perhaps understandable that at San Francisco in 1945 New Zealand should argue so forcibly, if unsuccessfully, to eliminate the veto and to strengthen the collective security provisions of the United Nations Charter.

Despite its physical isolation New Zealand has felt unable to regard with unconcern the fate of other small countries helpless to defend themselves against a powerful aggressor and thus liable to be picked off one by one.

The United Nations does not, it is true, offer a complete guarantee of New Zealand's or any other small country's security against aggression. Nor has it yet achieved agreement on disarmament; but New Zealand Governments have acted upon the conviction that the United Nations, and it alone, contains the rudiments of a universal collective security system, and that it is through the United Nations, and not through its abandonment in favour of some alternative, that an effective and comprehensive collective security system may eventually be developed and agreement on disarmament achieved.

New Zealand has recognised that this objective must be a long-term one, and that the United Nations in its present form must be buttressed by regional defensive alliances. It has not taken the view that all multilateral diplomacy must be conducted within the United Nations. In general, however, New Zealand has regarded the United Nations as the natural centre of international diplomacy unless there were, in special cases, good reasons to work outside it.

Within the United Nations the expression of this policy has taken several forms. New Zealand has sought to remove the causes which might produce the need for recourse to collective security action. Its representatives have urged that the Assembly be used as a place for harmonising relations between nations: they have voiced the need for restraint in the pursuit of national objectives; they have consistently sought and supported responsible action in aid of an effective international organisation; they have reiterated the need for the early adoption of a broad programme of supervised disarmament.

New Zealand has at the same time advocated adequate and timely preparations in case aggression should occur. When occasion has arisen New Zealand has been prepared to play its part: troops were supplied to the United Nations Force in Korea and military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon; a civilian police unit has served in Cyprus; and the Government has indicated to the Secretary-General its intention in principle to designate a stand-by unit which would be available for properly instituted peace-keeping operations of the Organisation in the future. New Zealand representatives in the United Nations have also strongly supported the principle that all members must bear an equitable share of the cost of international action to meet aggression, e.g., the cost of supporting the United Nations Emergency Force in the Middle East and the United Nations operation in the Congo.

To maintain the peace is the primary purpose of the United Nations, and for New Zealand the search for effective guarantees of international peace and security continues to be the first object of membership. It is not, however, the only object, nor is a system of collective security (or disarment) the only means of giving effect to it.

The state of economic, social, and general political relations goes far to determine the urgency of the need for a collective security system. For New Zealand, geographically isolated and with limited direct diplomatic relations, the United Nations is inevitably one of the most important forums available, not only to influence the course of international events, but also to secure the friendship and understanding of the world community. For country, its international reputation is a valuable asset. If New Zealand is better known and commands more influence in international affairs than some other small States similarly situated, this is in some measure, at least, due to New Zealand's record of active participation in the United Nations.

Economic and Social Council-New Zealand's interest in economic and social questions-as well as the recognition by other countries that New Zealand has special experience to offer-is illustrated by its membership of the Economic and Social Council (an elective body of 18 members of the United Nations) from 1947 to 1949 and its re-election in 1958 for a further term for the period 1959 to 1961. New Zealand is a member of the Commission on International Commodity Trade, and in 1963 became a full regional member of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), a body of which it had previously been a no regional member. In the past New Zealand has also designated representatives on the Technical Assistance Committee and on the Statistical, Social, and Fiscal Commissions and the Commission on the Status of Women.

In undertaking these responsibilities New Zealand may to some extent be regarded as "taking its turn". In few cases, however, are the considerations in favour of representation so simple. New Zealand certainly shares with others an interest in ensuring that economic and social conditions are such as to permit ordered political progress. It is concerned to ensure that, where political principles are in issue, the beliefs which New Zealanders hold as essential should be recognised and, if possible, accepted by the world community. Sometimes there are strong reasons of self-interest; the weight of advantage received, in terms of professional benefit, and the contribution made are evenly balanced in the case of technical bodies such as the Statistical Commission. On the other hand some organs which were first designed to meet the emergency of post-war conditions, such as UNICEF, have developed programmes, e.g., the supply of milk powder and fish-liver oil, which are of economic interest to New Zealand.

The biggest single task now facing the Economic and Social Council is to promote and direct programmes for economic development in underdeveloped countries. New Zealand has always recognised the need for economic development and made its contributions to the appropriate funds, e.g., the Expanded Programme for Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. It has been concerned to ensure that international programmes in this field should be effective and realistic.

At present New Zealand representatives in the United Nations are called upon to deal with questions of economic development in several different fields. One is in the Economic Committee of the General Assembly, where the economic work of the Organisation is subject to general review; another arises out of New Zealand's membership of ECAFE. In this setting, the detailed study of development programmes is closely related to the work of the Colombo Plan, and provides a significant counterpart to New Zealand's growing political interest in Asia.

Conference on Trade and Development-As a result of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development held in Geneva in 1964, the General Assembly has agreed to hold a Triennial Conference on Trade and Development open to all United Nations members and other States members of the Specialised Agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency. It has also established a Trade and Development Board of which New Zealand is a member in the current period.

Specialised Agencies-It is the responsibility of the Economic and Social Council under the Charter to coordinate the activities of the Specialised Agencies through consultations and recommendations. New Zealand is a member of all the Agencies except the International Development Association. As a contributor to their budgets, it is concerned to ensure that activities are not duplicated and that the Secretariats of the United Nations and of the Agencies work closely together on matters of common interest. New Zealand has also been concerned to ensure that on political and administrative matters the policies of the Agencies are adjusted to those of the United Nations. As in the case of the different organs and subsidiary bodies of the United Nations, so with the Specialised Agencies, New Zealand's reasons for membership have ranged from motives of self-interest to its conviction of the value of international cooperation. In some cases non-membership would place New Zealand at a distinct disadvantage. Membership of the Universal Postal Union is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country. Similarly the International Telecommunications Union regulates international radio, telephone, and telegraphic traffic, and the need to belong to this body is universally accepted. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for setting standards and encouraging the free interchange of meteorological information. Wartime experience emphasised the fact that few countries have as direct an interest in international civil aviation as New Zealand; New Zealand is closely concerned with the efforts of the International Civil Aviation Organisation to foster the planning and development of international air transport and to ensure proper standards for the development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities.

No clear line can, however, be drawn between the "technical" Agencies and others, and some degree of technical advantage is to be derived from membership of all the Specialised Agencies. Although its own health standards are high, New Zealand has nevertheless drawn benefits, particularly in its island territories, from its membership of the World Health Organisation. Each in its own field-the Food and Agriculture Organisation, the International Labour Organisation, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation, and the International Atomic Energy Agency-constitutes an important international medium for the free interchange of knowledge and experience.

On occasion the Specialised Agencies provide the forum for advancement of a New Zealand interest. The FAO has played a prominent part in the formulation of measures to encourage the establishment of a stable international market for agricultural commodities, particularly in the enunciation of principles to govern the disposal of surplus commodities. The FAO's interest in the disposal of surplus foodstuffs was increased in December 1961 when the United Nations approved the establishment of a World Food Programme to be administered jointly by FAO and the United Nations. New Zealand was elected to the inter-Governmental Committee charged with the responsibility of supervising the Programme and for the three-year period of the Programme (1963-65) agreed to contribute $75,000 in cash and $425,000 in commodities.

New Zealand's accession to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation not only allows this country to participate in measures designed to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital.

As well as the Commonwealth organisations mentioned earlier some regional organisations, particularly the South Pacific Commission, are of particular importance to New Zealand. Since the establishment of the Commission in 1947, New Zealand's island territories have derived much benefit from its work on fisheries, cooperatives, control of the rhinoceros beetle, and research upon filariasis.

New Zealand and the South-East Asia Collective Defence Treaty-When, in the years following 1945, it became clear that there were serious obstacles to the effective implementation of those provisions of the United Nations Charter which were designed to establish a universal system of collective security, the alternative of regional arrangements was further developed. In South-East Asia, a few years after NATO was established, the South-East Asia Collective Defence Treaty (also known as the Manila Treaty or Pact) was negotiated.

The idea of such a treaty had been canvassed during the early 1950s. In the early part of 1954, however, a number of governments became greatly concerned at the progress of the war in Indo-China and the deteriorating situation in South-East Asia, and on 29 March the United States called for "united action" to resist further Communist expansion. Shortly thereafter the United Kingdom and France agreed that consideration should be given to the establishment as soon as possible of a collective security system in the area. The New Zealand Minister of External Affairs stated on 19 April that his Government welcomed this proposal and was prepared to participate.

The Geneva Agreements for Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia (which were completed on 21 July 1954) were an achievement of considerable importance and value, but they fell short of a fully guaranteed settlement. After a period of consultation eight governments-Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States-agreed to attend a conference to consider a system of collective defence for South-East Asia. On 8 September in Manila they signed the South-East Asia Collective Defence Treaty. At the same time they proclaimed the Pacific Charter, in which they set out principles on which they undertook to base their policies for the maintenance of peace and stability. The treaty was ratified by New Zealand on 19 February 1955.

The first meeting of the Council envisaged by the Treaty, comprising the Foreign Ministers of all the allied governments, was held in Bangkok in February 1955. Since then the Council has met on eight occasions: at Karachi in 1956, Canberra in 1957, Manila in 1958, Wellington in 1959, Washington in 1960, Bangkok in 1961, Paris in 1963, and Manila in 1964. The Council has overall control of the activities of the alliance. (The name "South-East Asia Treaty Organisation" was derived by analogy with NATO and CENTO: in practice it refers to the joint activity of the eight allies.)

At that first meeting the Council established a body known as the Council Representatives to carry on its functions between Council meetings. Council Representatives are generally the heads of their countries diplomatic missions in Bangkok; New Zealand is at present represented by its Ambassador in Thailand, Sir Stephen Weir. From time to time various expert committees and study groups have been convened to give collective advice to Council Representatives.

In 1957 Mr Pote Sarasin of Thailand was appointed Secretary-General of the Organisation, and was succeeded by Mr Konthi Suphamongkhon, also of Thailand, in February 1964. The permanent civil Secretariat, consisting at present of an international staff of 45 officers, includes five New Zealanders, one of whom was appointed Deputy Secretary-General in June 1964.

The Council also agreed in February 1955 that the Military Advisers to the Ministers should meet as a group to advise it on measures for common defence. Subsequently in 1957 a Military Planning Office was established in Bangkok and from 1958-60 the position of Chief of this Office was held by a New Zealander. Joint military exercises, in which units of the sea, land, and air forces of all member countries participate are regularly organised.

SEATO is a defensive alliance. Neither in concept nor in structure is it fitted for a major role in the fields of economic, social, or cultural development, for which purpose other well-established and experienced organisations exist. But the signatories to the Manila Treaty did give explicit recognition to the fact that the security and well being of a nation depend on more than the ability to repel an aggressor. Economic and social as well as military objectives were written into the Treaty. These provisions, and the activities which have stemmed from them, reflect an awareness of the true nature of the challenge in South-East Asia. They confirm and reinforce the essentially peaceful intent of the allies, and demonstrate that the cooperation between them is based on wider considerations than the need to take steps to meet the threat of overt aggression. Accordingly SEATO has developed a range of fairly significant economic, cultural, and educational activities.

In all SEATO economic projects the principle of assistance on a bilateral basis has been followed, but projects have generally attracted support from most of the member governments.

All members have, for example, contributed to the SEATO Graduate School of Engineering which was established in Bangkok in September 1959. New Zealand provided the Professor of Hydrology until mid-1964 and has made an annual payment of approximately £1,200 to the scholarship fund. For two years until the end of 1964 New Zealand also contributed a mobile medical unit headed by a New Zealand doctor to the Thai-SEATO Community Development Project which has been set up in North-east Thailand.

An exchange programme provides for research fellowships, post-graduate and under-graduate scholarships. In 1958 a South-East Asian Round Table enabled eminent scholars from the member countries and also India, Japan, Sarawak, and South Vietnam to meet together in Bangkok and discuss the impact of Western technology on Asian traditional cultures. In 1961 SEATO sponsored a Conference in Karachi of Heads of Universities, at which many of the problems facing higher education in South-East Asia were usefully explored. New Zealand took part in both.

The Manila Treaty speaks not only of maintaining and developing individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack but also preventing and countering "subversive activities directed from without" against the territorial integrity and political stability of member countries. With the passage of years it has become clear that the principal threat to the Treaty Area at the present time is from such indirect aggression; subversion by foreign agents developing perhaps into wide-scale insurgency. This is the problem that the allies have to face. In addition, therefore, to stepping up their economic and social development-which is the best defence against this form of offensive-member governments have found it useful and indeed necessary to take more direct measures against the danger of subversion. These are primarily a national responsibility. Council Representatives make it their business, however, to identify subversion in its various forms, to assess the nature of the threat which it poses, and to suggest ways in which that threat may be met.

Two seminars on countering Communist subversion have been held, one in Baguio in the Philippines in 1958, and one in Lahore in 1960: at both of these New Zealand was represented.

In May 1962, following a serious violation of the ceasefire in Laos by the Communist-directed Pathet Lao and in response to an invitation by the Thai Government, the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand despatched forces to Thailand. Each of them made it clear that this was a precautionary move, taken in accordance with their obligations under the Manila Treaty, to enable them to come more speedily to the defence of Thailand should the need arise.

When he announced the decision of the New Zealand Government to send to Thailand a detachment of Special Air Service Troops of the New Zealand Army and transport aircraft of the RNZAF, the Prime Minister pointed out that sending even a token military contribution was a serious step for New Zealand to take. It was, nevertheless, a measure of New Zealanders growing recognition of the responsibilities they owed towards South-East Asia, of their involvement in the affairs of South-East Asia and, ultimately, of the importance of South-East Asia for their own defence. All the nations of this part of the world, he said, must support each other militarily and economically if they were to withstand aggression and the threat of aggression, whatever form it might take.

The Special Air Service Troops were withdrawn in September 1962, and the transport aircraft in December. The Secretary-General of the United Nations was informed of their deployment in Thailand and subsequently of their withdrawal.

In January 1963 two RNZAF transport aircraft were sent to Thailand to provide air transport support for various assistance programmes under way to help develop logistic facilities in that country. A detachment of army engineers was sent from New Zealand to Thailand in March 1964 to assist in the construction of an airfield in the north-east part of the country.

New Zealand and the Colombo Plan-Under the Colombo Plan, New Zealand, with Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America, has joined with the countries of South and South-East Asia to help them improve their standards of living. The Colombo Plan is not a single plan, but a series of separate plans drawn up and administered by each country in the region; the external assistance required and made available to help implement these plans is negotiated on a bilateral basis. The Plan had its origin in, and took its name from, a meeting of Commonwealth Foreign Ministers held in January 1950 in Colombo to exchange views on world problems, particularly on the economic needs of the countries of South and South-East Asia. The meeting established a Consultative Committee to " … survey the needs, to assess the resources available and required, to focus world attention on the development problems of the area, and to provide a framework within which an international cooperative effort could be promoted to assist the countries of the area to raise their living standards". Since then the Consultative Committee has met consecutively in Sydney, London, Colombo, Karachi, New Delhi, Ottawa, Singapore, Wellington (1956), Saigon, Seattle, Jogjakarta, Tokyo, Kuala Lumpur, Melbourne, and Bangkok. The 1964 meeting was held in London.

A foundation member of the Plan and an active participant at every meeting, New Zealand has done its utmost, within the scope of its limited resources, to make significant grants of capital and technical assistance to the countries of the area.

Capital Assistance-By 31 March 1964 the New Zealand Parliament had appropriated a total of £15,146,142 for capital and technical assistance under the Colombo Plan. Of this, £7,511,434 in capital aid had been transferred to the Governments concerned or used at their request to buy equipment. Most of New Zealand's capital aid has been given in the form of direct transfers of overseas funds, but in appropriate cases it has been possible to supply equipment manufactured in New Zealand.

Among the projects approved during 1964 was a grant of £100,000 for equipment (much of it made in New Zealand) for a new milk condensory in Ceylon which will use New Zealand milk powder. Also approved were two gifts of New Zealand-made jet-boats-five to India for flood relief work in the Punjab and four for use in the development of the Mekong River in South-East Asia. Projects already approved and being carried out include aid to the value of £290,000 for milk supply schemes at Bombay, Dehra Dun, and Indore in India, £125,000 for the establishment of a Faculty of Agriculture at Khonkaon in North-east Thailand, and £30,000 to equip secondary schools in the Philippines with trade training equipment. New projects were under consideration in Thailand, Malaysia, and Pakistan.

Technical Assistance-By 31 March 1964 New Zealand had spent a total of £3,203,632 in technical assistance. The number of people from Asian countries brought to New Zealand for training under the Colombo Plan had reached 1,488, of whom 460 were still in the country. New Zealand experts serving abroad numbered 36, bringing the total sent under the Plan to 217. A number of these experts and some of the trainees were associated with projects for which New Zealand was also giving capital aid.

Commonwealth Aid Schemes-New Zealand participates in two cooperative aid programmes for Commonwealth members. Under the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan New Zealand offers each year 15 two-year scholarships for post-graduate or undergraduate study, three administrative fellowships, and three prestige fellowships for scholars of high academic standing. The New Zealand annual contribution of £50,000 to the Special Commonwealth Aid to Africa Plan, under which Commonwealth countries outside Africa provide bilateral assistance to African members, will enable up to 80 Africans to study in New Zealand, and several New Zealand experts to work in Africa, as well as providing for small capital or equipment grants in appropriate cases.

General Aims-It is clear that, as New Zealand has assumed the international responsibilities appropriate to an independent country, its foreign policy has changed in emphasis and scope. The foundations of New Zealand's pre-war position in international affairs-its identification with Britain and its membership of the Commonwealth-have been modified and extended to meet the demands of an international situation greatly changed from that of 1939. As a country of predominantly European settlement, New Zealand retains its traditional loyalties to the United Kingdom and a sense of identity with Europe and of involvement in its destiny. As a Pacific power, it has sought security in friendship and formal defensive arrangements with Australia and the United States of America. New Zealand's growing involvement in the problems of the South Pacific region and its close ties with the island peoples are giving rise to a new recognition of the importance of the role it will have to play in this area in the future. New Zealand is in a unique position to encourage the growth of a regional consciousness in the South Pacific which is essential if the problems of the area are to be seen and tackled as a whole. At the same time it has developed its association with Asian countries. As a country concerned with the preservation of world peace and the organisation of defence against aggression it has placed prime importance upon development of the United Nations as an agency for peaceful settlement of international disputes and for the achievement of collective security. Pending the establishment of a broadly based United Nations security system, however, New Zealand has been prepared, in respect of South-East Asia, to participate in a protective grouping concerned with the defence of a single area. Moreover, while it sees aggressive Communism as the greatest threat to individual liberty at the present time, it is well aware of the powerful stirrings of other forces-the yearning for political emancipation, the antagonism to systems of racial discrimination, the demand of underprivileged countries for a greater share of the world's prosperity, for social advancement and opportunity. New Zealand's actions in the international field are designed to take account of these forces and, where possible, to assist the people of other countries in their striving for a better life. The limits of what it is able to do are those imposed by its size and capacity; its disposition is towards peaceful and friendly relations with all nations and (whatever the modifications which the needs of national security may impose) it is to that ultimate goal that its foreign policy is directed.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General-New Zealand is a monarchical State; it is also a constituent member of the Commonwealth. It is in this context that the preamble to the Royal Titles Act 1953 is significant "… whereas it is expedient that the style and titles at present appertaining to the Crown should be altered so as to reflect more clearly the existing relationships of the Members of the Commonwealth to one another and their recognition of the Crown as the Symbol of their free association and of the Sovereign as the Head of the Commonwealth …"

Constitutional elements besides that of the titular head, the Monarch, can be reviewed under the categories of legislative authority, the executive and administrative structure, and the judiciary. This division is a convenient one, even though there is no absolute line of demarcation between the three phases (e.g., legislation may and often does arise through the day-to-day experience of those responsible for administration and execution of policy, or through difficulties or anomalies made explicit in the course of dispensing justice or interpreting law). Conversely, in the exercise of the powers and functions of industrial and other tribunals, commissions, authorities, etc., both administrative and judicial elements may be discerned.

THE MONARCH-The New Zealand Parliament in the Royal Titles Act 1953 gave its assent to the use of the Royal style and titles as follows: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

While the seat of the Monarch is normally in the United Kingdom, the Queen is represented in New Zealand by the Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of Her New Zealand Ministers. The Governor-General has, however, an official existence, even in the country to which he has been appointed, only in the absence of the Queen from that country. In the island territories the Crown is represented by the Resident Commissioner or Resident Agent. These officials carry out the constitutional functions of the Crown, but they also possess in varying degree certain executive and legislative powers, being responsible to the New Zealand Government for the administration and good government of the islands concerned.

Many powers held by the Monarch (or her representative) comprise but the means of giving effect to the public will. In New Zealand the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Ministers, which cannot constitutionally be ignored. Despite the long-term trend for powers to be assigned directly to Ministers without any necessity for vice-regal consultation, there are still many phases of Government which require Royal participation.

The Queen (in her absence the Governor-General) gives consent or approval prior to a Minister taking office or the formation of a Ministry; summons and prorogues Parliament; delivers the Speech from the Throne at the opening of a session; gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed all stages in the House of Representatives, without which they have not the force of laws; makes appointments to most important State offices; confers knighthoods and other honours, etc.; and also provides that background of stability, continuity, and experience in many facets of government which is so desirable whenever there are sweeping changes in the dominance of political parties.

Besides those duties associated with the constitutional role, the Royal personage or representative makes an important contribution to the ceremonial life of the nation. This was particularly well illustrated during the sojourn of the Royal visitors in New Zealand in 1953-54 and in 1963. Both as the symbol of the nation and in virtue of her identification with the life and interests of her people, the Queen becomes the focus for all State occasions, as does the Governor-General in her absence.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY-The supreme law-making body with power to legislate for the whole country is the General Assembly, which now consists of the Governor-General and the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since the close of 1950.

The powers of Parliament to make laws are legally untrammelled. This was not always so, for prior to the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 there was incapacity to make laws on certain matters which conflicted with United Kingdom statutes extending to New Zealand. There was also some doubt as to New Zealand's power to make laws possessing extra-territorial effect.

Although they do not limit the legal powers of Parliament as stated above, the provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 creating reserved sections in that Act are of great constitutional significance. The Act provides that certain of its sections may not be repealed except by a 75 per cent majority of the House of Representatives or following a referendum. These sections are those relating to:

  1. The constitution and order of reference of the Representation Commission.

  2. The number of European electoral districts and the basing of their boundaries on the total population.

  3. The fixing of the tolerance within which the Commission must work at 5 per cent.

  4. The age of voting.

  5. The secret ballot.

  6. The duration of Parliament.

This innovation is not legally effective in the sense that it does not prevent a subsequent Parliament from repealing it, since one Parliament cannot bind its successors. It should not be thought, however, that the provision is a mere gesture. It records the unanimous agreement of both parties represented in Parliament that certain provisions have a fundamental character in the system of Government and should not be altered at the whim of a bare majority. Considered in this light the provision creating reserved sections introduces something in the nature of a formal convention which could not constitutionally be ignored.

While the law-making function is the prerogative of Parliament, it must be remembered that, as in most democracies, laws are passed because of their acceptability to the majority party in Parliament-i.e., the Government party. Furthermore the initial acceptance will have probably been made in the deliberations of Cabinet.

With the increasing range and complexity of the statutory field, the multifarious concerns of a modern twentieth century government, and the necessity of conserving time for consideration of more important issues, much of the detailed procedural steps and other amplifying matter must become the subject of regulations made by Order in Council under the authority of some statute, rather than being incorporated in the statute itself. The power to make such regulations lies with the Executive Council which comprises those senior members of the majority party in Parliament who are appointed thereto, together with the Governor-General. Regulations, though originating in Cabinet and becoming effective in the formal proceedings of the Executive Council, rest fundamentally on the will of Parliament as a whole and are now subject to its supervisory jurisdiction. A general provision contained in the Regulations Amendment Act 1962 requires all such regulations to be laid before Parliament, though most empowering Acts contained a similar provision prior to that date. An amendment to the Standing Orders of the House of Representatives, also passed in 1962, enables the House or any member thereof to refer any regulation to the Statutes Revision Committee, a Select Committee of the House, which is empowered to consider the regulation and to determine whether the special attention of the House should be drawn to it on any of the following grounds: (a) That it trespasses unduly on personal rights and liberties: (b) That it appears to make some unusual or unexpected use of the powers conferred by the statute under which it is made: (c) That for any special reason its form or purport calls for elucidation.

Meeting of Parliament-Parliament is summoned, prorogued, or dissolved by Proclamation issued by the Governor-General. A session is that period between the summoning of Parliament and its prorogation. Its length varies, but it usually occupies the months from June to November. When Parliament is prorogued all the business on hand lapses, and if this is to be proceeded with in the next session it must be re-introduced.

The course of a session may be interrupted by an adjournment.

Parliamentary Privileges-While in session these include freedom of speech and freedom from arrest in civil cases, and also the right to engage in secret debate, if required, etc.

The Party System-There are two political parties represented in Parliament in New Zealand at present: National and Labour. At any general election these parties, together with any other political parties which may be desirous of so doing and also those candidates standing as independents, state their respective policies before the electors. Each party normally puts forward one candidate for each of the 80 electorates into which the country is divided. The party which wins the majority of seats, although not necessarily the majority of votes, at the general election forms the Government. The leader of the elected members of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister, who makes Ministerial appointments from elected members of his party. The leader of the minority party in Parliament becomes the Leader of the Opposition. The effectiveness of the party system relies largely on the general agreement that the majority party is to govern and the minority is to criticise-so that there is ample time allocated for debate on Government measures in Parliament. While party control is exercised by national and local organisations outside Parliament, within the latter it is maintained by the respective party Whips.

Parliamentary Procedure-The House of Representatives has its Standing Orders, which govern its procedure and which are administered by Mr Speaker in the exercise of his control of the House. Mr Speaker's rulings on interpretation of the Standing Orders are followed in a similar manner to judicial decisions in the ordinary Courts of law. The main means by which Parliament does its work is through the system of debate and Committees. The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

Parliamentary Functions and Control-The Parliament controls the Government in power in the last resort by its power to pass a resolution of no confidence in the Government, or to reject a proposal which the Government considers so necessary that it is made a matter of confidence, and thus force the Government to resign.

Financial control is exercised by the fact that expenditure of public money must be authorised by the House of Representatives in the form of an Appropriation Act, which authorises or grants money to the Government for the purposes approved. The authority for the raising of revenue by taxation or borrowing must also be given by Parliament. The functions of Parliament are, of course, the passing of legislation and taking action to make available finances or funds as required for State expenditure, while it also controls the Government. Legislation can be initiated by any member of Parliament, but in practice almost all Bills are introduced by the Government in power as a result of policy decisions taken in Cabinet, sometimes at the instigation of those Government Departments which will be responsible for their administration when the Bills become law. The chief exceptions are private Bills, which are designed for the particular interest or benefit of a person or body of persons, whether incorporated or not, and local Bills which relate largely to matters of local (as distinct from central) government business. The process of passing a public Bill is as follows: it receives a formal first reading on introduction, is then printed, and after some time it is given a second reading as a result of a debate on its general merits or principles. It may then be referred to one of the Select Committees, for consideration in the closest detail, before being considered by the whole House sitting in Committee. During these stages members have opportunities to suggest amendments which may be incorporated in the Bill if the majority so decide. The Bill is then reported to the House, and later read a third time; debate rarely occurs at these stages. The final stage is to send the Bill to the Governor-General for the Royal Assent and, unless provision is made for commencement on another date, it then becomes law. Bills providing for receipt of moneys, such as the Finance Bill, and expenditure of moneys, such as the Appropriation Bill, are introduced only by a Minister of the Crown, normally the Minister of Finance. No Bill involving an appropriation of public moneys or affecting the rights of the Crown can be passed without the recommendation of the Crown, which is given by Message from the Governor-General.

Duration of Parliaments-Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931-35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act 1942 extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but with a proviso for a motion to be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. During the 1943 session a motion in favour of dissolution was carried, and Parliament was dissolved on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliaments has been of three years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved after the expiration of approximately 20 months. The three-year limit was re-enacted in the Electoral Act 1956, this being one of the reserved provisions referred to earlier.

Number of Representatives-The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is 80-76 Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated "members of Parliament". The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than 42 and not less than 24, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of 40 members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at 41; in 1860, at 53; in 1862, at 57; in 1865, at 70; in 1867, at 72; in 1870, at 74; in 1875, at 84; in 1881, at 91; in 1887, at 70; and in 1900, at 76. Since 1867 there have been four Maori representatives, and provision for this number was retained in the Electoral Act 1956. In 1952 the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, which had remained unaltered since 1867, were changed by Proclamation so as to give a greater degree of equality of population among the four districts (in effect the Southern Maori Electoral District now includes a considerable area of the North Island).

Qualifications of Members-Under the Electoral Act 1956 every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under "Franchise" later); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a contractor to the Public Service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £200 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Although women have had the vote since 1893, they were not eligible as Parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act 1919. Prior to 1936 a public servant was prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition was removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1936. The present law is that if a public servant is elected to Parliament he vacates his office forthwith and he cannot resume employment in the Public Service within 12 months of ceasing to be a member of Parliament unless he had previously been a public servant for at least five years.

Salaries, etc.-Section 27 of the Civil List Act 1950 provides that on the recommendation of a Royal Commission the Governor-General may from time to time, by Order in Council, fix the salaries and allowances to be paid to the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Crown or members of the Executive Council, to Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, and to the Speaker and Chairman of Committees and other members of the House of Representatives, and that a Royal Commission shall be appointed for this purpose within three months after the date of every general election of members of Parliament.

In accordance with the recommendations contained in the report (issued in 1964) of the Royal Commission upon Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances, the Prime Minister's salary, as from 1 July 1964, was increased to £5,750 with a tax-free allowance of £1,600 for the expenses of his office and a Ministerial residence. In addition, while travelling on official business he receives £5 5s. per day to meet expenses, and by virtue of his office is entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. The Deputy Prime Minister's salary is £4,250 with a tax-free expense allowance of £600. The salary of each other Minister holding a portfolio is £4,000 with a tax-free expense allowance of £550, and that of each Minister without portfolio £3,250, with £450 tax-free expense allowance. Where the office of Minister of External Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister the expense allowance is increased by £180. Any Minister not occupying a Ministerial residence receives an allowance in lieu at the rate of £300 a year. This allowance, or the assessed value of the residence where one is provided, is subject to income tax. Ministers also receive an allowance of £5 5s. per day when travelling on official business within New Zealand, and in addition are entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. For Parliamentary Under-Secretaries the rate of salary is £3,000, with the same house provision or allowances, and travel allowance while on official business, as for Ministers. An expense allowance of £450 is also payable. After the general election of November 1954 no appointments were made until 1960, when two Parliamentary Under-Secretaries were appointed.

The basic salary paid to members of the House of Representatives is now £2,150 a year. European members are also paid an allowance to provide for expenses incurred in connection with parliamentary duties ranging from £450 to £725 a year subject to the classification of their electorates by the Representation Commission into the five classes of (a) a wholly urban electorate, or (b) a substantially urban electorate, or (c) a partially urban and partially rural electorate, or (d) an ordinarily rural electorate, or (e) a predominantly rural electorate. An expense allowance of £850 a year is paid to the member for Southern Maori, and an expense allowance of £775 to the members representing the other three Maori Electorates. A sessional accommodation allowance is paid at the rate of 15s. for each day and £2 10s. for each night on which a member is in Wellington and attends the sittings of Parliament, or of a Select Committee of Parliament of which he is a member. The sessional accommodation allowance is not payable to any member representing a Wellington urban electorate. (For full details see Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1964 and Section 3 of the Finance Act 1962.) Payment to members is subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. In addition to the salary and allowances, members are entitled to certain privileges in respect of air and other forms of travel, a stamp allowance of £7 a month, and certain other concessions regarding telegrams and telephone services. If a member is defeated at an election he continues to receive salary only to the end of the month following the month in which the election took place.

Both the Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £3,400 a year in addition to which he receives an expense allowance of £775 a year and residential quarters in Parliament House. The salary of the Chairman of Committees is £2,750 a year. In addition, he receives the electoral and sessional allowances appropriate to his electorate, increased by the sum of £200, and is provided with sessional accommodation.

The Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary of £3,400 a year with an expense allowance of £550 a year. In addition, a secretary, an assistant secretary, and a typist are provided by the State, and an allowance of £400 is payable for travel outside his electorate. His stamp allowance is £17 10s. per month. In addition, the Leader of the Opposition is entitled to an official residence on the same basis as a Minister, or to an allowance of £300 a year in lieu thereof. The Deputy Leader of the Opposition receives a salary of £2,400 a year in addition to his appropriate electorate allowance and the sessional accommodation allowance where this is payable.

The Chief Whip of each party receives a salary of £2,250 a year, and the Junior Whip of each party receives a salary of £2,215 a year, together with the appropriate expense allowance in each case in accordance with the classification of his electorate and where applicable a sessional accommodation allowance.

Former Prime Ministers receive an annual payment of £200 for each full year in office, with a maximum of £1,000 a year, after retirement or when a member only.

Part V of the Superannuation Act 1947, as amended by the Superannuation Amendment Act 1955, consolidated in 1956 and amended in 1961, introduced a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives. The scheme now provides that a retiring allowance shall be payable to a member after nine years' service and the attainment of 50 years of age, and shall be calculated at the rate of one thirty-second of the basic salary for a member as at the date of his ceasing to be a member, for each year of service with a maximum of two-thirds of that basic salary, or alternatively the member may elect to take a variable retiring allowance so as to secure a level income, or he may elect to receive a refund of his contributions. The annual contribution is 10 per cent of an ordinary member's salary, and the Government subsidises the fund by an equal amount. In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of half of the retiring allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired aged 50 years at the time of his death, or £130 a year, whichever is the greater.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY-After the election of a new Parliament, the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the majority party in the elected members, is given the task of selecting the members of the Executive Council (i.e., the New Ministry). Each of those members of Parliament to form the Government is normally entrusted by the Prime Minister with responsibility for administration of a specified field or aspect of government. This field is entitled a portfolio, e.g., all relevant matters relating to Customs would be allocated to one member, who is henceforth known as the Minister of Customs. He may also have other portfolios and the supervision of one or more Government Departments in which the activities carried out, though important, either do not rank as portfolios or are subsidiary aspects of the field-in these cases the Minister's responsibility will extend to being in charge of the named Department. One or other of the appointed Ministers in this way is responsible for the direction of activities and executive acts of each of the Government Departments and offices, etc., embracing the entire range of State activities. Thus arises the concept of Ministerial responsibility. Occasionally a Minister is appointed without portfolio.

Executive Council-In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers, together with the Governor-General, comprise the Executive Council. The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

A point of interest is that the Civil List Act 1950, in section 6, provided that no person shall be appointed a Minister or a member of the Executive Council unless he is a member of Parliament and that a person who ceases to be a member of Parliament cannot continue to be a Minister or a member of the Executive Council for more than 21 days. This gave statutory recognition for the first time to what had long been the convention.

At September 1964 the Executive Council consisted of 16 members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act 1950 and its amendments, His Excellency the Governor-General receives a salary of £7,500 per annum, and an allowance of £5,500 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his personal establishment, plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet-There is a close relationship between the Executive Council and the Cabinet. There are, however, significant differences in membership and functions.

The Council consists of all Ministers and is presided over by the Governor-General. Cabinet may or may not comprise all the Ministers, including a Minister without portfolio; the Governor-General is not a member. The Council is one of the instruments for giving the imprint of legal form to policy determined by Cabinet which had been recognised only by constitutional convention until legislative reference to Cabinet was made in the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962.

Cabinet has been described as the directing body of national policy whose nature is more easily explained by analogy than by definition. It determines the policy to be submitted to Parliament. In it is vested the supreme control of national policy within the limits of Parliamentary approval. It coordinates and delineates the activities of the several Departments of State.

The juridical acts which are necessary to give legal force to certain of the decisions of Cabinet are taken by others-the Crown, the Executive Council, a Minister of the Crown, a Statutory Commission and the like. The preliminary review of proposed policy or of current administrative developments, which takes place in the informal atmosphere of Cabinet meetings, implies both deliberative or selective and administrative procedures on the part of this body.

Cabinet discussions are informal and confidential, anonymity being maintained as to the individual advocacy or opposition to particular proposals. The Cabinet system enables general agreement to be reached on any line of action proposed by either an individual Minister or by the Government as a whole. As a result the Executive Council confirmation can proceed smoothly and expeditiously. In Parliament a Minister can be confident that his legislative or other proposals will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have been apparent before general agreement was reached in Cabinet. A consistent and agreed course of action on any particular issue can be determined. The work of Cabinet thus exemplifies the concept of the collective responsibility of the Government.

Certain questions are considered by committees of Cabinet composed of those Ministers primarily concerned. Some executive action may be undertaken by these committees within the lines of established Government policy. Their work is subject to periodical report to, and overall supervision by, the entire Cabinet. On occasions, ad hoc committees may be established to review or investigate particular questions and to present their conclusions and recommendations to Cabinet.

The Cabinet Secretariat is responsible for the servicing of Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning. It is its purpose also to assist in the coordination and review of the work of the Departments of State.

Government Departments-The Minister as the political head of a Department of State may in fact have several Departments under his control. There are however some 40 different Departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these has a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the Department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the Department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the ministerial policy and directions communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day-to-day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing subgroup, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's, External Affairs, Printing Office, Law Drafting, Valuation, Statistics, and Audit; the finance subgroup-Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory subgroup-State Services Commission, Internal Affairs, Labour, Marine; the defence and law and order subgroup-Ministry of Defence, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the publicity and research subgroup-Tourist and Publicity, Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications subgroup, such as Transport, Civil Aviation, Post Office, and Railways; the developmental-Ministry of Works, Agriculture, Lands and Survey, Forest Service, Mines, Electricity, Maori Affairs, and Industries and Commerce; the commercial-Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Advances Corporation, and State Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Security Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate the field of the dominant activity or purpose of the particular Department. Most Departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions, and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government Departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that it must give effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to the bank by the Minister of Finance, and to any resolution of Parliament in respect of Government monetary policy.

Further instances of this principle are shown by the National Airways Corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained, and by the Tourist Hotel Corporation. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such is the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet makes use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organisations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, Licensing Control Commission, and Local Government Commission.

JUDICIARY-The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Court. Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are other Courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category are the Court of Arbitration concerned with awards and general orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry; the Compensation Court dealing with workers' compensation; and the Land Valuation Court, which settles land valuation disputes and compensation claims where land is taken for public works. For further details refer to Section 8 (Justice) of this issue.

ELECTORAL PROVISIONS-The law on these matters is now contained in the Electoral Act 1956. Following each population census, which is normally taken every five years, New Zealand is divided arrow into 76 European electorates. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering a portion of the North Island together with the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time by Proclamation alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, and, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census. The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is defined in section 2 (1) of the Electoral Act 1956.

The term "European population" means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris:

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise:

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel:

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station, or establishment:

  5. Persons residing as patients or inmates in any hospital:

  6. Persons in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1911 are in force:

  7. Persons detained pursuant to convictions in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new electoral districts for Europeans. The Commission is constituted by virtue of section 15 of the Electoral Act 1956 and comprises seven members. Four of these, the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Director-General of the Post Office, are official members. Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government, and one to represent the Opposition. The seventh member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the Commission or a majority of them, to be the Chairman of the Commission. The Chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The Commission determines the number of electoral districts in the North and South Islands so that the number of districts in the North Island bears, as nearly as possible, the same proportion to the number of districts in the South Island as the European population of the North Island bears to the European population of the South Island. Once this is done the next step is to determine the population quota for electoral districts in each Island by dividing the European population of each Island by the number of districts in that Island. In applying the quota, provision exists for an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of 5 per cent of the quota where districts containing the exact quota cannot be formed consistently with consideration of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of one month is given thereafter in which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then become the new electoral districts.

In addition to determining new European electoral districts the Representation Commission is also charged with the responsibility of classifying them for the purpose of allowances as provided by the current Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order. Under this order provision is made for an allowance based on the size, topography, and transport facilities of the electorate, the nature of its roads, the distribution of its population, and all other considerations that the Commission deems relevant.

The Act provides that all general elections and by-elections shall be held on a Saturday and for both European and Maori elections to be held on the same day. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

The Act provides that, if at any time Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the main and supplementary rolls used in the previous general election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if in the opinion of the Chief Electoral Officer it is impracticable to print new main rolls. The same rolls, together with a further supplementary roll, are to be used for any by-election occurring before the next following general election.

Provision is made for the voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen serving overseas, who are or will be of, or over the age of, 21 years before the date of the election or poll, whether or not registered as electors of any electoral district. Each such serviceman shall be qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he last resided before he left New Zealand.

FRANCHISE-Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893, every person 21 years of age or over (with certain obvious exceptions) has had the right to exercise one vote and one vote only in the election of members of the House of Representatives. Some of the more important provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 are now given.

Qualification for Registration as Elector-To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 21 years and must (a) be a British subject or Irish citizen, (b) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (c) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (d) except in special cases have resided continuously for three months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for three months or more in any other electoral district.

The Act defines what is meant by the term "ordinarily resident". To be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, a person must be or have been actually resident in New Zealand with the intention of residing there indefinitely. If he is absent from New Zealand he must have had, ever since he left New Zealand, an intention to return to reside there indefinitely, and (except in the case of a public servant or the wife or husband of a public servant) must not have been absent from New Zealand for more than three years. Broadly speaking, the qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents, the test laid down being similar to the legal concept of domicile.

The following persons are disqualified from registration as electors: (a) Those in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1911 are in force, (b) those detained pursuant to a conviction in any penal institution, and (c) those whose names are on the Corrupt Practices List for any district.

These qualifications and disqualifications apply alike to Maoris and Europeans.

Registration of Electors-A system of compulsory registration of electors has been in operation in respect of Europeans since 1924 and was introduced in respect of Maoris in 1948. Every person qualified to be registered as an elector of any district must, if he is in New Zealand, apply for registration within one month after the date on which he first becomes qualified to be registered as an elector. He must also apply for registration within three months after the issue of every Proclamation proclaiming the names and boundaries of electoral districts or within such later period as may be provided by Order in Council. Qualified electors who are outside New Zealand may apply for registration if they wish.

A European is not entitled to be registered as an elector of a Maori district and a Maori (other than a half-caste) is not entitled to be registered as an elector of a European district. A half-caste Maori may choose to be registered either for a Maori or European district, and special rules are laid down to govern a change from one to the other.

Voting at Elections-Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot, a method which was first introduced in New Zealand in 1870. Recognition of the fundamental character which the secret ballot has attained in New Zealand was given in the Electoral Act 1956, which included the section providing for this method of voting among the reserved sections which may be repealed only by a 75 per cent majority vote of all the members of the House of Representatives or following a referendum.

In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election. The following classes of persons whose names are not on the roll are however entitled to vote:

  1. Those who have applied for registration between writ day and polling day and have satisfied the Registrar that they became qualified for registration not earlier than one month before writ day.

  2. Those who are qualified for registration and were at the last preceding election registered in that district or, where boundary changes have intervened, in some other district in which their then residence within the first-mentioned district was then situated.

  3. Those who are qualified for registration and have since the last election and before 6 p.m. on writ day applied for registration in that district, or where boundary changes have intervened, in some other district in which their then residence within the first-mentioned district was then situated.

  4. Servicemen outside New Zealand, if they are or will be 21 years of age or more on polling day and their place of residence before they left New Zealand is within the district.

Special Voters-A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a "special voter", either at a polling booth outside his district or by post, in the following cases:

  1. If his name does not appear on the main roll, or any supplementary roll for the district, or has been wrongly deleted from the roll.

  2. If he will be outside New Zealand on polling day.

  3. If he is or will be absent from the district on polling day.

  4. If he will not be within 2 miles by the nearest practicable route of any polling place in the district during the hours of polling.

  5. If he will be travelling during the hours of polling under conditions which will preclude him from voting at a polling place in the district.

  6. If he is ill or infirm.

  7. If, in the case of a woman, she is precluded from attending at a polling place by reason of approaching or recent maternity.

  8. If he is a lighthouse keeper or a member of a lighthouse keeper's staff, or if she is the wife of a lighthouse keeper or of one of his staff.

  9. If he has a religious objection to voting on the day of the week on which polling day falls.

  10. If he satisfies the Returning Officer or Deputy Returning Officer that on any other ground he cannot vote at a polling place in the district without hardship or undue inconvenience.

These latter conditions replace the former classes of absentee, postal, and declaration voters, including servicemen outside New Zealand.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT-In 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, local government assumed the form it still basically retains. The Counties Act of 1876 divided the country into 63 counties, with provision for administration by elective councils having powers considerably less than those enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. In the same year the Municipal Corporations Act provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs.

A description of the development of counties, boroughs, and town districts follows.

Counties-Counties are now constituted under the Counties Act 1956, which consolidated earlier legislation relating to counties and road districts. In general, the county organisation makes provision for the primary needs of a scattered population within a large area. With increasing settlement the original 63 counties were gradually subdivided until in 1920 the maximum of 129 was reached, although the number of councils formed and actively functioning never exceeded 126. The number of counties has been reduced by amalgamations and mergers by the Local Government Commission. At August 1964 there were 117 counties constituted, of which 115 were actively functioning, Sounds and Fiord being the two sparsely populated counties in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force. The Local Government Commission operates under the Local Government Commission Act 1961.

County councils may, under the provisions of the Counties Act 1956, declare areas within counties to be county towns. To qualify the areas concerned must have a population of at least 200, with an average density of not less than one person to the acre or not less than 60 houses with an average density of not less than one house to three acres. After the constitution of a county town the county council is required to appoint a county town committee of not less than three nor more than seven members, to advise it on the administration of the county town. Membership is restricted to electors having a ratepayer's or residential qualification in respect of property or an address within the county town, or members of the council for the riding in which the county town is sited.

Boroughs-Dealing with the needs of a concentrated population, the borough organisation is concerned with a wide range of functions of a purely local nature. With the growth and centralisation of population the number of boroughs, despite numerous amalgamations of adjacent boroughs, steadily increased until 1955 when the total was 146. In August 1964 the total was 144.

Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 for the constitution of a borough there must be a population of at least 1,500 with an average density of population of at least one person per acre. A borough containing a population of 20,000 or more may be proclaimed a city, although the corporation remains unaltered.

Town Districts-The town district represents a form of local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population and the presence of interests which, from their purely local nature, cannot be satisfactorily met by the county organisation. In its early stages a town district usually remained subject to county control, although such control was practically confined to the main and county roads in the town district; in such circumstances it was known as a dependent town district. The Town Boards Amendment Act 1908 enabled town districts on reaching a population of more than 500 to become independent. On attaining its independence a town district becomes in all respects a separate entity, and, apart from its smaller population, is not essentially different from a borough. The constitution and powers of town districts have been brought into closer relationship to boroughs over the years, and independent town districts are now constituted under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Act required that the area should not be more than 2 square miles, within which no two points are more than 4 miles distant and with a density of population of not less than one person to the acre. No new dependent town districts can be constituted. The number of town districts in August 1964 was 22 (14 independent and 8 dependent).

General Powers-Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1953 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. For most harbour boards, there is in addition to the general Harbours Act a special Act for each board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority-urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority-derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

Number of Local Authorities-The number of local authorities actively functioning at 1 August 1964 was 919 made up as follows: County councils, 115; borough (including city) councils, 144; town councils (independent), 14; town councils (dependent), 8; road boards, 3; regional authority, 1; river boards (2 boards also have the power of land-drainage boards), 10; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 3; land-drainage boards, 36; electric power boards, 41; water-supply board, 1; urban drainage boards, 4; transport boards, 2; local railway board, 1; electric power and gas boards, 2; milk boards (including 36 where the board is a borough council), 52; nassella tussock boards, 2; harbour bridge authority, 1; road tunnel authority, 1; valley authority, 1; plantation board, 1; underground water authorities, 3; rabbit boards, 180; fire boards (including 145 where the board is a borough or county council, etc.), 205; harbour boards (including 16 where the board is a borough or county council, etc.), 38; and hospital boards, 37. In addition, there were 21 district councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1954. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes, viz: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties, e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are composed of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose, e.g., electric power districts.

Local Government Commission-The Local Government Commission Act 1961, which replaced the Local Government Commission Act 1953, set up a Local Government Commission which is a permanent institution deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908.

The Act provides that the Commission shall consist of a Chairman who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand and two other members having a special knowledge of local government.

The functions of the Commission are to carry out investigations, prepare reorganisation schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any locality will best provide for the needs and continued development of the locality, that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities, and that the provisions of the Act and of other Acts in relation to local government are effectively implemented. Reorganisation schemes may provide for the union of adjoining districts, the merger, constitution, or abolition of districts, the alteration of boundaries, the conversion of a district into one of a different kind, the transfer of functions of one local authority to another or the dissolution of a local authority.

The Act provides for the appointment of a Local Government Appeal Authority whose function is to sit as a judicial authority to determine appeals made from decisions of the Commission. Any decision finally approving a scheme of reorganisation of districts may be appealed against only by the following parties:

  1. The local authority of any district to which the scheme relates;

  2. Any person or body having statutory authority to make decisions or recommendations in respect of the union, merger, constitution, alteration, or abolition of any district to which the scheme relates; and

  3. The Minister, in any case where the scheme affects only one local authority, or only one local authority and an adjoining area that does not form part of a district, or does not affect any local authority.

Franchise-Under the Local Election and Polls Act 1953, elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. On any proposal relating to loans or rates a rate paying or a freehold qualification is necessary. Details of the franchise as it affects each type of local district are now given.

Counties-Any person of 21 years of age and over who possesses either of the following qualifications is entitled to be enrolled on the county electors roll:

  1. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within a riding of the county. One vote is allowed where the rateable value does not exceed £1,000, two votes where the value is greater than £1,000 but not in excess of £2,000, and three votes where the value exceeds £2,000.

  2. Residential qualification, which may be held by a person who is or has the status of a British subject or is an Irish citizen, and who has resided for one year in New Zealand and has had permanent residence of not less than three months in the riding of the county to which the roll relates.

Boroughs-Any person of 21 years of age and over who possesses any of the following qualifications is entitled to enrolment:

  1. Freehold qualification-meaning the beneficial and duly registered ownership of a freehold estate in land of a capital value of not less than £25 situated in the borough, notwithstanding that any other person is the occupier thereof.

  2. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within the borough.

  3. Residential qualification, which may be held by a person who is or has the status of a British subject or is an Irish citizen, and who has resided for one year in New Zealand and who has had permanent residence during the last three months in the borough to which the roll relates.

Town Districts-The franchise is the same as for boroughs, except that for county electoral purposes in dependent town districts the county qualification is necessary.

Rabbit Districts-Where the rates of the district are based on the acreage and rateable value of land occupied by the ratepayer, the franchise is the same as that exercised for county council elections. Where the franchise is based on stock ownership, from one to five votes are allowed according to the number of stock units owned.

Other Districts-Road districts, river districts, land-drainage districts, water-supply districts, and the local railway district all have a franchise similar to that of counties except that the residential qualification applies to road districts only.

Districts composed of a grouping of districts of other types united for a common purpose have a franchise as for the component districts. Such districts are urban drainage districts, electric power districts, harbour districts, hospital districts, urban transport districts, and catchment districts. In some cases-e.g., the Auckland Metropolitan and Hutt Valley Drainage Boards-the members are appointed or elected by the territorial local authorities included in the district.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING-The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Regional Planning-Regional Planning Authorities may be established under provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act 1953. As provided in the Act the authorities consist of representatives of the several councils whose districts are wholly or partly within the region. Every local authority within the region, other than the constituent councils, is entitled to be represented by at least one associate member. The Regional Planning Authority may also appoint any person who may be possessed of special knowledge, or representatives of any Department of State, to be associate members. Authorities are now operating in the four main centres and in Whangarei and Marlborough.

Finance for administration purposes is provided for by way of a maximum rate of one-fiftieth of a penny in the pound on the rateable capital value of those portions of the councils' territories inside the regional area. The Act also makes provision whereby any of the constituent councils may enter into and carry out agreements for the execution of combined works.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the coordination of all such public improvements, utilities, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority. Every regional planning scheme is intended to be a guide to councils engaged in the preparation of district planning schemes and to public authorities and all persons in relation to conservation and development within the region. Regional schemes are required to be reviewed at intervals of not more than ten years.

District Planning-Every district scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the area to which it relates (including where necessary the replanning and reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as will most effectively tend to promote and safeguard the health, safety and convenience, the economic and general welfare of its inhabitants, and the amenities of every part of the area. The council of every city, borough, county, and independent town district must provide and maintain a district scheme whether or not a regional planning scheme including its district has been prepared or become operative.

While a district scheme is being prepared a council may refuse its consent to the carrying out of any development that would be in contravention of the scheme and falls within the definition of a "detrimental work", but the owner or occupier affected may appeal against such a decision to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board. The Minister can require the council to exercise these powers where the development would or might adversely affect Government works or the public interest, and local authorities have similar rights in respect of their works. Any appeal proceedings lie against the Minister or the local authority concerned.

In the period before a district scheme becomes operative, any change of use of land that detracts or is likely to detract from the amenities of the neighbourhood is required to have the prior consent of the council. Where an application is made to the council for consent, the applicant and every person who claims to be affected by the proposed use has a right to be heard by the council and may appeal to the Appeal Board against the council's decision.

When completed and recommended by the council, copies of a district scheme are submitted to the Minister of Works and to adjoining councils and to local authorities within the area covered by the scheme for consideration, particularly in relation to their public works. When the Minister and each local authority is satisfied that all their respective public works have been properly provided for in the scheme and have certified accordingly the district scheme is publicly notified for inspection for three months. Any owner or occupier of land affected may object to any provision of the scheme, and the Minister, other local authorities, professional, business, sporting or other such organisations, may also object to the scheme on grounds of public interest. In the event of an objection not being sustained by the council the objector may appeal to the Appeal Board whose decision is final.

The Minister of Works may prepare and obtain approval for a district scheme in any case where a local authority under an obligation to prepare such a scheme fails to do so after being notified in writing. The costs and expenses incurred by the Minister are recoverable from the local authority, or they may be deducted from any moneys payable to the local authority by the Crown.

When a district scheme has been finally approved and made operative the council and all local authorities having jurisdiction in the district are bound to observe, and enforce observance of, the requirements of the scheme. The provisions of an operative regional planning scheme are also obligatory, but a constituent council has a right of appeal to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board where a provision of a proposed or operative district scheme conflicts with the regional scheme; the Minister has, incidentally, a similar right of appeal so far as the regional scheme conflicts with the public interest.

Operative district schemes may be altered at any time, and must be reviewed when any part of the scheme has been operative and unchanged for a period of five years. In preparing, recommending, and approving a change or a review of a district scheme a council may follow either the same procedure as that for a new scheme commencing at the point where the scheme is ready to be recommended, or it may adopt an alternative procedure whereby the change or review is publicly notified for inspection by owners and occupiers of property and simultaneously submitted to the Minister, to the Regional Planning Authority, and to the local authorities within the district for their consideration and objection where necessary in the light of their respective public works and other responsibilities.

Once a district scheme has been made operative it cannot be cancelled unless it is replaced at the same time by another operative district scheme. Furthermore, once a proposed change to an operative district scheme has been publicly notified for inspection and objection by owners and occupiers of property, no development work, subdivision, or change of use of land or buildings that would conflict with the proposed change may be carried out without permission by order of the Appeal Board.

Where a district scheme is operative the local authority may take, under the Public Works Act 1928, any land in its district if in accordance with the scheme it considers it is necessary or expedient to do so for the proper development or use of the land, or for the provision or preservation of amenities, or for the improvement of areas that are too closely subdivided or are occupied by decadent buildings.

Of the 275 councils that are under statutory obligation to provide and maintain operative district schemes, 86 councils had fulfilled that obligation by the end of August 1964 and a further 53 councils had progressed beyond the stage of recommending and submitting their district schemes for consideration by the Minister of Works, adjoining councils, and the local authorities within the area covered by the scheme.

Chapter 3. Section 3 POPULATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL-Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand, i.e., island territories are omitted except where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Cook Islands, Niue Island, and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately.

Maoris are included in all population data unless the contrary is stated.

PRESENT POPULATION-The most recent census of population was taken on 18 April 1961, at which time the population of New Zealand, excluding island territories, was 2,414,984. A census of the island territories was taken on 25 September 1961.

The following table gives a summary of New Zealand population according to the latest estimates.

TerritoryDateMalesFemalesTotal
* Includes population or the inhabited minor islands, i.e., Kermadec Islands, 9 (males); and Campbell Island, 9 (males).
New Zealand:    
(a) Exclusive of island territories:    
 Europeans—30 June 19641,208,0341,198,4252,406,459
 Maoris30 June 196495,44292,519187,961
  Totals, New Zealand (excluding island territories) 1,303,4761,290,9442,594,420*
(b) Island territories:    
 Tokelau Islands—30 September 19638901,0091,899
 Cook Islands—25 September 19639,8239,39119,214
 Niue Island—31 March 19642,4672,5775,044
  Totals, island territories 13,18012,97726,157
(c) Ross Dependency-31 December 19634242

INCREASE OF POPULATION-Since the commencement of European settlement in New Zealand the European population has in every year shown an increase, though the rate of increase has fluctuated considerably, and the Maori population has increased continuously since 1896. Census records since 1901 are quoted in the succeeding table and include Maoris.

In no fewer than six of the 11 censuses covered by the table the figures are disturbed by the absence overseas of armed forces. Their departure and return affect intercensal increases. Numbers of armed forces personnel overseas at the respective dates were: 1901, 2,500 (approx.); 1916, 44,000 (approx.); 1945, 45,381; 1951, 1,894; 1956, 2,162; and 1961, 2,559.

It will be noted that the growth of population has been substantial in each period. The lowest rates are those of 1926-36, which included some years of economic depression, and of 1936-45, which included six years of war.

Date of CensusTotal PopulationIntercensal Numerical IncreaseIntercensal Percentage IncreaseAverage Annual Percentage Increase

* Excludes New Zealand armed forces personnel overseas.

†Includes New Zealand armed forces personnel overseas.

March 1901*815,85372,6469.81.9
April 1906936,304120,45114.82.8
April 19111,058,308122,00413.02.5
October 1916*1,149,22590,9178.61.5
April 19211,271,664122,43910.72.3
April 19261,408,139136,47510.72.1
March 19361,573,810165,67111.81.1
September 1945*1,702,298128,4888.20.8
September 19451,747,679173,86911.01.1
April 1951*1,939,472237,17413.92.4
April 19511,941,366193,68711.11.9
April 1956*2,174,062234,59012.12.3
April 19562,176,224234,85812.12.3
April 1961*2,414,984240,92211.12.1
April 19612,417,543241,31911.12.1

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES-The annual average percentage increases of population during the respective intercensal periods are given in the following table for certain selected countries.

CountryCensus PeriodAverage Annual Percentage Increase
New Zealand1956-612.1
Australia1554-612.3
Canada1956-612.5
Ceylon1953-632.7
England and Wales1951-610.5
Scotland1951-610.2
Northern Ireland1951-610.4
Republic of Ireland1956-61-0.6
Austria1951-610.2
Denmark1955-600.6
France1954-621.1
Germany, West1950-611.1
Hungary1949-600.7
India1951-612.0
Japan1955-600.9
Netherlands1947-601.4
Pakistan1951-612.2
South Africa1951-602.4
Sweden1950-600.6
Switzerland1950-601.4
Thailand1947-603.2
United States of America1950-601.7

INTERCENSAL RECORDS Intercensal statements of total population are prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration and are relatively accurate. Discrepancies have in fact been so slight that revisions of the intercensal figures between 1951 and 1956 and between 1956 and 1961 were not necessary.

The following population figures exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPer Cent
Years Ended 31 March
19541,049,9631,037,7772,087,74050,1872.52,061,376
19551,072,0901,058,8372,130,92743,1872.12,105,767
19561,094,2831,081,0902,175,37344,4462.12,150,290
19571,116,6861,104,4832,221,16945,7962.12,194,108
19581,144,6701,130,8452,275,51554,3462.42,246,093
19591,170,0071,156,1222,326,12950,6142.22,298,814
19601,191,3991,178,7672,370,16644,0371.92,345,602
19611,213,3561,200,9402,414,29644,1301.92,388,004
19621,246,1781,231,1192,477,29763,0012.62,442,700
19631,273,3731,260,0462,533,41956,1222.32,502,480
19641,302,3131,288,4742,590,78757,3682.32,557,074
Years Ended 31 December
19531,043,1431,031,6382,074,78150,2252.52,048,826
19541,065,4901,052,9442,118,43443,6532.12,094,910
19551,089,0701,075,6642,164,73446,3002.22,138,946
19561,111,1761,097,9562,209,13244,3982.12,182,833
19571,137,7991,125,0152,262,81453,6822.42,232,591
19581,165,5681,150,3322,315,90053,0862.32,285,852
19591,186,0831,173,6632,359,74643,8461.92,334,617
19601,207,9461,195,6212,403,56743,8211.92,377,010
19611,230,2291,224,0122,463,24159,6742.52,427,366
19621,267,2821,253,3882,520,67057,4292.32,488,287
19631,293,4231,281,1652,574,58853,9182.12,543,164

The figures given in the preceding table are for total population inclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the Maori population.

YearMaori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPer Cent
Years Ended 31 March
195465,14162,243127,3844,1853.4125,174
195567,56064,405131,9654,5813.6129,611
195669,85666,723136,5794,6143.5134,223
195772,55269,482142,0345,4554.0139,421
195875,00472,114147,1185,0843.6144,550
195977,72374,920152,6435,5253.8149,742
196080,54977,806158,3555,7123.7155,501
196183,44480,735164,1795,8243.7161,226
196288,04485,168173,2129,0335.5169,646
196391,36588,463179,8286,6163.8176,432
196494,64191,752186,3936,5653.7183,051
Years Ended 31 December
195364,50761,639126,1464,0463.3124,146
195466,94663,860130,8064,6603.7128,456
195569,27866,091135,3694,5633.5133,075
195671,87368,750140,6235,2543.9138,081
195774,27471,397145,6715,0483.6143,284
195876,96274,174151,1365,4653.8148,369
195979,83777,002156,8395,7033.8154,074
196082,72379,952162,6755,8363.7159,768
196187,21084,343171,5538,8785.5167,407
196290,42887,482177,9106,3573.7174,810
196393,80690,878184,6846,7743.8181,384

POPULATION PROJECTIONS An indication of future population growth, including Maoris, in New Zealand is given by the detailed projections for the period 1966-80 and the less elaborate projections for the five-yearly points 1985-2000 set out in the following table.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels, coupled with the difficulty of accurately forecasting the future course of the factors which are known to affect these components of population change. It should be understood, therefore, that these projections merely show the effect of the assumptions stated below the table on the future growth of the existing population. The assumptions, however, have been adopted only after careful studies of trends in the patterns of fertility, mortality, and migration and, in the light of available current information, are regarded as those most likely to produce realistic projections over the length of the projection period.

PROJECTED NEW ZEALAND POPULATION
As at 31 MarchAssuming Net Immigration of
5,000 per Year10.000 per Year
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
(thousand)
19661,3511,3342,6851,3561,3392,695
19671,3771,3582,7351,3841,3642,748
19681,4021,3832,7851,4121,3922,804
19691,4281,4072,8351,4421,4202,862
19701,4541,4342,8881,4721,4502,922
19711,4831,4612,9441,5041,4822,986
19721,5121,4893,0011,5371,5133,050
19731,5431,5173,0601,572J,5453,117
19741,5741,5483,1221,6081,5773,185
19751,6071,5813,1881.6431,6113,254
19761,6421,6143,2561,6791,6473,326
19771,6761,6473,3231,7171,6833,400
19781,7121,6803,3921,7561,7203,476
19791,7491,7163,4651,7961,7583,554
19801,7841,7523,5361,8371,7993,636
1985....3,837....3,969
1990....4,159....4,328
1995....4,508....4,715
2000....4,882....5,132

Assumptions-The two projections are linked to actual population numbers as at 31 March 1964. The assumptions on which the more detailed projections for 1966-80 depend are as follows:

  1. Birthrates for each quinquennial age and marital status ("married" and "not married") group of females will continue at the average 1952-56 level.

  2. The proportion of married females in each quinquennial age group will, in the future, vary in accordance with the rate of variation in the 1951-56 intercensal period.

  3. Mortality rates for each quinquennial age group, male and female, will be maintained at the level shown by the New Zealand Life Tables, 1950-52.

  4. Future net immigration will be at the rates of either 5,000 or 10,000 persons per annum, the age and sex distribution being based on the average 1937-58 pattern. The long-term projections for 1985-2000 are linked to the earlier projections. They are based on the following assumptions:

  5. The rate of natural increase of population, excess of births over deaths, for the period 1980-2000 will be 15 persons per 1,000 living.

  6. Net immigration will be as assumed for the period 1966-80.

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1880 to 1964 and projections through to 2000.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION-Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census. Final figures for the 1961 census for statistical areas, urban areas, counties, cities, boroughs, town districts, county towns, extra-county islands, and shipping have been published in Volume 1, Increase and Location of Population, of the 1961 Population Census.

North and South Islands-In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population, excluding Maoris, of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census YearPopulation (Excluding Maoris)Percentages
North IslandSouth IslandTotalNorth IslandSouth Island
1901388,626381,678770,30450.549.5
1906474,605411,390885,99553.646.4
1911561,281444,3041,005,58555.844.2
1916648,439447,7891,096,22859.240.8
1921741,255477,6581,218,91360.839.2
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961.938.1
1936938,939552,6561,491,48463.037.0
19451,050,984552,5701,603,55465.534.5
19511,202,357621,4391,823,79665.934.1
19561,365,470671,4412,036,91167.033.0
19611,524,839723,0592,247,89867.832.2

The natural increase of European population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the North Island during the 1956-61 intercensal period was 121,852, and the total net increase 159,369. For the South Island the natural increase was 50,101, and the total net increase 51,618. The population of the North Island increased at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island between the 1956 and 1961 censuses. Inclusive of Maoris, the North Island increase was 187,421, or 12.5 percent, and the South Island increase 53,501, or 7.9 per cent.

At the 1961 census the North Island population was 1,684,785, inclusive of 159,946 Maoris, and the South Island population 730,199, inclusive of 7,140 Maoris.

Statistical Areas-Statistical areas are now being used in preference to provincial districts. Auckland Provincial District has been split into four areas; Northland comprises the northern counties from Mangonui to Otamatea; central Auckland, the counties from Rodney to Franklin (including islands in the Hauraki Gulf); East Coast, the area north of Wairoa; while South Auckland-Bay of Plenty comprises the remainder of the provincial district. Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, and Wellington statistical areas are the same as the provincial districts of the same names.

In the South Island only minor changes have been made in the provincial district boundaries to give better statistical areas. These are the transfer of Amuri and Cheviot counties from Nelson to Canterbury statistical area, and the transfer of all that area of Grey county north of Grey River from Nelson to Westland.

It is ultimately intended to drop statistics for provincial districts completely.

In the table following, the approximate areas and the estimated total populations as at the census of April 1961 and as at 1 April 1964 of the statistical areas are shown.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Miles)Census 1961Estimated Total Population 1 April 1964
Northland4,88086,39190,300
Central Auckland2,150514,507570,218
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty14,187349,624378,600
East Coast4,20046,47847,500
Hawke's Bay4,260114,470122,700
Taranaki3,75099,774103,500
Wellington10,870473,541507,300
Totals, North Island44,2971,684,7851,820,118
Statistical AreaArea (Square Miles)Census 1961Estimated Total Population 1 April 1964
Marlborough4,22027,74829,300
Nelson6,91062,96766,400
Westland6,01024,84124,900
Canterbury16,769344,597366,169
Otago14,070176,325183,700
Southland11,46093,721100,200
Totals, South Island59,439730,199770,669
Totals, New Zealand103,7362,414,9842,590,787

Urban Areas-These are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. In addition to the central city or borough, they include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population.

Urban areas were defined in 1917 and, except for two additions and one deletion, remained unaltered until 1951, when a revision of boundaries was made and the new areas used in the 1951 census. From census records and maps, revised population figures were prepared on the basis of the new boundaries. In the case of European population the figures were revised for each census back to 1911, and on the basis of population including Maoris the revision was possible back to the 1926 census. The most significant change resulting from this revision was the division of the former Wellington Urban Area, plus additional areas to the north, into the two adjacent urban areas of Hutt and Wellington. The two areas in a sense form a single centre of population and it is preferable at times to treat them as such. However, the extent and pattern of development in the Hutt Valley have been such as to establish it as a centre complementary to Wellington. In Auckland the boundaries were extended considerably, but in most other cases it was found that little change was necessary. For the 1961 Census, three new urban areas were defined at Whangarei, Tauranga, and Rotorua and comparable figures have been compiled for past years.

Urban AreaTotal PopulationPopulation Increase 1956-61
1945195119561961NumericalPercentage
Whangarei12,24815,43118,36921,7903,42118.6
Auckland286,767329,123381,063448,36567,30217.7
Hamilton27,31933,13740,64650,5059,85924.3
Tauranga8,34213,01018,72424,6595,93531.7
Rotorua10,41714,69319,00425,0686,06431.9
Gisborne16,99519,77422,62225,0652,44310.8
Napier20,74124,53827,50732,7165,20918.9
Hastings20,30623,79727,78732,4904,70316.9
New Plymouth21,05724,92328,29232,3874,09514.5
Wanganui26,26229,71732,10035,6943,59411.2
Palmerston North27,82032,90837,77543,1855,41014.3
Hutt55,78674,87886,05398,98812,93515.0
Wellington132,305133,414138,297150,54412,2478.9
Nelson16,52320,49722,50325,3212,81812.5
Christchurch151,068174,221193,367220,51027,14314.0
Timaru19,67222,85124,69426,4241,7307.0
Dunedin87,58795,45799,370105,0035,6335.7
Invercargill27,75531,61335,10741,0885,98117.0
Totals968,9701,113,9821,253,2801,439,802186,52214.9

In the period covered by the table all urban areas have consistently recorded increases in population. In the years 1956-61 Auckland had the greatest numerical growth, while Rotorua, Tauranga, and Hamilton had the highest proportionate increases.

The lowest percentage increase was recorded by Dunedin (5.7 per cent) which, with eight of the other 17 urban areas, had a percentage increase lower than the average for the 18 urban areas together.

Auckland Urban Area, with a total population of 448,365, took well over a third of the total increase in population in the 18 urban areas.

Wellington and Hutt Urban Areas together had slightly under 250,000 population.

The next table contains the estimated total population of the 18 urban areas as at 1 April 1964. The component parts of the five largest centres of population are given in detail, while for the remaining 13 areas totals only are quoted. In most of the 13 cases the urban area comprises the central city or borough plus the urban portion of the adjoining county. At 1 April 1964 the five largest urban areas had a total population of 1,113,000, this being equivalent to 43.0 per cent of the New Zealand total. The total for all urban areas at the same date was 1,573,200, or 60.7 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

Urban AreaEstimated Total Population 1 April 1964
Auckland
Auckland city147,900
East Coast Bays borough11,000
Takapuna City22,000
Devonport borough10,950
Northcote borough7,280
Birkenhead borough9,230
Henderson borough4,710
Glen Eden borough5,820
New Lynn borough9,580
Newmarket borough1,770
Mt. Albert borough26,200
Mt. Eden borough18,350
Mt. Roskill borough32,900
Onehunga borough16,350
One Tree Hill borough12,900
Ellerslie borough4,480
Mt. Wellington borough17,800
Howick borough7,840
Otahuhu borough8,880
Papatoetoe borough20,100
Manurewa borough15,000
Papakura borough9,990
Remainder of urban area78,670
Total499,700
Hutt
Lower Hut city55,900
Upper Hut borough19,000
Petone borough9,880
Eastbourne borough2,670
Remainder of urban area21,250
Total108,700
Wellington
Wellington city125,900
Tawa borough8,800
Porirua borough19,400
Remainder of urban area4,600
Total158,700
Christchurch
Christchurch city156,900
Riccarton borough7,340
Lyttelton borough3,390
Heathcote county7,190
Remainder of urban area62,780
Total237,600
Dunedin
Dunedin city77,100
Port Chalmers borough3,120
St. Kilda borough6,640
Green Island borough5,500
Mosgiel borough7,350
Remainder of urban area8,590
Total108,300
Whangarei24,800
Hamilton57,800
Tauranga29,500
Rotorua29,300
Gisborne26,400
Napier36,200
Hastings36,200
New Plymouth34,800
Wanganui37,900
Palmerston North47,400
Nelson27,500
Timaru27,500
Invercargill44,900

Counties-The following table gives the estimated total population of individual counties at 1 April 1964, together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that "Administrative Counties" do not include boroughs or town districts independent of comity control, but include town districts and county towns which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Total Population 1 April 1964Approximate Area, in Square Miles
North Island:  
Mangonui7,590958
Whangaroa2,260240
Hokianga5,750613
Bay of Islands13,120823
Whangarei13,9501,039
Hobson6,360745
Otamatea6,940421
Rodney6,970477
Waitemata66,800600
Great Barrier Island240110
Manukau40,200237
Franklin18,600551
Raglan12,000931
Waikato15,880639
Waipa15,510436
Otorohanga8,320762
Waitomo8,7501,297
Taumarunui8,8601,873
Coromandel2,790439
Thames3,270419
Hauraki Plains5,720233
Ohinemuri4,160241
Piako12,650451
Matamata25,000987
Tauranga16,300711
Rotorua15,6501,035
Taupo11,4502,852
Whakatane18,2001,670
Opotiki4,8901,324
Matakaoa1,810295
Waiapu5,570792
Waikohu3,5001,012
Cook10,1001,110
Wairoa7,5901,395
Hawke's Bay21,6001,872
Waipawa4,070520
Patangata3,440655
Waipukurau1,300128
Dannevirke4,560546
Woodville1,730156
Clifton2,560454
Taranaki8,310227
Inglewood3,270201
Stratford6,020833
Egmont6,260240
Eltham3,600207
Waimate West2,87083
Hawera5,410190
Patea3,810591
Waimarino2,240829
Waitotara3,370468
Wanganui3,470460
Rangitikei15,3001,730
Kiwitea2,350359
Pohangina1,180259
Oroua4,570190
Manawatu7,380265
Kairanga6,940184
Horowhenua9,910542
Hutt39,100527
Pahiatua2,730286
Akitio1,180321
Eketahuna1,800318
Mauriceville450115
Masterton3,920808
Wairarapa South3,030440
Featherston3,660954
Totals, North Is. counties598,14043,676
South Island:  
Sounds860457
Marlborough8,2301,946
Awatere1,7701,030
Kaikoura3,140905
Golden Bay3,6501,011
Waimea14,3001,533
Buller4,0401,885
Murchison1,4601,372
Inangahua3,060942
Grey4,7501,579
Westland4,5204,410
Amuri2,9102,285
Cheviot1,550327
Waipara2,970937
Kowai2,200157
Ashley730309
Rangiora3,86096
Eyre2,000175
Oxford1,580318
Tawera750942
Malvern5,790980
Paparua17,850133
Waimairi48,40043
Heathcote7,19012
Halswell3,34039
Mt. Herbert67066
Akaroa1,830170
Chatham Islands510372
Wairewa770170
Ellesmere7,060443
Ashburton11,8002,367
Geraldine5,150774
Levels5,490262
Mackenzie3,3502,853
Waimate6,0301,383
Waitaki12,9002,412
Waihemo980338
Waikouaiti3,670316
Peninsula3,65040
Taieri8,320901
Bruce4,020520
Clutha6,1701,045
Tuapeka4,9001,388
Maniototo2,8101,340
Vincent3,9302,922
Lake1,8603,871
Southland26,8303,701
Wallace10,4003,728
Fiord5903,035
Stewart Island540670
Totals, South Island counties285,13058,910
Grand totals, all counties883,270102,586

Waitemata county, with a population of 66,800, has the largest county population, followed by Waimairi county with 48,400. Most of those counties showing considerable gains of population are adjacent to large cities.

Boroughs-Similar information as in the case of counties is now given for cities and boroughs.

BoroughEstimated Total Population 1 April 1964Approximate Area, in Acres
North Island:  
Kaitaia2,8501,310
Kaikohe3,1601,345
Whangarei20,0006,510
Dargaville3,8902,800
Helensville1,2601,315
East Coast Bays11,0003,850
Takapuna (city)22,0003,280
Devonport10,9501,100
Northcote7,2801,196
Birkenhead9,2303,084
Henderson4,7101,278
Glen Eden5,8201,244
New Lynn9,5801,393
Auckland (city)147,90018,498
Newmarket1,770182
Mt. Albert26,2002,430
Mt. Eden18,3501,477
Mt. Roskill32,9004,604
Onehunga16,3501,878
One Tree Hill12,9002,430
Ellerslie4,480745
Mt. Wellington17,8004,075
Howick7,8401,534
Otahuhu8,8801,345
Papatoetoe20,1002,241
Manurewa15,0001,803
Papakura9,9902,022
Waiuku1,6801,465
Tuakau1,6301,091
Huntly5,1401,941
Cambridge5,6102,646
Ngaruawahia3,6001,112
Hamilton (city)57,50013,726
Te Awamutu6,7601,762
Otorohanga2,040560
Te Kuiti4,9001,668
Taumarunui5,3703,234
Thames5,4602,712
Paeroa2,9201,419
Waihi3,2401,330
Te Aroha3,1702,783
Morrinsville4,3501,177
Matamata3,690934
Putaruru3,960975
Mt. Maunganui6,4903,475
Tauranga (city)21,5006,576
Te Puke2,5001,047
Rotorua (city)22,6006,557
Taupo6,5202,501
Whakatane8,2201,975
Kawerau5,1501,718
Murupara2,340710
Opotiki2,720772
Gisborne (city)23,8004,014
Wairoa4,5801,603
Napier (city)27,2004,361
Taradale5,7001,003
Hastings (city)26,2004,222
Havelock North4,6501,165
Waipawa1,7501,710
Waipukurau3,400971
Dannevirke5,6201,300
Woodville1,5701,054
Waitara4,6901,587
New Plymouth (city)31,5005,722
Inglewood5,090703
Stratford5,5102,016
Eltham2,3301,599
Hawera7,9401,270
Patea2,0401,420
Ohakune1,5302,079
Raetihi1,390958
Wanganui (city)35,4006,383
Taihape2,8001,923
Marton4,5801,415
Feilding8,8502,031
Foxton2,680757
Palmerston N. (city)44,9007,190
Shannon1,530844
Levin10,4502,162
Otaki3,3401,639
Porirua19,4008,226
Upper Hutt19,0002,165
Lower Hutt (city)55,90011,004
Petone9,8802,575
Eastbourne2,6701,546
Tawa8,8001,208
Wellington (city)125,90018,329
Pahiatua2,750720
Eketahuna770948
Masterton16,5003,324
Carterton3,3201,265
Greytown1,6901,093
Featherston1,600759
Martinborough1,4701,070
Total, North Island cities and boroughs1,205,370261,639
South Island:  
Picton2,4001,052
Blenheim13,0502,502
Nelson (city)26,1008,419
Richmond4,3802,600
Motueka3,6002,523
Westport5,480760
Runanga1,7201,204
Greymouth8,9002,594
Brunner1,0505,700
Kumara420842
Hokitika3,040674
Ross4903,800
Rangiora3,750877
Kaiapoi3,340786
Riccarton7,340728
Christchurch (city)156,90026,178
Lyttelton3,3902,560
Ashburton12,5002,601
Geraldine1,920745
Temuka2,570795
Timaru (city)26,2004,325
Waimate3,420771
Omaru13,3002,836
Hampden300630
Palmerston900900
Waikouaiti7401,958
Port Chalmers3,1201,012
Dunedin (city)77,10015,473
St. Kilda6,640616
Green Island5,5001,818
Mosgiel7,350970
Milton1,910315
Kaitangata1,2401,280
Balclutha4,3201,258
Tapanui820300
Lawrence630615
Roxburgh800515
Naseby150188
Alexandra2,7401,116
Cromwell990972
Arrowtown180457
Queenstown1,390998
Gore7,7202,338
Mataura2,2901,272
Winton1,610505
Invercargill (city)42,50010,489
Bluff3,3002,141
Riverton1,250997
Totals, South Island cities and boroughs480,750125,005
Grand totals, all cities and boroughs1,686,120386,644

Naseby, with an estimated population of 150, is the smallest borough in New Zealand, while Christchurch city, with a population of 156,900, retains its place as the city with the greatest population within city council boundaries.

Town Districts-As stated earlier, the population of independent town districts-i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table-is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts-section (b)-is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town DistrictEstimated Total Population 1 April 1964Approximate Area, in Acres
* Parent county shown in parentheses.
(a) Town Districts Not Forming Parts of Counties
North Island:  
Kawakawa1,030280
Hikurangi990960
Kamo2,350852
Warkworth1,0801,427
Ohura680815
Manunui9801,251
Manaia880510
Waverley890499
Mangaweka310955
Hunterville610791
Totals, North Island9,8008,340
South Island:  
Lumsden7001,264
Wyndham710680
Nightcaps710285
Otautau830490
Totals, south Island2,9502,719
Grand totals12,75011,059
(b)Town Districts Forming Parts of Counties*
North Island:  
Russell (Bay of Islands)5701,066
Te Kauwhata (Waikato)7801,290
Ohaupo (Waipa)3301,281
Kihikihi (Waipa)1,130523
Patutahi (Cook)2301,275
Kaponga (Eltham)520558
Normanby (Hawera)540260
Totals, North Island4,1006,253
South Island:  
Edendale (Southland)630696
Totals, South Island630696
Grand totals4,7306,949

County Towns-The following table lists those county towns with populations of 1,000 or more at the time of the 1961 census, giving the populations as estimated at 1 April 1964. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of county towns are included in the administrative county populations given previously.

County TownEstimated Total Population 1 April 1964Approximate Area in Acres
North Island:  
Wellsford (Rodney)1,2501,368
Green Bay (Waitemata)1,380471
Kelston West (Waitemata)4,250974
Titirangi (Waitemata)4,8502,299
Glenfield (Waitemata)7,9604,642
Bucklands and Eastern Beaches (Manukau)2,160426
Mangere Bridge (Manukau)4,6701,360
Mangere East (Manukau)6,4701,266
Pakuranga (Manukau)2,8401,358
Raglan (Raglan)1,050919
Tokoroa (Matamata)8,8001,057
Ngongotaha (Rotorua)1,7701,242
Bulls (Rangitikei)1,480995
Waikanae (Horowhenua)1,2702,418
Paekakariki (Hutt)1,8501,518
Plimmerton-Paremata (Hutt)3,450670
Wainuiomata (Hutt)11,1003,553
South Island:  
Kaikoura (Kaikoura)1,380700
Hornby (Paparua)6,0201,214
Sockburn (Paparua)5,4402,673

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population-In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised a total of 8,647 people as estimated at 1 April 1964.

Of the islands concerned, Waiheke, with a population of 2,070, was the only one of any size.

Urban and Rural Population-The increasing urbanisation of the New Zealand population is most clearly illustrated by the increases in urban area population, since the figures refer to the same areas at each census and are thus directly comparable. (Three additional urban areas-Whangarei, Tauranga, and Rotorua-were defined at the 1961 Census, but census records were used to compile comparable figures for these areas at previous censuses.). Population figures for individual urban areas from 1945 to 1961 are shown earlier. The population of the 18 urban areas rose from 739,243 in 1926 to 1,439,802 in 1961, an increase of 700,559, or almost 95 per cent, in 35 years. Over the same period the total population of New Zealand rose by almost 72 per cent.

The population of urban areas represents a large proportion of the total urban population, but by no means all. In the following table of urban-rural population the urban population has been defined as urban area population plus that of all boroughs, town districts, townships, and (for 1961) county towns with populations of 1,000 or over. County towns are included for 1961 but figures are not available for prior censuses. They would in most cases, before 1961, be known as townships and hence be included with the figures for such. Rural means the remainder of the population except persons on shipboard, who are omitted from the tabulation.

CensusUrbanRural
NumbersPer CentNumbersPer Cent
192688,58563.4512,41636.6
19511,345,29269.6588,30230.4
19561,535,95170.8633,66329.2
19611,779,75473.9629,66526.1

A longer period is covered in the following table in which, under the earlier concepts, urban population means the population in cities and boroughs, while rural population covers counties, all town districts, and extra-county islands.

This definition of urban and rural population was broadly true in earlier years, but the rapid growth of the chief centres of population in recent years, with the consequent spilling over of their populations into the surrounding counties, has rendered this definition increasingly unrealistic. Many thousands of county population now live within urban areas, and it is significant that eight out of the 10 counties with the highest percentage increases of population between 1956 and 1961 were partly within urban areas. However, the table does serve to illustrate the change in emphasis from rural to urban as boroughs and cities extend their boundaries, acquire new industries, and attract additional population both from the rural districts and through overseas immigration; and small townships within the counties grow to attain borough status and become urbanised.

CensusPopulationPercentage of Total
RuralUrbanShipboardRuralUrbanShipboard

* Figures exclude military and interment camps.

†Figures exclude members of the United States forces present New Zealand and also enemy prisoners of war.

‡Inclusive of Maori half-castes (3,221 in 1916 and 4,236 in living as Europeans, as they cannot be distinguished separately for these two censuses.

Excluding Maoris:      
1901416,701349,8423,76154.145.40.5
1906457,297424,2514,44751.647.90.5
1911495,577505,0035,00549.350.20.5
1916*501,956585,3063,46346.053.70.3
1921531,694681,9885,23143.656.00.4
1926552,344785,0407,08541.158.40.5
1936602,519884,2934,67240.459.30.3
1945591,8551,008,5343,16536.962.90.2
1951654,9211,163,0905,78535.963.80.3
1956704,5361,327,9964,37934.665.20.2
1961761,4171,480,9705,51133.965.90.2
Total Populations:      
1926610,446790,5557,13843.456.10.5
1936677,087892,0244,69943.056.70.3
1945674,8211,024,2923,18539.660.20.2
1951748,9221,184,6725,87838.661.10.3
1956809,2671,360,3474,44837.262.60.2
1961872,7681,536,6515,56536.263.60.2

Another conception of urban and rural population is presented in the next table. For this purpose urban population has been taken as that enumerated in cities, boroughs, or town districts with a minimum population of 1,000. Shipboard population is excluded. The numbers of towns making up the populations shown are given in parentheses after the populations.

Size of CentreTotal Population
192619561961
* Figures in parentheses are the numbers of towns included in each category.
Numbers*
Borough and town district with population of-   
1,000-2,499104,360 (63)65,931 (40)56,117 (33)
2,500-4,99986,408 (23)158,605 (47)136,605 (39)
5,000-9,99982,644 (11)133,600 (19)197,180 (29)
10,000-24,999186,545 (12)297,699 (19)361,023 (21)
Totals, urban798,170 (113)1,357,783 (136)1,533,881 (134)
rural602,831811,831875,538
Totals, New Zealand (excluding shipboard)1,401,0012,169,6142,409,419
Percentages
1,000- 2,4997.53.02.3
2,500- 4,9996.27.35.7
5,000- 9,9995.96.28.2
10,000-24,99913.313.715.0
25,000 or over24.132.432.5
Totals, urban57.062.663.7
rural43.037.436.3
Totals New Zealand100.00100.00100.00

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island.

AGE DISTRIBUTION-The following table shows the estimated age distribution of the population at 31 December 1963 and of the mean population for the year 1963. The figures are based on the 1961 census data and brought up to date from statistics of births, ages of persons dying, and ages of persons arriving in or departing from New Zealand.

Age Group in YearsTotal PopulationMaoris
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
As at 31 December 1963
0-4159,183152,260311,44318,46617,86336,329
5-9144,100137,940282,04015,20015,04030,240
10-14130,040123,920253,96012,64012,02024,660
15-19114,140109,670223,8109,2409,07018,310
20-2491,28087,040178,3207,3807,44014,820
25-2977,20074,390151,5906,6006,49013,090
30-3480,10075,230155,3305,6005,73011,330
35-3983,95078,010161,9604,4504,4108,860
40-4478,33077,570155,9003,5303,4707,000
45-4970,00071,300141,3002,9002,8005,700
50-5468,09066,690134,7802,5902,2904,880
55-5958,04056,940114,9801,9401,5403,480
60-6446,66047,84094,5001,3601,1402,500
65-6932,99040,83073,8208907301,620
70-7425,11033,14058,250510390900
75-7918,68525,50544,190295255550
80 and over15,52522,89038,415215200415
 Totals1,293,4231,281,1652,574,58893,80690,878184,684
Totals:      
Under 14407,993390,000797,99344,07642,70386,779
Under 16458,653438,510897,16348,43647,01395,449
Under 21565,873541,1501,107,02356,95655,453112,409
21 and over727,550740,0151,467,56536,85035,42572,275
16 and under 21107,220102,640209,8608,5208,44016,960
65 and over92,310122,365214,6751,9101,5753,485
Mean Population for Year 1963
0-4157,166150,918308,08418,14217,63235,774
5-9141,930135,810277,74014,93014,71029,640
10-14128,930122,950251,88012,33011,75024,080
15-19110,400105,760216,1608,9008,76017,660
20-2489,81085,610175,4207,4107,41014,820
25-2976,30073,140149,4406,5006,44012,940
30-3480,50075,400155,9005,5005,60011,100
35-3983,45077,720161,1704,3504,3208,670
40-4476,90076,620153,5203,5003,4206,920
45-4970,28071,270141,5502,8802,7705,650
50-5467,37065,930133,3002,5702,2304,800
55-5956,99055,790112,7801,8901,4903,380
60-6445,73047,12092,8501,3301,1202,450
65-6932,70040,63073,3309007301,630
70-7425,21532,98058,195505390895
75-7918,71025,16043,870300250550
80 and over15,43522,54037,975215210425
 Totals1,277,8161,265,3482,543,16492,15289,232181,384
Totals:      
Under 14402,746385,428788,17443,22241,94285,164
Under 16453,136433,928887,06447,51246,14293,654
Under 21556,606532,6181,089,22455,78254,232110,114
21 and over721,210732,7301,453,94036,37034,90071,270
16 and under 21103,47098,690202,1608,2708,19016,460
65 and over92,060121,310213,3701,9201,5803,500

SEX PROPORTIONS-The figures for the census of 18 April 1961 show that males outnumber females by 8,914 in the European population, 2,854 in the Maori population, and 11,768 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males were: European, 992; Maori, 966; total population, 990. The high proportion of males, common to all newly developed countries and attributable mainly to a male preponderance among immigrants, has declined throughout most of this century. During the past hundred years there has been an annual predominance of male babies born in New Zealand, but this has been more than offset by the higher male death rate, particularly during the first year of life. Females per 1,000 males at the last five censuses have been:

19369701956989
* Including armed forces abroad.
19451,0441956*987
1945*9911961990
19519911961*988
1951*989  

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand. The following observations relate to the census of 1961 and give the number of females per 1,000 males.

In the aggregate of cities and boroughs the ratio was 1,049; in town districts, 963; and in counties, 905. For the statistical areas ratios were:

Central Auckland1,017
Otago1,015
Hawke's Bay1,011
Canterbury1,011
Nelson993
East Coast991
Wellington989
Taranaki987
Northland957
Marlborough949
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty947
Southland934
Westland926

Female preponderance in towns does not appear to have a direct relation to the size of the towns. Of the 18 urban areas which comprise the largest centres of population, 10 had ratios higher than the average for all cities and boroughs, but 8 were below the average, and of these Hutt, fifth largest urban area, even had an excess of males.

Timaru1,096
Gisborne1,088
New Plymouth1,077
Dunedin1,075
Palmerston North1,074
Hastings1,070
Napier1,062
Whangarei1,061
Christchurch1,057
Nelson1,051
Hamilton1,049
Tauranga1,045
Wanganui1,039
Wanganui1,039
Wanganui1,039
Wellington1,024
Invercargill1,019
Rotorua1,008
Hutt985

DENSITY OF POPULATION-The relation of population to area, which is commonly referred to as "density of population", is a subject of much interest and a source of serious misconceptions. Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon land utilisation or industrialisation. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, while there are also large areas of water or of broken, swampy, or hilly country which is either incapable of effective use or which can be used profitably only for pastoral purposes, afforestation, or the like.

Most of the land that can still be brought into occupation requires special methods or heavier capital expenditure to develop it. The Departments of Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs are grassing annually quite large areas of what was, until recently, regarded as useless land. The development of unimproved land for farming purposes can be expected to continue steadily, but the accompanying growth of mechanisation in farming tends to stabilise the size of the labour force engaged in farming operations.

While industrial development has made very marked growth in New Zealand over the years, and extensive further development appears certain, there are factors unfavourable to the growth of industry to a point where dense population could be supported-not the least of which are a lack of mineral resources, relative smallness of the home market (even with an expanded population), and distance from export markets.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The North Island, with an area of 44,300 square miles, had a population density of 38.0 persons per square mile at the 1961 census date, and the South Island, with an area of 59,440 square miles, had a population density of 12.3 persons per square mile at the same date.

The following table provides comparative density figures on a statistical area basis from 1926 to 1961 censuses.

Statistical AreaArea, in Square MilesPersons per Square Mile
19261936194519511961
Northland4,88011.213.213.615.417.7
Central Auckland2,150109.6123.4154.0177.3238.8
South Auckland-      
Bay of Plenty14,18710.212.614.417.424.6
East Coast4,2008.08.89.09.911.1
Hawke's Bay4,26016.518.118.621.426.9
Taranaki3,75019.220.720.523.226.6
Wellington10,87025.929.132.135.943.6
Totals, North Island44,29720.223.025.929.738.0
Marlborough4,2204.54.54.95.46.6
Nelson6,9106.07.06.88.29.1
Westland6,0103.64.34.04.24.1
Canterbury16,76913.014.214.916.920.5
Otago14,07010.710.810.311.312.5
Southland11,4605.96.46.36.88.2
Totals, South Island59,4398.79.49.410.512.3
Totals, New Zealand103,73613.615.216.518.723.3

MAORI POPULATION-The first official general census of Maoris was taken in 1857-58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy. All persons with half or more of Maori blood are defined as Maoris.

According to census records the Maori population suffered a period of almost unbroken decline from 1858 to 1896. Among the causes of this were the susceptibility of the Maori to tuberculosis, measles, typhoid, and other diseases introduced by the white man; the abandonment in some areas of healthy hilltop villages for low, often swampy sites; low birthrates coupled with high child-mortality rates; heavy losses in warfare following the introduction of firearms; and a feeling of race-despair engendered by loss of land, defeat in war, and the general breakdown in health.

Since 1896, however, the Maori population has increased continuously, at first steadily and of later years at a fairly rapid rate. In fact, the vitality exhibited by the Maori race, in recent years is a most outstanding feature. The rate of natural increase of the Maori population is more than double that of the European.

A statement of Maori population is now given for each census from 1901 to 1961.

YearMaori PopulationIntercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase
* Includes members of armed forces overseas at census date.
   Per CentPer Cent
190145,5493,4368.21.6
190650,3094,76010.52.0
191152,7232,4144.81.0
191652,9972740.50.1
192156,9873,9907.51.6
192663,6706,68311.72.2
193682,32618,65629.32.6
194598,74416,41519.91.9
1945*100,04417,71821.52.1
1951115,67616,93217.12.9
1951*115,74015,69615.72.7
1956137,15121,47518.63.5
1956*137,34121,60118.73.5
1961167,08629,93521.84.0
1961*167,39030,04921.94.0

The average annual percentage increase from 1956 to 1961 was 4.03, which is considerably higher than the corresponding figure for the non-Maori population, viz, 1.99 per cent. The natural increase rates for the year 1961 shown below afford a better illustration.

 EuropeanMaori
Birthrate25.5346.41
Death rate9.038.27
Natural-increase rate16.5038.14

Of the 167,086 Maoris at the 1961 census, 159,946 were in the North Island. Maoris have always been resident in rural communities and this is still substantially true. A marked change has, however, taken place during and since the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 census only 8,249 Maoris (10.0 per cent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1961 census the comparative figure was 57,411 (34.4 per cent). The largest concentration is in Auckland Urban Area, where 19,847 Maoris were enumerated.

Numbers of persons wholly or partly of Maori blood as disclosed by the censuses of 1956 and 1961 are set out in the following table.

Counted in the Maori population:
* This category, first introduced in 1956, covers those cases of "Maori-other races" mixtures where there is half or more Maori blood involved; it accounts for the decline in most classes counted in the population other than Maori.
 19561961
Full Maori88,440103,987
Maori-Europeans  
Three-quarter-caste18,62424,115
Half-caste28,49236,371
Maori-other Polynesian7751,607
Maori-other races*8201,006
Totals137,151167,086
Counted in the population other than Maori:  
Maori-European quarter-caste25,10834,984
Maori-Japanese95
Maori-Chinese64191
Maori-Indian64152
Maori-Syrian, Lebanese, or Arab2744
Maori-American Indian313
Maori-Negro215
Maori-Filipino11
Maori-West Indian611
Maori-Melanesian2333
Totals25,30735,449

In 1961 there were recorded in New Zealand some 202,535 persons wholly or partly of Maori origin, compared with 162,458 in 1956.

EXTERNAL MIGRATION-Statistics of external migration are compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving New Zealand.

Including crews of vessels, 268,523 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1964 which, compared with 1962-63, shows an increase of 20,369. During the same period 251,589 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1962-63, shows an increase of 17,108.

In addition to the figures just quoted there were also 39,714 through passengers and tourists on cruising liners which called in at New Zealand in the course of their voyages.

The excess of total arrivals over total departures for 1963-64 was 15,484, compared with an excess of 13,673 during 1962-63.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last 11 years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, through passengers, tourists on cruising liners and members of the armed forces, etc., have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
195432,26629,57961,84524,17622,22846,40415,441
195532,49629,11461,61028,59325,98754,5807,030
195634,78931,68366,47230,33628,04458,3808,092
195740,83635,21976,05534,51830,04564,56311,492
195842,85936,80779,66634,46429,79464,25815,408
195944,95538,69383,64839,91733,73973,6569,992
196047,89441,48389,37746,46739,69786,1643,213
196157,30648,932106,23856,42348,195104,6181,620
196272,50060,156132,65661,36752,457113,82418,832
196378,61365,259143,87271,86358,370130,23313,639
196489,87074,776164,64681,95667,206149,16215,484

In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas on business, on pleasure trips, and on working holidays, so that arrivals and departures have both been greatly swollen, and are now in fact about double the numbers they were six years ago, while the net migration gain has not greatly altered. Increases of arrivals in recent years have been 26,418, or 25 percent in 1961-62, 11,216, or 8 per cent, in 1962-63, and 20,774, or 14.4 per cent, in 1963-64. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas.

As regards departures, there was for 1961-62 an increase of 9,206, or 9 per cent, for 1962-63 an increase of 16,409, or 14 per cent, and for 1963-64 an increase of 18,929, or 14.5 per cent.

In the 10-year period ended 31 March 1964 the net gain from passenger migration was 104,802, while if movement of crews is taken into account this becomes 108,744.

Classes of Arrivals and Departures-The following table gives an analysis of all classes of arrivals during the last five March years, including through passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and crews. In classifying arrivals or departures as permanent the commonly used international rule is applied-i.e., residence or absence of one year or more.

Class1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
Immigrants intending permanent residence20,29421,42432,76932,58934,234
New Zealand residents returning Visitors     
Tourists -24,79427,29935,16939,49947,978
On business4,2414,9635,3976,2707,907
Theatrical, entertaining, etc.9431,0918381,2291,430
Educational purposes247252338294456
On working holidays1,4312,4803,6953,5623,573
Others, officials, etc.3,8763,9865,4027,0227,610
In transit1,0258538491,009750
Through passengers mainly on cruising liners -35,63736,38638,58738,73239,714
Crews -93,860100,190111,799104,282103,877
Totals218,874242,814283,042286,886308,237

The succeeding table gives a similar analysis of departures.

Class1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
New Zealand residents departing-     
Permanently13,42014,84812,69114,45414,903
Temporarily34,66747,20447,78153,62562,164
Temporary residents departing38,07742,56653,35262,15472,095
Through passengers mainly on cruising     
liners35,63736,38638,58738,73239,714
Crews94,27499,863111,054104,248102,427
Totals216,075240,867263,465273,213291,303

Ages-The following table gives the age-distribution of permanent arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1964.

Age, in YearsPermanent ArrivalsPermanent DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalsMalesFemalesTotals
0-143,8183,5547,3721,5361,4823,0184,354
15-244,5704,9599,5292,2722,6544,9264,603
25-344,1923,7257,9171,8251,6103,4354,482
35-442,3532,0334,3869057381,6432,743
45-591,4381,6573,0955276251,1521,943
60 and over7311,2041,9352824477291,206
Totals17.10217,13234,2347,3477,55614,90319,331

Of the permanent arrivals during the year 1963-64, 22 per cent were under 15 years of age, 49 per cent under 25 years, 72 per cent under 35 years, and 85 per cent under 45 years. For a similar age distribution of permanent departures, percentages were 20, 53, 76, and 87 respectively.

Origin-The following table shows for the last three years the birthplaces of immigrants intending permanent residence and of New Zealand residents departing permanently.

Country of BirthImmigrants Intending Permanent ResidenceNew Zealand Residents Departing Permanently
1961-621962-631963-641961-621962-631963-64
Commonwealth Countries      
United Kingdom-      
England and Wales10,73611,59313,4782,7382,9312,832
Scotland2,3872,3862,670483540509
Northern Ireland4754904217313298
Other or undefined10589123404323
Australia4,7874,1564,8608171,3951,505
Canada883668679100138233
India315292283848889
New Zealand5,8066,2805,7996,9247,3717,664
Cook Islands and Niue873659640286070
Western Samoa224256155486381
Fiji287303309685664
Other Commonwealth countries in the Pacific127144178415664
Other countries within the Commonwealth61171076392130133
Totals, Commonwealth countries27,61628,02630,35811,53613,00313,365
Other Countries      
Austria778767252632
China123124107183725
Denmark839972495141
Germany233291198746184
Greece10326323518712
Hungary664333142028
Ireland, Republic of556383360111167143
Italy845870173014
Indonesia8910781142726
Netherlands1,7291,149792272330333
Switzerland1359782254042
United States of America625663763258328382
Yugoslavia169211121192120
Others1,081988895241306356
Totals, other countries5,1534,5633,8761,1551,4511,538
Grand totals32,76932,58934,23412,69114,45414,903

Assisted Immigration-Various systems of assisted immigration have operated since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). Assistance to immigrants was largely suspended between 1927 and 1947, and only 50 immigrants received financial assistance during the 10 years ended 31 March 1946.

In July 1947 a comprehensive free and assisted-passage scheme was introduced by the Government. Under this scheme certain categories of immigrants were given free passages to New Zealand provided they had served in the United Kingdom armed forces (including the Merchant Navy) during the Second World War, while others selected under the scheme were required to contribute only 10 towards the cost of their fares. Eligibility was confined to single residents of the United Kingdom (with no dependants) between the ages of 20 and 35 years who were suitable for, and willing to accept employment in, a wide variety of occupations. All assisted immigrants were required to enter into a contract with the New Zealand Government that they would engage in approved employment for two years after their arrival in New Zealand.

A scheme of child migration from the United Kingdom was in operation from June 1949 to May 1953. Arrivals of British children between the ages of five and 17 years totalled 169 in 1949-50, 107 in 1950-51, 99 in 1951-52, 87 in 1952-53, and 68 up to terminating date during 1953-54.

In May 1950 a new immigration policy was announced by the Government, the main changes being as follows:

  1. The existing scheme in regard to unmarried British immigrants, including nominations, to continue, but with an extension of the age limit from 35 to 45 years of age and abolition of the requirement of £10 contribution towards cost of fare.

  2. The extension of the free-passage scheme to certain categories of married British immigrants with up to two children-later extended to up to four dependent children.

  3. The acceptance of a number of single non-British men and women between the ages of 20 and 35 years. Dutch, Danish, Swiss, Austrian, and German nationals were selected.

At the end of 1958, it was decided to cut back assisted immigration by limiting male workers from the United Kingdom to skilled tradesmen, experienced farm workers, and experienced workers required in essential industries. Married workers accepted in these categories were limited to those with not more than two children. At the same time, the recruitment of German, Austrian, Danish, and Swiss migrants was terminated.

In 1960 steps were taken to increase the recruitment of skilled workers required for the expansion of essential industries. These steps included the acceptance of married men in approved categories with up to four dependent children. In March 1961 the Government announced a plan to bring to New Zealand in 1961-62 up to 5,000 assisted immigrants. Changed economic conditions later led to steps being taken to reduce the intake of assisted immigrants.

In August 1963 it was decided, however, to increase assisted immigration from the United Kingdom to 4,500 for the next 12 months and 3,500 per year thereafter.

The numbers of assisted immigrants (exclusive of displaced persons and Hungarian refugees) arriving in New Zealand in the latest 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchBritishDutchAustrianGermanDanishSwissBelgianGreekTotal
19545,611688------6,299
19553,880452------4,332
19564,732391------5,123
19574,17225213930----4,593
19584,070245446910645--4,579
19594,34314136359231--4,678
19602,3609025391322--2,549
19612,217122-----2,231
19623,4748414--102-3,584
19634,283423327--101374,532
19644,171-61651451304,347

In the preceding migration tables assisted immigrants are included in the totals of "Immigrants intending permanent residence".

Displaced Persons-Commencing with the year 1949-50 the Government agreed to accept drafts of displaced persons from Europe, who were brought to New Zealand in shipping provided by the International Refugee Organisation. These settlers were chosen by a New Zealand Selection Mission, and arrivals totalled 941 in 1949-50, 978 in 1950-51, and 2,663 in 1951-52, made up of young single men and women, widows with one child, family groups, orphans, and a number of elderly people. This scheme was brought to an end with the arrival in April 1952 of the final two displaced persons accepted by the Government.

HUNGARIAN REFUGEES-Following the uprising in Hungary, the Government agreed to accept a quota of 1,000 Hungarian refugees. This quota was subsequently increased to 1,300. The first draft arrived by air in December 1956 and a total of 1,117 finally arrived, the last of them reaching New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1959.

OTHER REFUGEES-Apart from displaced persons, New Zealand has accepted and continues to accept refugees from Europe and the mainland of China. In 1958 it was decided to offer resettlement opportunities to 20 "hard core" refugee families from Europe who, because of handicapped persons in each family unit, were unacceptable elsewhere. These families arrived during 1959. In 1959 it was decided to accept a further 100 "hard core" families. These were selected and arrived during 1960. In 1962 a start was made on the selection of a further 100 refugee families, but not all of the 100 families have yet been selected.

PASSPORTS-Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch, at Rarotonga by the Resident Commissioner, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at London, Washington, New York, San Francisco, Ottawa, Canberra, Paris, The Hague, Brussels, Tokyo, Singapore, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, New Delhi, Djakarta, Geneva, Apia, Los Angeles, Sydney, and Athens. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Entry into New Zealand-Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a British visa.

Persons born in the Cook Islands and the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. They are required to obtain formal exit permission from the Resident Commissioner or Administrator respectively if they wish to proceed to New Zealand.

Departure from New Zealand-Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

IMMIGRATION-The legislation respecting immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Act 1964, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919. The Immigration Act is administered by the Department of Labour, while the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act is administered by the Department of Justice.

Under the Immigration Act all persons other than New Zealand citizens must be in possession of an entry permit before they may land in New Zealand.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants should first write to or call on the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or write direct to the Secretary of Labour, P.O. Box 6310, Wellington, New Zealand. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALISATION-The basic nationality law is the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 as amended. The original Act came into force on 1 January 1949 and was enacted following a conference of nationality experts of Commonwealth countries in February 1947 to discuss the basis of new nationality legislation. The scheme of the legislation accepted by Commonwealth Governments is the 'common status" of all British subjects, namely, that in each Commonwealth country all persons are recognised as British subjects who possess citizenship under the citizenship laws of any of the members of the Commonwealth, (NOTE-The Act states that "British subject" and "Commonwealth citizen" have the same meaning.)

Upon the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship was automatically conferred on the following classes of British subjects: (a) those born in New Zealand; (b) those naturalised in New Zealand; (c) those ordinarily resident in New Zealand throughout the whole of the year 1948; (d) those whose fathers were British subjects born or naturalised in New Zealand; and (e) women married before the commencement of the Act to men who become citizens under the various provisions of the Act.

Since the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent; (c) by registration; and (d) by naturalisation.

Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration, aliens by naturalisation.

Before granting New Zealand citizenship to an alien or to a citizen of another Commonwealth country (other than to a woman married to a New Zealand citizen, or to a minor) the Minister is required to be satisfied that the applicant-(a) has resided in New Zealand for the prescribed period, (b) is of full age and capacity, (c) is of good character, (d) has a sufficient knowledge of the English language, and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship, (e) intends to reside in New Zealand, or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government. The residential qualification for naturalisation is five years, for registration three years reducible to one year at the discretion of the Minister.

A British or an alien woman married to a New Zealand citizen, in the first case shall, and in the latter case may be registered as a New Zealand citizen without any residential qualifications. Such an applicant must satisfy the Minister that she is of good character and has a sufficient knowledge of the English language and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship.

Minor children may be registered at the discretion of the Minister.

A British woman marrying an alien does not thereby lose her nationality under the present Act. Naturalisation granted to a married man does not automatically confer New Zealand citizenship on his wife and children nor does the act of marriage of an alien woman to a British subject confer her husband's nationality on her. Such wife and children acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration.

Acquisition of citizenship by naturalisation or registration automatically confers the status of a British subject, and the difference is procedural only.

Alien adults acquiring New Zealand citizenship by naturalisation or registration, and alien minor children over 16 years of age acquiring it by registration, are required to take the oath of allegiance. The Minister may also at his discretion require persons other than aliens acquiring New Zealand citizenship to take the oath of allegiance. Recognising the importance both to this country and to the new settlers themselves of their acquisition of New Zealand citizenship, the Government decided that ceremonies should be held at which applicants should, in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity, take the oath of allegiance to Her Majesty and be presented with their certifies of naturalisation or registration as New Zealand citizens. Local authorities agreed to arrange such ceremonies. The first was presided over by the Mayor of Wellington on 24 May 1955. During the 1963-64 year there were 86 such ceremonies, at which 1,409 persons took the oath of allegiance.

New Zealand citizens are liable at the discretion of the Minister to deprivation of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than marriage; or if they voluntarily exercise the privileges or perform any of the duties of a foreign nationality possessed by them. In addition, persons naturalised or registered as New Zealand citizens are liable to deprivation if citizenship was obtained by fraud, false representation, or the concealment of any material fact.

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS-The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Justice.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at 1 April 1964 was 27,602, comprising 16,429 males and 11,173 females. This is not the complete number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under 16 years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, consuls, or employees of embassies, legations, and consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The numbers of naturalisations, registrations, etc., during the year ended 31 March 1964 were as follows.

Country of BirthCertificates of Naturalisation (Aliens and British-protected Persons)Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen (British Subjects, Irish Citizens, British-protected Persons, and Aliens)Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen-Minor Children (British Subjects and Aliens)
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Austria61-21-
British Commonwealth--1531106942
Bulgaria711---
China13014-6731
Czechoslovakia10-12-1
Denmark172-311
Germany14521234
Greece91-311
Hungary748-25811
Indonesia211-9-1
Ireland, Republic of--75--
Italy11--1221
Latvia42-3--
Netherlands2718-1213433
Poland304-1612
Rumania111-6-6
South Africa--47472832
Switzerland131-652
Tonga7--576
Western Samoa174-1233
Yugoslavia203-1332
Other countries298619113
Totals70164217498180152

The certificates of registration granted to adult females included 91 to British wives of New Zealand citizens and 372 to alien wives of New Zealand citizens.

The following table shows the numbers on the register of aliens at 1 April 1963 and 1 April 1964.

Country of Nationality1 April 19631 April 1964
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Austria351126477355131486
Belgium533285552984
Bulgaria8659180585
China1,7061,1422,8481,5471,0732,620
Czechoslovakia8326109742599
Denmark563278841558274832
Estonia293867293665
Finland84651498668154
France75921678191172
Germany404412813447427874
Greece5475831,1305896731,262
Hungary6683571,025581317898
Indonesia31940341347
Italy250200450253189442
Japan234669224971
Latvia83931768286168
Lithuania312960272653
Netherlands8,2055,57613,7817,9985,52613,524
Norway1044014410746153
Poland6784741,1526374511,088
Rumania282553262248
Russia (U.S.S.R.)76621387775152
Sweden69461156848116
Switzerland451252703445255700
Thailand28533422668
United States of America1,0184991,5171,1075781,685
Vietnam29433351146
Yugoslavia8114971,3088505281,378
Other countries1137118411478192
Stateless251843231740
Totals16,70211,10227,80416,42911,17327,602

The number of aliens on the register at 1 April 1964 decreased by 202 as compared with 12 months earlier. During the year increases were shown by United States of America (168), Greece (132), Yugoslavia (70), Germany (58), and Thailand (35). Decreases were shown by several countries, the largest being Netherlands (257), China (228), Hungary (127), and Poland (64).

STATISTICS OF THE 1961 CENSUS-Publications containing the results of the census of 18 April 1961 are listed towards the back of this Yearbook.

The following pages give details for 1961 census relating to Marital Status, Dependent Children, Religious Professions, Age Distribution, Racial Origins; Birthplaces and Duration of Residence.

MARITAL STATUS-The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the census of 1961 is summarised in the following tables.

Age (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedNot SpecifiedTotal
Males
16-1973,2098665517074,156
2017,2311,4229-22718,691
21-2441,06419,921155202616661,352
25-2921,82150,7845099719319673,600
30-3413,80666,48771017556018581,923
35-399,99468,82582230688918881,024
40-447,00061,7187835221,04416571,232
45-496,56561,5867349321,25712971,203
50-545,47555,3986431,3821,28612364,307
55-594,65645,0854742,0201,0909953,424
60-643,78133,8893062,7338075741,573
65-692,83424,3982323,3325514931,396
70-742,32418,5571754,4054234125,925
75-791,77511,8491505,0192362519,054
80-841,0045,369573,7791091810,336
85-893461,425211,9013263,731
90 and over912633663911,030
Totals, 1961212,976527,8425,78827,2918,5151,545783,957
Totals, 1956200,617482,9335,47527,8597,747657725,288
Females
16-1964,6645,839371021070,562
2011,9086,0285689418,013
21-2419,70339,69742573921760,007
25-298,73960,1077632333211070,173
30-346,14567,7999364726101475,976
35-395,70069,1249651,1059401277,846
40-445,44263,1699611,9771,1872872,764
45-495,82858,5319033,5701,4362270,290
50-545,97148,5336965,2601,3512561,836
55-595,47436,7244947,4241,1103251,258
60-644,99827,81335710,6018951844,682
65-694,72620,34526113,3936682039,413
70-743,95712,98519014,9744382132,565
75-793,0396,89210613,5692292023,855
80-841,8382,662409,4311012014,092
85-8974461894,0291755,422
90 and over21013031,479441,830
Totals, 1961159,086526,9967,20287,6089,410282790,584
Totals, 1956151,613482,1436,71479,0208,715225728,430

The percentage distribution of the population aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status19561961
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married27.720.827.220.1
Married66.666.267.566.7
Legally separated0.80.90.70.9
Widowed3.810.93.511.1
Divorced1.11.21.11.2
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

DEPENDENT CHILDREN-Married men, widowers, and widows were asked at the census in 1961 to state the number of their living children under 16 years (including stepchildren and children adopted by them). Married women, divorced and legally separated persons were not asked to supply the information as this would have created the risk of duplication of children counted.

The numbers of persons having dependent children, including Maoris, are shown with comparative figures from the 1956 census. The category "nil" includes those cases where members of the family were 16 years of age and over, as well as those cases where there were no children in the family.

Number of Dependent Children Under 16 Years1956 Census1961 Census
Married MenWidowersWidowsMarried MenWidowersWidows
Nil195,41325,38172,579204,73524,82380,574
186,7301,1393,09490,5241,1673,323
292,8996541,67899,9326011,790
357,93732982468,166329870
428,08016540735,450155459
511,6648422315,24782203
65,25336866,93537114
72,45123413,1662050
81,16415231,6061321
9 and over98812211,317815
Not specified354214476456189
Totals482,93327,85979,020527,84227,29187,608

The numbers of dependent children in each of the three groups in 1961 were: dependent on married men, 802,711, dependent on widowers, 4,932; and dependent on widows, 13,716; a total of 821,359 dependent children out of a 1961 census total of 840,443 children under 16 years of age. The difference is accounted for mainly by the exclusion of children whose parents were legally separated; those whose parents were divorced and had not remarried; children who had lost both parents; and ex-nuptial children (the last two classes excluding cases of adoption).

Comparable numbers of dependent children in the three groups in 1956 were: dependent on married men, 684,846; dependent on widowers, 5,131; and dependent on widows, 12,862; a total of 702,839 out of a total of 720,190 children under 16 years.

Between the 1956 and 1961 censuses the total number of dependent children of married men increased from 684,846 to 802,711, a rise of 17.2 per cent. The number of married men increased by 44,909 or 9.3 per cent. Those recording "nil" dependent children increased by only 4.8 per cent, while those with dependent children increased by 12.2 per cent.

Married men with three children recorded the largest numerical increase, rising from 57,937 to 68,166, this representing a 17.7 per cent increase. The greatest percentage increase, however, was recorded by married men with eight children, this group increasing from 1,164 in 1956 to 1,606 in 1961 a rise of 442 or 38 per cent.

The next table shows within each group, the average number of dependent children, firstly for all persons within the group, and then for persons with dependent children in that group.

Average Number of Dependent Children1956 Census1961 Census
Married men-  
Per person1.421.52
Per Person with dependent children2.382.49
Widowers-  
Per person0.180.18
Per person with dependent children2.092.04
Widows-  
Per person  
Per person with dependent children2.012.00

The most significant point from the table is the marked rise in the average number of dependent children of married men. This is a reflection of the sharp increases recorded, since 1956, in the numbers of married men having two or more dependent children.

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS-The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1961 census.

Religious ProfessionNumber of Adherents, 1961 Census
Church of England835,434
Presbyterian539,459
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)364,098
Methodist173,838
Protestant (undefined)45,100
Baptist40,886
Brethren25,764
Ratana23,126
Salvation Army15,454
Letter Day Saints17,978
Church of Christ10,485
Christian (undefined)12,130
Congregational9,377
Seventh Day Adventist8,220
Ringatu5,377
Lutheran4,817
Christian Scientist3,719
Jehovah's Witness5,944
Hebrew4,006
Eastern Orthodox3,328
Undenominational1,514
Undenominational Christian2,170
Agnostic2,288
Hindu2,074
Christadelphian1,498
Atheist3,359
Rationalist956
Apostolic Church1,399
Dutch Reformed Church644
Commonwealth Covenant Church875
Spiritualist683
Assemblies of God1,060
Society of Friends790
Non-conformist626
Pentecostal659
Missions410
Unitarian437
Liberal Catholic367
Confucian166
Theosophist256
No religion (so returned)17,486
All other religious professions8,473
Object to state204,056
Not specified14,198
Totals2,414,984

The four main churches-Church of England, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, and Methodist-retained the adherence of the great bulk of the population, although their combined percentage fell from 79.9 per cent of the total population in 1956 to 79.2 per cent in 1961. All four churches increased in numbers, though of these, only the Roman Catholic church increased its ratio to total population-14.3 percent in 1956 to 15.1 percent in 1961.

The category recorded as "Object to state" represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. The percentage of the population in this class increased from 8.0 in 1956 to 8.4 in 1961. It is probable that the "not specified" group includes a number of persons objecting to the question.

The percentage distribution according to number of adherents is as shown below.

Religious ProfessionPercentage of Total Population
19561961
Church of England -35.934.6
Presbyterian-22.322.3
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)14.315.1
Methodist-7.47.2
Protestant (undefined)2.21.9
Baptist-1.61.7
Brethren-1.01.1
Ratana-0.91.0
Salvation Army -0.60.6
Latter Day Saints -0.60.8
Church of Christ -0.50.4
No religion (so returned)0.60.7
Object to state -8.08.4
All other (including not specified)4.14.2
Totals100.0100.0

AGE DISTRIBUTION-Age-group figures from the census of 18 April 1961 are shown below with comparable figures from the census of 17 April 1956.

The low birthrates for the years 1932-36 are reflected in the smaller numbers in the age group of 25-29 years at the 1961 census, and the age group 20-24 years in 1956, in the following detailed table.

Excluded from the tables on age groups are members of the armed forces overseas at the dates of the censuses in 1956 and 1961, numbering 2,162 in 1956 and 2,559 in 1961. Ma are included in the age-group tables.

Age Group (Years)1956 Census1961 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
0-4130,693125,855256,548149,032143,041292,073
5-9123,145117,438240,583133,880127,821261,701
10-1495,13690,991186,127125,339119,829245,168
15-1978,98576,660155,64595,32490,895186,219
20-2469,18066,491135,67180,04378,020158,063
25-2979,52373,502153,02573,60070,173143,773
30-3478,42975,361153,79081,92375,976157,899
35-3970,91372,441143,35481,02477,846158,870
40-4470,47270,170140,64271,23272,764143,996
45-4966,50263,246129,74871,20370,290141,493
50-5455,53552,690108,22564,30761,836126,143
55-5946,65447,39894,05253,42451,258104,682
60-6435,88141,21077,09141,57344,68286,255
65-6933,11637,91871,03431,39639,41370,809
70-7427,14930,69557,84425,92532,56558,490
75-7918,42021,46239,88219,05423,85542,909
80-848,67610,62519,30110,33614,09224,428
85-893,1574,3167,4733,7315,4229,153
90-946671,0681,7358971,5422,439
95-99103188291121265386
100 and over142135122335
Not specified8611,1051,966---
Totals1,093,2111,080,8512,174,0621,213,3761,201,6082,414,984

The following table classifies the population in the three broad age groups covering the children (under 15 years) those of working age (15-64 years) and the older age group (65 years and over).

Age Group (Years)1956 Census1961 CensusIncrease 1956-61
NumberPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumberPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumberPer Cent
Under 15683,25831.5798,94233.1115,68416.9
15-641,291,24359.41,407,39358.3116,1509.0
65 and over197,5959.1208,6498.611,0545.6
Not specified1,966----1,966-
Totals2,174,062100.02,414,984100.0240,92211.1

Between 1956 and 1961 the population in the working age group of 15 to 64 years decreased from 59.4 to 58.3 per cent of the population, those in the age group of 65 years and over decreased from 9.1 to 8.6 per cent, while the children under 15 years in 1961 comprised 33.1 per cent of the population compared with 31.5 per cent in 1956.

RACIAL ORIGINS-Between the censuses of 1956 and 1961 the Maori population increased by 29,935, or 21.8 per cent, while the European population increased by 200,599, or 9.9 per cent. The "other races" portion of the population showed the highest percentage increase between 1956 and 1961, rising from 20,624 to 31,012, or by 50.4 per cent.

A noticeable feature is that, within the "other races' group the Polynesians again showed a substantial increase from 8,103 to 14,340, immigration from Western Samoa and the Cook Islands contributing fairly large numbers during the period.

RaceCensus
19561961
European -2,016,2872,216,886
Maori -137,151167,086
Other Races—  
Polynesian—  
Cook Island Maori2,3204,499
Samoan3,8406,481
Niuean8481,728
Tongan9171,043
Other -278589
subtotals, Polynesian8,10314,340
Chinese6,6678,333
Indian3,0873,927
Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1,0551,057
Fijian479746
Other races1,2331,509
Totals, other races20,62431,012
Grand totals2,174,0622,414,984

BIRTHPLACES-Since 1945 the New Zealand-born population has remained constant at about 86 per cent of the total population.

The following table classifies persons by birthplace.

Country of BirthCensus
19561961
New Zealand (excluding Cook Islands and Niue)1,863,3442,074,509
United Kingdom -206,181218,649
Australia-35,91635,412
Netherlands-12,54417,844
Ireland (excluding Northern Ireland)8,4238,810
Pacific Islands-  
Cook Islands and Niue2,7454,788
Fiji-2,2733,038
Western Samoa -768777
India4,4684,753
China3,8834,194
Other countries, and born at sea30,52237,760
Totals2,174,0622,414,984

The next table shows the duration of residence of persons born overseas in the two latest censuses.

Years of Residence1956 Census1961 Census
NumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified Cases
0-477,54525.672,68521.7
5-942,72214.164,46819.3
10-148,8482.942,31312.7
15-1910,8113.68,1472.4
20-245,2361.710,3623.1
25-2917,7905.94,3611.3
30-3439,09412.918,3815.5
35-3920,9286.932,8279.8
40-4424,8688.220,5016.1
45-4923,4107.719,3035.8
50-5413,9344.620,5646.2
55 and over18,0885.920,5916.1
Not specified7,444...5,972...
Totals310,718100.0340,475100.0

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION-The area and estimated population of the continents and some of the principal countries of the world at 1 July 1963 are shown in the following table. (Source: United Nations Population and Vital Statistics Report and Demographic Yearbook.)

Continents and CountriesAreaPopulation
* 1960 Estimate.
 sq. miles 
 (000)million
Continents  
Europe1,903439.0
Asia10,4801,802.0
U.S.S.R.8,650225.0
Africa11,670296.0
North America9,359281.0
South America6,870157.0
Oceania3,30417.5
Totals, world52,2363,217.5
Selected Countries  
United Kingdom9453.7
Republic of Ireland272.8
Belgium129.3
Denmark174.7
France21347.9
Germany, West9655.4
Germany, East4116.1
Italy11650.5
Netherlands1312.0
Norway1253.7
Spain19431.1
Sweden1747.6
Switzerland165.8
Oceania—  
Australia2,97510.9
New Zealand1042.5
Asia—  
China3,769686.4*
India1,267458.0
Japan14395.9
Pakistan36598.6
Malaysia5110.6
Indonesia576100.0
Africa—  
South Africa47217.1
Congo (Leopoldville)90515.0
Ghana927.3
Nigeria33937.2
Northern Rhodesia2883.5
Southern Rhodesia1504.0
Nyasaland373.8
United Arab Republic45728.0
North America—  
United States of America3,615189.4
Canada3,85118.9
South America—  
Argentina1,07321.8
Brazil3,28777.5

Chapter 4. Section 4 VITAL STATISTICS

4 A-NATURAL INCREASE

The rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) is important to national planning. In recent years the rate of natural increase in New Zealand has been higher than for most other countries of predominantly European stock. The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 11 years, and emphasises the high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisRates per 1,000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
195454,13118,87635,2555,7001,2094,49116.8334.96
195555,67619,22536.4515,8071,2724,53517.0434.08
195656,59319,69636,8976,1631,2934,87016.9035.28
195758,48420,86237,6226,6321,4515,18116.8536.16
195860,63520,30140,3346,8611,2875,57417.6537.57
195961,86921,12840,7417,1301,3145,81617.4537.75
196062,85020,89241,9587,4151,3686,04717.6537.85
196165,47621,78243,6947,7701,3856,38518.0038.14
196265,12722,08143,0467,6641,2246,44017.3036.84
196364,67522,41642,2598,1271,1986,92916.6238.20
196462,45922,86139,5987,9551,1686,78715.2436.11

In the 10 years to 31 December 1964 New Zealand has gained by natural increase of population a total of 402,600.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES-An international comparison of birth and natural-increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, which are the average of the five years 1959-63, are taken from the Demographic Yearbook issued by the United Nations.

CountryRate per 1,000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
Mexico45.911.034.9
Israel25.75.919.8
Canada26.07.818.2
New Zealand26.48.917.5
United States23.09.413.6
Australia22.38.713.6
Portugal24.210.913.3
Netherlands21.17.813.3
Yugoslavia22.69.513.1
Spain21.58.912.6
Japan17.27.49.8
Ireland, Republic21.611.99.7
Finland18.49.19.3
Italy18.69.78.9
Switzerland18.19.68.5
Norway17.49.38.1
Germany, Western18.111.17.0
France18.111.36.8
United Kingdom17.811.86.0
Austria18.312.55.8
Belgium17.112.15.0
Sweden14.19.94.2

The following diagram shows birth and death rates and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase.

4 B-BIRTHS

REGISTRATION-The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. Under the 1961 Amendment Act which came into force on 1 January 1962 European and Maori births are no longer registered separately. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within two months without fee. After two months and within six months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration of the particulars required to be registered has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of the prescribed fee. A birth may be registered after six months only upon the direction of the Registrar-General, who may authorise registration in any case within two years after the date of birth.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES-The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the last 11 years.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
195454,1315,70025.8444.37
195555,6765,80726.03.43.64
195656,5936,16325.9344.63
195758,4846,63226.2046.29
195860,6356,86126.5346.24
195961,8697,13026.5046.28
196062,8507,41526.4446.41
196165,4767,77026.9746.41
196265,1277,66426.1743.84
196364,6758,12725.4344.81
196462,4597,95524.0442.32

REFINED BIRTH RATE-"Crude" rates of the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the legitimate birthrate per 1,000 married women of 15-44 years of age, or the total birthrate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for each census year (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) from 1926 to 1961 together with the "crude" rate for the year.

Census YearBirthrate per 1,000 Women 15-44 Years"Crude" Birthrate
Married WomenTotal Women
1926176.992.121.23
1936155.179.018.07
1945186.5106.524.58
1951190.8123.025.62
1956191.7130.225.93
1961199.3140.6x26.97

The percentage of married women in the child-bearing ages was 70.0 in 1961 compared with 43.3 in 1901 but a study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birthrate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

REPRODUCTION INDEX-The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates a stationary population, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during the latest 11 years were as follows.

YearGross RateNet Rate
19531.6961.632
19541.7571.691
19551.8171.749
19561.8391.771
19571.8931.822
19581.9311.859
19591.951.878
19601.9681.905
19612.0281.964
19621.971.908
19631.8551.796

It must be remembered that, in New Zealand, population growth has two important components-natural increase and net migration-and that the reproduction index takes into account only natural increase. Statistics of external migration in recent years are included in the section on "Population".

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN-Figures taken out some years ago prove that the masculinity rate for first births is distinctly higher than for subsequent births. The extreme range since 1870 for all births has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923. Statistics for the latest six years are given in the following table.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births
MalesFemales
195931,74230,1271,054
196032,24030,6101,053
196133,52131,9551,049
196233,35631,7711,050
196333,28731,3881,060
196432,16930,2901,062

MULTIPLE BIRTHS-The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (live births only) during the latest six years are shown in the following table.

YearTotal BirthsTotal CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsMultiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases

* includes two cases where triplets would have been recorded had not one child been still born.

†lncludes one case of quadruplets.

195961,86961,026831*613.71
196062,85062,137699711.36
196165,47664,722743511.56
196265,12764,453662610.47
196364,67563,984681510.72
196462,45961,766679511.10

The total number of confinements resulting in live births was 63,984 and on the average one mother in every 94 gave birth to twins (or triplets) in 1963. When still births are taken into account, the total number of confinements for the year 1963 was increased to 64,797, and the number of cases of multiple births to 731. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 87.

yearCases of TwinsCases of TripletsTotal Multiple CasesRater per 1,000 Confinements
Both Born AliveOne Born Alive, One Still BornBoth Still BornTotalAll Born AliveOne Born Alive, Two still BornTwo Born Alive, One Still BornAll Still BornTotal
* The five cases of triplets in 1963 comprised one of two females and one male, three of males, and one of three females.
1959831418880612-988914.6
19606994787547---776112.3
196174329107825-11678812.2
19626633297046---671011.1
196368133117255*-1-673111.3
Average of five years7233697696-1-777612.3

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still born.

YearStill-birth Cases per 100 of Total Cases (Including Still Births)
Single CasesMultiple Cases
19591.525.84
19601.417.23
19611.275.08
19621.315.77
19631.246.15
Average of five years1.356.01

AGES OF PARENTS-Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1963 is shown in the following table for the total population.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father, in Years
Under 2121-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-4950-5455-6465 and OverTotal Cases

* Including 33 cases where twins would have been registered had not one child been still born.

†Including five cases of triplets.

 Single Births           
Under 211,3733,6021,3352437675-5-6,646             
21-242885,7258,2952,14743810228145-17,042             
25-29126907,3886,5581,746339862615116,861             
30-34-518134,5873,5429612226532510,278             
35-39-6906072,3841,4484791376225,215             
40-44-6906072,3841,4484791376225,215             
45 and over----717312414-93             
 Total1,67310,07517,92614,1908,4563,5241,2393971851557,680*             
Multiple Births                  
Under 218271011-----47             
21-24-59762042----161             
25-29-68878227----201             
30-34--11604712211-134             
35-39--1935239-1-78             
40-44---2310711-24             
45 and over-----------             
 Total892186170112541823-645             
 Grand totals1,68110,16718,11214,3608,5683,5781,2573991881558,325             

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS-The following table gives for 1963 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Legitimate Cases
0123456-910-1415 and Over
* This number represents 57,680 single cases and 645 multiple cases.
Under 214,6791,669296454----6,693
21-247,1656,0402,6619283009118--17,203
25-293,0644,7134,5692,5611,1555494474-17,062
30-341,0041,6682,4272,2111,28680594170-10,412
35-394815928841,00780653379518785,293
40-44135138199261238176303108111,569
45 and over133912165229493
Totals16,54114,82311,0457,0253,8052,1592,5263782358,325*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1963.

Age of Mother, in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 216,6939,1521.37
21-2417,20333,2781.93
25-2917,06249,1512.88
30-3410,41240,1343.85
35-395,29324,4644.62
40-441,5698,3055.29
45 and over935676.10
Totals58,325165,0512.83

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be-viz, the average number of children (including those registered in 1963) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years were as follows: 1957, 2.60; 1958, 2.62; 1959, 2.63; 1960, 2.67; 1961, 2.69; and 1962, 2.85. In 1915, the earliest year for which reliable comparative figures are available, the average issue was 3.11.

FIRST BERTHS-Statistics of first births indicate that the proportion occurring within one year after marriage is gradually increasing. In the following table statistics prior to 1962 are for Europeans only.

YearTotal Legitimate CasesTotal Legitimate First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst Cases Within One Year After MarriageFirst Cases Within Two Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
   percent percent percent
195850,48714,86229.446,67844.9310,93473.57
195951,26615,09229.446,73844.6511,12473.71
196051,91514,82828.566,81545.9611,18875.45
196153,74815,28928.457,31947.8711,63376.09
196259,88516,85628.498,34949.5313,06977.53
196358,32516,54128.368,25149.8812,83777.61

The following table illustrates the movement in the duration-of-marriage factor in first births. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern Europeans only.

Duration of Marriage in YearsPercentage of Total First Births
1934194419541960196119621963
Under 146.2538.4742.6445.9647.8749.5349.88
126.7926.3030.5629.4928.2228.0027.73
210.2411.2811.5610.5811.0010.0910.51
36.167.885.955.494.844.704.79
43.967.183.303.062.752.492.46
5-95.497.365.054.424.244.153.68
l0andover1.111.530.941.001.081.040.95
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

For the years covered by the foregoing table the average duration of marriage before the birth of the first child was: 1934, 1.85 years; 1944, 2.22 years; 1954, 1.87 years; 1960, 1.75 years; 1961, 1.78 years; 1962, 1.49 years; and 1963, 1.44 years.

In the following table first births occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first births. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern Europeans only.

FIRST BIRTHS, BY AGE OF MOTHER
Age of Mother, in YearsFirst Births, Percentage at Each Age Group to Total First Births
1934194419541960196119621963
Under 208.907.339.0813.7014.7016.5118.85
20-2440.3941.7947.7151.3452.5954.2352.75
25-2932.7929.5427.7921.9920.1318.5818.52
30-3413.1014.6110.398.178.136.806.07
35-393.795.363.923.783.442.952.91
40-440.991.341.020.930.940.860.82
45andover0.040.030.090.090.070.070.08
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1960, 24.50; 1961, 24.29; 1962, 23.39; 1963, 23.24 years.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS-The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 12 years, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Statistics prior to 1962 concern Europeans only.

YearNumberPercentage of Total BirthsYearNumberPercentage of Total Births
19531,9974.3019592,7925.10
19542,1004.3419602,9115.25
19552,2644.5419613,3325.77
19562,3104.5819625,2428.05
19572,5494.9219635,6988.81
19582,6895.0019646,1899.91

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of European ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women-i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women-at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census year from 1911 to 1961 are as follows.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15-44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birthrate per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911120,7781,0788.93
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926148,5511,4739.92
1936167,7811,1266.71
1945156,3261,82411.67
1951130,3431,93514.85
1956129,8772,31017.79
1961138,018x3,33224.14x

Included in the total of 5,698 ex-nuptial births in 1963, were 41 cases of twins, the number of confinements thus being 5,657. From the following table it will be seen that of the 5,657 mothers, 2,472, or 44 per cent, were under 21 years of age.

AgeCases
121
139
1427
1599
16283
17433
18558
19570
20492
21455
22392
23330
24-291,083
30-34501
35-39319
40-4496
45 and over9
Total5,657

The Legitimation Act-The Legitimation Act 1939 stipulates that every ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

The numbers of legitimations registered in each of the latest five years were as follows: 1960, 569; 1961, 632; 1962, 851; 1963, 1,133; 1964, 1,091. Prior to 1962 these figures refer to Europeans only.

ADOPTIONS-The Adoption Act 1955 sets out the provisions regarding the adoption of children. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, as amended in 1961, contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The adoption of a Maori child is required to be registered in the same manner as that of a European child. The Adoption Act 1955 requires interim orders to be made in the first instance, and for these to remain in force for six months before adoption orders become effective.

The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during the latest five years.

YearNumber
MalesFemalesTotal
19601,1481,0942,242
19611,3611,2182,579
19621,3691,2762,645
19631,4221,4212,843
19641,5071,3782,885

Of the 2,843 adoptions registered in 1963, 1,296 were children under the age of one year, 1,011 were aged one to four years, 280 were aged five to nine years, and 256 were aged 10 years or over. In 1964 the figures were 1,271, 1,105, 289, and 224 respectively.

STILL BIRTHS-Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at the confinement where a still birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still birth. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one "which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue". Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate of 1.26 per 100 total births in 1963 is the lowest rate recorded since the registration of still births was made compulsory in 1913.

The registrations of still births during each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearMalesFemalesTotalMale Still Births per 1,000 Female Still BirthsPercentage of Still Births to—
Living BirthsAll Births
19604694188871,1221.411.39
19614564539091,0061.391.37
19624473968431,1181.291.28
19634313938241,0971.271.26
19644203948141,0661.311.29

Masculinity is in general much higher among still births than among living births, and the rate for still births in 1963 was 1,097 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,060 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptials among still-born infants was, in 1963, 11.65 and among infants born alive, 8.81.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1963, 26 per cent were first births, while of legitimate still births 31 per cent were first births. Statistics over many years indicate that there is a considerably greater probability of still births occurring to mothers having their first confinement than to those having subsequent confinements. In addition to the 699 European still births in 1963, there were 125 Maori still births registered, comprising 60 males and 65 females.

FOETAL DEATHS-The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates that in the case of a foetal death where the child has issued from its mother after the twentieth week, and up to and including the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy, a medical practitioner or a midwife who was in attendance at the confinement shall sign and supply a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the foetal death, and such other particulars as may be required by the Registrar-General. A foetal death is not required to be registered as in the case of a still-born child.

4 C-DEATHS

REGISTRATION-The law as to registration of deaths is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. Deaths of Maoris were recorded separately up to the end of 1961, but under the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1961 the procedure has been the same as for Europeans from 1 January 1962. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more of Maori blood and the term Europeans covers all other persons.) Particulars required in the registration of a death include date, place of residence and domicile, name, occupation, sex, age, cause of death, birthplace, duration of residence in New Zealand, marital status, living issue of married persons, degree of Maori blood (if any), Medical attendant by whom certified, particulars as to burial, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The principal Act stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still birth.

It is incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death of any deceased person to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the funeral director in charge of the burial). The practitioner is required to report forthwith to the Coroner any case where, in his opinion, there are any suspicious circumstances.

Deaths of Members of the Forces While Overseas-The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 requires the Registrar-General to compile a register containing particulars of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any Commonwealth force within the meaning of the Army Act 1950 and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand. Deaths registered in the War Deaths Register from 1940 onwards were not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths in New Zealand, nor were deaths of visiting overseas servicemen or prisoners of war in New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand servicemen which occurred in New Zealand were however, included.

NUMBERS AND RATES-New Zealand has had for many years a favourable death rate in its European population. Despite the ageing of population, the European crude death rate has remained low and this is undoubtedly due to the introduction of antibiotics and new medical techniques as well as to the expansion of health services. There has, for example, been for some years a low incidence of serious outbreaks of epidemic disease, a reduction in tuberculosis mortality, and a remarkably low European infant-mortality rate.

The general trend of the crude European death rate in New Zealand was downward over a long period of years, reaching its lowest level during the early thirties. After that an upward trend was in evidence for some years, the figures recorded during the war years being the highest for a long time. Some of the increase over this period can be attributed to population changes in that numbers of the healthiest of the young male adult population were serving overseas, but on the other hand the strains of wartime did exact a toll on the elderly which was shown in the sharp rise in deaths resulting from diseases of the heart and nervous system.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1,000 of mean population over the latest 21 years.

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population
EuropeanMaoriTotalEuropeanMaoriTotal
194415,3631,68617,0499.8716.9510.30
194516,0511,63517,68610.0716.2310.44
194616,0931,62717,7209.7116.0010.07
194715,9041,53817,4429.3914.639.70
194815,8121,47317,2859.1613.669.42
194916,0121,56617,5789.0914.179.39
195016,7151,36918,0849.3112.099.47
195117,5121,32418,8369.5611.379.67
195217,4131,48318,8969.2812.349.47
195317,0091,34518,3548.8410.848.96
195417,6671,20918,8768.989.419.01
195517,9531,27219,2258.959.568.99
195618,4031,29319,6969.009.369.02
195719,4111,45120,8629.2910.139.34
195819,0141,28720,3018.908.678.88
195919,8141,31421,1289.098.539.05
196019,5241,36820,8928.818.568.79
196120,3971,38521,7829.038.278.97
196220,8571,22422,0819.017.008.87
196321,2181,19822,4168.986.608.81
196421,6931,16822,8619.006.218.80

Maori crude death rates have dropped steadily over the 21-year period surveyed and as a result of the very slight fall in the crude European rate the Maori figure has become lower than the European figure over recent years. Crude death rates do not reflect the true levels of mortality which exist in populations which have different age structures. The Maori population has a very much higher proportion of those at younger ages who do not contribute many deaths to the total and conversely relatively few persons at older ages where the rate of dying is high. The effect of this is to produce a very deflated crude rate.

Simple arithmetic can be employed to produce a figure for the Maori which compares directly with the European crude rate. By applying the Maori death rates at each age to the European population of this age it is possible to total these and arrive at the number of deaths which would have occurred in the European population had the Maori rates of dying applied. This figure divided by the total European population produces a Maori rate which is adjusted to the age structure of the European in that particular year and which is directly comparable with the European crude rate. The adjusted Maori rates computed on this system are entered in the following table for 1963 and show in a true comparison Maori mortality to be approximately twice that of the European. In addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the two races in each sex. At no age up to 65 years is the Maori rate less than twice die European and, for females of adolescent and working years (15-24 years), the Maori rate is three times the European. It is at these ages that accidents exact a heavy toll among Maori women. At all higher ages the Maori excess is higher among females than among males.

RaceAll Ages Rates per 10,000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to European PopulationUnder 5 Years5-14 Years15-24 Years25-44 Years45-64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori72.7133.0107.58.416.642.3198.4880.2
European99.1...49.94.513.119.1120.2816.5
Females
Maori59.2150.977.77.911.831.3187.9924.1
European80.5...38.73.14.512.069.2572.0
Both Sexes
Maori66.1141.592.88.214.236.8193.5900.0
European89.8...44.43.88.915.694.7677.0

In both the European and Maori races the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the respective crude rates for each sex separately for the latest 11 years in the total population.

YearDeaths per 1,000 of Mean PopulationMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
MalesFemalesTotal
19549.998.029.01126
19559.888.098.99124
195610.008.049.02126
195710.398.289.34127
19589.728.038.88123
19599.928.179.05123
19609.667.908.79124
19619.758.198.97120
19629.787.968.87124
19639.727.908.81124
19649.908.109.00124

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR-An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the period 1953-63 gives the following averages: March quarter, 4,332; June quarter, 5,091; September quarter, 6,065; and December quarter, 5,022.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1963 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were May, June, July, and August, with totals of 1,987, 1,985, 2,207, and 2,177, respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January) February had the least number of deaths, 1,510, followed by November with 1,660.

AGES AT DEATH-Deaths registered during the year 1963 are shown according to age in the following tables.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 17355341,269
1-4156118274
5-96958127
10-14633497
15-1912649175
20-2414149190
25-2911341154
30-3412177198
35-39157113270
40-44260170430
45-49407278685
50-54589367956
55-598595001,359
60-641,1016081,709
65-691,2648762,140
70-741,5921,2412,833
75-791,8641,6193,483
80-841,5461,6183,164
85-899131,0922,005
90-94299417716
95-9943116159
100 and over61723
Totals12,4249,99222,416

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the European and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of Maori deaths which take place at various ages to the proportions of European deaths at various ages. Thus it follows that there is a considerable difference in the proportion of Maori deaths in the total of deaths at various ages, and whereas at preschool, school, adolescent, and early working ages the Maori contributes substantially to the total of all deaths, in old age the Maori percentage is almost insignificant. The following table illustrates these points.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths
EuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaori
Under 51,2103325.7027.7121.53
5-14180440.853.6719.64
15-24319461.503.8412.60
25-449061464.2712.2013.88
45-644,39431520.7126.296.69
65 and over14,20931566.9726.292.17
Totals21,2181,198100.00100.005.65

Considerable changes have taken place over the last 30 years in the age distribution of persons dying. The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age groups is very striking. The results of three main factors are illustrated, viz, health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; the fluctuations in the birthrate over the period; and the great increase in the proportion of old people in the community.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total
19321942195219621932194219521962
Under 19491,3881,4751,3317.537.667.816.03
1- 43325263652752.632.901.931.25
5-92222101391301.761.160.740.59
10-141831771061121.450.970.560.51
15-192632701351762.091.490.710.80
20-243393601941822.691.991.030.82
25-292863122221472.271.721.170.67
30-343373362202152.671.851.160.97
Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total
19321942195219621932194219521962
35-393243683303122.572.051.751.41
40-444374393993633.472.422.111.64
45-496386145826875063.393.083111
50-548329018499336.614.974.494.23
55-598731,3101,0471,2356.937.235.545.59
60-641,0251,7241,5441,6898.139.528.177.64
65-691,1542,0072,2292,1089.1611.0811.809.55
70-741,2582,1912,7092,7699.9812.0914.3412.54
75-791,3062,0632,6853,42010.3611.3914.2115.49
80 and over1,8452,9213,6665,99714.6416.1219.4027.16
Totals12,60318,11718,89622,081100.00100.00100.00100.00

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In more recent years, however, there has been a tendency for the male rates at ages over 65 years to be static or show a slight increase. Of special significance are the low rates recorded in infancy and childhood and in the early adult life age groups in recent years despite the inclusion of Maori figures, which are considerably higher than the European. The female rate for the various age groups is now lower than the male rate in all instances. The increase in the death rate at successive age groups from 15 years onward is well exemplified.

YearUnder 1*1-45-1415-2425-3435-4445-5455-6465-7475 and Over

* Per 1,000 live births in this case.

†European figures only as Maori deaths at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1,000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
191163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22130.58
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
193138.212.831.352.282.774.648.6918.2544.18130.57
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
195131.691.870.751.821.953.157.5720.4647.52121.66
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
196223.261.400.731.261.402.527.2418.4248.25134.50
196322.061.240.481.301.492.577.2118.7249.21136.51
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44119.60
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
193125.672.470.971.853.203.816.8415.3636.83122.87
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
195123.091.590.540.891.302.275.6713.8532.80109.79
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
196217.470.860.370.500.911.794.4810.4338.69102.04
196317.040.990.350.500.791.824.6710.5728.66100.73
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74126.13
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
193132.152.651.172.072.384.227.8016.8840.56126.87
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
195127.541.730.651.361.632.716.6717.0339.93115.36
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
196220.441.140.460.941.192.125.9014.5037.14115.69
196319.621.100.420.911.152.205.9414.6537.70115.55

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of European persons of each sex at 10-yearly intervals since 1901 and during each of the latest four years is as follows:

YearMalesFemales
age (years)
190141.6437.68
191146.1742.37
192148.4546.97
193154.1455.48
194158.6559.60
195161.5865.25
196063 0667.66
196163.8067.32
196263.8568.27
196364.0868.25

There has been a striking upward movement in the average age at death of Europeans since 1901. A noticeable feature is that in the earlier years the age for females was considerably lower than that for males, the margin gradually narrowing until virtual equality was reached in 1927-28, since when the female average age at death has been higher than the male.

The average age at death of Maoris in 1963 was 38.60 and 42.32 years for males and females respectively. The great disparity between Maori figures and those for Europeans quoted in the above table is of course due in the main to the small numbers of persons at older ages in the Maori population and the comparatively large numbers at younger ages. This factor combined with high death rates in infancy and childhood produces a low average age at death.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE-Life tables depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population have been constructed at various times since 1880. The most recent tables are based on the 1956 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1955-57. As the pattern of mortality among non-Maoris has stabilised in recent years, these latest life tables give an accurate statistical summary of current mortality experience.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the "expectation of life". The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident, as is the improvement in life expectancy once the first year of life is survived.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR NON-MAORI POPULATION, SELECTED AGES
Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
068.8873.88
169.4774.17
268.673.29
367.6972.38
466.7671.44
565.8170.49
1060.9865.6
1556.1260.72
2051.4455.87
2546.8751.02
3042.1946.17
4032.8436.65
5023.9327.53
6016.1919.16
7010.0811.91
805.716.47
902.863.09
1001.181.19

Improvement in non-Maori life expectancy since 1880, for both sexes, has been most striking for the younger ages, but has been relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality among infants and children from infectious diseases; on the other hand, diseases of middle and old age are less amenable to control. It is unlikely, therefore, that increases in life expectancy in the future will occur on the scale of the past. The next table displays the life expectancy revealed by each life table compiled since 1880 for the three exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

IMPROVEMENT IN NON-MAORI LIFE EXPECTANCY SINCE 1880
Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1880-9254.4444.5514.9557.2646.3916.39
1891-9555.2945.4715.0658.0947.1916.55
1896-190057.3746.3415.3359.9547.9116.54
1901-0558.0946.7415.4060.5548.2316.64
1906-1059.1747.2015.5161.7648.7716.77
1911-1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921-2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925-2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934-3865.4649.8916 0668.4552 0217.49
1950-5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955-5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. In all cases the expectancies are the most recent available. (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1963).

LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH, SELECTED COUNTRIES
CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales

* Excluding full blooded aborigines.

†White population.

New Zealand1955-5768.2073.00
Australia*1953-5567.1472.75
Canada1955-5767.6172.92
Denmark1956-6070.3873.76
England and Wales1960-6268.074.0
France196267.2974.14
Netherlands1956-6071.474.8
Norway1951-5571.1174.70
Sweden196171.5675.35
South Africa1950-5264.5770.08
United States of America196266.873.4
U.S.S.R.1960-6165.073.0

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown below. These expectations are taken from Maori Life Tables, 1955-57.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR MAORI POPULATION, SELECTED AGES
Exact Age YearsLife Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
057.2358.68
160.360.8
259.8960.35
359.1759.63
458.3658.8
557.5257.91
1053.1553.24
2044.1244.14
3035.5735.2
4027.3126.55
5019.4319.28
6013.0313.38
708.849.12
805.445.75

Life expectancy at birth for a Maori male increased by 3.18 years in the interval 1950-52 to 1955-57, with that for females increasing by 2.80 years. This was a substantial increase in a short period and is evidence that, although Maori life expectancy is relatively low, it is improving at a fast rate. In this interval between the construction of the first and second sets of Maori life tables the improvement was not so spectacular at higher ages, however.

The expectation of life of Maoris is much shorter than that of the European population. A comparison at age 0 shows a life expectation which is 11.65 years longer for European males and 15.20 years longer for European females.

DEATHS BY CAUSES-All tables of causes of death cover both the European and the Maori sections of New Zealand's population. The incidence of different diseases as causes of death varies considerably as between the two races and this is illustrated in one table which follows. Because the Maori population is small in comparison with the European population there is very little effect on the overall death rate for any particular disease from the inclusion of Maoris. An exception to this is tuberculosis, a disease which is discussed under a separate heading.

The objection to the combining of the figures of causes of death for the two races in past years has been the lower quality of Maori cause-of-death statistics. For a number of years now all deaths of Maoris have been certified by a medical practitioner or by a Coroner who has available medical evidence furnished by a medical practitioner.

The accuracy of death data even in medically certified deaths will be affected by two factors-the proportion of deaths in hospitals where diagnostic equipment is available and the proportion of deaths in which a post-mortem report is available for reference. In 1963, 62 per cent of deaths of Europeans and 58 per cent of deaths of Maoris took place in a hospital, and in 30 percent of European and 24 per cent of Maori deaths a post-mortem was held. The Maori figure of post-mortems held is a little misleading as deaths from accident and violence form a much higher proportion of Maori deaths and in these circumstances a post-mortem is ordered to be held in almost every case. The lower proportion of deaths followed by an autopsy in Maoris is due to the traditional resistance to interference with a body after death, as well as to the high proportion of Maoris who live in rural areas where the services of a pathologist are not available to conduct post-mortem examinations.

The Seventh (1955) Revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death has been in use in New Zealand since 1958. The assignment of the cause of death is to the underlying cause. This is defined as (a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury. Both the terminal or immediate cause of death and the underlying cause are furnished on the death certificate, and the responsibility is on the physician or surgeon signing the medical certificate to indicate the train of events.

Total deaths and the rates per million of total population for the years 1960-63, classified according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes for Tabulation of Mortality, are contained in the following table. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria) are not listed in the table as there were no deaths from these causes in the years shown. Certain causes of death of special disease, puerperal causes, and violence, while the causes of infant mortality are surveyed in considerable detail.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
19601961196219631960196119621963
Tuberculosis of respiratory system971171157841484631
Tuberculosis, other forms171720157786
Syphilis and its sequelae141110106544
Typhoid fever -1--1..---
Dysentery, all forms541-22--
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat11-1----
Diphtheria --11-----
Whooping cough332-111-
Meningococcal infections111216105564
Acute poliomyelitits-7---3--
Measles-133575123
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic -106103828044423331
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues3,2903,5413,5973,7521,3841,4591,4461,475
Benign and unspecified neoplasms4041404217171617
Diabetes mellitus280299277309118123111121
Anaemias -5556638723232534
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system-2,5372,7382,7292,7761,0671,1281,0971,092
Non-meningococcal meningitis4244453618181814
Rheumatic fever -6118153536
Chronic rheumatic heart disease21422024322690919889
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease5,7796,0296,1196,5062,4312,4832,4592,558
Other diseases of the heart827861845821348355340323
Hypertension with heart disease407402394377171166158148
Hypertension without mention of heart1091211009246504036
Influenza-28351914112147716
Pneumonia -1,0021,0661,2191,120421439490440
Bronchitis -497594580632209245233249
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum15915114915767626062
Appendicitis -34232722149119
Intestinal obstruction and hernia15816714216366695764
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn14115712912259655248
Cirrhosis of liver5445635923192523
Nephritis and nephrosis12812114414454505857
Hyperplasia of prostate1401021179959424739
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium242519261010810
Congenital malformations353364348353149150140139
Birth injuries, post-natal ashyxia, and atelectasis -336308270294141127109116
Infections of the newborn5249413922201615
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy and immaturity unqualified377402359305159166144120
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill defined, and unknown causes17312712212273524948
All other diseases2,0352,0322,0612,082856837828819
Motor-vehicle accidents356405420420150167169165
Suicide and self-inflicted injury23020420824497848496
Homicide and operations of war25262216111196
 Totals20,89221,78222,08122,4168,7898,9748,8748,814

In a variety of conditions and in external causes of death the mortality rate for Maoris is very much higher than the European experience. Much of this disparity is concealed, however, by crude rates which are calculated by dividing the total population into the number of deaths from any particular disease or circumstance. With two populations so very dissimilar in age structure as are the two races in New Zealand (at ages under five years Europeans arc eight times more numerous than Maoris, but at ages 75 years and upward they are 83 times as numerous), it is necessary to resort to an adjustment of Maori rates so that the figures for any condition become directly comparable in any particular year. This has been done in the following table for the two years 1962 and 1963 by firstly calculating age-specific rates for the Maori and then applying these to the European population, age group to age group. This computation provides an "expected" number of Maori deaths in each age group and these added together and then divided by the European total population give an adjusted rate. In addition to the rates expressed per million of population the absolute numbers of deaths in the two races are furnished for the same 50 causes.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRates per Million of Population (European: Crude Rate-Maori: Adjusted Rate)
1962196319621963
EuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaori
Tuberculosis of respiratory system793659193447925298
Tuberculosis, other forms911874108340
Syphilis and its sequelae10-10-4-4-
Typhoid fever---1---9
Dysentery, all forms-1---3--
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat ---1-----
Diphtheria1-------
Whooping cough11---3--
Meningococcal infections1159151743
Acute poliomyelitis--------
Measles -235211026
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic6616661429972875
Malignant neoplasms, including neo-        
plasms of lymphatic and haemato-        
poietic tissues3,4761213,5981541,5031,9101,5232,458
Benign and unspecified neoplasms of unspecified nature36438416611657
Diabetes mellitus2631429415114231124219
Anaemias6128252663532
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system2,672572,720561,1551,1871,1521,071
Non-meningococcal meningitis2718261012601133
Rheumatic fever3596121423
Chronic rheumatic heart disease19548181458442677598
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease5,9631566,3521542,5783,3532,6903,219
Other diseases of the heart79451769523431,0733261,132
Hypertension with heart disease3751934928162386148554
Hypertension without mention of heart -96489341513827
Influenza184737480891645
Pneumonia1,0891301,0131074711,329429927
Bronchitis5433757953235549245966
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum1463152563626491
Appendicitis2431841015816
Intestinal obstruction and hernia1357153105810365116
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn -87429725381574186
Cirrhosis of liver61254526292346
Nephritis and nephrosis13014132125612456127
Hyperplasia of prostate116198150194135
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium109215458937
Congenital malformations3153331142136116132143
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis2313924450100129103161
Infections of the newborn2912251413401145
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy and immaturity unqualified3055426144132179111142
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill defined, and unknown causes116611665021149147
All other diseases1,9401211,9681148391,8108331,455
Motor-vehicle accidents363571,36951157468156465
All other accidents6726665362290423276525
Suicide and self-inflicted injury20442377882310079
Homicide and operations of war17515172767
 Totals20,8571,22421,2181,1989,01515,4428,98415,515

Age-specific rates and Maori age-adjusted rates have been published for a comprehensive list of diseases in Maori-European Standards of Health, one of a series of special reports issued by the Department of Health. The comparison in this report is for the period 1954-58.

The comparatively poor state of health of the Maori is shown by the excess in the Maori adjusted rates for most diseases. As can be seen in the table, the absolute numbers of Maoris dying from any cause of death is small. This is because relative to the European the Maori population has a high proportion of young people, and most diseases which cause death develop at the older ages.

The susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and communicable disease is well known. Again there is a Maori excess mortality in cancer and diabetes. The disparity is even more marked in acute rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease; in certain other forms of degenerative heart disease and hypertension; in both acute and chronic chest conditions, and in gastro-intestinal and kidney infections. Recent health surveys have indicated that an inclination towards overnutrition, combined with a racial predisposition to excess weight, may underlie the early development of degenerative conditions and the high incidence of metabolic disorders.

In addition to the greater susceptibility to disease processes, the Maori shows a much higher accident rate. Especially accident prone is the Maori child and young adult, while proportionately many more Maoris are involved in road fatalities.

Tuberculosis-While there has been a remarkable reduction in tuberculosis mortality in recent years due to the introduction of modem drug treatment, this disease is far from eradicated and still takes its toll of life.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths from tuberculosis in 1963 by race, sex, and age groups. The disease has almost entirely disappeared as a cause of death in European children and 88 per cent of the deaths occurred at ages upward of 45 years. In the Maori on the other band there is a high proportion of the total deaths from tuberculosis occurring at young ages and in early adult life.

Of the 67 European deaths, 59 were due to respiratory tuberculosis and of the 26 Maori deaths, 19 were from a respiratory form. The principal sites involved in the remaining 15 deaths in both aces were meninges and central nervous system, six (three were Maori), and genito-urinary organs, ix (two were Maori).

Age, in YearsEuropeanMaoriBoth Races
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal
Under 5---213213
5-14---------
15-241-1---1-1
25-34---336336
35-443472135510
45-546282248412
55-641431731417421
65-74118193-314822
75-8485131129615
85 and over112-11123
 Totals442367161026603393
All ages, rates per 100,000 of mean population3.72.02.817.411.214.34.72.63.7

The fall in tuberculosis mortality became steep from 1945 onwards. The extent of this decline at various age levels in both numbers and rates is shown in the table which follows. All forms of tuberculosis are included and both sexes have been combined in four triennia since 1950. The figures for 1962 and 1963 have been combined.

Age Groups, in YearsAnnual Average Number of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
1950-521953-551956-581959-611962 and 19631950-521953-551956-581959-611962 and 1963
European
Under 517832278371486
5-148221-27642-
15-2423431191161231
25-441104631131120984562218
45-64121826139293352121488964
65 and over7778613635443415307181170
 Totals3562201619278194112774233
Maoris
Under 5281710351,25870335484128
5-1416583114836150831510
15-244195211,77436418174716
25-444828161191,854869515304244
45-6433252012153,0452,1421,516860968
65 and over241416768,2294,5305,0662,1851,727
 Totals190987036371,615762491224205

Over the 14-year period both the European and the Maori rates have dropped to about one-sixth of the 1950-52 level and in both races there has been the greatest reduction at ages under 25 years, with the Maori record the more impressive. The more chronic forms of tuberculosis remain a problem in middle and old age.

The latest triennial figures available (1960-62) show New Zealand (Europeans only), with a rate of 3.9, to be in third place out 0.30 countries from which death rates from all forms of tuberculosis were compiled. With the inclusion of Maoris, New Zealand fell to seventh place, the countries with lower rates than New Zealand being Iceland, 2.3; Netherlands, 2.7; Denmark, 4.0; Canada, 4.4; Australia, 4.5; and Israel, 4.7. The New Zealand rate of 5.2 was a little lower than the rate for the United States of America which was 5.5. The rate for England and Wales was 7.1, and for Scotland 9.2.

Cancer-A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand was issued in 1958 by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. This report covers mortality from cancer from 1941 to 1955, and also surveys all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand. In addition to discussion of the total cancer picture in New Zealand, an analysis is made by specific sites broken down under the following subheadings: the age and sex of new cases registered, incidence, survival experience, treatment stage of disease at time of diagnosis, and period elapsing between first symptoms and diagnosis. Under each of these headings a comparison is made of the New Zealand figures with those available from registries in some other countries, while in the principal sites the New Zealand mortality is contrasted with that of some 24 other countries of the world.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant disease. This classification was introduced in New Zealand in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than any other cause other than diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, cancer is a leading cause of death at all ages, even among children and adolescents.

In 1963 there were 3,752 deaths from cancer, of which 154 were of Maoris. While the 1963 European crude cancer death rate of 152.3 was almost twice as high as the Maori crude rate of 84.9 (both per 100,000 of population), these figures are misleading as a measure of the incidence of malignant disease in the two races. When allowance is made for the comparatively few persons in the Maori population at older ages where cancer is most frequently diagnosed, it is seen that Maori cancer mortality is markedly higher than European cancer mortality. This fact is no indication at all that in general the Maori is more prone to cancer (in cancers of the intestines in both sexes and in two sites in the Maori female, the cervix and the lung, the incidence appears to be higher), but that there is more delay in reporting the symptoms of cancer by Maoris and that more cancer in Maoris goes untreated.

A summary for the latest 11 years in numbers and in rates, both crude and standardised, is provided in the following table:

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Death Rate per 100,000*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Death Rate per 100,000*
* Standard population used for standardised rates-England and Wales, 1901.
 MalesFemales
19531,553150.897.81,336131.281.8
19541,565148.697.91,401134.583.8
19551,660154.3102.41,511142.286.7
19561,684153.4105.71,471135.683.4
19571,752156.1103.21,461131.681.3
19581,743151.6101.51,554136.885.8
19591,811154.2103.41,528131.782.5
19601,724144.397.61,566132.581.3
19611,870153.2104.81,671138.485.9
19621,936154.7107.51,661134.383.2
19632,044160.0110.41,708135.084.1

There has been a considerable increase in the numbers of persons dying from cancer in both sexes over the period, with an increase in both male and female crude death rates.

Standardised rates are adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age constitution of the population. The standardised rate for males has risen from 102.1 in the five years 1954-58 to 104.7 in 1959-63. This would indicate that there has been a real increase in the death toll in the male sex and this, as is discussed later, is attributable to the rise in lung cancer. The average standardised figure for females over 1954-58 was 84.2 and compares with 83.4 in 1959-63, indicating that there has been a slight fall in the death rates during the 10-year period.

A classification of cancer deaths according to age subdivisions, race, and sex is now given. Ninety per cent of the deaths from cancer during 1963 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 57 per cent were at ages 65 years and upwards.

Age Group, in YearsRaceMalesFemales
NumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at AgesProportion of Total Deaths at AgesNumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at AgesProportion of Total Deaths at Ages
* All ages crude rate.
Under 5European1812.92.653.80.8
 Maori---15.70.7
5-14European197.817.4208.628.2
 Maori311.013.013.84.8
15-24European2815.211.795.111.4
 Maori424.514.8212.410.5
25-44European11137.319.612945.654.0
 Maori1680.619.01155.617.7
45-64European594256.421.3568244.335.3
 Maori37426.821.528367.919.6
65 and overEuropean1,1851,314.616.1912761.713.3
 Maori291,510.417.2221,392.415.7
All agesEuropean1,955164.9*16.61,643139.7*17.4
 Maori8996.6*13.36572.8*12.3

Maori rates specific to age are in general higher than the European equivalent, and especially is this so at ages between 45 and 64 years. These differences are concealed by the all ages or crude rate which is the lower in the Maori.

Cancer contributes substantially to the total of European deaths at all ages. At school ages of five to 14 years one European death in every five is due to cancer (mainly leukaemia and tumours of the brain), while in the European female from 25 to 64 years over one death in three is a cancer death.

For Maoris the proportions of cancer to total deaths are very much lower than the proportions for Europeans, by reason that the competing risks from other diseases are so very much higher. Whereas in the European easily the highest numbers of cancer deaths occur at ages upwards of 65 years, the highest numbers in the Maori are at ages from 45 to 64 years. This is because of the lower expectation of life which results in few Maoris coming through to old age.

A summary of all cancer deaths occurring in New Zealand during 1963 by location of the disease is shown in the table which follows. Figures by site for Maoris have not been separated as the numbers are so small for most sites. Rates for Maoris tend to be higher in cancers involving the digestive tract, the respiratory organs, and the female genital organs.

CANCER DEATHS 1963
Site of DiseaseNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Buccal cavity and pharynx262652202120
Oesophagus -443377352630
Stomach -241143384189113151
Intestine, except rectum165229394129181155
Rectum -10981190856475
Larynx -143171127
Lung, bronchus, and trachea4668054636563215
Breast--337337-266132
Cervix uteri --7979-6331
Other and unspecified parts of uterus-4949-3919
Prostate -230-230180-90
Skin-413475322729
Bone and connective tissue22103217813
All other and unspecified sites461461922361364363
Leukaemia and aleukaemia10560165824765
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic system12083203946680
 Totals2,0441,7083,7521,6001,3501,475

There is considerable variation in the numbers and rates for different sites in both males and females. The site principally involved in the male is the lung and bronchus and one male cancer death in every four is of this site. Cancer of the stomach is very much more common in the male than the female but the position is reversed in cancer involving the intestines. The leading site in the female is the breast, which also contributes one-fifth to the total female cancer deaths.

The world-wide phenomenal increase over the last 30 years in cancer of the lung and bronchus (excluding trachea and pleura) is accepted as being associated with cigarette smoking and atmospheric pollution. The following table shows the increase in deaths from cancers of this site in each race and in each sex over the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Deaths from Cancer of Lung and BronchusCrude Rate per 100,000 of Mean Population
EuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaori
MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale
1953236357224.43.711.03.3
1954254309325.73.113.74.8
19552863613128.43.619.11.5
19563035411629.55.315.68.9
19573453912732.93.816.410.0
1958330528430.74.910.65.5
19593505313331.94.916.64.0
196032852141129.54.717.214.0
19613867018534.06.221.16.1
19624225817536.35.019.15.8
196344868181237.85.819.513.4

The crude rates for the Maori conceal the true relative incidence of lung cancer. Adjusted to the European population structure, the Maori rates exceed the European rates, the greatest margin being in the female.

While cancer is undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence it is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. The following table shows the movement in the standardised death rates per 100,000 of population in selected sites averaged over three quinquennia from 1946 and for the years 1961-63. The standard population employed is that of England and Wales, 1901.

Site1946-501951-551956-601961-631946-501951-551956-601961-63
 MaleFemale
Buccal cavity and pharynx3.52.52.52.11.11.11.21.2
Oesophagus3.32.92.52.51.41.61.21.3
Stomach18.516.013.812.810.09.47.36.1
Large intestine10.09.28.58.812.811.310.310.7
Rectum -5.55.35.85.64.23.73.84.1
Biliary passages and liver1.42.02.12.21.82.32.32.2
Pancreas -5.14.85.15.63.33.22.82.9
Larynx -1.51.51.10.90.30.30:20.1
Trachea, lung, bronchus10.816.520.624.11.72.32.83.5
Breast ---0.10.117.717.616.217.7
Uterus, all parts----9.79.08.26.9
Ovary, Fallopian tube----6.05.46.16.1
Prostate -8.79.59.09.4----
Kidney -2.22.32.72.71.41.51.51.1
Bladder, urinary organs2.73.03.33.91.11.01.11.1
Skin (including melanoma)2.62.42.32.31.61.51.72.0
Brain, nervous system3.23.64.04.72.22.63.03.1
Lymphosarcoma and reticulosarcoma2.12.63.22.91.21.51.72.2
Hodgkin's disease1.51.41.41.70.70.90.91.0
Leukaemia and aleukaemia4.95.35.45.93.63.74.54.1
All sites -95.198.6102.3107.686.586.382.884.4

The upward trend in the total male cancer death toll can be ascribed chiefly to the steep rise in lung and bronchus cancer, already commented upon. The total female rate has shown a declining tendency in more recent years although this trend may change as a result of the rise in female lung cancer.

Stomach cancer is clearly on the decline in both sexes and this is in accordance with the experience in several other countries. Some changes in the conditions of living are thought to underlie this drop in incidence.

The large intestine, another leading site, shows declining rates in both sexes. There is also a downward movement in the rates for the uterus. There is a tendency for cancer such as leukaemia and lymphosarcoma to increase slightly and again there has been evidence of this in other parts of the world.

Heart Disease-Diseases of the heart are the leading killer in New Zealand, accounting for 37 per cent of all male deaths and 33 per cent of all female deaths in 1963. In accordance with the increasing numbers of the population in the older age groups, the total numbers of deaths from heart disease have steadily increased. However, when allowance is made for the general ageing of the population by employing standardised rates, it becomes evident that there has been very little increase in the male rate of loss from heart conditions, and in fact in the female sex, there has been a slight fall of 5 per cent in the rates for 1959-63 as against those in 1954-58.

A disease phenomenon of recent years has been the rapid increase in deaths assigned to coronary heart disease, and in 1963 no less than 24 per cent of all deaths were due to this single disease entity. Comparing standardised rates for 1954-58 with those for the latest quinquennium of 1959-63 (Europeans only) the rise in the toll from male deaths assigned to coronary conditions has been 21 per cent, with a higher increase still in the female of 29 per cent. It is a matter of conjecture as to whether the real incidence of coronary heart disease in the community has risen to this extent or whether it is due in part at least to increased recognition of the condition.

The numbers and death rates for heart disease excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations for the last 11 years are shown in the following table, males and females separately (Europeans only).

YearAll Forms of Heart DiseaseCoronary Heart Disease
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of Population
19533,7362192,6731292,1531341,06455
19543,7292142,7471282,1771331,06146
19553,7952152,7691232,2481351,14255
19563,9232142,7901172,4501421,18855
19574,0062142,9341202,5401441,34760
19583,9582102,8871162,6441481,38461
19594,1542173,0881202,8121581,61567
19604,1722203,0551182,9831651,68170
19614,2892233,2231213,1751721,78574
19624,2542253,0731153,1241711,77671
19634,4722343,1791173,4281861,93576

In a short and select list of 10 countries whose crude death rates from all forms of heart disease are reasonably comparable, New Zealand ranked in fourth position on the latest available figures. Countries with the lowest recorded rates per 100,000 of population were South Africa 219 (1960), Netherlands 232 (1962), and Canada 274 (1962). The New Zealand rate was 312 (1963), close to the Australian figure of 320 (1962). The highest death rates from heart conditions were in Scotland 417 (1962), Northern Ireland 402 (1962), England and Wales 392 (1962), the United States of America 368 (1962), and Sweden 344 (1961).

Coronary heart disease is predominantly a disease of old age in both sexes, although in the male sex there are appreciable numbers of deaths which occur in middle age. There are marked differences in the mortality from the disease both between the sexes and between the two races at various age periods.

The following table averages both the numbers and the age-specific rates for coronary heart disease in both European and Maori over the latest five years 1959-63.

RaceAges 35 to 44 YearsAges 45 to 54 YearsAges 55 to 64 YearsAges 65 Years and Over
Average Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Males
European775.333926.269674.41,946216.7
Maori33.91324.11861.529162.9
Females
European130.9695.421522.51,433124.2
Maori34.41123.61352.919127.6

For Europeans at ages 35 to 44 years male coronary heart disease rates exceed female rates by close to 6 to 1, the ratio decreasing as age advances to a ratio of under 2 to 1 at ages 65 years and upwards.

The absolute numbers of Maori deaths from the disease are small but when related to the population at risk produce rates fairly similar to the European population in the male sex.

Maori women have a very much greater chance of dying from a coronary condition than European women, the risk being five times greater at ages 35 to 44 years, four times greater at ages 45 to 54, and twice as great at ages 55 to 64 years. Hypertensive forms of heart disease are also very much more common in Maori women in middle age while both sexes in the Maori have a higher mortality from rheumatic valvular heart disease.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH-In the following table the rates per million of mean population are given for principal causes of death for selected countries for the latest available year in each case.

CountryYearRates per 1,000,000 of Population
Heart DiseaseVascular Lesions of Central Nervous SystemCancerPneumoniaAccidental CausesTotal Including Other
Japan19628501,6951,0333284027,479
Canada19622,7378231,3182835437,726
Netherlands19622,3209931,7241394187,931
Bulgaria19622,1421,3761,2906713868,691
South Africa19602,1889321,3365255898,695
Australia19623,2011,1371,3142855258,703
New Zealand19633,1181,0921,4754404468,814
Czechoslovakia19612,1419331,8493144909,171
Norway19612,7501,5101,6554664909,171
Switzerland19612,7221,1981,8851826349,280
Denmark19612,9921,1852,1352494689,381
Italy19612,5141,3011,5033774449,387
United States of America19623,6831,0581,4923035219,412
Finland19623,3051,2711,5252695399,520
Sweden19613,4391,3201,8433774509,781
Northern Ireland19624,0171,5351,61038035210,607
West Germany19612,2961,7332,09527657810,954
France19622,2171,3971,99531466211,441
Belgium19612,3257732,25921753311,649
England and Wales19623,9231,6782,17766238611,949
Scotland19624,1691,8882,20842548712,160
Austria19623,2511,8492,50948864212,746

INFANT MORTALITY-Over a long period of years New Zealand has been renowned for the low rate of infant mortality in its European population, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, etc., and partly to legislative and educative measures-the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organisations (one of the most important of these is the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children which was founded in 1907).

The trend in infant and perinatal mortality in New Zealand up to the year 1961 and comparisons in causes with the rates of other countries who show improved figures on New Zealand's are contained in a recent issue of one of the Special Report Series issued by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health.

The infant-mortality rate of the European population of New Zealand is among the world's lowest, and recently has declined to a particularly low level. The Maori rate has shown a noticeable improvement in recent years. European, Maori, and total infant-mortality figures are given in the next table.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Live Births
EuropeanMaoriTotalEuropeanMaoriTotal
19409903721,36230.2187.2236.78
19451,0364131,44927.9988.9334.79
19501,0083561,36422.7569.7427.60
19551,0023631,36520.0962.5124.52
19581,0433731,41619.4054.3723.35
19591,0893881,47719.8954.4223.87
19601,0903301,42019.6644.5022.59
19611,1043861,49019.1349.6822.76
19621,0342971,33117.9938.7520.44
19631,0042651,26917.7532.6119.62

Male rates of infant loss are about 28 per cent above female rates and this tends to counter-balance the male excess in births.

In the following table New Zealand's infant mortality rates for the European and Maori populations separately and for both races combined are shown in comparison with the rates for other countries. The figures are averaged over the latest five years for which figures are available and the data have been extracted from the United Nations Demographic Yearbook, 1963.

It is interesting to observe that Sweden has the apparent distinction on 1963 figures of having the lowest infant death rate in the world at 15.0 per 1,000 live births while New Zealand's European rate was 17-8 for that year. It is well to be aware that while Sweden does produce lower rates of infant loss than New Zealand, the gap is not as wide as appears from the published rates, as up until the year 1960 the Swedish figures were based on local definitions of foetal death, livebirth, and infant death which would result in the rates being an understatement in a comparison with New Zealand's. Differences in definitions and practices exist also among some other countries. Iceland is very small and consequently its rates are subject to wider variations.

CountryQuinquenniumDeaths Under 1 Year Per 1,000 Live Births
Sweden1959-6316
Netherlands1959-6317
Iceland1958-6217
New Zealand (European)1959-6319
Norway1958-6219
Australia1959-6320
Finland1959-6321
Denmark1959-6321
New Zealand (European and Maori)1959-6322
England and Wales1959-6322
Switzerland1958-6222
Czechoslovakia1959-6323
United States (white)1959-6326
Scotland1959-6327
France1959-6327
Northern Ireland1958-6228
Canada1958-6228
South Africa (white)1959-6329
Belgium1959-6329
Japan1959-6329
Cyprus1958-6230
Republic of Ireland1959-6330
West Germany1959-6331
China (Taiwan)1958-6232
Austria1959-6335
Greece1959-6340
Hong Kong1959-6340
Italy1959-6342
New Zealand (Maori)1959-6344
Bulgaria1958-6246
Hungary1959-6347
Poland1959-6357
Argentina1959-6361
Malaya1957-6170
Rumania1958-6271
Mexico1958-6274
Portugal1959-6381
Yugoslavia1959-6384
Guatemala1958-6292
Chile1957-61119

In the quinquennium 1959-63 New Zealand's infant mortality rate for both races combined was eighth lowest out of the 38 countries listed being the same as the rates for England and Wales and Switzerland. With the exclusion of the Maori population New Zealand is promoted to fourth place below Sweden, the Netherlands, and Iceland.

One out of every five infant deaths is a Maori infant death and the Maori rate of loss is nearly twice that of the European. The excess in the Maori rate is very largely due to infants who die between the end of the fourth week of life and the first birthday. This is illustrated in the following table showing numbers and rates by race and age for the year 1963.

RaceUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 DaysTotal Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 MonthsTotal Under 1 Year
European330301747052991,004
Maori515220123142265
Both races381353948284411,269
Rates per 1,000 Live Births
European5.85.31.312.55.317.8
Maori6.36.42.515.117.532.6
Both races5.95.51.512.86.819.6

Maori rates are the higher at all ages and contribute substantially to the total loss of infant life in each age division but with the highest number and proportion at ages after the first month.

Two-thirds of the European deaths occur in the first fortnight of life but in the Maori approximately this same proportion takes place between the twenty-eighth day and the end of the first year. The explanation of this is the susceptibility of the Maori baby in its generally inferior home environment to forms of infection such as gastro-enteritis and pneumonia.

The rates per 1,000 live births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last 11 years, European and Maori separately.

YearUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 Months
European
19535.92.14.12.25.8
19546.02.44.21.85.7
19556.41.93.52.36.0
19566.51.53.61.86.0
19576.92.33.11.56.1
19586.81.83.02.05.8
19597.11.83.31.86.0
19607.52.23.21.65.2
19616.92.03.31.65.3
19626.22.03.01.25.6
19635.82.43.01.35.3
Maori
195311.08.02.75.146.3
195410.05.82.12.138.6
19558.44.34.02.143.7
19569.92.94.72.434.4
19579.23.34.43.537.5
195810.83.54.23.532.4
19598.83.42.94.135.2
19609.82.62.62.327.2
19619.83.14.23.129.5
19626.63.42.52.523.8
19636.33.43.02.517.5

There has been a reduction in the rates in both races for deaths under one day, the greater fall being in the Maori rate.

Infants who die in the first year of life may be grouped into two parts, viz, those dying in the first few weeks of life and those surviving the first month but dying before the first anniversary of their birth. Deaths among the first group called neonatal deaths are due principally to prematurity, birth injuries, asphyxia, and malformations, most of which trace to pre-natal and natal circumstances.

Maori infant death figures have been available since 1922 but in those times were of doubtful reliability. European rates were known in the eighties, and in the 40-year period between 1881 and 1921 the neonatal rate continued at a level of close to 30 per 1,000 liveborn. However, the European post-neonatal rate declined 75 per cent during the same period from a loss of 61 children out of every 1,000 to a figure of 15.

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates.

The next table shows the movement in the rates for both races since 1922 in eight quinquennia. Figures for 1962 and 1963 have been combined.

PeriodNeonatal Mortality (Under 28 Days)Post-neonatal Mortality (28 Days and Under 12 Months)Infant Mortality (Under 1 Year)
EuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaori
1922-2626.4326.7014.70104.3041.13131.00
1927-3124.2625.6410.9086.9235.16112.56
1932-3622.2521.289.3876.8631.6398.14
1937-4121.9426.719.5186.1331.45112.84
1942-4619.7920.998.8871.6728.6792.66
1947-5116.7326.116.5348.4823.2674.59
1952-5614.2322.166.0244.0320.2566.19
1957-6113.9219.775.6832.2019.6051.97
1962-6312.4415.075.4420.5217.8835.59

Principally due to the small numbers involved there has been some fluctuation in the Maori neonatal rate, but there has been some improvement in the latest quinquennium with a sharp drop in 1962 and 1963. There has been a major reduction of 47 per cent in the European neonatal rate over the 30 year period with a further fall in 1962 and 1963. In each of the three conditions, prematurity, birth injury, and post-natal asphyxia which together contribute about two-thirds to the total neonatal deaths, the Maori rates are half as high again as the European rates. Factors which underlie this disparity are the higher proportion of Maori confinements outside of hospitals, more frequent child bearing, a reluctance to seek and heed antenatal advice, and inferior physique.

In post-neonatal mortality while European rates have dropped 61 per cent during the period 1922-26 to 1957-61, the Maori reduction has been steeper at 69 per cent with a further spectacular fall in 1962 and 1963. Nevertheless the Maori rate of loss after the first month of life is still four times the European rate. The sharp drop in the rates for both races in the post-war years reflects the general availability of antibiotics from then onwards. It is the Maori infant who survives the first month of life who is especially susceptible to respiratory infections such as influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis, and to gastro-intestinal disorders. Environmental factors and circumstances peculiar to the Maori way of life underlie the onset of these diseases, such as unsatisfactory feeding associated with failure to seek and act upon skilled advice from Plunket and district nurses on matters such as feeding, and in many instances overcrowding and poor housing and sanitary conditions.

Causes of Infant Mortality-In the following table are shown the absolute numbers and the rates per 1,000 live births of the principal causes of infant mortality over the last three years in European and Maori and in both races combined.

Causes of DeathRaceNumber of DeathsRate per 1,000 Live Births
196119621963196119621963
Tuberculosis, all formsE------
 M3-10.4-0.1
 T3-1---
Congenital syphilisE------
 M1--0.1--
 T1-----
Dysentery, all formsE------
 M-1--0.1-
 T-11---
Whooping coughE2-----
 M11-0.10.1-
 T31----
Meningococcal infectionsE225--0.1
 M13-0.10.4-
 T355-0.10.1
TetanusE------
 M-1----
 T-1----
MeaslesE-11---
 M-21-0.30.1
 T-32---
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of lifeE8884951.51.51.7
 M109816514.110.68.0
 T1971651603.02.52.5
Pneumonia of newbornE2522180.40.40.3
 M8991.01.21.1
 T3331270.50.50.4
Gastro-enteritis after first four weeks of lifeE1414120.20.30.2
 M3532174.54.22.1
 T4946290.70.70.5
Diarrhoea of newbornE212---
 M21-0.30.1-
 T4220.1--
Congenital malformationsE2302232294.03.94.1
 M3928315.03.73.8
 T2692512604.13.84.0
Birth injuryE1111261211.92.22.2
 M3121284.02.83.4
 T1421471492.22.32.3
Asphyxia and atelectasisE1371051222.41.82.2
 M2918223.72.32.7
 T1661231442.61.92.2
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)E3935190.80.60.3
 M2140.30.10.5
 T4136230.60.60.4
Immaturity unqualifiedE1401381042.42.41.8
 M3623204.63.02.5
 T1761611242.72.51.9
AccidentsE3029230.50.50.4
 M13571.70.70.9
 T4334300.70.50.5
Other and undefined causesE2842542535.04.44.5
 M7670609.89.17.4
 T3603243135.65.04.8
 TotalsE1,1041,0341,00419.118.017.8
 M38629726549.738.832.6
 T1,4901,3311,26922.820.419.6

The heavy contribution of Maori infant deaths to the total of each cause is very obvious in the table of absolute numbers and the disproportionate incidence in almost all conditions and in accidents is revealed by the comparison in the rates. There has, however, been a considerable saving of life in Maori babies in almost all the leading causes over the last 10 years.

CAUSES OF STILL BIRTH-A still-born child or late foetal death is defined in New Zealand as one "which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue". A certificate of the cause of death is required to be furnished for each still birth and also for cases of intermediate foetal deaths-i.e., deaths after the end of the twentieth but before the end of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy. The certificates of causes of still birth and foetal death provide for both maternal and foetal causes to be entered.

As different recording certificates and different classifications are applied to babies born dead and babies born alive which succumb soon after birth it is not at present possible to compile tables of causes of perinatal mortality. However a code has been evolved which combines the causes of still births and early neonatal deaths and more satisfactory results should come about from the use of this classification.

The following table sets down the 699 European still births registered during 1963 classified (a) according to maternal causes and (b) according to foetal causes.

Causes of Still BirthNumber of Cases
MalesFemalesTotal
Maternal Causes   
Chronic disease in mother13821
Acute disease in mother -426
Absorption to toxic substance from mother-11
Diseases and conditions of pregnancy and childbirth6751118
Difficulties in labour -14721
Other causes in mother -9716
  Totals10776183
Foetal Causes   
Placental and cord conditions11399212
Birth injury5813
Congenital malformations of foetus4967116
Diseases of foetus and ill defined causes9679175
  Totals263253516
 Totals, all causes370329699

PERINATAL MORTALITY-It is necessary to consider still births and deaths in the first few days of life together, as they are largely the result of common causes. The combined group is termed perinatal mortality. The term is particularly appropriate when we consider how deaths in the new born crowd closely towards the day of birth. The perinatal rate provides a better indication of the full extent of pregnancy wastage. It also has the advantage that it is less complicated by differences in definitions and in the reporting requirements for "still birth". Still births, deaths in the first week of life, and perinatal deaths (still births plus deaths in the first week) are shown in the following table for each race separately and for both races combined. The still births and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1,000 total births (still births plus live births), while the death rate for the first week of life is calculated per 1,000 live births.

YearRaceStill BirthsDeaths Under 1 WeekPerinatal Mortality
NumberRateNumberRateNumberRate
1958E81915.0062411.601,44326.43
 M11316.2012718.5124034.42
 T93215.1475112.391,68327.34
1959E80514.4966312.111,46826.43
 M13718.8510815.1524533.71
 T94215.0077112.461,71327.27
1960E80614.3371312.861,51927.01
 M8110.8111114.9719225.61
 T88713.9282413.111,71126.84
1961E80213.7170312.181,50525.72
 M10713.5813317.1224030.47
 T90913.6983612.771,74526.29
1962E72612.4864311.191,36923.53
 M11715.049612.5321327.37
 T84312.7873911.351,58223.98
1963E69912.2163111.161,33023.23
 M12515.1510312.6722827.63
 T82412.5873411.351,55823.79

Over the whole six-year period the Maori rate was 9 per cent higher than the European rate in still births and 28 per cent higher in deaths in the first week of life; in perinatal mortality the Maori excess was 18 per cent.

The perinatal rate in both races has shown some slight improvement due principally to the reduction in the still-birth rate. It is observed that a considerable proportion of the live-born babies who would previously have been still births would be delicate, immature infants with a high risk of dying in the first few days of life. Consequently the death rate for the first week has not changed noticeably, although there was a marked drop in 1962.

PUERPERAL CAUSES-Improvements in the standard of antenatal care and obstetrical skill, as well as advances in medical science, have reduced the numbers of deaths from septic abortion, puerperal sepsis, and toxaemia, and deaths from complications of childbirth are few. A summary of maternal mortality from all puerperal causes, in triennial periods since 1938, is given in the following table. Figures for 1962 and 1963 have been combined.

Cause of Death1938-401941-431944-461947-491950-521953-551956-581959-611962-63
European
Puerperal sepsis503917741231
Eclampsia and other toxaemias885975383328241011
Septic abortion646642221498124
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality110106126825334434015
Total maternal mortality31227026014910472776531
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion2482042181279063695327
Maori
Puerperal sepsis15683321-1
Eclampsia and other toxaemias486753251
Septic abortion583-332--
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality362430272021241512
Total maternal mortality604647373129292014
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion553844372826272014
Both Races
Puerperal sepsis6545251073332
Eclampsia and other toxaemias926781453831261512
Septic abortion69744522171210124
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality1461301561097355675527
Total maternal mortality3723163071861351011068545
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion30324226216411889967341

The following table shows the progressive reduction that has been achieved in the rates of deaths due to puerperal causes.

YearRate per 1,000 Live Births
EuropeanMaoriTotal Population
19432.212.252.22
19442.713.262.77
19452.241.902.20
19462.054.772.33
19471.072.211.18
19481.261.821.32
19491.023.461.27
19500.902.351.05
19510.690.760.70
19520.712.560.91
19530.541.450.64
19540.511.580.63
19550.442.070.61
19560.401.780.55
19570.671.350.75
19580.411.310.51
19590.491.260.58
19600.340.670.38
19610.330.770.38
19620.171.170.29
19630.370.620.40

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES-Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 5 per cent of the total deaths and again the Maori rate is higher than the European. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the three latest years classified according to the Intermediate List of the 1955 Revision of the International Classification. In this table falls on board ship and from horseback are included as transport fatalities.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
196119621963196119621963
Motor-vehicle accidents -405420420167169165
Other transport accidents -344754141921
Accidental poisoning -364646151918
Accidental falls-282308281116124111
Accidents caused by machinery372735151114
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material334131141612
Accidents caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation -13119544
Accidents caused by firearms15618627
Accidental drowning and submersion126142118525746
All other accidental causes161110123664448
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)-2619151186
 Totals1,1681,1771,150481473452

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1963 was 1,135 corresponding to a rate of 4.46 per 10,000 of population.

Drownings are a leading cause of accidental death in New Zealand. Included in the preceding table for 1963 are 30 deaths from drowning due to the capsize of small boats and eight deaths involving principally the larger type of boat. The year 1963 shows a slight fall in the death rate from external causes.

Transport Accidents-In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway trains and electric tram cars with motor vehicles, the death is assigned to the railway train or electric tram car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. For 1963 there were four deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor vehicle was involved up to 420, the same number as in 1962. In the case of collisions between motor vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles, the death is assigned to the motor vehicle.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearDeaths Due to AccidentRate per 10,000 of Mean Population
RailwayTramwayMotor VehicleAircraftRailwayTramwayMotor VehicleAircraft
1953292308280.140.011.500.14
19541874323160.890.021.540.08
195546234590.220.011.610.04
1956233320100.110.011.470.05
1957352389220.160.011.740.10
1958361393230.16-1.720.10
195928134890.12-1.490.04
1960321340100.13-1.430.04
1961262393130.110.011.620.05
196227-408110.11-1.640.04
196316-416200.06-1.640.08

Deaths occurring as a result of the Tangiwai railway disaster were not registered till 1954, and consequently were not included in the 1953 totals. These deaths numbered 154, and of course account for the large increase in the number of deaths due to railway accidents shown for 1954. Of this number one was a Maori, and seven were registered as unidentified bodies.

In recent years the wide use of aircraft in agricultural operations such as aerial topdressing has resulted in a number of deaths from aircraft accidents.

Since the war the number of fatalities from motor-vehicle accidents progressively increased up to 1958, with the exception of small declines in 1952 and again in 1956. The year 1958 was a particularly bad year from the accident point of view, especially these involving motor vehicles, but there were improvements in 1959 and 1960. Unfortunately, the motor vehicle accident rate rose sharply again in 1961 and this rise has been maintained in 1962 and 1963.

Non-transport Accidents-The 1955 Revision of the International List makes provision for non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for each of the three years 1961, 1962, and 1963 according to this classification.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
196119621963196119621963
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)305296312125119123
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)544146221618
Mine and quarry596242
Industrial place and premises2618171177
Place for recreation and sport594241
Street and highway111617567
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)181912785
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)659474273829
Other specified places -100118102414740
Place not specified-3322191497
 Totals622642609256258239

One in every two fatal non-traffic accidents occurs in or about the home.

Falls are the chief cause of home fatalities, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. This is clearly illustrated in a special report on domestic accidents issued by the Department of Health in 1960. The second important cause of death in the home is asphyxia from regurgitation of food and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes; this is the principal hazard of the first six months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed respiratory infection. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between one and two years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the vicinity of the home.

Twenty-eight of the 46 accidental deaths on farms in 1963 were caused by farm machinery (usually tractors). Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). Later sections are devoted wholly to statistics of industrial and farm accidents.

Suicide-There were 237 suicidal deaths of Europeans in 1963-151 males and 86 females-the death rates per 100,000 of population being 12.7 for males and 7.3 for females. For Maoris there were seven suicidal deaths in 1963-six males and one female, the death rates per 100,000 of population being 6.5 for males and 1.1 for females.

Rates per 100,000 of population showing the age distributions, averaged over the years 1961, 1962, and 1963 are shown next for the total population.

Sex10/1415/1920/2425/2930/3435/3940/4445/4950/5455/5960/6465/6970/7475/7980+
Males0.34.211.214.614.41.7.522.421.320.725.927.228.037.730.324.0
Females-0.34.03.74.06.09.315.112.517.910.110.117.28.17.7

These figures show the typical increase in the suicide rates with increasing age and the fall in the female rate after the age of 75 years.

The next table presents the average, Over three-yearly since 1924, of standardised European suicide rates per 100,000 of mean population. The rate for 1963 is shown separately.

Annual Average DuringMalesFemales
1924-2617.54.5
1927-2920.55.4
1930-3220.64.6
1933-3515.34.7
1936-3813.44.9
1939-4113.04.3
1942-4410.94.9
1945-4710.54.5
1948-5011.14.6
1951-5311.84.1
1954-5610.64.2
1957-5911.83.9
1960-6211.64.3
196311.55.8

The male rate fell sharply after the depression years, while the female rate has remained fairly constant.

The following table provides an international comparison of suicide rates for various countries. The figures have been calculated from material in the United Nations Demographic Yearbooks.

CountryTrienniumRate per 100,000 of Population
Mexico1958-601.9
Republic of Ireland1960-622.7
Guatemala1960-622.8
South Africa (coloured)1958-603.4
Northern Ireland1960-624.5
Spain1957-605.3
Italy1959-616.1
Netherlands1960-626.6
Norway1959-616.9
Canada1960-627.4
South Africa (Asiatic)1958-607.5
Bulgaria1960-628.1
Scotland1960-628.3
Ceylon1958-608.8
New Zealand (European and Maori)1960-628.8
United States of America (all races)1960-6210.7
England and Wales1960-6211.5
Australia1960-6212.1
South Africa (white)1958-6013.0
Belgium1959-6114.1
France1960-6215.6
Sweden1959-6117.5
West Germany1958-6118.8
Switzerland1959-6118.9
Japan1960-6219.3
Denmark1959-6119.4
Finland1960-6221.0
Austria1960-6222.4
Hungary1960-6225.1

4 D-MARRIAGES

GENERAL-Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. A licence must be obtained from a Registrar of Marriages before a marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnised. Marriage by an officiating minister may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage. In the case of a person under 21 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

The system of notice and licence has operated in New Zealand since 1855. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnised, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made with a view to obtaining the return if the marriage has been solemnised.

Marriage is forbidden between persons within certain degrees of relationship, any such marriage being declared void. The prohibition applies whether the relationship is by the whole blood or by the half-blood, and whether the relationship is nuptial or ex-nuptial. The present law on this matter is contained in the Marriage Act 1955.

Section 34 of this Act provides that proxy marriages may be authorised by a Magistrate in New Zealand of any person who is resident in New Zealand to any person who is outside New Zealand, if the Magistrate is satisfied that the person who is outside the country is unable to come to New Zealand by reason of the existence of a state of war or armed conflict, or by reason of the conditions of his service as a member of the armed forces of any Commonwealth country, or of any country for the time being allied with any Commonwealth country.

Any New Zealand citizen who intends to be married in a country other than New Zealand according to the law of that country, and who desires to obtain a certificate for the purpose of complying with the law of that country, may give notice to the Registrar-General who, upon receiving the notice, shall make such searches and inquiries and give such notices as may be prescribed under the Act. If no caveat is entered within 14 days of the receipt by the Registrar-General, a certificate may be issued, after proper notices have been given that no lawful impediment to the marriage has been shown to the Registrar-General to exist.

Any New Zealand representative who has attended the marriage of a New Zealand citizen in a country other than New Zealand, and is satisfied that the marriage has been solemnised in accordance with the formalities of the law of that other country, may give a certificate and forward a duplicate copy to the Registrar-General, who shall bind the duplicate in a special register kept by him for the purpose.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a European.

Marriage statistics from 1952, therefore, apply to the total population, whereas previously they were limited to Europeans.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES-The movement of the marriage rate over a lengthy period of time may be observed from the statistical summary appearing towards the end of this Yearbook. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last 20 years are here given.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Population
* Prior to 1952 the figures are for Europeans only.
1945*16,16010.14
1946*20,53512.39
1947*18,52510.94
1948*17,1929.96
1949*16,7859.53
1950*16,5049.19
1951*16,3598.93
195217,5578.55
195317,2248.41
195417,5578.38
195517,7958.32
195617,5318.03
195717,6147.89
195818,3058.01
195918,3157.84
196018,9097.96
196119,4268.00
196219,5727.86
196319,8567.81
196420,7167.97

The high marriage rates from 1945 to 1947 were due to the return of many thousands of men from overseas war service.

Comparison with Other Countries-Marriage rates for certain countries for 1962 are given below (these particulars have been taken from the Monthly Bulleting of Statistics, issued by the Statistical Office of the United Nations).

CountryRate per 1,000 Mean Population
Australia7.4
Austria8.4
Belgium6.7
Canada6.8
Chile7.3
Denmark8.1
Finland7.5
France6.7
Germany, West9.2
Ireland, Republic5.5
Israel7.2
Italy8.1
Netherlands7.9
New Zealand7.9
Norway6.5
Portugal7.9
Spain7.7
Sweden7.1
Switzerland8.0
United Kingdom7.5
United States of America8.3
Yugoslavia8.7

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE-The total number of persons married during the year 1963 was 39,712, of whom 35,593 were single, 1,574 widowed, and 2,545 divorced. The figures for the latest five years, showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
195916,26416,2068117921,2401,31736,630
196016,77316,7629158641,2211,28337,818
196117,36817,3468578811,2011,19938,852
196217,52917,5467817641,2621,26239,144
196317,79617,7977748001,2861,25939,712

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
SingleWidowedDivorcedSingleWidowedDivorced
per cent
195988.804.436.7788.494.327.19
196088.704.846.4688.644.576.79
196189.414.416.1889.294.546.17
196289.563.996.4589.653.906.45
196389.623.906.4889.634.036.34

Divorce statistics at the end of this subsection show the numbers of decrees granted in recent years, the numbers varying from 1,400 to 1,900 a year. Widowed persons remarrying constituted 40 per 1,000 persons married in 1963.

The marital status of persons prior to marriage for each of the latest five years is next given.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
195915,228303733300329182678160402
196015,782298693293426196687140394
196116,404306658290400167652175374
196216,615257657271346164660161441
196316,882255659262348164653197436

During the years 1938-40 the number of male divorcees remarrying was 2,066, as compared with 2,169 female divorcees, which gives a rate of 95 males for every 100 females. In 1961-63 the respective numbers were 3,749 males and 3,720 females and the corresponding rate 99 females for every 100 males.

In the three-year period 1938-40, 2,420 widowers remarried but only 1,619 widows and in 1961-63 there were 2,412 widowers and 2,445 widows who remarried. The number of widows per 100 widowers who remarried was 67 in 1938-40 but with a changed social outlook the position in 1961-63 was that 101 widows remarried for every 100 widowers.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED-The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period. In the latest year two brides in every five were under 21 years of age, the proportion for grooms being one in nine.

Of the 39,712 persons married in 1963, 10,079, or 25 per cent were under 21 years of age; 15,952, or 40 per cent, were returned as 21-24 years; 6,217, or 16 per cent, as 25-29 years; 3,917, or 10 per cent, as 30-39 years; and 3,547, or 9 per cent, as 40 years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1963.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2121-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445 and Over
Under 211,8823091411--2,207
21-244,4283,9163013871-8,691
25-291,2482,248723136351234,405
30-3424157943525911243161,685
35-39491492231921406647866
40-4413387010112111879540
45 and over102247771462209401,462
Total brides7,8717,2611,8138045624601,08519,856

The recent trend is for persons to marry at younger ages. The following table shows since 1925 the proportions of men and women married at each age group to every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 2121-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445 and OverTotals
* Periods prior to 1950 are Tor Europeans only.
Males
1925-29*3.4928.0434.4914.337.704.487.47100.00
1930-34*3.4627.2837 0215.146.103.617.39100.00
1935-39*2.6825.9138.2616.466.753.226.72100.00
1950-545.0535.4231.2110.955.863.567.95100.00
1955-597.1836.6829.4411.214.812.977.71100.00
19609.4539.1225.8910.204.812.717.82100.00
196110.7640.9623.939.654.462.497.75100.00
196211.3642.4222.938.954.632.497.22100.00
196311.1243.7722.188.494.362.727.36100.00
Females
1925-29*18.6137.8823.678.934.652.823.44100.00
1930-34*18.6738.5124.798.223.852.403.56100.00
1935-39*17.1038.2626.308.863.912.023.55100.00
1950-5425.7838.6516.856.964.122.595.05100.00
1955-5932.9935.7113.766.113.652.495.29100.00
196037.7234.3111.485.093.542.395.47100.00
196139.8634.319.944.833.102.255.71100.00
196239.9435.3410.034.373.082.005.24100.00
196339.6436.579.134.052.832.325.46100.00

The average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females has decreased fairly steadily in recent years. The figures for each of the latest 12 years are as follows.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
Years
195229.5226.19
195329.3125.90
195429.2025.85
195528.9925.67
195629.0725.59
195728.9725.48
195828.7625.30
195928.7025.26
196028.5625.11
196128.2924.90
196227.4324.11
196327.4324.13

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest five years according to marital status were as shown below.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Years
195926.3241.8256.3523.1037.4549.03
196026.1041.6756.1022.9037.7949.13
196125.8842.2957.4522.6938.5149.85
196225.1141.6856.5022.0437.5349.34
196325.0942.2156.5022.0337.9049.21

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides (21) has remained unchanged for very many years, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for recent years it has been 21 to 24.

Marriages of Minors-Of every 1,000 men married in 1963, 111 were under 21 years of age, while 396 in every 1,000 brides were under 21.

In 1,883 marriages in 1963 both parties were given as under 21 years of age, in 5,988 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 325 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last five years.

YearAge, in YearsTotals
1617181920NumberRate per 100 Marriages
Bridegrooms
19595732284977751,5788.62
196010582725838641,7879.45
19618982845931,1072,09010.76
196271083486231,1382,22411.36
196381033236911,0822,20711.12
Brides
19592716691,3162,0702,3566,68236.48
19603027121,4022,1772,5407,13337.72
19614117951,4572,2912,7887,74239.86
19624019651,5862,0722,7947,81839.94
19634731,0201,6462,2562,4767,87139.64

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES-Of the 19,856 marriages performed in 1963, Church of England clergymen officiated at 4,870, Presbyterians at 4,824, Roman Catholics at 2,952, Methodists at 1,648, and clergymen of other churches at 1,652, while 3,910 marriages were solemnised by Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the seven latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
1957195819591960196119621963
Church of England24.6325.1224.3725.2425.0325.3624.53
Presbyterian26.2425.0825.3925.8024.6024.5524.29
Roman Catholic15.1915.1215.2914.9315.1114.8114.87
Methodist8.317.788.008.208.407.988.30
Others6.827.287.247.517.707.808.32
Before Registrars18.8119.6219.7118.3219.1619.5019.69
 Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the general census of 1961, 34.6 per cent were recorded as adherents of the Church of England, 22.3 per cent Presbyterian, 15.1 per cent Roman Catholic, 7.2 per cent Methodist, and 20.8 per cent of other religions or of no religion, or who objected to state their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS-The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was (January 1964) 3,597, and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church804
Church of England645
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand557
Methodist Church of New Zealand357
Ratana Church of New Zealand147
Salvation Army181
Baptist -183
Latter Day Saints110
Brethren -72
Ringatu Church53
Associated Churches of Christ51
Congregational Independent39
Seventh Day Adventist49
Assemblies of God25
Jehovah's Witness33
Apostolic Church24
Commonwealth Covenant Church20
Liberal Catholic Church17
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference13
Evangelistic Church of Christ10
Church of God10
Churches of Christ12
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi11
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand7
Hebrew Congregations6
United Maori Mission4
Others157
 Total3,597

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organisations.

DISSOLUTION OF MARRIAGE AND NULLITY-From 1 January 1965 the Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963 has replaced the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928.

Divorce-A petition for divorce may be presented to the Supreme Court on one or more of 15 grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than three years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than three years, and the parties living apart for seven years and not likely to be reconciled. Only a very small percentage of divorces each year are concerned with the other 10 grounds not listed, as a sub sequent table shows. Where the parties are separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least two years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage-Proceedings for the dissolution of a voidable marriage may be instituted by a person domiciled in New Zealand or a person whose spouse is domiciled in New Zealand on any of the following grounds, namely, that at the time of the marriage one of the parties was mentally defective, that the respondent was at that time suffering from communicable venereal disease, that the woman was then pregnant by some man other than the petitioner, or that some woman other than the petitioner was then pregnant by the respondent, or that the marriage has not been consummated because of the incapacity of either party or the respondent's wilful refusal. A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree.

Nullity-In certain circumstances a marriage is void, that is it is of no effect whether or not proceedings in respect of it are taken in the Courts. A decree of nullity in respect of a void marriage may, however, be obtained if either party is domiciled or resident in New Zealand or the marriage was solemnised here. The grounds on which a marriage governed by New Zealand law is void are that at the time of the ceremony one of the parties was already married or did not give consent, that the parties were within the prohibited degree of relationship or that the marriage was not solemnised in due form. Any children of a void marriage are legitimate unless at the time of the conception of the child or at the time of the marriage (whichever was later) both parties knew the marriage was void.

Petitions filed and decrees granted by the Supreme Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearDissolution or Nullity of MarriageJudicial Separation
Petitions FiledDecreesNisiDecrees AbsolutePetitions FiledDecrees for Separation
19531,8971,6431,540103
19541,8861,4791,536123
19551,7991,3791,472143
19561,8911,5681,44985
19571,9981,7191,4002110
19582,0841,8051,7511913
19591,9121,6481,639216
19602,0581,6271,64895
19612,2231,8241,733233
19622,1861,7901,755206
19632,1381,8421,905157

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petitions and decrees during 1962 and 1963.

GroundsPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands'PetitionsWives'PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19621963196219631962196319621963
Separation by agreement for not less than three years453424603562351371422489
Separation by Court order or decree for not less than three years----14168187
Living apart for not less than seven years911048580929283110
Adultery416459265255336318161210
Desertion13113779801221286766
Drunkenness with cruelty, failure to maintain, etc.331372-62
Attempted murder---1---1
Insanity -351-4322
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights7--153-1
Presumption of death--------
Sodomy, etc.---1----
Nullity -13-122-1
Non-consummation78661221
Bigamy ---211-1-
 Totals1,1321,1431,054995930935825970

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year.

Over the five-year period 1959-63 inclusive, the average percentage of decrees absolute granted on wives' petitions (86.5), was greater than the percentage granted on husbands' petitions (78.9). It is of interest to point out that 1962 was only the third year since 1952 in which the number of decrees absolute granted on husbands' petitions was greater than the total granted of wives' petitions.

In 504 of the 1,905 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1963 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was one in 430 cases, two in 437 cases, three in 287 cases, and four or more in 247 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which decrees absolute were granted in the five years 1959 to 1963.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsHusbands' Decrees Absolute GrantedWives' Decrees Absolute Granted
1959196019611962196319591960196119621963
Under 565636678814860505555
5-9233237238237269245232226202222
10-14207173207225205228241191208254
15-19102111134155145123119153155188
20-29133166168174178151150174158203
30 and over58496861574647584748
 Totals798799881930935841849852825970

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1959, 2,655; 1960, 2,678; 1961, 3,052; 1962, 3,041; and 1963, 3,356.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE-A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems rising from unhappy and ill-adjusted family units. In 1959 an adviser in marriage guidance was appointed to the staff of the Justice Department, an advisory committee set up, and a training programme for voluntary marriage counsellors commenced with the help of voluntary advisers from professional groups.

By 1964 there were 34 trained counsellors, with another 40 in training. In the year to 30 June 1964 there were 1,578 cases accepted and 5,611 interviews arranged by the 13 affiliated councils.

As part of the education programme, 47 short lecture courses were held during the year for persons about to be married.

Chapter 5. Section 5 PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

5 A-PUBLIC HEALTH

DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES IN NEW ZEALAND-The Public Health Act 1900 placed public health administration in New Zealand on an efficient basis. A separate Department of Public Health was set up under its own Minister; the country was divided into a number of health districts, and properly trained and qualified staff were appointed to administer the Act.

The period 1900 to 1920 saw steady progress in the building up of public health services now that the essential basic structure had been created. Legislation was passed dealing with the sale of food and drugs, the registration of professional groups, and the control of quackery and venereal diseases. Sanatoria were established, school medical services developed, and problems of maternal and infant health attacked. The first link between preventive and curative medicine was made in 1909 with the merging of the former Hospital and Charitable Aid Department with the new Department of Public Health.

In this period there was an increasing public interest taken in health matters, and, as a result, a number of voluntary health organisations were established with-the objects of promoting better knowledge of infant welfare, first aid, and home nursing.

The influenza epidemic of 1918-19 brought to light a number of defects in the public health organisation, particularly the need for a simplification of existing health legislation and the need for a clear definition of the duties of local authorities, hospitals boards, and the Department of Public Health. The result of this experience was the passing of the Health Act 1920, which established the Department of Health in its present form, returned to local authorities a measure of responsibility for environmental health, and encouraged them to employ appropriate staff. To meet new needs and changing public attitudes, the professional resources of the Department were strengthened. Health education activity was intensified, a Medical Research Council was sponsored, and the number of groups subject to professional registration was extended. New health districts were created, and the existing activities of the Department were expanded. Among the more important of the new activities of the Department was the establishment of a school dental service in 1920 and, in 1937, the institution of the Medical Research Council.

Developments since the Second World War included a more positive attack on tuberculosis marked by the passing of the Tuberculosis Act 1948, the establishment as a Government agency of the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory existing at Christchurch, and the creation of the National Health Institute in Wellington. At the end of 1947 the Mental Hospitals Department ceased to be a separate Government Department, and became the Division of Mental Health of the Department of Health.

The Health Act 1956 consolidated and amended the law relating to public health.

A more detailed outline of the development of public health services in New Zealand up to 1939 will be found in the annual report of the Department of Health for that year, and the best general history may be found in Challenge for Health, by F. S. Maclean; New Zealand, Government. Printer, 1964.

PRESENT ORGANISATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES-Local Authorities: Part II of the Health Act 1956 lays definite obligations on local authorities in regard to public health. Each local authority must either appoint its own health inspectors or contribute to the salary of an inspector of the Department of Health. Each inspector must hold a certificate of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health before he can be appointed. A local authority's responsibility in health matters is wide. It must promote and conserve the public health within its district-a function which includes regular inspections of its district; abatement of nuisances as defined in the Health Act; provision of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; protection and purification of water supplies; closing and demolition of insanitary buildings; registration and regulation of cattle sale-yards; and the enforcement of certain minimum sanitary requirements for residences and business premises. It may also make bylaws dealing with public health matters.

Department of Health: The Permanent Head of the Department is the Director-General of Health. He is assisted by two Deputy Directors-General.

The Department was reorganised in 1962 into the following Divisions: Public Health, Nursing, Hospitals (described in Section 5B), Clinical Services, Dental Health, and Mental Health (Section 5c).

New Zealand as a whole is divided into 19 health districts, each under the control of a medical officer of health, a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science.

The Department is required to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and coordination of measures necessary to promote public health. It administers all Acts relating to public health; it advises local authorities on public health; it must do whatever is possible to prevent, limit, or suppress disease; it promotes research into public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease; it conducts health publicity and organises and controls medical, dental, and nursing services paid from public funds. With the authority of the Minister, a medical officer of health may exercise very wide powers in the event of an epidemic or serious outbreak of infectious disease, including the requisitioning of land and buildings, prohibition of public gatherings, and controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease. Certain diseases, mostly infectious, but including some non-communicable, must be notified by medical practitioners. Provisions relating to quarantine are included in the Health Act; and extensive power is given to make regulations relating to the conservation and promotion of public health.

The Department's organisation includes a Board of Health. The Health Act 1956 reconstituted the Board of Health and widened the scope of its functions. While the former Board of Health was principally concerned with water supply and drainage, the new Board, in addition to its responsibilities in relation to local authorities and their sanitary works, has the much wider function of giving the Minister authoritative advice on the broad aspects of public health policy and the relationship between the various health services.

In addition to the Health Act 1956, the following Acts are administered by the Department:

  1. Cemeteries Act 1908

  2. Dangerous Drugs Act 1927

  3. Dentists Act 1936

  4. Dietitians Act 1950

  5. Food and Drugs Act 1947

  6. Hospitals Act 1957

  7. King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Act 1953

  8. Medical Act 1908 (Part II)

  9. Medical Advertisements Act 1942

  10. Medical Practitioners Act 1950

  11. Medical Research Council Act 1950

  12. Mental Health Act 1911

  13. Nurses and Midwives Act 1945

  14. Occupational Therapy Act 1949

  15. Opticians Act 1928

  16. Physiotherapy Act 1949

  17. Plumbers Registration Act 1953

  18. Poisons Act 1960

  19. Radioactive Substances Act 1949

  20. Social Security Act 1964 (Part II)

  21. Tuberculosis Act 1948

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper H.31).

The net expenditure of the Department (excluding capital expenditure from the Public Works Account) for the years ended 31 March 1963 and 1964 is given in the following table.

Item1962-631963-64Increase

NOTE − Minus sign (−) denotes a decrease.

Vote "Health"-£££
General health services2,042,1532,066,31824,165
Dental health1,298,1751,456,666158,491
Departmental hospitals and institutions (other than mental health)553,668593,16439,496
Mental health5,601,7186,077,900476,182
Health education32,54328,880—3,663
Medical Research Council143,123180,01936,896
Homes for the aged629,480911,247281,767
Pensioners housing: Local authorities -227,764283,19055,426
Youth hostels51,86219,023—32,839
Plunket Society subsidies167,432192,42624,994
Miscellaneous grants and subsidies137,156120,775—16,381
Bursaries70,11271,1721,060
 10,955,18612,000,7801,045,594
Less department receipts481,231496,28515,054
Totals10,473,95511,504,4951,030,540
Vote "Public Hospitals"   
Grants to hospital boards22,767,76725,248,9582,711,191
Vote "Medical, Hospital, etc, Benefits"23,749,56624,191,975442,409
Grand totals56,991,28861,175,4284,184,140

Information on hospitals is given in Sections 5b and 5c, while information on medical, hospital, and other related benefits, which are administered by the Department of Health, is given in Section 6a (Social Security).

PUBLIC HEALTH-The Division of Public Health is responsible for activities under the following heading; Communicable disease and health education, food and drugs (including medical advertisements, poisons, dangerous drugs, nutrition), health protection (including maternal health and child health), environmental health (including food hygiene, plumbing, and drainage), burial and cremation, water supply and sewage, air pollution (including clean air and chemical works), and occupational health.

The Director of the Division is assisted by two Deputies and four Assistant Directors (three medical practitioners and one public health engineer), and a chemical inspector.

Disease: The control of disease is based on a system of notification which has long been in force. The present list of notifiable diseases is as follows.

  • Notifiable Infectious Diseases:

  • Anthrax

  • Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis)

  • Cholera

  • Cysticercosis

  • Diphtheria

  • Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary)

  • Encephalitis lethargica

  • Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever)

  • Infective hepatitis

  • Leprosy

  • Leptospiral infections

  • Ophthalmia neonatorum

  • Ornithosis (psittacosis)

  • Pemphigus neonatorum, impetigo, or pustular lesions of the skin of the newborn infant

  • Plague (bubonic or pneumonic)

  • Poliomyelitis

  • Puerperal infection involving any form of sepsis, either generalised or local, in or arising from the female genital tract within 14 days of childbirth or abortion

  • Relapsing fever

  • Salmonella infections

  • Smallpox (variola, including varioloid and alastrim)

  • Staphylococcal pneumonia of the new-born infant

  • Staphylococcal septicaemia of the newborn infant

  • Taeniasis

  • Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids)

  • Typhus

  • Undulant fever

  • Yellow fever

  • Other Notifiable Diseases:

  • Actinomycosis

  • Anchylostomiasis (hookworm disease)

  • Beriberi

  • Bilharziasis (endemic haematuria, Egyptian haematuria)

  • Chronic lead poisoning

  • Compressed-air illness arising from occupation

  • Damage to eyesight arising from occupation

  • Dengue

  • Diseases of the respiratory system arising from occupation

  • Eclampsia

  • Food poisoning

  • Fulminant influenza

  • Hydatid disease

  • Impaired hearing arising from occupation

  • Malaria

  • Phosphorus poisoning

  • Pneumonic influenza

  • Poisoning from any insecticide, weedicide, fungicide, or animal poison met with at work

  • Poisoning from any gas, fumigant, or refrigerant met with at work

  • Poisoning from any solvent met with at work

  • Poisoning from any metal or salt of any metal met with at work

  • Septicaemic influenza

  • Skin diseases arising from occupation

  • Tetanus

All forms of tuberculosis are notifiable under the Tuberculosis Act 1948.

Venereal Diseases: Venereal diseases are only notifiable if the patient discontinues treatment before cure is effected. The Venereal Diseases Regulations 1964 give adequate powers for the examination and treatment of persons suspected of suffering from the diseases. Free treatment has been established in the larger cities and treatment is available to seamen at the main ports in accordance with the Brussels Agreement. Restrictions are also placed on the nature of the employment such persons may undertake if they are suffering from the diseases in a communicable form.

In the administration of the regulations, every precaution is taken to ensure the avoidance of publicity.

Environmental Hygiene is concerned with the provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating houses. These matters are primarily the responsibility of the local authorities, but the Department of Health acts in a general advisory capacity. In the case of many of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities.

Food and Drugs: The Food and Drugs Act 1947 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article is proved to be unfit for human consumption penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such goods are manufactured or packed. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food and drugs. Regular sampling of foods, particularly milk, is undertaken by departmental inspectors, and the samples are analysed in the Dominion Laboratory or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether or not it is standardised by regulation. This matter is also covered by the Medical Advertisements Act 1942, which is referred to later.

The definitions of "drug" establish two groups. Anaesthetics, cosmetics, dentifrices, disinfectants, preservatives, and soaps and detergents are covered by the general provisions of the Act and regulations. Additional products which must be notified to the Director-General of Health are substances or mixtures, whether used internally or externally, for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body, for altering nutrition or structure, or for modifying physiological processes or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives. Notification applies for a new manufacturers' product of an existing drug, to new combinations, and to material alterations in composition, claims for, or labelling of, existing drugs. Normally 90 days must elapse after notification before any advertising or distribution of trade information or stocks may commence.

Dangerous Drugs and Poisons: In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under international conventions relating to addiction-producing drugs, the Dangerous Drugs Act 1927 was enacted. The dealing in and the use of prepared opium, cocaine, and marijuana are prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are restricted to persons licensed by the Director-General of Health. The importation of these drugs is controlled by the Department of Health. Suitable regulations, the Dangerous Drugs Regulations 1951, are in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and are similar to the regulations in the United Kingdom and Australia.

The Poisons Act 1960 controls the advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances. An important provision requires that before importing or putting on the market a new substance which might be toxic a proprietor must notify very full details to the Registrar of Poisons. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. The Act also provides for the control of certain drugs by preventing their sale to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. There is power to introduce special safeguards for certain dangerous chemicals used in horticulture. Labels for poisons in this "Deadly Poison" group must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in using the poison, the symptoms of poisoning, and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Director-General of Health.

Hydatids Eradication: The Hydatids Act 1959 provides positive methods of attack in the campaign for the eradication of hydatid disease. The Act is administered by the Department of Agriculture. Under it there has been set up a National Hydatids Council on which the Department of Health has representation.

Medical Advertisements Act 1942: This Act came into force in January 1943. Under it the word "advertisement" is defined broadly, but does not include any advertisement or scientific matter distributed only to members of the medical and allied professions.

The Act set up a Medical Advertisements Board, which was given power as a quasi-judicial body to examine statements made in any medical advertisement. The Board may require the claims or statements made or implied to be substantiated to its satisfaction. Subsequent publication of such an advertisement is prohibited until the Board has notified its decision, and the veto on publication becomes permanent if the Board decides the claim or statement has not been proved.

Regulations issued under the Act limit the claims which may be included in any medical advertisement, and include a list of diseases concerning which no advertisement may make a claim to cure.

Cemeteries: The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Cemeteries Act 1908 and its amendments. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that there exists adequate provision for the disposal of the dead.

Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary. Crematoria have been established in Auckland (two), Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hastings, Wanganui, Nelson, Palmerston North, Hamilton, and New Plymouth.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH-The objective of the occupational health programme is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of the worker.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women and children, etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which the factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment, and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with health hazards, many of them being administered by the two Departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government Departments or agencies concerned with particular aspects of workers' health.

Occupational Disease: The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Control of Health Hazards: An increasing number of specific health hazards are coming under formal control, namely lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons, where in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Department a special rating is required by pilots, and agricultural chemicals. The organisation of radiation protection is dealt with by the National Radiation Laboratory, while a number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services: Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there axe no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the Department has developed and is developing industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Workers' Compensation Board in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations: Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

Air Pollution: The air pollution provisions of Part V of the Health Act have been enforced since 1958. A senior chemical inspector is resident in Wellington with a deputy in Auckland.

There are 26 classes of process requiring registration and they include, for the control of odours, supervision of rendering processes. Most registrable processes are governed by the requirement to adopt the best practicable means, but there are limiting standards for lead and acid gases. All new installations or extensions of these registrable processes require approval by the Department of Health.

Air pollution committees in Auckland and Christchurch, in association with the Air Pollution Committee of the Board of Health, have established surveys to determine the extent of air pollution in these cities and the need for further action.

TUBERCULOSIS CONTROL-The Department's programme for control of tuberculosis is based on adequate case-finding and notification procedures, the proper treatment and surveillance of notified cases, investigation and control of contacts. This calls for close coordination of the staff and services of hospital boards (which are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis) and officers of the Department of Health who deal with the social and epidemiological aspects of the disease. The latter involves supervision of tuberculosis families, tracing of contacts, and the maintenance of tuberculosis statistics.

Mass miniature radiography is now an established and important feature of the Department's case-finding programme, and, during the years 1959 to 1963, 1,202,219 persons were X-rayed in the nine mass X-ray units then operated by the Department. This resulted in the discovery of 1,120 active cases.

B.C.G. vaccination is also undertaken by the Department and, in particular, is offered to the contacts of registered cases, post-primary-school children, and hospital workers partly exposed to infection.

Over the past decade, there has been a steady decrease each year in new notifications together with a marked decrease in mortality.

CHILD HEALTH-The Health Department is responsible for the supervision of all measures for safeguarding the health of preschool and school children, and also for ensuring a satisfactory environment at school. Attention is given to the health of the preschool child.

These services are under the direction of the Assistant Director of the Public Health Division, who is a medical practitioner, with a staff of full-time and part-time medical officers. The medical officer of health in charge of a health district is responsible, within the limits of the policy laid down and the instructions he receives, for the direction and control of all child health work in his district.

An effort is being made to have every child examined in infancy and before school entry. The examination of preschool children is carried out by medical officers of the division in Plunket rooms in conjunction with Plunket nurses, and at kindergartens, day nurseries, and other preschool organisations assisted by public health nurses.

In keeping with modem thought, routine examinations by medical and nursing staff of specific age groups (except the testing of vision and hearing) has been replaced by continuous supervision of all children at school with examination when necessary. This supervision is effected largely by means of consultations between parents, teachers, nurses, and medical staff. These consultations are based on preschool records, questionnaires, and regular visits to the school by medical and nursing staff. The children found to be suffering from defects are kept under observation until the necessary treatment is obtained from the private practitioner or the hospital.

Mentally backward and feeble-minded children are given special attention, arrangements being made in conjunction with the Department of Education for their entry into a special school or other institution as may be necessary. In addition, physically handicapped children enrolled with the Correspondence School are examined. A consultative service is available for post-primary-school children.

Throughout the work in this field officers try to secure the interest and cooperation of parents and family doctors, because only in this way can the work be made effective. With this object in view it is considered of great importance that parents be present at the medical examination of their children, an opportunity of which the majority take advantage.

Prevention of Disease: The activities in this field of child health are not confined to the routine medical examination of school children. In addition, certain positive measures are taken to prevent disease and correct physical defects. The more important of these measures are:

  1. Poliomyelitis Vaccination-Immunisation against poliomyelitis has been carried out by the Division's staff since 1956. The vaccine used was an injectable type but in August 1961 an oral vaccine was introduced. A mass vaccination campaign was carried out 1962. The protection of three doses of the oral vaccine is available to all infants.

  2. Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, and Tetanus Immunisation-Protection against these diseases is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are three months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with the infant at a departmental clinic. If necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria and tetanus) are given at 18 months and after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at 10-yearly intervals and on injury.

  3. Typhoid Inoculations-Maori children in the North Island are inoculated annually against the typhoid group of diseases.

  4. Health Education-Officers give advice whenever possible and give health education talks. They advocate the use of iodised salt and iodine rich foods to control goitre, and the consumption of milk to maintain nutrition standards.

  5. Health Camps are established to which children are admitted for convalescence or correction of malnutrition and emotional disturbances.

Health camps were originally established to cater for the needs of delicate and undernourished children in the age group of five to 12 years. Now children suffering from minor emotional, psychological, and behaviour problems are also helped by the change in their environment which a camp provides. The service selects the children to attend the camps (which are maintained by an independent organisation-the King George die Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation) and, as necessary, re-examines them before admission and after discharge. In the camps the children live under an orderly and disciplined routine, they eat plain, well cooked food, and they get plenty of rest, fresh air, and sunshine. In practically all cases a child who attends a health camp benefits both physically and mentally. The opportunity is taken to impart health education by practising healthful living. There are six permanent and two part-time health camps in New Zealand.

For children with emotional or psychological disturbances and behaviour problems, child health clinics have been established in the larger centres and elsewhere. These are staffed by a team consisting of a pediatrician, psychiatrist, psychologist, play therapist, and social worker. Children are referred to these clinics through the family doctor if there is one.

DENTAL HEALTH-The Division of Dental Health, which was instituted in 1921, is concerned with the administration of the various dental activities of the Government, and in particular-(a) The National Dental Service, which comprises (i) the School Dental Service and (ii) the Adolescent Dental Service; (b) the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations; (c) the Dental Act 1963 and regulations; (d) dental bursaries; (e) dental research; (f) dental health education.

The Division of Dental Health has at its head a Director (a dental surgeon), and there is also a Deputy Director, two Assistant Directors, and a dental research officer. The service is organised in 16 units, each of which is controlled by a senior dental officer, who is directly responsible to the Director. These officers are: the principals of the schools for dental nurses at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the principal dental officers in charge of the 13 dental districts into which New Zealand is divided.

The School Dental Service staffed by 984 trained school dental nurses provided systematic treatment for 431,941 pre-school and primary school children in the year ended 31 March 1964. A further 185,847 children under 16 years of age received regular treatment from private dentists under the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Scheme, and from a limited number of salaried dental officers.

The School Dental Service: Briefly, the functions of the service are to improve the standard of dental health of school children (and of preschool children) by affording them regular and systematic treatment at six-monthly intervals, commencing from the primer classes (or earlier when possible), and continuing through to the highest class of the primary (or intermediate) school. Thereafter they are eligible for enrolment in the Adolescent Service. There has beer a rapid increase in the school population as a result of the high birthrate. Until the number of dental nurses can be increased proportionately, children are being transferred to the "adolescent" service at an earlier stage, in order to enable the dental nurses to maintain six-monthly treatment for the younger children. This is a temporary phase, pending the training of more dental nurses.

Two years are devoted to the theoretical and practical training of school dental nurses. Approximately 450 student dental nurses are in training at the one time. The course is carefully graduated and is in the hands of a staff of dental surgeons and dental tutor sisters. Private dental practitioners are represented on the examining board for the final examination. During the period of training, student dental nurses reside in hostels owned and controlled by the Department of Health.

On completing her training, a school dental nurse is posted to a school dental clinic, where she becomes responsible to the principal dental officer of her district for the dental treatment of a group of approximately 500 patients. She is visited at intervals by the principal dental officer or one of his staff, who discusses current problems and assists the dental nurse to maintain a high standard in the conduct of her work.

Dental treatment comprises fillings in both temporary teeth and permanent teeth, cleaning and scaling of the teeth, extractions when necessary, and sodium fluoride treatment. The aim of the service is to promote dental health by conserving the natural teeth and preventing dental decay. Only a small number of teeth have to be extracted as unsavable, less than four for every 100 saved by conservative treatment.

Orthodontic treatment is carried out principally in Wellington, where an orthodontic unit is established at the Children's Dental Clinic, which is associated with the School for Dental Nurses. Dental officers in field clinics undertake a limited amount of orthodontic treatment of a simple nature.

Adolescent Dental Service: Dental care for adolescents is provided by private practitioners as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the practitioners being reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person's having undergone regular dental care up to within three months of the time of application, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment of adolescents, which has been available since 1946, is in effect a continuation of the treatment provided by the School Dental Service, and is continued until a patient has reached his sixteenth birthday.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at six-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are indicated in the Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960. Dentists are free to exercise their professional judgment, and, if in their opinion a case demands a form of treatment that is not provided for in the Schedule, there is provision, with certain limitations, for such treatment to be approved as a charge on social security funds.

Dental Health Education: The dental health education activities of the Department include the production of posters, pamphlets, sound films, filmstrips, radio talks, newspaper advertisements, and all other types of advertising media.

Officers of the service are kept in touch with health education and other matters by means of the School Dental Service Gazette, which is published bi-monthly.

Dental officers and school dental nurses are expected to impress on their patients the necessity of maintaining a high standard of oral health. To further this end every opportunity is taken of distributing health educational literature, displaying posters, and devoting reasonable clinical time to instruction in oral hygiene. Opportunities to address meetings of various kinds are availed of whenever possible.

Dental Research: Dental research is directed by the Dental Research Committee of the Medical Research Council. The staff consisting of a principal dental research officer and a senior dental research officer are primarily engaged in a long-term programme of research in dental problems.

In addition, a dental research officer is employed by the Department to undertake investigations of methods of treatment, materials, and equipment, etc., which have a direct bearing on the efficiency and effectiveness of the Division's programme.

Dental Bursaries: The Government grants bursaries each year to selected students to assist them to qualify as dentists. The bursaries are of a value of £100 per annum for the first year, £125 per annum for the second and third years, £150 per annum for the fourth and fifth years, plus tuition fees, and are tenable for five years, subject to satisfactory reports from the university authorities. An additional allowance of £80 per annum is payable to students who have to live away from home in order to pursue their studies. Students who are granted bursaries must enter into an agreement to pursue their studies diligently and, on graduating, to enter the service of the Crown or of a hospital board appointed by the Crown for a specified period not exceeding three years.

HEALTH EDUCATION-The aim is to work with the public and to encourage action that will improve personal, family, and community health. The Health Education Branch is under the control of the Deputy Director, Division of Public Health, who is a medical practitioner with training in health education, a small staff of writers, technicians, and clerks at Head Office, and lay health education officers who are seconded to district offices and are responsible to the Deputy Director through their medical officers of health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a coordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. All the health education officers are women and several hold the diploma in health education issued jointly by Victoria University of Wellington and the Department of Health. All are given special training before taking up their appointments. Various media are used to make the teaching as attractive, as direct, and as acceptable as possible. Daily newspapers and national periodicals carry regular advertisements on health subjects. Radio broadcasts are given at least twice a week and leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics.

The Division also publishes the Department's official bulletin Health which has a circulation of over 65,000 and is issued free to the public four times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the Department's work.

To assist field officers in their health education work, visual aids, displays, and other publicity material is provided and in addition district offices are encouraged to produce their own.

Voluntary organisations, too, are assisted in their work by the supply of teaching aids and other materials and by assistance with their training programmes.

Each district office has a health education committee consisting of senior administrative and professional officers which plans and budgets local health programmes. A central committee at Head Office largely plans and budgets for overall national requirements.

MATERNAL WELFARE-Maternal welfare is the responsibility of an Assistant Director in the Public Health Division. Maternal and infant welfare work in New Zealand is based on cooperation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, the medical and nursing professions, and the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society).

The Assistant Director is a medical practitioner who, while not concerned with the particulars of day-to-day administration of maternity hospitals, is responsible for maternal welfare generally in its broadest sense. She keeps abreast of overseas and local developments and is regarded as a consultant on matters of national significance. For instance, in the event of an outbreak of infection affecting mothers or infants, she conducts and directs any necessary investigations as to causes and remedial measures required, in consultation with such other divisions as may be necessary.

The Assistant Director has the benefit of the advice of the Maternity Services Committee of the Board of Health, of which she is a member. This committee was formed to advise the Minister on matters relating to obstetric and maternal welfare generally.

The medical officers of health, through their staff of nurse inspectors, exercise a general supervision over the work of midwives and closely control the private hospitals throughout the country. All private hospitals are required to be licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957, and the Department of Health sees that standards regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed.

Except in an emergency, no persons other than registered medical practitioners and registered midwives are allowed to conduct confinements, and only registered midwives and registered maternity nurses are permitted to nurse women in childbirth. A large percentage of all confinements (in 1963 approximately 99.3 per cent of European and 98.4 per cent of Maori confinements) take place in the various types of maternity hospital-a maternity annex to a public hospital, a State (St. Helens) hospital, or a private maternity hospital.

Important contributions to maternal welfare are made by the Division of Nursing, which includes in its duties the supervision of the training of midwives and maternity nurses, and by the Hospitals Division, which approves plans for accommodation to be provided by the various types of maternity hospital. The work of these two Divisions is surveyed elsewhere in this section.

RADIATION PROTECTION-Under the Radioactive Substances Act 1949 the protection of the population from radiation hazards is solely the responsibility of the Department of Health, and the Department established the National Radiation Laboratory (formerly the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory) to provide the administrative and technical services required, and in addition the educational programme, without which effective cooperation in any safety field is not likely to be achieved. An important feature of the Act was the setting up of the Radiological Advisory Council on whose advice the Minister of Health may take action on radiation problems concerning the welfare of the people. Further legislation by way of regulations followed in 1951 and these include the Radiation Protection Regulations and the Transport of Radioactive Substances Regulations.

The National Radiation Laboratory is required to maintain the primary X-ray standard for New Zealand and also reference standards for the accurate measurement of radioactive substances used in clinical work. Control of radiation sources is effectively obtained by licensing operators at each place where ionising sources are used, and the Electrical (X-ray) Wiring Regulations 1944 provide for the compulsory registration of all X-ray plants in the country. The importation and use of radioactive materials is strictly controlled, and requests for such materials on overseas suppliers must be authorised by the laboratory, which acts as the procurement agency for most of the radio-isotopes required.

The laboratory operates a field service whereby trained physicists regularly visit all places where ionising sources are used. During these visits measurements are taken, protection problems discussed, and everything possible is done to ensure that persons associated with the ionising sources adopt safe working habits. Apart from the obvious groups, e.g., medical and dental users, the laboratory is also concerned with specialised equipment, such as mass X-ray units, X-ray apparatus used in schools, radar and television equipment, X-ray diffraction units, electron microscopes, research accelerators, etc. Good protection, of course, depends not only on careful working habits but also on material protection.

In recent years the Department of Health has undertaken responsibility for the monitoring of air, rainwater, and soil for the incidence of radioactive contamination from fall-out.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE-Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system. Physical medicine is the responsibility of a Deputy Director of the Hospitals Division who is a medical practitioner with special training and experience in the field. Me is responsible for the general organisation and development of physiotherapy and occupational therapy services throughout the country.

The centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for the treatment of rheumatic diseases. Clinical research is also carried out there. Use is made of the thermal waters of Rotorua, the chief establishment for hydrotherapy treatment at the moment being the Main Bath House which is administratively combined with the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. A proportion of the inpatients of Queen Elizabeth Hospital receive treatment at the Main Bath House and outpatients can also be referred for treatment A large number of outpatients referred from all parts of New Zealand are seen every year.

Admission of patients to the hospital is arranged with the Medical Superintendent, who also arranges for outpatient consultations. The investigation of rheumatic patients and the application of specific measures, including physiotherapy for preventing and controlling deformity, have been developed considerably at Queen Elizabeth Hospital. Occupational therapy has been developed to teach people how to live with their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is also situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers and speech therapists are coordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. In addition to treatment, post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for advice only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are now operating in Christchurch, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Hutt health districts. These have proved so successful that it is hoped to extend the service to other districts as qualified staff become available.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by education bonds under the Department of Education, but close liaison exists between the schools and the Rotorua unit.

The Deputy Director is closely associated with the Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy Boards, and deputises for the Director-General of Health as chairman of these Boards.

The Department offers annually a limited number of bursaries for training at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy which is governed by the Physiotherapy Board and administered by the Otago Hospital Board. Applicants for bursaries, if accepted for the training by the Physiotherapy Council of Otago Hospital Board, are interviewed by the Department's Inspectors of Physiotherapy and selected for award by the Physiotherapy Bursaries Selection Committee. A condition of bursary award is that on qualification the bursar will work for a period of two years in a hospital or institution as directed by the Department.

The training school for occupational therapists is situated at Auckland Mental Hospital and is administered by the Mental Health Division. Trainees are paid a salary while training, and have to agree to work in a departmental or public hospital for two years after qualification.

REHABILITATION OF PHYSICALLY DISABLED CIVILIANS-The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped civilians has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand.

Basically, public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate rehabilitation service, with cooperation from governmental and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

A Civilian Rehabilitation Centre has been established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, for the treatment and overall restoration of those injured in employment or road accidents. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, spinal injury centres are proposed at Auckland and Christchurch.

The Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League provides trade and vocational training for disabled civilians recommended by district and national selection panels. These panels consist of representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Security, and Health. For the more severely handicapped, whose productive potential is restricted, the Government has recently approved of a sheltered employment scheme. It is also being operated through the Disabled Servicemen's League and will incorporate a pilot occupational workshop. For both the vocational training and sheltered employment schemes, a measure of Government assistance is provided.

Coordination of the various services connected with civil rehabilitation is achieved by means of the Interdepartmental Committee on Civilian Rehabilitation. In addition to the Departments of Health, Labour, and Social Security, the Workers' Compensation Board, Hospital Boards, and the British Medical Association are represented on this committee. There are also representative district and national panels to select disabled people for training and to advise on the various aspects of rehabilitation.

NURSING SERVICE-The Division of Nursing in the Department of Health is responsible for the maintenance of an adequate and efficient nursing service and the supervision of conditions for nursing staff.

The training of all nurses and midwives is governed by the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945, which is administered by the Nurses and Midwives Board. This Board through the Registrar supervises hospitals and nursing schools in all aspects of training, and also the examination and registration of nurses. The nurse inspector who makes a visit to a hospital carries out the dual purpose, therefore, of making reports both to the Director-General of Health through the Nursing Division, and to the Nurses and Midwives Board through the Registrar. This integration of work is a feature which has preserved good relationships in the hospitals, and has enabled the practical and theoretical training of nurses as well as their conditions to be maintained at a uniformly high standard.

The control of the public health nursing services is exercised from the Division, but the specialised infant-welfare and mothercraft work of the Plunket Society is under the control of that organisation; close cooperation with that Society is, however, maintained.

Another part of the work is the selection and placement of nurses in the various groups of Pacific islands for which the New Zealand Government is responsible. These nurses for hospital and public health work are seconded from the New Zealand service for periods of two years, pension rights being continuous. The supervision of this service is exercised by regular visits to the islands.

Close liaison exists between the nursing services organised for the armed services and the Division, while any organisation for emergency nursing is carried out by the Division.

Refresher courses for all groups of nurses are organised. A post-graduate course is controlled by a committee on which the Department of Health, the universities, teachers' colleges, and Hospital Boards Association are represented. Courses are followed in hospital and nursing school administration, public health nursing, medical social work, industrial nursing, and teaching and administration in obstetric nursing. There is a course in pediatric nursing for sisters in charge of children's wards.

Up to 60 students take the nine months' post-graduate course annually, and with few exceptions they are specially selected and attend on bursaries from the Department of Health, hospital boards, and voluntary organisations, while during recent years there has been an increasing number from overseas countries. The school has its own building, library, classrooms, offices, and hostel. The full-time instructors at the school conduct the refresher courses during the school recess, and also carry out supervision of hospitals, nursing schools, and public health work, thus keeping up to date with the practical needs of the field.

MEDICAL STATISTICS-The Medical Statistics Branch is responsible for the compilation of the statistics included in the Annual Report on the Medical Statistics of New Zealand. The Branch also prepares special statistics for the various Divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation, which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition from time to time special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE-Opened in 1954, the National Health Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the study of public health problems. It contains an Epidemiology Section and Public Health Laboratories.

The Epidemiology Section conducts field research into matters of public health interest and also is responsible for conducting the course of training for the diploma of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health and, in addition, refresher courses for health inspectors.

The Public Health Laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health and hospital laboratories as well as for the other sections of the institute. The institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL-Under the Medical Research Council Act 1950 a Medical Research Council was established as a corporate body with the following functions:

  1. To foster medical research and to prepare and publish such reports on these matters as may in its opinion be necessary or of value to teachers or other persons;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research.

This Council took over and developed the work of the departmental committee, bearing the same name, which had been in existence since 1938. At the end of 1963 research in the following fields was in progress: clinical medicine; dentistry; endocrinology; hydatids; virus; Island Territories research; microbiology; physiology; nutrition; obstetrics; surgery; pathology; human genetics.

The Council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by the Cancer Society of New Zealand and medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, and Hawke's Bay.

The Council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of £180,000 is incurred in supporting research projects at the University of Otago, the University of Auckland, and the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, and North Canterbury Hospital Boards.

The Council employs a staff of 60 full-time workers, and some 50 associated workers contribute to the activities of the Council. A further 40 workers are employed by the University of Otago under project grants from the Council.

The Council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the Council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL-The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1950, consists of the Director-General of Health, the Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Otago, and five other registered medical practitioners. One of the five members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. The Council may require the holder of a foreign diploma to attend a course and pass an examination in medicine and surgery. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the Council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1964 was 3,832, and, of this number, approximately 2,880 were actively engaged in medical practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS-Dentists: Under the Dental Act 1963 there is constituted a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of private dental practitioners holding annual practising certificates at 1 September 1964 was 807, and in addition there were 134 dentists in Government, hospital, and university employment.

Nurses and Midwives: Under the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 is constituted the Nurses and Midwives Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (Chairman), the Director, Division of Mental Health, the Director, Division of Nursing (Registrar), two registered medical practitioners, a representative of the Hospital Boards Association of New Zealand, three registered nurses, one registered midwife, and one registered psychiatric nurse. Members other than official members are appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Health, the nursing personnel being nominated by the New Zealand Registered Nurses Association. The Board controls training courses, conducts examinations, and effects registrations.

Provision is made in the Nurses Registration Regulations 1958 for a three-year course of instruction for nurses classified as general and maternity nurses. A similar training period is specified for male nurses, psychiatric nurses, and psychopaedic nurses.

Registration-The Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 requires that the following registers be kept by the Registrar: (a) Nurses, (b) Midwives and Maternity Nurses, (c) Male Nurses, (d) Psychiatric Nurses, (e) Nursing Aids, and (f) Psychopaedic Nurses.

Physiotherapists: Under the Physiotherapy Act 1949 is constituted the New Zealand Physiotherapy Board. The Board is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is three years. Full-time training is conducted at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, administered by the Otago Hospital Board, and eight months of the final year are spent at one of the subsidiary training schools in various parts of New Zealand. All students are required to pass the State final examination in physiotherapy to qualify for registration. Every person registered under the Act and engaged in the practice of physiotherapy must hold an annual practising certificate.

Occupational Therapists: Under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949 is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board. The Board is concerned with the training, examination, registration, and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand. The training period is three years, and is undertaken at the School of Occupational Therapy, Auckland, and subsidiary training schools.

Every person registered under the Act who is engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand must hold a current annual practising certificate.

Dietitians: Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board. The functions of the Board are (a) to advise and make recommendations to the Minister of Health in respect of any matter affecting the profession of dietetics, (b) to determine courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examinations, (c) to approve hospitals and other institutions as training schools, (d) to conduct examinations, and (e) to effect registration.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school. In the case of a registered nurse, the training period is two academic years in the School of Home Science, University of Otago, together with two periods totalling 10 months in a hospital training school.

Every practising dietitian must hold an annual practising certificate.

Opticians: The Opticians Act 1928 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes. The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 264 opticians registered, but not all are engaged in active practice as opticians.

Plumbers: The Plumbers Board of New Zealand consists of five members-the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman), the Director of Education, a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand, and both a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The Board is concerned with the examination and registration of plumbers and once registered a plumber is issued with an annual practising certificate which is renewable on 31 March each year while he is engaged in sanitary plumbing.

In many parts of New Zealand, especially the more populous and urban areas, all sanitary plumbing as defined in the Plumbers Registration Act 1953 must be performed only by registered plumbers. This restriction on the personal qualifications of plumbers is additional to specifications and standards of workmanship, etc., which have been prescribed for sanitary plumbing. Disciplinary action can be taken against a registered plumber who does unsatisfactory work.

Pharmaceutical Chemists: There are about 1,800 names on the Register of Pharmaceutical Chemists in New Zealand. All registered pharmaceutical chemists, except those who notify the Registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by the Pharmacy Board constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1939.

The Board consists of 12 members, 11 being chemists, and one a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Nine members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmaceutical chemists who are proprietors or enrolled managers of pharmacies and two by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmaceutical chemist, either in the capacity of proprietor or enrolled manager.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of two years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Petone, at which the pharmacy professional examination is obtained, followed by two years of apprenticeship before becoming eligible for registration. There is also a four-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Such graduates are required to serve one year's apprenticeship before becoming eligible for registration as chemists.

Any chemist or company in which not less than 75 per cent of the share capital is owned by a chemist or chemists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 per cent of the share capital is chemist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership is subject to the consent of the Authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the Board.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS-Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from public funds. Among the more important of these organisations are the Plunket Society, the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation, St. John Ambulance (N.Z.), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the Crippled Children Society, and the New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations.

The Plunket Society-the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children -is concerned with the welfare of all babies. The society trains its own infant-welfare nurses, conducts infant-welfare clinics, and maintains Karitane hospitals throughout the country for premature babies or difficult feeders. In rural areas where there is no Plunket clinic, public health nurses do infant-welfare work.

The King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation maintains a chain of permanent health camps for delicate and undernourished children. The federation works in close cooperation with the Department of Health. It is the means whereby the voluntary nature of the various organisations is preserved, while ensuring that the available resources arc utilised to the best advantage. Much of the finance for the federation's activities is derived from the proceeds of the annual health-stamp appeal.

The St. John Ambulance (N.Z.) has divisions throughout the country carrying out free ambulance and first aid work and instruction in first aid and home nursing. It is a branch of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.

The New Zealand Red Cross Society, a part of the International Red Cross Committee, has centres and subcentres throughout the country. It gives training in first aid, home nursing, hygiene and sanitation, and emergency transportation of the injured. Graduates of these classes form voluntary-aid detachments that in peacetime are recruited as aids in hospitals, and in wartime may be recruited for service overseas as well.

The Crippled Children Society keeps a register of all crippled children, helps them to acquire all possible medical treatment, and undertakes vocational training and home education where these are required.

The New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations looks after the interests of patients suffering from tuberculosis. It assists the Department of Health with health education of the public regarding tuberculosis and concerns itself with after-care and vocational training and guidance of patients.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR ACCOMMODATION AND SERVICES (Old People's Homes, Youth Hostels, and Short-stay Homes for Intellectually Handicapped Children)-The extent to which Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing accommodation and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need, has increased steadily over the past decade. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for sick and infirm old people. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of care and nursing for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. Religious and welfare organisations at present provide approximately 4,460 home and hospital beds for the elderly, and hospital boards some 2,300 beds.

For the elderly who are ambulant and are able to care for themselves and whose main need is that of housing, local authorities are encouraged and assisted by Government to build specially designed flats or cottages which enable age beneficiaries and those with limited means to retain their independence.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general, the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and Old People's Welfare Councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises.

Old People's Homes: Subject to certain conditions, religious or charitable institutions can be granted 100 per cent of the approved capital cost of providing accommodation for old people. The administration of this policy is a Department of Health responsibility.

During the year 1963-64, subsidies totalling £444,251 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 207 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1964, subsidies totalling £5,317,907 have been approved and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 3,418 old people.

Pensioners' Flats: Since 1950 the Government has encouraged local authorities to undertake the provision of accommodation for age beneficiaries by offering subsidy and loan finance. The present policy is to offer a subsidy of up to 50 per cent of the cost of erecting accommodation such as flats or cottages for old people and to provide the balance from loan moneys at 3½ per cent. The maximum subsidy available for a two-person flat is £850 and for a one-person flat £800. Since the policy was first initiated in 1951 a total of £2,065,872 had been made available as subsidy up to 31 March 1964. As a result 3,512 old people will be provided with suitable accommodation. From a sample survey in 1962 it was estimated that some 5,000 more flats for pensioners are required and that three single flats are required for every double unit constructed.

Hostels for Young People: In June 1951 the Government decided that, subject to certain conditions, it would assist religious or welfare organisations to establish hostels for young people by granting subsidies of up to 50 per cent of the cost of erecting or acquiring hostels. The object of this decision is to assist young men and women who are living away from their homes in order to study or take up employment and are having difficulty in finding suitable living accommodation. The Department of Health was made responsible for the administration of this policy.

During the year 1963-64, subsidies of £81,413 were approved to assist in the provision of hostels for 134 young people. Since the policy was approved, subsidies totalling £522,935 had been granted up to 31 March 1964 to assist in the provision of hostel accommodation for 973 young people.

Short-stay Homes for Intellectually Handicapped Children: In 1954 the Government approved the payment, under certain conditions, of a subsidy of up to 50 per cent on the capital cost of approved buildings and furnishings acquired for the purpose of providing short-stay homes for intellectually handicapped children. In 1963 Government also extended the capital subsidy to include hostels built by the Intellectually Handicapped Children's Society for children who were attending Occupation Groups run by the Education Department. In addition a maintenance subsidy of 10s. per day is paid in respect of these children under 16 years of age.

The administration of this policy is the responsibility of the Mental Health Division of the Department of Health.

The total amount expended on capital subsidies for short-stay homes during the year ended 31 March 1964 was £14,920. In addition £5,037 was paid by way of maintenance subsidy during the same period.

PHYSICAL WELFARE AND RECREATION-New Zealand is fortunate in having excellent natural facilities for outdoor pursuits and sports. The climate is temperate and equable. The long coastline and the numerous rivers, lakes, and mountain ranges give full opportunity for yachting and boating, swimming and surfing, and mountaineering and tramping. Outdoor activities such as sea fishing, both by rod and by line, and freshwater fishing, and hunting and shooting introduced game birds and mammals are extremely popular and relatively inexpensive.

Most districts, including the larger cities, are well provided with playing fields for outdoor sports, but even so the available facilities are fully taxed and sometimes overtaxed.

Tennis, cricket, lawn bowls, Softball, rowing, and athletics are among the most popular summer games and sports.

Rugby football is probably the leading winter sport, but very many people play hockey, association football, league football, outdoor and indoor basketball, indoor bowls, badminton, and table tennis. Golf is popular both winter and summer. Boxing and wrestling have a small following. Dancing in various forms is a popular indoor pastime.

To some extent participation in indoor sports is restricted by inadequate facilities, the position probably being less satisfactory than in respect of outdoor sports. Local authorities substantially assist improvement of facilities by providing or subsidising suitable buildings and amenities, or by directly assisting sports bodies.

While some sports, for instance rugby football, attract many spectators, the high proportion of persons who actually take part in various sports and games compared with those who merely watch them is a striking characteristic of New Zealand life. In many sports there is a close association between school activities and club activities.

The various sports are also generally closely organised for the purposes of administration, discipline, and player selection. The organisational structure normally ascends from the clubs at the base through district groupings to the national association or union, which is the ultimate controlling body within New Zealand. Promising players or performers have ample and equal opportunity on merit to represent first their clubs, then the district or provincial associations, and ultimately New Zealand, in competitive play.

In major sports, while each administers its own affairs, competitors to represent New Zealand at Olympic and Empire Games are selected by an Olympic Council, made up of representatives of the various sports associations.

All water sports are extremely popular. All popular beaches are patrolled by surf lifesaving clubs in the summer months. The Department of Education each summer conducts "Learn to Swim" campaigns for school children. The New Zealand Swimming Association also conducts "Learn to Swim" classes for children and adults. The Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs, in association with the National Water Safety Council, its member organisations, and swimming and lifesaving organisations, conducts a national water safety campaign, which includes general instruction in resuscitation procedures. Over recent years these campaigns have been successful in reducing deaths by drowning.

Financial Assistance: Grants arc made by the Government to national youth organisations. The purpose of the grants is to assist in the extension of sporting and recreational facilities and in promoting leadership training. Grants are not made where projects of these types can be carried out without financial assistance. Sporting and recreational organisations also receive some financial assistance from lottery profits when there has been a substantial degree of self help.

5 B-HOSPITALS AND MORBIDITY

HOSPITALS

GENERAL-In recent years the provision by the State of free hospital services has come to occupy a prominent place in the welfare services of the country. In 1939 the fees paid by patients in public hospitals were replaced by the payment by the State to the hospital boards of hospital benefits for each patient. The burden of hospital fees was thus taken from the citizen as an individual, and the cost of public hospitals apportioned between the Government and local authorities. Since then local authority contributions through hospital rating have been abolished and from 1 April 1958 the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. The Minister of Health is responsible for the provision of a comprehensive and integrated hospital service for the whole country. Private hospitals assist in the provision of hospital services and provide about one-sixth of the available beds. Since 1939 private hospitals have received payment from the Government in respect of hospital treatment supplied by them. This payment does not cover the full cost of treatment and additional fees may be claimed from the patients. Private hospitals are required to be licensed by the Department of Health and are subject to regular inspection by the Department.

HISTORY- The Government in 1846 granted money for the erection of hospitals in each of the four centres-Auckland, Wellington, Wanganui, and New Plymouth-for the treatment of sick and destitute Europeans and free treatment for all Maoris. The foundation stone of the Wellington Hospital was laid in November 1846, whilst the Auckland Hospital was founded the following year. The first Dunedin Hospital was built in 1851, and Christchurch was first served by a hospital at Lyttelton known to have been operating in 1853. In 1854 control of public hospitals was vested in the six Provincial Councils of Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago, but in 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, control reverted to the General Government.

Hospitals generally remained under Government control until 1885, when the first Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act was passed. By it New Zealand was divided into 38 hospital districts, each under the control of its own board. The number of districts gradually increased until by 1926 there were 47; amalgamations since that date have reduced the number to 37, at which it now stands.

A Consultative Committee on Hospital Reform was appointed in May 1953 to inquire into and report on matters affecting the administrative control of public hospitals and other services provided by hospital boards and, after taking evidence, it made recommendations to the Government for the reform of the hospital system. A new Hospitals Act passed in 1957 broke new ground in the central principle of its operation. The Act came into force on 1 April 1958. It incorporated as a basic principle the main recommendation of the Consultative Committee on Hospital Reform that the Minister of Health on behalf of the Government should have the responsibility of ensuring the provision by hospital boards of hospital and associated services. The Government assumed complete financial responsibility for hospitals. Consonant with the new responsibilities the Minister was given wide powers of direction and regulation to ensure the establishment of a comprehensive and integrated hospital service for the whole country. Elected boards were retained to manage institutions and administer the services provided under the Act and no reduction was made in the number of boards.

HOSPITAL BOARDS-A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every three years for each hospital district, and has power to establish, control, and manage hospitals, relief institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, and institutions for children. In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of sharp population increases in most urban areas. More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres.

AUTHORITY OF MINISTER OF HEALTH-It is the duty of every hospital board to provide and maintain such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for the reception, relief, care, treatment, isolation, and removal to hospital or "other place" of persons who are suffering from infectious or other disease or from injury and for maternity cases. The Minister is specifically charged with the function of ensuring the provision of these services and of coordinating, guiding, and supervising the activities of hospital boards.

A board must appoint such number of medical practitioners, dentists, nurses, dental nurses, midwives, and other officers as the Minister may from time to time deem necessary for the efficient performance of the functions of the board, whether within an institution under the control of the board or elsewhere within the district.

The Director-General is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act

PATIENTS: Public Institutions-The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1964 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, and old people's homes) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
General12,5084.910,120.64.0
Maternity2,6831.11,700.90.6
Total hospital beds15,1916.011,821.54.6
Non-hospital beds1,1770.4956.60.4
 Totals16,3686.412,778.15.0

In addition to the 15,191 hospital beds in public institutions there were 3,077 (2,735 general and 342 maternity) in the 149 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratios of beds per 1,000 of population become 6.0 for general beds and 1.2 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1,000 of population in hospital districts varies from 3.3 to 12.8. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1964 was 216, comprising 80 general hospitals (6 of which were also old people's homes), 2 homes for cripples, 8 non-acute hospitals, 5 convalescent hospitals, 95 maternity hospitals, 2 tuberculosis sanatoria, a hospital for physical disorders (which is under the control of the Department of Health), 22 old people's homes, and 1 children's home.

The following statistics for the latest two years relate to all institutions:

Number of beds of all descriptions for patients or inmates in all public1962-631963-64
institutions, including institutions under the control of the Department of Health16,51016,368
Number of such beds per 1,000 of population6.66.4
Average number occupied per 1,000 of population5.05.0
Number of persons who, as inpatients or inmates, availed themselves of institutional services during the year272,592282,443
Number per 1,000 of population who, as inpatients or inmates, availed themselves of institutional services during the year108.8110.7
Number of attendances by outpatients (including attendances for dental treatment) during the year2,397,0562,476,720
Number per 1,000 of population of attendances (including dental) by outpatients956.8971.0

The Supplement to the Annual Report of the Director-General of Health on Hospital Statistics contains further detail on public institutions.

General Hospitals- In the following table the figures relate only to general hospitals under the control of hospital boards.

YearInpatients TreatedAverage Number of Occupied Beds per DayAverage Turnover of Patients Treated per Occupied BedAvailable BedsOutpatient Attendances(Including Dental)
NumberProportion Per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion Per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion Per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion Per 1,000 of Population
1959-60210,45489.79,049.73.923.311,6905.01,792,531764.2
1960-61211,10287.79,076.43.822.311,8294.91,844,490766.3
1961-62219,01689.79,204.83.823.312,0674.92,096,318858.2
1962-63228,20691.19,330.03.723.312,3414.92,264,330903.8
1963-64238,29093.49,595.93.823.812,2564.82,328,808913.0

Private Hospitals-The total number of private hospitals licensed in New Zealand at 31 March 1964 was 149, providing 342 maternity, 31 psychiatric, and 2,704 beds for general cases.

STAFF-The numbers of staff employed in public hospitals and other institutions and activities controlled by hospital boards in the latest three years were as follows.

Category of StaffAt 31 March
196119621963
* Includes part-time staff and duplication where persons provide medical services at more than one institution. At 31 March 1964 there were 591 medical officers employed whole time and it is estimated that the hours of 668 visiting officers were the equivalent of the services of 229 whole time officers.
Institutional medical1,389*1,421*1,516*
Other professional and technical1,6551,7601,854
Nursing -10,43410,84511,580
Other treatment staff391394406
Domestic and other institutional staff8,6768,9719,252
Administrative staff525523544
District nursing197267235
Farm and garden493632
Other non-institutional180211363
 Totals23,49624,42825,782

MATERNITY SERVICES: Beds-At the end of 1963 available hospital-bed accommodation for maternity cases was 3,075, made up as follows:

Public hospitals2,575
Private hospitals350
State (St. Helens) hospitals133
Alexandra Home (Wellington)17
 Total3,075

The total number of confinements in maternity hospitals in 1963 was 62,998, of which 51,206 were in public maternity hospitals, 7,370 in private hospitals, 3,994 in St. Helens Hospitals, and 428 in the Alexandra Home, Wellington. There were 5,813 admissions for ante-natal treatment. All these figures are inclusive of Maoris.

Domiciliary Midwifery Services-Public health nurses and hospital board district nurses carry out some pre-natal work and a limited amount of obstetrical work in back-country areas. In general, however, most of the population is within reach of a maternity hospital, and home deliveries are not encouraged. There remain, however, a few midwives who contract with the Department of Health to give home maternity service under the Social Security Act.

Ante-natal Services-Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. The doctor's attendance, if desired, is supplemented by that of the midwife in charge of an ante-natal clinic. These free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the three St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals or maternity wards, and a number of clinics conducted by the Plunket Society. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses, employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses, employed by hospital boards.

FINANCE: Institutional Operating Expenditure-The average operating expenditure per occupied bed relating to hospitals of all types and to general hospital, is shown in the following table.

YearTreatmentInstitutional MaintenanceHeat, Light, Power, and WatterHousehold ExpensesBuildings and GroundsMiscellaneousTotal
All Institutions
 £££££££
1959-60572.1107.4127.2562.483.21.51,453.8
1960-61627.4121.3133.0604.487.81.91,575.8
1961-62670.6127.4138.5623.486.92.01,648.8
1962-63755.7135.2140.6653.791.01.81,778.0
1963-64962.2143.0150.3565.094.41.71,916.6
General Hospitals
1959-60626.3122.0130.4595.781.51.51,557.4
1960-61689.8139.8139.4645.590.51.51,706.5
1961-62736.7146.0145.5668.289.41.61,787.4
1962-63832.4154.4149.7700.294.11.61,932.4
1963-641,054.0162.6159.7597.198.31.62,073.3

Each of these averages includes the direct expenditure of each activity for labour, materials, and incidental expenses, but excludes overheads such as depreciation and interest on capital.

For 1962-63 the average daily expenditure for individual inpatients treated in hospitals classed as general hospitals was £5 5s. 11d. and the average total expenditure for each inpatient was £79.

Receipts-The following table shows the moneys received by hospital boards from Government funds.

YearGrantsSocial Security BenefitsTotal
 £££
1959-6017,204,7516,516,95923,721,710
1960-6119,561,0856,622,61426,183,699
1961-6220,285,5657,298,47527,584,040
1962-6322,767,7677,342,65830,110,425
1963-6425,478,9587,542,92133,021,879

Loans-Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is as under.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance OwingReducible by Fund
* Includes payments from Sinking Funds.
 ££££
1959-607,015,7301,201,56025,102,838205,856
1960-613,705,5201,373,24727,435,111385,814
1961-623,456,3991,549,24229,342,268649,276
1962-635,011,3601,662,46732,691,161981,960
1963-647,275,5003,313,11436,653,547372,569

Payments-Hospital board expenditure is subject to a measure of control by the Minister of Health. Boards are required in the month of April each year to make an estimate of their payments for both capital and maintenance purposes and to have the estimates confirmed at a special meeting of the board. The Minister may, if he thinks it necessary so to do, require the board to amend the estimate submitted. He may also require a board by notice to limit expenditure of whatever kind he may specify. Payments for the two latest years are now given.

Item of Expenditure1961-621962-631963-64
* Includes payments to Sinking Funds.
 £££
Institutional maintenance22,108,49123,961,49426,460,463
Outdoor relief66,06077,532100,541
Grants to private hospitals48,20753,98148,584
Other grants4,7995,3954,752
Transport of patients276,375293,013301,219
District nursing267,081309,322367,129
Administration608,473660,277694,331
Superannuation210,249205,665223,661
Miscellaneous312,935343,255416,986
Interest on loans1,286,2811,425,7881,677,602
Repayment of loans*1,774,7011,995,2793,019,265
Capital works other than "loan"1,715,0801,871,1251,731,944
 Totals, excluding loans28,678,73231,202,12635,046,477
Loan works3,951,8964,305,7804,994,205
  Totals32,630,62835,507,90640,040,682

MORBIDITY

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES-The numbers of all notifiable diseases reported during the calendar year 1963 are shown in the following table; the total figures (including Maoris) are given month by month, with the totals for Maoris being shown in the last column.

DiseaseAll CasesMaoris
JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberTotalsTotals Only
Cerebro-spinal meningitis2--67313447513213
Diphtheria----1-12----42
Dysentery              
Amoebic11-1----211-71
Bacillary8192117293637408696584248996
Eclampsia3--44-4612-3272
Enteric fever              
Paratyphoid1--1-------131
Typhoid-22121-231321912
Food' poisoning56536624474921261913743545
Hydatids221241065213-3817
Infective hepatitis2192071992191971661751521562281941812,293255
Leptospiral infections1917105565616131971287
Ophthalmia neonatorum162244211235336
Pemphigus neonatorum1252431646212486
Puerperal infection132763425233412
Salmonella infections1292317297631374613612
Staphylococcal pneumonia or septicaemia (of the newborn infant)-------31---44
Tetanus3342111-3213246
Tuberculosis              
Pulmonary6468757089778292999590839984319
other forms1521711162321151414191520280
Undulant fever1-3-52121833293
Actinomycosis1--1--2-----4-
Anchylostomiasis-112---141-111-
Bilharziasis-----------11-
Leprosy---1--12-1--51
Malaria-11-1-21-2--81
Pneumonic influenza-------11---21
Trachoma-------1----1-
 Totals3703724164394053444163944395084294965,028891

Notifications for some of the notifiable diseases for each of the latest five years are shown in the following table. Attention is drawn to the fact that these figures are not considered to be a complete coverage of the incidence of these diseases as medical practitioners frequency overlook the necessity of notifying the Medical Officer of Health.

Disease19591960196119621963
Diphtheria-All cases1815124
Maori71-82
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever-All cases6650255222
Maori4840164313
Pulmonary tuberculosis- All cases1,2031,1801,0821,028984
Maori406393386371319
Cerebrospinal meningitis- All cases8753363652
Maori2110151113
Poliomyelitis-All cases1642145- |
Maori1-721-
Puerperal fever and septic abortion All cases3525273441
Maori72232
Tetanus-All cases3927242824
Maori55356
Hydatids-All cases6971474138
Maori1830121317
Food poisoning—All cases310162818462435
Maori47729845
Bacillary dysentery—All cases679408501412489
Maori8182656796
Undulant fever—All cases3642393129
Maori45913
Infective hepatitis—All cases1,9733,8953,8702,8162,293
Maori134314342237255

Poliomyelitis-The wide use of Sabin oral poliomyelitis vaccine has had dramatic results, no confirmed case of poliomyelitis having occurred since 1 April 1962.

Hydatids-The following table gives details of hydatid cases treated in hospital. It can be seen that the number of new cases exceed the notifications in the preceding table.

YearNumber of New Public Hospital CasesPublic Hospital Cases ReadmittedTotal Public Hospital CasesDeaths
1952896915810
19531037818115
1954816214313
1955856214714
1956805913914
195776691458
195875481233
195977671445
196078881669
196169681376
1962683510310

Tuberculosis-The Department of Health is continuing its efforts to reduce further both incidence and mortality. In fact the mortality per 100,000 of population has decreased from 21.1 in 1952 to 3.7 in 1963. The number of public health nurses available for tuberculosis case-finding work has been increased, and hospital clinics in the charge of chest specialists have been provided to give a wide geographical coverage. The responsibilities of the Department of Health in case finding and domiciliary care are coordinated with those of the hospital boards, which are responsible for diagnosis and treatment.

Medical officers of the Department of Health assist the public health nurses in the examination of contacts and arrange tuberculin tests and X-ray examinations. There are at present some 10 mass miniature X-ray units strategically sited throughout the country. In 1963 nine of these carried out a total of 270,169 chest X-ray examinations, and found that 0.79 in every thousand examined required supervision and treatment for tuberculous disease. In addition to tuberculosis, many other conditions of lungs and heart were discovered and, where necessary, were referred to the individual's private doctor for further investigation and follow-up.

As a contribution to prophylaxis, B.C.G. vaccination against tuberculosis, which was commenced on hospital staffs, contacts, and adolescents, is being maintained in these groups. During 1963, vaccinations were performed on 34,621 persons after preliminary Mantoux testing, and the results of this activity should become manifest in the years to come.

The Department of Health maintains a Tuberculosis Register, which classifies all notified cases, and a clearer conception of the type, form, and extent of the disease is being obtained. The number of cases on the Register (inclusive of Maoris) at 31 December 1963 was 8,730, of which 7,946 were respiratory and 784 non-respiratory. The number of new cases notified in 1963 was 1,186 of which 787 were European and 399 Maori. Of the European cases, 665 were respiratory and 122 non-respiratory, and in the Maori cases the figures were 319 and 80 respectively. Some of these cases may have since been proved non-tuberculous and subsequently deregistered.

The total number of European persons on the Register at the end of 1963 amounted to 22 per 10,000 of the European population and the Maori rate was 190 per 10,000 of the Maori population. The combined figure was 34 per 10,000.

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS-Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand. After tabulation in accordance with the International Classification of Diseases, this information is published annually in the Department of Health publication Medical Statistics. According to the census of non-psychiatric hospitals conducted by the Department of Health in 1961, patients in public hospitals comprised 82.4 per cent of hospital patients.

Patients Treated-The following table shows the number of patients treated in public hospitals for the latest five years.

YearRemaining on 1 January from Previous YearAdmissionDischargesDeathsTotal Number of Indoor PatientsRemaining on 31 December

* Does not include 75 psychiatric patients in Queen Mary Hospital Hanmer Springs, previously include in the total remaining on 31 December 1958.

†Includes 49 patients from Buchanan Ward, Greytown, not previously included.

‡Provisional.

§Includes 28 patients from Wilson Home, Auckland, not previously included.

∥ Includes 46 patients from Jubilee Home, Christchurch, not previously included.

19598,069*184,195174,20210,020192,2648,042
19608,042183,743173,9909,768191,7858,027
19618,076186,795176,21510,289194,8718,367
19628,395§195,906185,77010,440204,3018,091
19638,137205,490194,32110,784213,6278,522

Age and Sex of Patients-The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1962 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year5,2183,5638,781
1 year2,6941,8794,573
2 years2,2151,5363,751
3 years1,9381,3603,298
4 years1,9181,4463,364
5-9 years8,8166,64215,458
10-14 years6,7575,02711,784
15-19 years6,4487,79014,238
20-24 years6,1508,94515,095
25-29 years4,2357,02811,263
30-34 years4,3056,77311,078
35-39 years4,4536,38110,834
40-44 years4,3175,91010,227
45-49 years4,7015,77410,475
50-54 years5,2155,01710,232
55-59 years5,4034,2179,620
60-64 years5,0673,8628,929
65-69 years4,5914,0588,649
70-74 years4,4634,0178,480
75-79 years3,9613,5247,485
80-84 years2,7362,6655,401
85 years and over1,5481,6473,195
 Totals97,14999,061196,210

Although there is little overall difference in the totals of males and females, there is a well defined pattern when figures for each sex are compared, age group by age group. In all ages under 15 years there is a preponderance of males. This difference is common to most disease groups but is more marked in diseases of the digestive, genito-urinary, musculoskeletal, and respiratory systems, in congenital malformations, and in accidental injuries. For the ages between 15 and 50 years there are more females than males. This age group covers the child-bearing ages in women, and the higher proportion of female patients is a reflection of this fact. Apart from conditions associated with pregnancy, abortion, delivery, and the puerperium, female patients considerably outnumbered male patients in both malignant and non-malignant tumours, in diseases of the thyroid gland and the genito-urinary system and in symptomatic conditions. In the age groups from 50 years upwards the males once more predominate, except for 85 years and over, particularly in diseases of the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems.

Principal Diseases and Injuries-The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate per cent of total cases treated in public hospitals in 1962. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is published annually in Medical Statistics.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1962
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Per Cent
Tuberculosis of respiratory system1,619764.7
Tuberculosis, other forms -467163.4
Syphilis and its sequelae -6569.2
Gonococcal infection and other venereal diseases63--
Infectious diseases commonly arising in intestinal tract30341.3
Other bacterial diseases -3854611.9
Spirochaetal diseases except syphilis8822.3
Diseases attributable to viruses1,956361.8
Malaria15--
Other infective or parasitic diseases41941.0
Cancer, malignant disease -9,8602,08221.1
Benign neoplasm-4,338250.6
Neoplasm of unspecified nature14910.7
Allergic disorders-1,537281.8
Diseases of thyroid gland-759121.6
Diabetes mellitus-1,9381457.5
Diseases of other endocrine glands314113.5
Avitaminoses and other metabolic diseases452204.4
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs982434.4
Psychoses1,492825.5
Psychoneurotic disorders -1,43830.2
Disorders of character, behaviour and intelligence1,206131.1
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system3,6231,54442.6
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system7438811.8
Other diseases of central nervous system2,2642249.9
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia43440.9
Inflammatory diseases of eye61210.2
Other diseases and conditions of eye3,240130.4
Diseases of ear and mastoid process2,04270.3
Rheumatic fever-609152.5
Chronic rheumatic heart disease4156716.1
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease5,3181,41526.6
Other diseases of heart -2,11158327.6
Hypertensive heart disease -3406820.0
Other hypertensive disease -716314.3
Diseases of arteries-1,23325620.8
Diseases of veins and other diseases of circulatory system5,685761.3
Acute upper respiratory infections1,86090.5
Influenza908141.5
Pneumonia5,49861511.2
Bronchitis2,8492137.5
Other diseases of respiratory system12,5571060.8
Diseases of buccal cavity and oesophagus2,113110.5
Diseases of stomach and duodenum2,5191074.2
Appendicitis6,324260.4
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,116470.9
Other diseases of intestines and peritoneum4,7202174.6
Diseases of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas3,5391644.6
Nephritis and nephrosis -75411415.1
Other diseases of urinary system3,1551143.6
Diseases of male genital organs2,6431094.1
Diseases of breast, ovary, Fallopian tube, and parametrium1,577--
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs7,12080.1
Complications of pregnancy3,2391-
Abortion4,8332-
Delivery without mention of complication281--
Delivery with specified complication1,18630.3
Complications of the puerperium71110.1
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,43690.3
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1,927201.0
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever2,699772.9
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint3,798210.6
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,85890.3
Congenital malformations -3,3081855.6
Birth injuries, asphyxia, and infections of newborn62910917.3
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy1,525926.0
Symptoms referable to system and organs9,853380.4
Senility and ill-defined diseases1,99628414.2
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk2,5461305.1
Fracture of upper limb -3,532130.4
Fracture of lower limb -4,2313147.4
Dislocation without fracture75310.1
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles581--
Head injury (excluding skull fracture)5,479791.4
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis3423510.2
Laceration and open wound of face, neck, and trunk1,09990.8
Laceration and open wound of upper limb2,40920.1
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1,10430.3
Laceration and open wound of multiple location15610.6
Superficial injury-245--
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface1,34040.3
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice752--
Burns -1,592311.9
Injury to nerves and spinal cord without bone injury22310.4
Effects of poisons-2,185281.3
Effects of weather, exposure, and related conditions4237.1
Other and unspecified injuries and reactions934141.5
Special conditions and examinations without sickness1,822--
Admission for convalescent care, plastic treatment, and fitting of prosthetic devices82--
 Totals196,21010,4405.3

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals-The average duration of stay of patients in public hospitals is shown for selected conditions in the following table.

SUMMARY OF SELECTED CONDITIONS TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS, SHOWING AVERAGE DURATION OF STAY, 1962
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsAverage Stay (Days)
Respiratory tuberculosis1,61989.0
Non-respiratory tuberculosis46762.2
Infective and parasitic diseases other than tuberculosis3,29421.2
Otitis media and mastoiditis1,20211.3
Rheumatic fever -60955.6
Chronic rheumatic heart disease41536.5
Acute upper respiratory infections, influenza, and acute bronchitis3,8857.9
Pneumonia5,49817.4
Chronic or unqualified bronchitis1,73227.2
Hypertrophied tonsils and adenoids, and quinsy9,7033.9
Appendicitis6,3249.3
Gastro-enteritis (acute)1,4349.3
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,4369.9
Osteomyelitis and periostitis1,05334.0
Malignant neoplasms9,86023.3
Benign tumours of uterus, ovary, and female genital organs1,88110.9
Allergic disorders -1,53713.9
Thyrotoxicosis -31018.0
Diabetes1,93834.2
Psychoneurotic disorders1,43811.8
Vascular lesions of central nervous system3,62354.3
Arteriosclerotic, hypertensive and degenerative heart disease, and general arteriosclerosis6,75634.0
Varicose veins and phlebitis3,46014.9
Haemorrhoids -91011.4
Dental caries and other diseases of teeth and supporting structures1,4812.4
Peptic ulcer2,03222.0
Hernia5,16610.6
Gallbladder disease -3,03115.4
Nephritis and nephrosis75431.7
Urinary infections and calculi1,88215.2
Hyperplasia of prostate1,23324.5
Diseases of female genital organs (excluding tumours)7,9228.7
Arthritis2,47053.2
Muscular rheumatism, neuralgia, and neuritis59917.2
Synovitis and other inflammatory diseases of tendons and fascia9728.7
Symptoms, senility, and ill-defined conditions11,84820.4
Accidents, poisoning, and violence -29,54513.5
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and puerperium10,2507.4
Remainder44,69120.4
All conditions -196,21018.3

Accident Cases-A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1962.

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAggregate Stay (Days)Average Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport     
Railway -850.31,48117.40.3
Motor-vehicle traffic6,01718.986,31214.318.6
Motor-vehicle non-traffic1760.63,06417.40.7
Other road vehicles1,5614.915,1509.73.3
Water -1930.62,61013.50.6
Aircraft -290.151417.70.1
Total transport8,06125.3109,13113.523.5
Non-transport     
Accidental poisoning1,6345.15,5203.41.2
Accidental falls7,94724.9177,41722.338.3
Other accidents10,41932.7110,05310.623.7
Total non-transport20,00062.8292,99014.663.2
Complications due to non-therapeutic medical and surgical procedures680.22794.10.1
Therapeutic misadventure and late complications of therapeutic procedures -1,8845.935,08918.67.6
Late effects of injury and poisoning6372.017,54327.53.8
Suicide and self-inflicted injury6872.24,9947.31.1
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons5351.73,3946.30.7
Grand totals31,872100.0463,42014.5100.0

Most cases come under the heading "Non-transport-Other accidents", which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on. Of these most occurred in the home.

The second largest group is "Accidental falls", which has an aggregate stay greater than any other group. This is due to the long periods spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprise the third largest group, and have the third largest aggregate stay. It is interesting to note that there were three and a third times as many admissions to hospital and three and a third times as many beds occupied by people injured in non-transport accidents as there were for motor-vehicle traffic accidents. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 11 C Roads and Road Transport.

Patients discharged from, or dying in, public hospitals in 1962 after treatment for accidents sustained in the home are given in the following table.

Cause of AccidentAge of Patients (in Years)Total Patients
Under 11-45-1415-2425-4950-6465 and Over

* E.g., motor exhaust gases.

†Accidents include burns and scalds from hot liquids, acids, heating appliances, hot objects, steam, etc.

Poisoning321,137585910852541,500
Utility gas----121417
Other gases*-22221211
Falls986429011463664391,4204,012
Electricity155532-21
Fires5709331381321271
Hot substances9853410738481922866
Other718108833275022691523,014
 Totals3053,2002,0496081,0687971,6859,712

Deaths in Public Hospitals-The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths has increased over the last 12 years. Examination of the following table shows the trend.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
* Provisional.
19528,11918,89643.0
19537,92618,35443.2
19548,14018,87643.1
19558,41019,22543.7
19568,82419,69644.8
19579,57620,86245.9
19589,24820,30145.6
195910,02021,12847.4
19609,76820,89246.8
196110,28921,78247.2
196210,43622,08147.3
1963*10,78422,41648.1

5 C-MENTAL HOSPITALS

GENERAL-Mental hospitals are administered under the direction of the Minister of Health by the Mental Health Division of the Department of Health. Hospital boards have no jurisdiction over mental hospitals. There are 11 mental hospitals, four hospitals and training schools for the mentally subnormal, and one hospital for functional nervous disorders.

The newer hospitals are built on the villa system with accommodation provided in pleasant detached units of about 50 beds each. Each villa is surrounded by lawns and gardens and is largely self-contained. There are facilities for recreation and entertainment in addition to provision for modem methods of therapy. Of the older type of hospital multi-ward building, only two remain. One has been extensively modernised and the renovation of the other is at present being undertaken.

Nursing services are provided in the main by trained staff, both male and female. The training involves three-year courses leading to the State-registered qualifications of psychiatric nurse or psychopaedic (mental deficiency) nurse. In addition to the nursing and medical staff, a wide range of ancillary staff is provided. The Division administers and staffs the Occupational Therapy Training School which provides occupational therapists for all hospitals in the country. In addition, the Division employs clinical psychologists, social workers, recreation officers, welfare officers, and, at the special hospitals and training schools for the mentally subnormal, specially qualified training officers and instructors.

Admission to all the mental hospitals, except the Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer, for functional disorders, is controlled by the Mental Health Act 1911.

The Mental Health Amendment Act 1961, which came into operation on 1 January 1962, introduced some important and far-reaching changes in procedure for the admission and discharge of mental hospital patients. These changes are directed towards greater flexibility in the use of mental health services in psychiatric treatment, care, and rehabilitation. They allow for the informal admission of voluntary patients, mentally subnormal persons, and minors. Persons who, by reason of mental infirmity arising from age or from deterioration or disease or injury to the brain, require care and treatment, can now be admitted merely on application accompanied by a letter of recommendation by a medical practitioner. The patient may be discharged at any time on application provided the medical superintendent is satisfied that the arrangements for the care of the patient after discharge are appropriate. Mentally subnormal persons and minors can now be admitted informally in a similar way to that for the mentally infirm. Any mentally subnormal person, with the approval of the medical superintendent, may attend the institution as a voluntary outpatient for training and occupational therapy.

A detailed Report on Mental Health Statistics of New Zealand is published annually by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from probation), transfers, discharges, and deaths for each mental hospital. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, etiological factors, country of birth, marital status, race, treatment, response to treatment, and length of stay.

The following statistics refer to mental hospital admissions, discharges, and deaths, and include figures for the mentally subnormal and cases treated at Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer.

At the end of 1963 there were 10,135 people on the registers of mental hospitals and 1,676 on the registers of hospitals for the mentally subnormal, a total of 11,811. There were 6,830 registrations during the year (excluding transfers) of which 4,105, or 60.1 per cent, were voluntary patients. The average number of occupied beds was 10,487, which was 220 more than for 1962. The average number resident per 100,000 mean population has, however, declined steadily over the last 20 years.

The average number on the registers in 1963 was 1,285 for voluntary patients, and 10,513 for non-voluntary patients. For the previous year the figures were 1,230 for voluntary patients and 10,085 for non-voluntary patients.

In the following table the average number on the registers and the rates per 100,000 mean population are shown for certain years. It can be seen that in spite of the annual increases in the average number resident, the rates have decreased steadily.

YearResidentAbsent on LeaveTotal
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
Voluntary Patients
194229317.920.129518.0
194737620.950.338121.2
195248024.0110.649124.6
195870030.6964.279634.8
195980934.71064.591539.2
196087236.71506.31,02243.0
19611,04242.9903.71,13246.6
19621,11644.81144.61,23049.4
19631,13744.71485.81,28550.5
Non. voluntary Patients
19427,633465.545727.98,090493.4
19478,063448.458632.68,649481.0
19528,590430.379639.99,386470.2
19589,159400.784737.110,006437.8
19599,155392.190738.910,062431.0
19609,085382.294239.610,027421.8
19619,055373.01,03042.410,085415.4
19629,151367.81,12145.010,272412.8
19639,350367.71,16345.710,513413.4
All Patients
19427,926483.44592808,385511.4
19478,439469.359132.99,030502.2
19529,070454.380740.59,877494.8
19589,859431.394341.310,802472.6
19599,964426.81,01343.410,977470.2
19609,957418.91,09245.911,049464.8
196110,097415.91,12046.111,217462.0
196210,267412.61,23549.611,502462.2
196310,487412.41,31151.511,798463.9

FIRST ADMISSIONS-In 1963 there were 4,148 first admissions to mental hospitals. Of these 2,061 were males and 2,087 were females. The number of voluntary patients (2,216) exceeded the number of non-voluntary patients (1,932).

The numbers and rates of first admissions, together with the percentage of first admissions in total admissions and the percentage of voluntary patients in first admissions, are shown in the next tables.

YearsVoluntary PatientsNon-voluntary PatientsAll Patients
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal
* Average over five years.
Numbers
1935-39*115972124814629435965591,155
1940-44*1101262364705269965806521,232
1945-49*2352675025446071,1517798741,653
1950-54*3493847336257461,3719741,1302,104
1955-59*4895771,0666697311,4001,1581,3082,466
19596217461,3676906621,3521,3111,4082,719
19606497811,4306826751,3571,3311,4562,787
19619161,0191,9357807191,4991,6961,7383,434
19621,1481,2342,3821,0089451,9532,1562,1794,335
19631,0411,1752,2161,0209121,9322,0612,0874,148
Rates per 100,000 of Mean Population
1935-39*14.212.413.359.558.959.273.771.372.5
1940-44*13.715.014.458.562.860.872.277.875.2
1945-49*26.229.627.961.167.564.587.397.192.4
1950-54*34.638.536.662.274.968.596.8113.4105.1
1955-59*43.451.747.559.665.862.7102.9117.5110.2
195952.964.358.658.857.057.9111.7121.3116.5
196054.366.160.257.157.157.1111.4123.1117.3
196175.184.479.763.959.661.8139.0144.0141.5
196291.799.893.780.576.478.5172.3176.2174.2
196381.592.887.179.872.176.0161.3164.9163.1
YearsPercentage of First Admissions in Total AdmissionsPercentage of Voluntary Patients in First Admissions
* Average over five years.
1935-39*80.118.3
1940-44*76.719.0
1945-49*75.630.1
1950-54*74.034.7
1955-59*67.543.0
195964.750.3
196062.351.3
196162.956.3
196264.055.0
196357.153.4

Diagnosis-The five leading diagnoses in 1963 were: schizophrenic disorders, 655 cases; neurotic-depressive reaction, 635 cases; senile psychosis, 548 cases; manic-depressive reaction, 523 cases; and mental deficiency, 364 cases. These five diagnoses accounted for nearly two-thirds (65.7 per cent) of first admissions.

The number of voluntary patients, informal patients, and formal and other patients, by diagnosis are now shown for 1963.

DiagnosisVoluntary PatientsInformal PatientsFormal and Other Patients
Psychoses
General paralysis of insane ---1
Schizophrenic disorders (dementia praecox)31537303
Manic-depressive reaction -37315135
Involutional melancholia -3825
Paranoia and paranoid states10111
Senile psychosis4142087
Presenile psychosis2106
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis178818
Alcoholic psychosis18533
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology181618
Puerperal psychosis15-9
Other and unspecified psychoses2310
 Psychoneuroses   
Anxiety reaction206-3     
Hysterical reaction5367     
Neurotic-depressive reaction600728     
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders7525     
 Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence   
Pathological and immature personality10348101     
Alcoholism255232     
Mental deficiency1828957     
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders24139     
 Other Conditions   
Epilepsy2285     
Other defined conditions -684     
Observation5164     
 Totals2,216981951     

Changes in first admission numbers and rates per million of mean population over the last three years are shown in the following table. The rate for all first admissions rose from 1,415 in 1961 to 1,742 in 1962, but in 1963 decreased to 1,631 per million.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196119621963196119621963
Psychoses      
Syphilis of central nervous system24112-
Schizophrenic disorders (dementia praecox)500632655206254258
Manic-depressive reaction408496523168199206
Involutional melancholia575045232018
Paranoia and paranoid states24292210129
Senile psychosis487609548200245215
Presenile psychosis162318797
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis7691123313748
Alcoholic psychosis535556222222
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology485652202320
Puerperal psychosis27422411179
Other and unspecified psychoses2339169166
Psychoneuroses      
Anxiety reaction183228209759282
Hysterical reaction828166343326
Neurotic-depressive reaction534675635220271250
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders -10110582424232
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence      
Pathological and immature personality1932522528010199
Alcoholism -242338289100136114
Mental deficiency303388364125156143
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders264046111618
Other Conditions      
Epilepsy -18493572014
Other defined conditions101517467
Observation -21387091528
 Totals3,4344,3354,1481,4151,7421,631

Etiological Factors-Information about the causes of mental disorders for first admissions is shown in the following table. It should be noted that several factors can be reported for one case. For example, a person might be admitted because of a combination of old age and excessive use of alcohol. The principal factors were reported as structure of the personality, family relationships, alcohol, old age and subnormal intelligence.

Etiological FactorsIncidence in First Admissions
Congenital35
Birth injury13
Other factors in structure of personality2,697
Family relations1,093
Adolescence206
Pregnancy and puerperium95
Climacteric159
Old age721
Marital discord56
Loneliness30
Sickness of near relative33
Unhappy love affair21
Sex trauma and difficulties15
Other stress41
Alcohol644
Financial difficulty21
Immigration unsettlement23
Business worry50
Subnormal intelligence550
Tuberculosis13
Neoplasm of brain3
Other neoplasms16
Endocrine disorders76
Epilepsy148
Other diseases of central nervous system211
Arteriosclerosis469
Other circulatory diseases129
Respiratory diseases30
Congenital malformation59
Head injury67
Other injury19
Other illness275
Other factors178
All principal factors8,196

READMISSIONS-A readmission is a person admitted to a New Zealand mental hospital who has previously been in a New Zealand mental hospital.

Diagnosis-In the following table the numbers and causes of readmissions and rates per million of mean population are shown for the latest three years.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196119621963196119621963
Psychoses      
Syphilis of central nervous system-31-7-
Schizophrenic disorders (dementia praecox)684838989282331389
Manic-depressive reaction539662672244266264
Involutional melancholia19294181216
Paranoia and paranoid states172322799
Senile psychosis857985353233
Presenile psychosis5411224
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis51616266
Alcoholic psychosis342827141111
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology393433161413
Puerperal psychosis5117243
Other and unspecified psychoses476232
Psychoneuroses      
Anxiety reaction958398393339
Hysterical reaction435550182220
Neurotic-depressive reaction295429385122172151
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders -485054202021
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence      
Pathological and immature personality81125138335054
Alcoholism -2082152598686102
Mental deficiency103122159424963
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders132120588
Other Conditions      
Epilepsy -29271812117
Other defined conditions137-13
Observation -21817177
 Totals2,4082,8823,1159921,1581,225

Both numbers and rates have increased steadily over the last three years. Diagnoses showing the greatest increases are schizophrenic disorders, and alcoholism, without psychosis.

DISCHARGES-There are four principal ways of being discharged from mental hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) trial discharge; (c) leave, being authorised leave of more than three months' duration for any other purpose; (d) discharged "not committed", which means being discharged from a mental hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained in a mental hospital.

There were 6,276 discharges in 1963. Of these 4,135 were outright discharges, 1,333 were on trial discharge, 556 were on leave, and 252 were discharged "not committed".

The principal diagnoses were; schizophrenic disorders, 1,602 cases, manic-depressive reaction, 1,148 cases; neurotic-depressive reaction, 1,054 cases; and non-psychotic alcoholism, 515 cases.

The following table shows the number of discharges for 1963 by diagnosis.

DiagnosisOutright DischargeTrial DischargeLeaveNot CommittedTotal
Psychoses     
General paralysis of insane1-113
Schizophrenic disorders (dementia praecox)780570223291,602
Manic-depressive reaction1842339561,148
Involutional melancholia53207-80
Paranoia and paranoid states23113340
Senile psychosis -784857-183
Presenile psychosis1011113
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis2079137
Alcoholic psychosis46194372
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology302312267
Puerperal psychosis20113236
Other and unspecified psychoses864220
Psychoneuroses     
Anxiety reaction -3041242322
Hysterical reaction872042113
Phobic reaction -32--5
Obsessive-compulsive reaction127-15
Neurotic-depressive reaction -9071152481,054
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting circulation -11--2
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting digestive system7---7
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting other systems61--7
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders69152187
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence     
Pathological and immature personality9924137161
Immature personality105531253223
Non-psychotic alcoholism45339518515
Drug addiction -2221126
Mental deficiency104807212268
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders1713425
Other Conditions     
Epilepsy(without psychosis)4197158
Other conditions -632-11
Observation without need for further medical care9--6271
 Totals4,1351,3335562526,276

Duration of Stay-Over a third (33.8 per cent) of those discharged left hospital within a month of admission. A further 37.0 per cent left in the next two months, and a further 14.3 per cent were discharged in the subsequent three months. The average stay for all discharges was 33 weeks.

DEATHS-In 1963 there were 900 deaths in mental hospitals. In addition 93 people died while on leave.

The principal diagnosis was senile psychosis, 463 cases. Next came schizophrenic disorders, 110 cases, and mental deficiency, 94 cases.

In 1963, 163 people died during the first month in hospital and a further 117 deaths occurred of people who had been in hospital one but under three months.

EXPENDITURE, ETC.-The total expenditure on public mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during the last 11 financial years are shown in the next table. As from 1 April 1939 free maintenance and treatment of patients have been provided in all public mental hospitals in accordance with the provisions of the Social Security Act 1938. The Mental Health Amendment Act 1950 provides that the cost of maintenance of any person who is not ordinarily resident in New Zealand and who is detained in any public institution shall be a debt due to the Crown.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureGross Average Cost per Patient
Patients' FeesSale of Produce, etc
* Cost of board and lodging now treated as a receipt instead of a deduction from salaries as in previous years.
 £££££s.d.
19542,510,8861,21871,5282,438,14023188
19552,549,7333,10468,4372,478,192262410
19562,805,87762966,9622,738,286283194
19573,036,43187475,1932,960,36431282
19583,366,82056095,9903,270,270344122
19593,583,237664102,9513,479,622355173
19603,889,910815111,4633,777,632392 157
19614,219,2781,055111,7814,106,44241284
19624,861,7151,163253,197*4,607,35545662
19635,534,3131,680102,0435,430,590528189
19645,951,9821,022104,8125,846,148571117

As already stated, the expenditure included in the foregoing table does not include amounts spent on new buildings, additions, etc., the cost of which is met by the Ministry of Works. Expenditure for the last five financial years has amounted to £697,398 in 1959-60, £906,479 in 1960-61, £736,417 in 1961-62, £657,137 in 1962-63, and £731,382 in 1963-64.

Chapter 6. Section 6 SOCIAL SECURITY, PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

6 A-SOCIAL SECURITY

DEVELOPMENT-Social security is a comprehensive plan of State assistance by a system of monetary benefits and free or subsidised medical and hospital provisions for the safeguarding of health. The principal objects of the legislation which came into operation on 1 April 1939 were (a) to substitute a system of extended monetary benefits on a contributory basis for the system of non-contributory civil pensions, e.g., old age, widows', and other pensions; (b) the inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits.

Universal family benefits were introduced on 1 April 1946, since which date each mother has received a benefit in respect of each of her dependent children irrespective of the family income or property.

There is reciprocity of social security benefits with Australia, and with the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. Under the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 the classes of benefits cover the following: age pensions and age benefits, invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits, widows' pensions and widows' benefits, child endowment and family benefits, unemployment benefits, and sickness benefits. The Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1956 provides for reciprocity between the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland and New Zealand to cover age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits. Family benefits have been payable on a reciprocal basis since 1948.

Earlier Yearbooks should be referred to for details of social welfare benefits paid prior to the passing of the Social Security Act 1938. This Act, with its amendments, has been consolidated in the Social Security Act 1964.

ADMINISTRATION-The Social Security Department, which is under the control of a Commission, administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Security, Part II of the Act dealing with monetary benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits, are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health.

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Social Security Department, one of whose officers is designated Secretary for War Pensions.

Since 1960, the War Pensions Branch of the Social Security Department has handled ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS-Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out was provided for by the establishment within the Public Account of the Social Security Fund. (On 1 April 1964 the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account in connection with a rearrangement of Government accounts.) The principal revenue of the fund was derived from a charge (collected by the Inland Revenue Department) on salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies, but the Act also made provision for the payment to the fund of such other moneys as might be appropriated by Parliament from time to time, and a substantial amount was transferred from the Consolidated Fund each year except 1957-58.

The social security charge, which had been at the rate of 1d. for every 1s. 8d. or part thereof of income since the inception of the scheme, was increased in 1946 to 1d. for every 13 1/3d. or part thereof-i.e., 1s. 6d. in the pound. The increase, in the case of salaries and wages, became effective from and including 13 May 1946, while "other" income received during the year ended 31 March 1946 was subject to the increased rate.

The Income Tax Assessment Act 1957, which introduced the Pay As You Earn system of taxation from 1 April 1958, provided for the imposition of a social security income tax in the place of the social security charge. This tax has also been written into the deduction tables under the PAYE system at the rate hitherto obtaining (i.e., 1s. 6d. in the pound). It forms part of the pay-period tax. By the Social Security Amendment Act 1958 all social security income tax was payable into the Consolidated Fund in 1958-59 and 1959-60, and the amount necessary for administering the Social Security Act was appropriated out of that fund. From 1 April 1960 there was paid into the Social Security Fund an amount computed at the rate of 1s. 6d. for each £1 of the national private income (as defined in the Act) for the preceding year, as estimated by the Government Statistician. From 1 April 1964 a new account, called the Consolidated Revenue Account, has been substituted for the Consolidated Fund and the Social Security Fund, and under the Public Revenues Amendment Act 1963 there is credited to this account as social security income tax an amount computed at the rate of 1s. 6d for every £1 of national private income for the immediately preceding financial year on which social security income tax is payable. (Since 1962 the first £104 of annual income has been exempt from social security tax.)

In the case of salaries and wages the amount of the tax is deducted by the employer or other person by whom the wages or salaries are paid, while the tax on other income is payable by the recipient in two instalments on 7 August and 7 February in the income year.

In 1958-59 receipts into the Social Security Fund were much higher than expenditure and the balance in the fund stood at £20.6 million at the end of that financial year. In subsequent years this balance was reduced until it stood at £354,425 at 31 March 1964.

Receipts-Receipts of the Social Security Fund for five financial years are given in the following table.

Item1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
 £££££
Social security income tax-75,390,00080,377,50082,327,50088,890,000
Grants from Consolidated Fund (Social Security Act)106,500,00034,700,00038,100,00034,000,00035,888,394
Maintenance recoveries against defaulting husbands131,180140,980148,421159,055154,074
Interest on investments20,89750,39610,4406,264-
Reciprocity arrangements: Recoveries from Australian Government7,89114,28313,40313,76714,072
Other receipts73,480166,647242,610255,345398,002
 Total revenue106,733,430110,462,306118,892,374116,761,931125,344,542

Payments-Particulars of payments of the Social Security Fund during the same five financial years are contained in the next table.

Item1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
Monetary benefits-£££££
Superannuation15,460,04720,087,37723,148,89725,117,67127,194,909
Age27,291,00827,035,64724,858,41324,507,88924,680,663
Widows'3,915,7854,200,4574,352,7324,546,1684,779,574
Orphans'39,44142,94846,30746,06251,343
Family31,791,98630,899,79733,440,32332,301,61734,240,234
Invalids'2,118,4112,148,8982,190,9842,268,2042,293,866
Miners'112,832117,822100,36187,25882,814
Unemployment189,89892,68180,041163,279160,983
Sickness1,719,3431,673,3721,705,1271,562,7162,254,509
Emergency931,429932,458842,530684,4981,007,585
Supplementary assistance273,010307,859323,733332,172588,490
Advances for repairs to homes46,68733,71524,76525,38524,152
Employment subsidy for disabled civilians---1,4392,263
Capitalisation of family benefit3,879,8896,941,0895,761,9625,150,8294,542,543
Total, monetary benefits87,769,76694,514,12096,876,17596,795,187101,903,928
Medical benefits-     
Medical4,243,3614,244,7984,379,8054,303,9514,314,651
Hospital5,650,2535,685,2116,259,5716,337,6996,678,367
Maternity1,561,8611,656,7251,755,0451,858,5101,803,523
Pharmaceutical5,956,3026,798,1577,678,3388,058,9607,913,566
Supplementary2,479,8502,763,5402,898,1773,199,1053,481,868
Total, medical benefits19,891,62721,148,43122,970,93623,758,22524,191,975
Reciprocity benefits-     
Australia10,69912,99114,19810,65518,654
Balance of maintenance moneys1125530976387
Administration expenses1,522,1301,704,6721,680,8331,793,3221,851,699
Total payments109,194,334117,380,269121,542,451122,358,152127,966,343
Balance of fund at end of year18,140,48711,222,5248,572,4472,976,226354,425

During the year ended 31 March 1964, £85,709,932, or 70.5 per cent of the total expenditure (£121,526,942) on monetary and medical benefits including supplementary assistance, was paid without a means test, the remaining amount being subject to a means test. From 1 April 1964 the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for the purpose.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of medical benefits during the last five financial years.

Item1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
* Mainly on account of hospital benefits.
Maternity benefits-£££££
Public hospital fees892,692905,389989,2391,002,877990,133
Private hospital fees185,978184,679194,808177,269198,494
Medical practitioners' fees432,170441,276474,677584,151581,803
Milage fees19,19820,58121,13720,50719,536
Obstetric nurses' fees3,6935,0263,7172,9432,691
Private hospital loans28,13099,77471,46770,76310,866
Totals1,561,8611,656,7251,755,0451,858,5101,803,523
Medical benefits-     
Capitation fees4,411----
Milage fees214,860193,445182,918169,050156,523
General medical services3,931,2733,950,6394,084,5584,016,0924,038,776
Special arrangements87,09491,75596,159104,732101,965
Purchase of sites and erection of residences for medical officers5,7238,95916,17014,07717,387
Totals4,243,3614,244,7984,379,8054,303,9514,314,651
Hospital benefits-     
Public hospitals-     
Inpatients4,255,6814,322,4134,782,9764,797,5264,866,804
Outpatients414,460413,921414,458412,953417,188
Private hospitals770,358789,907942,361939,2251,205,330
Approved institutions125,275129,93680,14092,84997,912
Private hospital loans64,57715,79525,65986,93783,203
Grants towards operating costs of Karitane hospitals19,90113,23913,9778,2097,930
Totals5,650,2525,685,2116,259,5716,337,6996,678,367
Pharmaceutical benefits-     
Chemists5,787,6846,605,8897,433,7327,747,0827,672,813
Medical practitioners32,12648,73673,93770,19961,390
Institutions136,492143,532170,669170,339179,363
Refund of Customs duty to wholesalers---71,340-
Totals5,956,3026,798,1577,678,3388,058,9607,913,566
Supplementary benefits-     
Radiological services489,459510,234522,997541,547556,891
Laboratory services585,644732,964882,2901,052,5661,180,308
Physiotherapy services63,00561,91664,07869,35698,503
Specialist services (neuro-surgery)5,0033,3245,7844,0134,585
District nursing services206,587222,916234,490246,954296,642
Dental services1,000,8771,000,5611,045,6291,142,2091,181,635
Domestic assistance14,75714,03910,83412,00814,166
Artificial-aids benefits107,789114,899109,128119,907137,524
Other6,730102,68722,94710,54511,614
Totals2,479,8512,763,5402,898,1773,199,1053,481,868
Grand totals19,891,62721,148,43122,970,93623,758,22524,191,975
Recoveries*4,6704,5703,2718,6595,291
Net totals19,886,95721,143,86122,967,66523,749,56624,186,684

The following table summarises social security expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to national income.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet National Income at Factor CostExpenditure
HealthFamilyOtherTotalPer Head of Mean Population
Amount £(million)£s.
1957886.716.719.538.174.33317
1958935.117.120.240.277.53410
1959961.718.726.043.488.1386
19601,037.419.931.852.0103.7444
19611,120.8x21.230.956.6108.74510
19621,158.5x23.033.457.7114.14614
19631,248.9x23.832.359.3115.4462
19641,368.424.234.263.1121.54711
Percentage of Expenditure to National Income 
1956...1.82.24.48.5...
1957...1.92.24.38.4...
1958...1.82.24.38.3...
1959...1.92.74.59.2...
1960...1.93.05.010.0...
1961...1.92.85.0x9.7...
1962...2.02.95.09.8x...
1963...1.92.64.7x9.2x...
1964...1.82.54.68.9...

Benefits and Pensions in Force-The total number of persons in respect of whom social security cash benefits (including dependent wives and children) were payable at 31 March 1964 was 1,165,022, or 4,497 per 10,000 of population. For the previous year the corresponding figures were 1,141,116 and 4,504 respectively. Particulars of the various social security benefits in force at 31 March for the three latest years and the annual value at 31 March 1964 are as follows.

Class of Benefit or PensionNumber in Force at 31 MarchAnnual Value at 31 March 1964
196219631964
* The expenditure figures given under this heading are gross widows' benefits-i.e., not reduced by the amounts recovered under maintenance orders.
Social security benefits-    
Monetary-   £(000)
Superannuation105,499111,850116,05927,916
Age100,08397,39195,83624,187
Widows'*13,62314,06314,2424,855
Orphans'27028930250
Family357,568365,118373,77533,717
Invalids'8,1818,0538,0792,322
Miners'26723621777
Unemployment273358257...
Sickness4,3464,5294,583...
Emergency2,6082,7672,925...
Supplementary assistance6,5646,8647,660586
Totals599,282611,518623,925...

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS, ETC.-In addition to the various classes of benefits enumerated in the foregoing part of this section there were 766 pensions at 31 March 1964 classed as "sundry pensions and annuities". This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, ex-members of the defence forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, etc.

MONETARY BENEFITS-A summarised account of the changes in monetary benefits from the inception of the social security scheme to 1957 was given on pages 205-206 of the 1958 issue of the Yearbook. Since 1939 the original provisions have been considerably amended and enlarged to correct anomalies and to cover more comprehensively the needs of the people. In addition the rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living.

The rates payable in respect of age, invalids', widows' (and mothers' allowances), and miners' benefits were increased by £13 a year, and sickness and unemployment benefits by 5s. a week from 30 March 1960. Legislation also abolished the means test on property, formerly applicable to age, invalids', orphans', and unemployment benefits, and increased the amount of income allowable before reduction of age, widows', and invalids' benefits from £104 to £156 a year, and the allowable income for sickness and unemployment benefits from £2 to £3 a week from 12 October 1960. From the same date provision was made for an allowable income of £52 a year before reduction in the rate of orphans' benefit which was formerly reducible by £1 for every complete £1 of an orphan's income.

Also from 12 October 1960 the amendment increased the rate payable in respect of a superannuation benefit by £13 a year and gave the Social Security Commission discretionary power to grant on application an additional £26 a year to single, widowed, separated, or divorced superannuation beneficiaries.

The amount of income allowable before reduction of a widow's benefit where the widow is supporting a dependent child or children was increased from £156 to £260 a year from 13 September 1961. From the same date provision was made for up to £52 a year received by an age or invalid's beneficiary, or up to 20s. a week received by a sickness beneficiary as sick benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source, to be disregarded.

The rates of superannuation, age, widows' (and mothers' allowances), orphans', invalids', and miners' benefits were increased by £6 10s. a year and sickness and unemployment benefits by 2s. 6d. a week from 18 July 1962. Similar increases of 2s. 6d. a week or £6 10s. a year were made from 17 July 1963.

Increases in the rates of benefits and the amount of income allowable before reduction of benefit were made from 9 September 1964. The increases were 6s. a week or £15 12s. a year.

For the purpose of determining eligibility for benefit on grounds of residence, persons employed outside New Zealand will be deemed to be resident in New Zealand if employed on Government business, and may be so deemed at the Commission's discretion if employed otherwise, for the purposes of Part II of the principal Act, where liable for the payment of social security income tax on their earnings. In each case the wife and children are also included.

The receipt of a war disablement pension or a basic war widow's pension does not render a person ineligible to receive a social security benefit.

SUMMARY OF RATES OF SOCIAL SECURITY BENEFITS-The list below gives a summary of the annual and weekly rates for monetary benefits as from 9 September 1964.

BenefitAnnual RateWeekly Rate
* According to circumstances, but in general, standard rates will be increased by 20s. a week for beneficiary, 10s. a week for his wife, and 5s. a week for each dependent child.
Superannuation-£ s. d.£ s. d.
Unmarried person275 12 05 6 0
Married person249 12 04 16 0
Age-  
Unmarried person275 12 05 6 0
Married couple if both eligible (each)249 12 04 16 0
Married woman whose husband is not eligible249 12 04 16 0
Married man whose wife is not eligible499 4 09 12 0
Widows'-  
Widow -275 12 05 6 0
Additional mother's allowance where widow has-  
One dependent child184 12 03 11 0
Two dependent children210 12 04 1 0
Three dependent children236 12 04 11 0
Four dependent children262 12 05 1 0
Five dependent children288 12 05 11 0
Six or more dependent children -314 12 06 1 0
Orphans' (each child)137 16 02 13 0
Family (each child)39 0 015 0
Invalids'-  
Unmarried person, 20 years or over275 12 05 6 0
Unmarried person under 20 years -236 12 04 11 0
Married man with wife included -499 4 09 12 0
Married woman249 12 04 16 0
Miners'-  
Unmarried person275 12 05 6 0
Married man with wife included -499 4 09 12 0
Miner's widow243 2 04 13 6
Sickness or Unemployment-  
Unmarried person under 20 years -...4 1 0
Unmarried person 20 years and over...5 6 0
Married man with wife included -...9 12 0
Married woman 20 years and over -...4 16 0
Supplementary AssistanceAccording to circumstances
Emergency -According to circumstances
Emergency-Sufferers from tuberculosis*....

Superannuation Benefits-Every person over the age of 65 years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualifications is entitled to a superannuation benefit without conditions as to income or property. The superannuation benefit is, however, regarded as assessable income for income-tax purposes but is exempt from the social security income tax. The residential qualifications require, in general, a period of residence in New Zealand of 20 years immediately preceding application for benefit, but in the case of a person who was resident in New Zealand on 15 March 1938 the qualifying period is 10 years only. Allowances are made for occasional absences.

For the 10 years' requirement, continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by absence -

  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed one year; or

  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds one year but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of 10 years, and the applicant is ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of his application.

A similar proviso for the 20 years' requirement applies -

  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed two years; or

  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds two years but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of 20 years, and the applicant is ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of his application.

Provision is made to cover absence by a seaman serving on board any ship registered or owned in New Zealand, absence in any capacity as a member of any of Her Majesty's Forces, absence of a blind person for vocational training or treatment of the eyes, absence for special surgical treatment not available in New Zealand, and absence of a missionary serving overseas.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other cash benefit except a family benefit. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age benefit are not payable to the one person.

At the date of commencement on 1 April 1940, and for the remainder of the year, the rate of benefit was £10 a year, thereafter being increased by £2 10s. a year. As from 1 October 1951, however, the amount payable for the balance of the year 1951-52 was raised from £37 10s. to £75 a year, this amount increasing by £5 a year on 1 April of each succeeding year to £110 a year in 1958. From 1 April 1959 the rate increased to £156 a year, from 30 March 1960 to £208 a year, from 12 October 1960 to £221 a year for a married person and to £247 a year for an unmarried person. Subsequent increases have kept the benefit in line with age benefit rates.

The number of superannuation benefits in force at 31 March 1964 was 116,059, an increase of 4,209 above the total for the previous year. Expenditure on these benefits rose from £25,117,671 in 1962-63 to £27,194,909 in 1963-64.

Age Benefits-Every person who has attained the age of 60 years is entitled to receive an age benefit, subject to satisfying certain qualifications in regard to residence and character. The residential qualifications are the same as those set out under the preceding heading in regard to superannuation benefits. The character qualifications mainly relate to desertion of wife or husband or wilful failure in the case of a married man or widower to provide adequate maintenance for wife or for children under 16 years of age.

The basic rate of the benefit is £249 12s a year, subject to certain deductions on account of income. Particulars of additions to and deductions from the basic rate are as follows:

Unmarried applicants: The basic rate is increased to £275 12s., although reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income in excess of £208 a year.

Married applicants: Where husband and wife are both entitled to the benefit the basic rate is reduced by 10s. for every complete £1 of their combined incomes in excess of £208 a year. In cases where only one of them is entitled to the benefit the reduction is at the rate of £1 for every complete £1 of their total income (excluding a family benefit) in excess of £457 12s. a year. A further provision allows of an extra payment, not exceeding £249 12s. a year, to a male recipient when his wife is ineligible for any benefit under the Act. This is payable only up to a limit of the total income of the couple, plus benefit, of £707 4s. a year.

For the above purposes, income is deemed not to include amounts received by way of war disablement pension or basic war widow's pension.

From 1 August 1955 age benefit has been payable to unmarried women between 55 and 60 years of age who are unable to engage in regular employment.

Age beneficiaries are entitled to surrender their benefits while their earnings are excessive and to apply for reinstatement immediately the employment ceases. The earnings received during the period that both husband and wife were not in receipt of age benefits are not taken into account.

Any deduction from the maximum rate of benefit because of excess income may be diminished by £6 10s. for each year that an applicant, on having attained the age of 65 years, has deferred applying for the benefit between the ages of 60 and 65 years, provided that he was residentially qualified to receive the benefit during that period.

During 1963-64, 442 existing beneficiaries and new applicants received additional benefit for the first time on account of the deferment concession. The periods of deferment were: one year, 73; two years, 67; three years, 79; four years, 50; and five years, 173.

In computing the allowable income of any female beneficiary or the wife of any beneficiary no account is taken of her personal earnings from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals or charitable institutions up to £78 a year.

A special allowance not exceeding £26 a year may be paid to any person in receipt of an age benefit who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in connection with the South African War or in any of Her Majesty's forces in that war if he had been born in New Zealand or was domiciled therein at the commencement of the war.

The Commission may also, in its discretion, increase by an amount not exceeding £26 a year the rate of any benefit under Part II of the Act payable to any beneficiary who was one of the parents of a deceased member of any of Her Majesty's forces established in New Zealand whose death was attributable to service with the forces. Similar powers exist in respect of a parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand mercantile marine whose death was attributable to the Second World War. The provision also covers from 1 April 1949 the case of a deceased member of any force or of the mercantile marine of any part of the British Commonwealth other than New Zealand who was domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the Second World War and whose death was directly attributable to that war. At 31 March 1964 there were 1,801 of these allowances in force, this representing a decrease of 17 from the figure of 1,818 for 1963.

Where an applicant for an age benefit is totally blind, the rate of the benefit, together with any benefits and allowances payable to or in respect of the wife or husband of the applicant, is not to be less than the total of benefits and allowances that would have been paid if the applicant had been eligible for an invalid's benefit.

The number of age benefits in force at 31 March 1964 was 95,836, a decrease of 1,555 as compared with the figure at the end of March 1963. The 1964 total was inclusive of 5,040 husbands receiving benefits on account of dependent wives who were not eligible for benefits in their own right, and of 58 males receiving the additional allowance of up to £26 a year paid to veterans of the South African War. Expenditure on age benefits increased from £24,507,889 in 1962-63 to £24,680,663 in 1963-64.

The following table shows the estimated age distribution of (a) persons who were granted new age benefits during the calendar year 1963 (including transfers from widows' and invalids' benefits), and (b) total age beneficiaries at 31 December 1963.

Age, in YearsPersons Granted New Age Benefits During 1963Total Age Beneficiaries at 31 December 1963
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
601,3522,5973,9491,0341,9582,992
613776861,0631,6392,7394,378
623184257431,8922,9484,840
632712805512,1673,0475,214
642422524942,0022,8934,895
Totals, 60-642,5604,2406,8008,73413,58522,319
65-694102406505,39012,14417,534
70-741601202805,57712,07817,655
75 and over11015026012,61725,77338,390
Totals3,2404,7507,99032,31863,58095,898

Widows' Benefits-Every widow who is the mother of one or more children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of children under 16 years of age who satisfies the following conditions is also entitled to the benefit:

  1. A widow who has had one or more children, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than 15 years or, in the alternative, that the aggregate of the period of the duration of her marriage and any subsequent period during which she had the care of at least one of her children under 16 years of age was not less than 15 years:

  2. A widow who, on the expiration of not less than five years after the date of her marriage, became a widow after she attained the age of fifty years:

  3. A widow of not less than 50 years of age who became a widow after she had attained the age of 40 years, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than 10 years and that not less than 15 years have expired since the date of her marriage.

It will be noted that no widow under 50 years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit.

Provision is also made for other classes of women (not being widows) to receive benefits as if they were widows. Particulars are as follows:

  1. Any married woman who satisfies the Commission that she has been deserted by her husband and that she has taken proceedings against him for a maintenance order under the Destitute Persons Act 1910. Either the beneficiary or the Commission may institute and prosecute proceedings for the enforcement of the order, or for an order cancelling, varying, or suspending the maintenance order. Any moneys paid by a husband, whether by way of maintenance order or otherwise, are set off against any benefit so granted. Benefits for deserted wives may be continued after divorce:

  2. Any married woman in respect of whose husband a reception order is in force under the Mental Health Act 1911 (whether or not he is detained in an institution under the Act), or whose husband is for the time being an inmate of an institution under that Act, whether as a voluntary in-patient or otherwise.

The two paragraphs which follow also apply in such cases, reference to the date of death being deemed to be reference to date of desertion by the husband or to the making of a reception order.

Except in the case of widows with one or more children under 16 years of age, no widow is entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless she and her husband were both resident in New Zealand for not less than three years immediately preceding the death of the husband or, unless either of them, being ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of the husband's death, has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years.

The term "children" does not include any child born out of New Zealand unless at least one of the following conditions is satisfied-namely, that -

  1. The mother of the child was only temporarily out of New Zealand at the time of its birth; or

  2. Both parents were resident in New Zealand for the three years immediately preceding the date of the death of the husband of the applicant; or

  3. One of the parents, being ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of the husband's death, has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years.

The term "child" includes a stepchild or a child adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant (in cases where the husband is dead) or adopted while the husband and wife were living together (in cases of desertion, etc.). It may also (at the discretion of the Commission) include any child who is being maintained by the applicant or was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

No woman shall be entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless the Commission is satisfied that she is of good moral character and sober habits.

The rate of benefit payable to a widow is £275 12s. a year plus a supplementary benefit (mother's allowance) of £184 12s. a year in cases where there is one dependent child and £210 12s. a year where there are two dependent children under 16 years of age. For a widow with three dependent children the rate of mother's allowance is £236 12s.; with four children £262 12s.; with five children £288 12s.; and with six or more children £314 12s. a year.

Any income received, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widow's pension, is taken into account in computing the benefit payable. Where such income exceeds £208 the annual rate of benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of such excess, but in the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction is £312 a year. The maximum of income plus benefit in the case of a widow without dependent children is £483 12s. a year and for a widow with one dependent child is £772 4s. a year. This maximum is increased by £26 a year for each additional dependent child up to and including the sixth. A widow with dependent children will, of course, receive in addition the family benefit of 15s. a week for each child.

The provision relating to the allowable income of £78 a year gained from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals and charitable institutions without affecting the amount of the benefit payable to women age-beneficiaries also applies to widows' benefits. Widows' benefits cease on remarriage.

At 31 March 1964 there were 14,242 benefits in force, an increase of 179 during the year. Expenditure totalled £4,779,574 in 1963-64, compared with £4,546,168 in 1962-63. Offset against these amounts were the sums of £154,073 and £159,055 respectively, being recoveries of maintenance from defaulting husbands.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1964.

StatusWith One Dependent ChildWith Two or More Dependent ChildrenWithout Dependent ChildrenTotal
Widows2,5182,7107,45912,687
Deserted wives2696794081,356
Wives of mental hospital patients409168199
Totals2,8273,4807,93514,242

Orphans' Benefits-A benefit in respect of complete orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than three years preceding the date of his or her death. A stepchild or an adopted child comes within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organisations.

The rate of an orphan's benefit is £137 16s. a year reduced by £1 for each complete £1 of income received by or for the benefit of the orphan in excess of £52 a year. In any case where the benefit of the orphan falls below £39 a year application may be made for a family benefit of 15s. a week in lieu of orphan's benefit. For the purpose of assisting in the further education of any child, the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of eighteen years.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1964 was 302 (in respect of 389 children), an increase of 13 during the year. Expenditure increased from £46,062 in 1962-63 to £51,343 in 1963-64.

Family Benefits-As from 1 April 1946 the father or mother of any child or children under 16 years of age may apply for a family benefit, irrespective of the income or property of the parents or children. Prior to 1 April 1946 family benefits were payable subject to a means test.

The rate of the benefit is 15s. a week for each child, and in every case is paid to the mother of the children, unless in special circumstances the Commission considers that it should be paid to the father or to some other person for the benefit of the children.

If a beneficiary in receipt of an age or other monetary benefit is the parent of dependent children, payment in respect of the children is made by way of a separate family benefit.

The term "children" includes stepchildren and adopted children, but does not include -

  1. Any child who has attained the age of 16 years unless such child is continuing its education as a full-time day pupil at a school or college, in which case the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which it reaches the age of 18 years.

  2. Any child who is not in fact maintained as a member of the family of the applicant.(c) Any child in respect of whom any other benefit or pension, etc., is payable out of public moneys.

The Commission may regard as a member of the applicant's family any child who, although not a child of the applicant, is being maintained as a member of the family. A benefit may also be continued beyond the age of 16 years in respect of any child who is totally incapacitated from earning a living by reason of some physical or mental defect.

In order to qualify for a family benefit at least one of the following conditions must be satisfied, namely-

  1. The child was born in New Zealand.

  2. The mother of the child was only temporarily absent from New Zealand at the time of its birth.

  3. The Commission is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand.

  4. The child has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

A benefit is not payable in respect of any child committed to the care of the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education nor in respect of any child residing in an institution under the care of the Division of Mental Health of the Department of Health. Family benefits are payable to children of a member of any of Her Majesty's naval, military, or air forces.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child of a marriage or a child who has commenced his first year of post-primary instruction.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1958, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the purchase of home properties, additions or alterations to existing homes, or the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of the family benefit in respect of one or more children from the age of one year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than £200 or more than £1,000.

Details of family benefit capitalisation are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedNumber of Benefits ConcernedCapitalised Value of Benefits
   £
196015,2657,4739,363,563
196111,44221,1707,234,836
19629,73916,9885,959,512
19638,88414,9315,251,339
19648,13713,6044,878,091

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts increased from 124,430 at 31 March 1963 to 135,231 at 31 March 1964, the amount lodged increasing from £10,654,021 to £12,790,837.

The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1964 was 373,775 covering 913,500 children, compared with corresponding figures of 365,118 and 892,500 at 31 March 1963. Included in the total were 31 incapacitated children over the age of 16 years; and at the end of the 1963 school year there were 43,035 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

Expenditure increased from £32,301,617 in 1962-63 to £34,240,234 in 1963-64.

The following table gives the number of family benefits in force at 31 March 1961 classified according to the number of children receiving the benefit in each case.

Number of Children Receiving Benefit in Each CaseNumber of Benefits at 31 March 1961
1104,325
2106,710
370,983
436,582
515,585
67,112
73,357
81,731
9917
10 or over702
Totals348,004

The average number of children per family in respect of whom benefit was paid was 2.25 in 1950-51, 2.30 in 1952-53, 2.33 in 1954-55, 2.36 in 1956-57, 2.39 in 1958-59, and 2.45 in 1960-61.

Invalids' Benefits-Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the age of 16 years and upwards who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he-

  1. Is totally blind; or

  2. Is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

The other qualifications referred to are as follows:

  1. That he has fulfilled certain residential qualifications, these in the main being the same as for superannuation benefits described on page 178.

  2. That incapacity for work was not self-induced or in any way brought about with a view to qualifying for an invalid's benefit.

  3. Applicant must be of good moral character and sober habits.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. In the event of an application being declined on medical grounds, the applicant has the right of appeal, within three months after the decision of the Commission has been communicated to him, to a board of three medical practitioners nominated by the Department. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate, if the Commission is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment, or in the case of blindness, for the purpose of undertaking vocational training or treatment in respect of the eyes.

The prescribed rates for invalids' benefits, together with the amounts of allowable income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pensions, are as follows.

Class of PersonAnnual Rate of BenefitAnnual Income Allowed Without Reduction of Benefit
 £ s. d.£ s. d.
Unmarried person under 20 years236 12 0208 0 0
Married man249 12 0208 0 0
Wife249 12 0208 0 0
Married woman249 12 0457 12 0
All other persons275 12 0208 0 0

As in the case of other benefits, dependent children are provided for by way of the family benefit at 15s. a week each.

In each case the amount of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widow's pension, in excess of the amounts stated as allowable. In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may be increased by up to 25 per cent of his personal earnings provided his annual income, apart from the benefit, does not exceed £364.

Any person in receipt of an invalid's benefit who, on the attainment of age 60, becomes entitled to receive an age benefit is required to relinquish his invalid's benefit and is granted an age benefit in lieu thereof, but the aggregate amount payable for a blind beneficiary and his wife (if any) is not altered by this transfer.

Of 878 new benefits granted in 1963 the marital status of the recipients was single 380 (192 males, 188 females), married 340 (335 males, 5 females), widowed 46 (33 males, 13 females), and apart, separated, divorced 112 (47 males, 65 females). By far the greatest number were aged 50 years or over, 458, the numbers for other age groups being as follows: under 20 years, 150; 20 and under 40 years, 126; and 40 and under 50 years, 144.

Invalids' benefits in force at 31 March 1964 numbered 8,079, an increase of 26 on the March 1963 figure, while expenditure rose from £2,268,204 in 1962-63 to £2,293,866 in 1963-64.

Miners' Benefits-Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted miner's phthisis and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, or to any person who contracted, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby permanently and totally incapacitated for work. The term "miner's phthisis" means pneumoconiosis and includes tuberculosis of the lungs or any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with, or a sequel to, pneumoconiosis. The necessary qualifications are-

  1. Employment as a miner in New Zealand for not less than two and a half years:

  2. Continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than five years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit. Continuity of residence is not deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absences aggregating not more than six months:

  3. Good moral character and sober habits and must not have deserted or wilfully failed to provide for his wife and children during the period of five years immediately preceding the date of application:

  4. That compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of the same disability is not being received.

The rates of miners' benefits are £249 12s. a year (or £275 12s. if unmarried), increased by £249 12s. a year for a wife. Dependent children under 16 years are provided for by way of family benefit at the rate of 15s. a week each.

There is no reduction in the benefit on account of the income or property of the applicant and/or his wife.

Provision is made for medical examination where necessary to determine whether the applicant is permanently incapacitated for work, or the extent of his incapacity.

An applicant whose claim has been declined on medical grounds has a right of appeal to a board consisting of three registered medical practitioners appointed by the Department.

A special provision is made for the payment from the Social Security Fund of a reasonable contribution towards the funeral expenses of any person who dies while in receipt of a miner's benefit. The amount to be paid is at the discretion of the Commission.

If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit of £243 2s. a year, during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow, her income or property not being considered in the granting of a benefit.

Payment of benefits is not affected by a period or periods of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate.

Miners' benefits in force at 31 March 1964 numbered 217 (including 51 widows), 19 fewer than at the corresponding date in 1963. During 1963-64 the expenditure on this class of benefit was £82,814, compared with £87,258 in 1962-63.

Unemployment Benefits-Subject to the conditions set out below, every person over the age of 16 years who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to a benefit in respect of unemployment. An applicant is required to satisfy the Commission in respect of the following:

  1. That he is unemployed:

  2. That he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work:

  3. That he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment:

  4. That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first seven days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. In addition, the Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding six weeks, the commencement of the benefit, or it may terminate the benefit in any of the following circumstances:

  1. If the applicant has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason:

  2. If the applicant has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker:

  3. If the applicant or beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment:

Unemployment benefits are payable in accordance with the following scale:

 Weekly Benefit
 £ s. d.
Person under 20 years without dependants4 1 0
Married man with wife included9 12 0
Others5 6 0

Dependent children are paid for by way of family benefit at the rate of 15s. per week each.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit-e.g., an age benefit.

A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit of up to £4 16s. a week only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The foregoing rates of benefits may be reduced, having regard to the income received by the applicant or his wife.

The numbers of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1963 and 1964 were 5,139 and 3,317 respectively, 3,541 persons being granted a benefit in 1962-63, and 2,310 in 1963-64. At the end of March 1964, 247 benefits were in force, compared with 358 at the end of the previous year. Payment of additional benefit for a dependent wife was included in 1,162 of the benefits granted during 1963-64 and in 92 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1964. Expenditure for the year 1963-64 amounted to £160,983, as against £163,279 in 1962-63.

Sickness Benefits-Every person over the age of 16 years who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months and who satisfies the Commission that he is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and that by reason thereof he has suffered a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, is entitled to a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity or to a maximum of £9 12s. a week payable to a man and his wife. Where a person is engaged in business on his own account and by reason of sickness or accident is obliged to employ a substitute during the period of incapacity, the remuneration paid to the substitute is regarded as loss of earnings. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first seven days of incapacity except under special circumstances.

A married woman shall be entitled to receive a sickness benefit of up to £4 16s. a week, only if the Commission is satisfied that her husband is unable to maintain her.

Subject to the foregoing remarks concerning amount of benefit, the rates of sickness benefits are as follows:

 Weekly Benefit
 £ s. d.
Person under 20 years without dependants4 1 0
Married man with wife included9 12 0
Others5 6 0

Any applicant who is maintaining a home and who is not drawing a benefit in respect of a wife, may receive a benefit at a rate not exceeding that for a wife, in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Dependent children are provided for by way of family benefit.

The rate of benefit computed as aforesaid is reduced by 1s. for every complete 1s. of the total income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widows' pensions, of the applicant and of his wife or her husband, as the case may be, in excess of £4 a week.

The numbers of applications for sickness benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1963 and 1964 were 32,999 and 31,783 respectively. The number of persons granted sickness benefits was 30,641 in 1962-63 and 29,559 in 1963-64. Benefits in force at 31 March 1964 totalled 4,583 compared with 4,529 at the end of March 1963. Total expenditure for 1963-64 amounted to £2,254,509, an increase of £691,793 on the 1962-63 figures.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1963 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit.

Duration of Sickness Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
0-49,6982,45812,156
5-126,6972,3229,019
13-252,4092,2964,705
26-521,2045991,803
53-104475182657
Over 10413558193
 Totals20,6187,91528,533

The following table gives a classification of sickness benefits according to the disease suffered by the beneficiary. The data are obtained from an analysis of the benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1963.

Disease or InjuryMalesFemalesPercentage of Total
Infective and parasitic diseases -9992974.5
Neoplasms -5021952.4
Allergic, endocrine system, metabolic, and nutritional diseases5851652.6
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs70580.5
Mental, psychoneurotic, and personality disorders1,0988566.8
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs9632194.1
Diseases of the circulatory system -2,1893438.9
Diseases of the respiratory system -2,87964512.4
Diseases of the digestive system -2,98764712.7
Diseases of the genito-urinary system5933363.3
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy...2,4868.7
Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue8071813.5
Diseases of the bones and organs of movement1,6304237.2
Congenital malformations77230.4
Senility, and ill-defined conditions -1,1014765.5
Accidents, poisonings, and violence4,13856516.5
Totals20,6187,915100.0

Emergency Benefits-An emergency benefit may be granted by the Commission on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, domestic circumstances, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit.

The amount of the emergency benefit is at the discretion of the Commission, which fixes as nearly as possible an amount equal to that payable for the type of benefit for which the applicant most closely qualifies.

Payments of benefits for which tuberculosis sufferers may qualify are at the rates of £5 15s. a week for a single person under 20 years of age without dependants, £6 6s. a week for a single person 20 years and over, and £11 2s. a week for a married couple. These rates are increased by 5s. a week for each dependent child.

Emergency benefits in force at 31 March 1964 numbered 2,925, compared with 2,767 at 31 March 1963. Expenditure in the 1963-64 year amounted to £1,007,585 and in 1962-63 to £684,498.

Supplementary Assistance-Since 1951 supplementary assistance has been available to social security beneficiaries and others who have special commitments which cannot be met out of current income, have insufficient other resources, and are unable to help themselves. Welfare and other organisations have been encouraged to assist in bringing this source of help to the knowledge of persons who might qualify, and departmental literature has included information on the purpose of supplementary assistance, the cost of which has been borne by the Social Security Fund. Continuing grants are made where the applicant's continuing commitments, e.g., food, fuel, rent, are in excess of the income received by the applicant, and lump sum grants are usually made to meet some nonrecurring expense. An analysis of these grants showing purpose and amounts of grants, is given in the parliamentary paper H. 9, 1964. More detailed analyses are given in earlier parliamentary papers.

In the 1963-64 year, 12,592 applications for assistance were granted, expenditure totalling £588,490, compared with 11,329 grants totalling £332,172 in 1962-63. There were 7,660 continuing grants in force at 31 March 1964.

Domestic and Nursing Concession-Female social security beneficiaries or the wives of social security beneficiaries are allowed, in addition to the ordinary income exemption of £208 a year, to earn up to £78 a year in domestic or nursing service in private homes, hospitals, homes for the care of the aged, or charitable institutions approved by the Commission, without their benefits being reduced.

During the year 1963-64, 309 applications were received for employment in private homes, and 306 were granted, while at 31 March 1964 there were 496 concessions in force, compared with 532 at the end of March 1963. During the year 1963-64, 417 applications were received for employment in hospitals and institutions, and 403 were granted, while at 31 March 1964 there were 540 concessions in force.

Reciprocity with Australia-The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit in respect of a person covered by this Act, residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids', or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age benefit unless he has attained the age of 65 years. The Act also provides that the Commission shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Part III of the Act deals with persons who, although ordinarily resident in New Zealand, are temporarily resident in Australia. Such residence is not a disqualification for a benefit. Benefits may be applied for and paid in Australia, although the Commission may, in its discretion, postpone payment of the whole or any part of the benefit until the return of the beneficiary to New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1964 comprised 435 age benefits, 28 widows' benefits, 1 family benefit, 23 invalids' benefits, and 3 sickness benefits, a total of 490, compared with 487 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom-The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1956 brought into operation from 1 April 1956 an agreement providing for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other for permanent residence will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country.

This principle is modified to the extent that the United Kingdom has agreed to continue to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions in New Zealand to former residents of the United Kingdom who are qualified under the United Kingdom scheme. In such cases, New Zealand will supplement such pensions to bring them up to the New Zealand rates where necessary.

United Kingdom Residents in New Zealand-In New Zealand the agreement applies to former residents of England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Isle of Man who claim age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act.

The agreement modifies the residential requirements of the Social Security Act and enables persons who formerly lived in the United Kingdom to be treated as if they resided in New Zealand during any period they lived in the United Kingdom. Though the normal qualifying age for a grant of age benefit in New Zealand is 60, no man claiming age benefit by virtue of the agreement is entitled to receive it till he reaches 65.

The United Kingdom continues to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions to persons in New Zealand who are qualified under the national insurance scheme and, in such cases, New Zealand, where necessary, supplements the national insurance pensions to bring them up to the rate of the appropriate New Zealand benefit. There is no supplementation in cases where the national insurance retirement or widow's pension is equal to, or greater than, the New Zealand social security benefit which could be paid. Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1964 comprised 3,197 superannuation benefits. 2,746 age benefits, 228 widows' benefits, 16 family benefits, 90 invalids' benefits, 10 sickness benefits, and 1 unemployment benefit, a total of 6,288, compared with 5,529 a year earlier.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom-In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mother's and guardian's allowances, sickness and employment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The United Kingdom scheme is a contributory scheme, and payment of benefits is dependent upon the satisfaction of specified contributory conditions.

The agreement modifies the provisions of the National Insurance Act of the United Kingdom and enables persons who formerly lived in New Zealand to be treated for the purpose of satisfying the contribution conditions of that Act as if they had paid contributions under the national insurance scheme for each week during which they had been resident in New Zealand. The qualifying age for retirement pension under the National Insurance Act is 60 for women and 65 for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of age benefit when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age.

A married woman who was receiving age or superannuation benefit in New Zealand cannot qualify in her own right for a retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless she has, since the date of her marriage, paid at least 156 contributions under the legislation of the United Kingdom, or was treated under the New Zealand legislation as an unmarried woman. She may, however, qualify for a wife's allowance, provided that her husband has attained the age of 70 years or has retired from regular employment and attained the age of 65 years.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand who go to the United Kingdom for the purpose of a visit will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 12 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefit for the period of their absence. If they apply for, and receive, national insurance pensions while in the United Kingdom, the amount paid by the United Kingdom will be deducted from the arrears of social security benefit payable on their return.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS-Part I of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits-Under the provisions contained in the Act every person is entitled to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, the principal of these being as follows:

  1. Medical services afforded in relation to maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading):

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate:

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner:

  4. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946-see later headings:

  5. Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health, and medical services not afforded by a medical practitioner in person.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled to receive from the Department of Health a reasonable fee not exceeding 7s. 6d. for every occasion on which any such service is provided. Milage fees are also provided for in certain cases. Where the practitioner is called upon to provide, in response to an urgent request, services on a Sunday or holiday, or between the hours of 8 p.m. and 8 a.m., the appropriate fee shall be a reasonable one not exceeding 12s. 6d. For specialist services an amount not exceeding 7s. 6d. for each attendance is likewise recoverable. Doctors may claim directly from the Department of Health, or may require the patient to pay the fee and himself claim a refund from the Department of Health. There has been a steady swing towards the direct-claim system by doctors, and 81 per cent now follow this practice.

The number of doctors providing general medical services in March 1964 was 1,832, and the number of "services" per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1964 was 4.3, the same as in the preceding year. The average population per general practitioner was 1,379.

Pharmaceutical Benefits-Under these benefits, which came into operation on 5 May 1941, persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed for their use by medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1964 totalled 15,608,611, or 6.1 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was 10s. 1 £d., the cost per head of population being £3 1s. 11d.

Hospital Benefits-Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. The Act provides for the payment to the proprietors of private hospitals and to other approved institutions of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. In the case of private hospitals and other institutions the amount paid is in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients or other persons liable for the hospital charges.

These benefits came into force on 1 July 1939, and the present rates from 1 April 1963, which vary for different classes of treatment, are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment £2 10s. a day, with a minimum of £4.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment £1 15s. a day.

The Act also provides that in lieu of payment being made in respect of individual hospital patients the Minister may from time to time authorise the payment of a grant in respect of hospital treatment afforded in any private hospital or other approved institution.

In addition to the public hospitals and licensed private hospitals, there is another limited class of semi-public hospitals which, in accordance with the Act, has been approved for the purposes of hospital benefits. This class includes the Karitane Baby Hospitals (six), conducted by the Royal New Zealand Society for the Protection of Women and Children, more commonly known as the Plunket Society, and in addition a home for incurables operated under a charitable trust. Special rates were determined for these classes of hospital, and such payments must be accepted in full satisfaction of the claim of the institution authorities.

Hospital benefits are also available in respect of maintenance and treatment afforded to any inpatient of Queen Mary Neurological Hospital, Hanmer Springs, or of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua. Treatment is free except that a small charge is made in respect of single-room accommodation at Queen Mary Hospital when obtained at the request of the patient.

The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 provide for free treatment of outpatients at public hospitals. "Hospital treatment" in relation to an outpatient of any public hospital covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses (introduced 1 June 1947), hearing aids (1 November 1947), artificial limbs (1 April 1948), surgical footwear (1 December 1951), ileostomy and colostomy appliances (27 April 1955), urinals: men's (25 July 1955), women's (29 October 1959), and all medical, surgical, or other treatment afforded by the staff of the hospital; but does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of surgical footwear the conditions of supply provide for part payment by the patient. Inpatient treatment is provided free by public hospitals where the patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act.

Mental Hospitals-Treatment of patients in public mental hospitals has been without charge as from 1 April 1939. A licensed (private) mental hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment therein are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits-Maternity benefits include ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere.

These benefits came into force on 15 May 1939, but the maternity medical practitioner service was not in full operation until 1 October of that year. The amount calculated in accordance with the scale of fees for the time being in force shall be accepted by the medical practitioner in full satisfaction of his claims except in the case of a practitioner who is recognised as an obstetric specialist in accordance with the terms of the Act. Such a practitioner, in addition to the fees payable by the Department of Health, may recover additional fees from the patient. A medical practitioner may contract out of the maternity benefits provisions. In such cases the patient is responsible for all the fees.

The main provisions in regard to maternity benefits apart from the medical practitioner service are as follows:

  1. Licensed (private) maternity hospitals: Licensees of licensed maternity hospitals who have entered into contracts under the Act are entitled to receive fees of £2 10s. in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days. The licensee's contract permits a specified additional charge to the patient.

  2. Midwives and maternity nurses: Approved midwives and maternity nurses who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital are entitled to receive from the fund fees at the rate of £1 10s. for the day or days of labour (£3 in the case of midwives) and £1 7s. per day for each of the 14 days succeeding the birth of the child or 10s. 6d. per day if a visiting obstetric nurse only. These amounts are to be regarded as in full satisfaction of a nurse's claims in respect of the nursing services.

X-ray Diagnostic Services-The benefits provided for comprise the following:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen:

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs:

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph:

  4. The provision of medical services incidental to any such examination or photograph, except medical services of a kind not ordinarily performed by radiologists as such:

  5. The provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of any such examinations or photographs.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the services that may be provided. This does not exclude examinations for medical certificates for the purposes of benefits under the Social Security Act or "sickness benefits" from a friendly society, or group examinations approved by the Director-General of Health.

The scale of fees payable in respect of services rendered by recognised radiologists is prescribed in a schedule to the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Amendment No. 5, issued on 26 January 1960. In respect of recognised radiologists the amount of such fees is deducted from the amount charged to the patient, who is responsible for the balance, if any.

Physiotherapy Benefits-Physiotherapy treatment by private physiotherapists is covered by the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with registered physiotherapists under which they are paid from the Department of Health a fee of 5s. for each treatment and undertake not to charge the patient any additional fees in excess of 8s. for treatment afforded in their rooms or 13s. for treatment afforded elsewhere.

No physiotherapy treatment is recognised for the purpose of the benefits unless it is given on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, and not more than six weeks' treatment may be given on a single recommendation except in the case of certain specified diseases, illness, etc., approved by the Director-General of Health, when the period of treatment on any one recommendation may be extended up to six months.

Home-nursing Services-Home-nursing services free of cost to the recipients were introduced by the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, which stipulate that no charge may be made for district nursing services provided by any Department of State, hospital board, or subsidised association elsewhere than in a hospital or other institution, but provision is made for payments to these organisations from the Department of Health.

Domestic Assistance-The provision of monetary assistance to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic assistance in homes, or whose objects include the provision of such assistance, is made by the Social Security (Domestic Assistance) Regulations 1944. Assistance in this connection (commenced 20 December 1944) is restricted by the regulations to the following classes:

  1. Cases where there are one or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in a home and the mother or other woman in charge of the home is wholly or partially incapacitated from undertaking her ordinary domestic duties by reason of pregnancy or maternity, or by reason of accident, sickness, etc.:

  2. Cases where there are three or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in the home, and any member of the household requires special care and attention by reason of sickness or infirmity:

  3. Cases where all members of the household of an age or condition to help in the home are wholly or partially incapacitated from work by sickness or otherwise:

  4. Cases where lack of domestic assistance in the home is a cause of undue hardship.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services-The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services came into operation on 1 April 1946, and comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and the provision of medical services incidental to any laboratory diagnostic service, except medical services of a kind that are not ordinarily performed by pathologists as such, and the provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of laboratory diagnostic services. The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

The schedule of fees payable from the fund covers fees payable to recognised pathologists. The prescribed fee shall be accepted in full satisfaction in respect of the services provided.

Dental Services-The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits commenced on 1 February 1947, and at present are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age.

The regulations provide that the services may be provided -

  1. By a registered dentist in a State dental clinic; or

  2. By a State dental nurse in a State dental clinic; or

  3. By a contracting dentist pursuant to a contract under these regulations; or

  4. By a contracting authority in the dental department of a public hospital or in a dental school, pursuant to a contract under these regulations.

A schedule to the regulations prescribes the nature of the benefits that may be provided and a scale of fees payable to contracting dentists and authorities in respect thereof.

Artificial Aids-The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Contact Lenses-These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not. less than-10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids-Individual electrical hearing aids may be supplied subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient possesses a hearing loss of at least 35 decibels in the better ear over the significant frequencies of speech or such other loss of a lesser degree as, in the opinion of an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board, renders the use of an aid necessary.

  2. The patient's hearing loss is such that in the opinion of the otologist it is capable of correction or marked improvement by the use of the type of hearing aid supplied or approved for the purpose of the benefit.

It is provided that in respect of patients who satisfy these conditions but who do not wish to avail themselves of the hearing aid issued free of charge by hospital boards there may be paid a sum not exceeding £13 towards the purchase of any aid approved for the purposes of these benefits. If a patient has received a benefit for a hearing aid within the preceding five years, the hospital board may pay half (or up to a maximum of £6 10s.) of the cost of replacement, provided that the replacement aid will assist hearing more than the existing aid and that the patient is otherwise eligible.

Artificial Limbs-The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of section 22 of the Workers' Compensation Act 1956:

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an orthopaedic surgeon employed or engaged by a hospital board:

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations "artificial limb" includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes an initial supply of not more than six pairs of limb socks for such limbs, plus a further supply of two limb socks a year.

6 B-WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY-All pensions payable to or on account of members of the forces, the Mercantile Marine, and the Emergency Reserve Corps are governed by the War Pensions Act 1954.

ADMINISTRATION-The Secretary for War Pensions, who under the Act must be an officer of the Social Security Department, is charged with the administration of war pensions under the general direction and control of the Minister in Charge of War Pensions. The Act also provides for the appointment of a War Pensions Board (or boards), which has the responsibility of granting or declining claims for pensions and allowances. This board consists of not less than three and not more than four members, one of whom must be a registered medical practitioner and one a representative of returned servicemen. Claimants have the right of appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board, also appointed under the Act. An appeal board consists of three members, two of whom must be registered medical practitioners, one of these being a representative of returned servicemen.

GROUNDS FOR PAYMENT OF WAR PENSIONS-Pensions in respect of the death or disablement of any member of the New Zealand forces are payable to the dependants of the member (in the case of death) and to the member and his dependants (in the case of disablement) in any of the following cases:

  1. Where death or disablement occurred while on service overseas as a member of the forces in connection with any war in which Her Majesty was then engaged, or in connection with any emergency, whether arising out of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand under the Charter of the United Nations or otherwise (i.e., includes service rendered in Korea).

  2. Where death or disablement is attributable to his service in New Zealand or overseas, e.g., in Malaya:

  3. In any case where the condition which resulted in the death or disablement was aggravated by his service in New Zealand or overseas.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first two months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The Act also states that the boards are not to be bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but shall determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

WAR PENSIONS AND ALLOWANCES, AND WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES: SUMMARY OF RATES-The list below summarises the rates of war and economic pensions and allowances as from 9 September 1964.

Class of Pension, Allowance, etc.
Dependants of Deceased Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine, or Emergency Reserve Corps-Weekly Rate
Widow£s.d.
* Ranges from £3 17s. 6d. for all ranks and ratings up to lieutenant-colonel (Army) and equivalent in other services; £3 18s. colonel and equivalent; and £4 brigadier or upwards or equivalent in other services.
Basic rate*3176
Mother's allowance (where one child)3110
Mother's allowance (where two children)410
Mother's allowance (where three children)4110
Mother's allowance (where four children)510
Mother's allowance (where five children)5110
Mother's allowance (where six or more children)610
Economic pension560
Child   
Where both parents dead or if not under control of mother336
Other children 150
Widowed mother (wholly dependent or mother of two or more sons being deceased members of the forces)   
Basic rate3176
Economic pension560
Widowed mother (partially dependent)   
Basic rate3176
Economic pension436
Other dependant3176
Guardian of children of deceased member4160
Totally Disabled Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine, or Emergency Reserve Corps-   
Member   
Basic disablement pension -550
Special increment for blindness, multiple or serious   
disabilities330
Economic pension (if unmarried £5 6s.)4160
Attendant's allowance -800
Wife -4160
Child - 150
Other dependant4160
Dependants of Deceased Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine, or Emergency Reserve Corps-Weekly Rate
War Veteran's Allowance-£s.d.
Unmarried veteran (£275 12s. a year)560
Married male veteran (£499 4s. a year)9120
Married female veteran (£249 12s. a year)4160
 Yearly Rate
Age supplement (maximum) payable to veteran or to his£s.d.
wife, or both, as each attains the age of 65 years3900
Supplementary Assistance -According to circumstances
Clothing Allowance-Weekly Rate
Loss of£s.d.
Two limbs or parts0126
Leg or part0116
Arm or part086
Use of mechanical appliance apart from artificial limb086

The payment of 15s. a week to each child may be made either by way of family benefit or, alternatively, by way of war pension.

Economic pensions and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds £4 a week or £208 a year. In the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction in pension is, however, £6 a week. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband is taken into account.

The earnings of women from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals or charitable institutions up to £78 a year are not taken into account.

The War Pensions Amendment Act 1961 made provision for any sick benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source up to £1 a week to be disregarded in computing the rate of pension or war veteran's allowance.

Pensions payable for specific disabilities are assessed as a percentage of the full pension payable for total disablement. The following schedule sets out the relevant disabilities and percentages.

Nature of DisabilityPer Cent of Full Pension Payable
Total blindness100
Incurable insanity100
Very severe facial disfigurement100
Amputation of— 
Leg through hip joint; leg through upper third of thigh (if without useful stump); arm (where an artificial arm cannot be fitted with retention of elbow joint function)100
Leg through upper third or thigh (if with useful stump)90
Permanent loss of speech90
Amputation of leg through knee joint or middle or lower third of thigh85
Total deafness85
Amputation of arm (where an artificial arm can be fitted with retention of elbow joint function)80
Severe facial disfigurement80
Amputation of leg below knee75
Loss of— 
One eye; four fingers50
Three fingers; thumb40
Two fingers25
Index finger of either hand20

If a member, while in receipt of a permanent pension of an amount of not less than 70 per cent of the maximum pension that would be payable in respect of total disablement, dies from any cause not attributable to service as a member of the forces, a pension may be granted to his widow or dependent children as if death was attributable to service. The 1961 Amendment Act extended this provision to include the widow or dependent children of a member who was not in receipt of such a pension, but who, in the opinion of the Board, could have been granted a permanent pension of not less than 70 per cent of total disablement if he had not died.

Other grants and concessions which may be made include the following:

  1. A free pass on the New Zealand Railways rail and road services to members in receipt of full permanent pensions:

  2. A permit to travel first class at second-class rates on the New Zealand Railways to amputees and others suffering locomotive disabilities to a degree of over 50 per cent for which they receive permanent pensions:

  3. Free medical and surgical treatment in respect of pensionable disabilities. Surgical appliances such as artificial limbs, etc., are also supplied free and kept in good order and repair:

  4. Payment of an annual travelling allowance of up to £26 to totally disabled pensioners who are unfit to travel alone:

  5. Payment of up to £100 towards the cost of structural alterations with a £25 provision for furniture to provide special accommodation for a pensioner suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis:

  6. A maximum accommodation allowance of £2 5s. a day is payable to war pensioners reporting for medical examination or treatment, while compensation of up to £2 2s. 6d. per day is paid in respect of loss of earnings:

  7. Interest-free loans to certain seriously disabled pensioners to purchase motorcars; payment of loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities; gallantry awards to disablement pensioners; and funeral grants in respect of deceased ex-servicemen.

Pensions to Dependants (other than Wives or Children)-In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family. "A member of the family" includes a parent, grandparent, step-parent, grandchild, stepchild, brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, and mother-in-law. "Child," in relation to any member of the forces, means a child under the age of 16 years, and includes an adopted child and an ex-nuptial child (subject to certain conditions). The parents of a male member of the forces are included in the definition of dependant in every case, without proof of preservice dependency. Also, except in the case of the wife, widow, children under 16, and parents, the eligibility of dependants is based on the expectation of dependency on the member.

Economic Pensions-An "economic pension" is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

The personal earnings of a disablement pensioner may be disregarded in the assessment of an economic pension to an amount equivalent to that by which the disablement pension is less than the amount of pension for total disablement.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES-The object of war veterans' allowances was to make provision for members of the forces who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service, were ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. The term "veteran" includes -

  1. Any male member of the New Zealand forces who has served as such in actual engagement with the enemy or, by reason of his period of overseas service and the arduous or dangerous nature of it, is considered a proper person for the grant of an allowance:

  2. Any female member who has served overseas as a member of the New Zealand forces:

  3. Any person who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in the South African War and has attained the age of 75 years.

  4. Any person who was a member of the forces of any Commonwealth country other than New Zealand and who -

    1. Served outside that country with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy during any war or emergency in which New Zealand forces served; or

    2. Served outside that country and by reason of the period of service and the arduous or dangerous nature of such service is considered a proper person for a grant of an allowance; or

    3. Was in actual engagement with the enemy.

A condition precedent to the granting of a war veteran's allowance to a member of the New Zealand forces (or to a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served as a member of Use forces of a Commonwealth country other than New Zealand) is a minimum of five years' continuous residence in New Zealand immediately preceding the date of the claim. Continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate, increased by one month for each year in excess of five that the veteran has resided in New Zealand; any absences as a member of the Commonwealth forces are also disregarded. For any other person residence of at least 20 years preceding application for an allowance is required, although absences not exceeding two years in the aggregate during that period are permitted with a further allowance of six months' absence for every year of residence in excess of 20.

Whether or not a claimant for an allowance is unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical infirmity is a question of fact to be determined by the War Pensions Board. Claimants have the right of appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pensions in the determination of the basic war veterans' allowances. In computing any war veteran's allowance no account is taken of the personal earnings of any woman from domestic or nursing services in a private home or hospital or charitable institution up to £78 per year.

Where any veteran and his wife have attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of £39 a year each may be paid provided that the amount of the age supplement, together with income from other sources and any disablement pension, does not exceed £208 a year.

Where a veteran in receipt of an allowance dies leaving a widow in respect of whom an allowance is being paid, a War Pensions Board may, in its discretion, grant the widow a gratuity equivalent to £477 2s. a year for two years or of such lesser amount as it thinks fit.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS-These pensions are payable under the 1954 Act where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS-The 1954 Act provides for the payment of pensions and allowances in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine as a result of the Second World War.

WAR SERVICEMEN'S DEPENDANT'S ALLOWANCE-An economic pension, a wife's pension, or a veteran's allowance may be increased by 10s. a week by way of a war serviceman's dependant's allowance where the recipient: is the parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand forces, the mercantile marine, or Her Majesty's forces established elsewhere than in New Zealand. Where the deceased was a member of the forces death must have been attributable to war service or, if a member of the mercantile marine, death must have been directly attributable to the Second World War. If the claim is in respect of the death of a member of the British mercantile marine or of forces other than the New Zealand forces, the member must have been domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the war in which he served.

SUPPLEMENTARY ASSISTANCE-Since 1951 supplementary assistance has been available to provide for similar cases to those set out under social security supplementary assistance (see page 192). During the year ended 31 March 1964 there were 448 grants totalling £14,638 compared with 380 grants totalling £8,729 in the previous year.

WAR BURSARIES-Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of war veterans, seriously and permanently disabled ex-servicemen, and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid. Bursaries are paid at the following rates:

Class of BursaryPer Year
 £s.d.
(a) Secondary school children2500
(b) Full-time university students3000
(c) Part-time university students1000
(d) Part-time technical school children1100

The rates payable under (a) and (b) are doubled in the case of an orphan child or a child whose father or mother is in receipt of an economic pension or a war veteran's allowance.

During 1963-4, 3,018 bursaries were granted, expenditure on this behalf being £136,172 for the year. The 1962-63 figures were 2,526 bursaries and £51,574.

WAR PENSIONS APPEAL BOARD-A claimant may appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board from a decision of a War Pensions Board within six months of the date on which the decision of the latter was communicated to him. Such an appeal can be made only in so far as it relates to -

  1. The rejection of any claim for a pension in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the forces on the ground that the death or disablement was not attributable to his service as a member of the forces or that the condition that resulted in his death or disablement was not aggravated by such service.

  2. The assessment of a pension granted to any member of the forces in so far as the assessment is based on medical grounds.

  3. The rejection of any claim for a war veteran's allowance on the ground that the applicant is not unfit for permanent employment.

The appeal board may confirm the decision of the War Pensions Board or may grant a pension, or, within the limits prescribed by the Act, may increase or reduce the amount of any pension. The number of appeals dealt with was 166 in 1963-64. Of these, 66 or 40 per cent were upheld.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.-During the year ended 31 March 1964 the Department dealt with 3,042 applications for war pensions. Of these, 760 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, and war veterans' allowances. The total for the previous year was 3,012; of these, 530 were in respect of the applicants' own disability. In addition there were 128 claims received during the year in respect of disablement arising from service with peacetime armed forces, of which 63 were granted and 65 declined.

Summary of Disabilities for Which Pensions Granted, 1939-64-The following is a summary of the disabilities attributed to war service from 1939 onwards and for which ex-service personnel had been granted pensions up to 31 March 1964.

Class of Disability or DiseaseType of ServiceTotalPercentage of Total
Overseas (1939-45)K ForceJ ForceNew Zealand
Infections and infestations2,0489271552,3023.8
Nervous system9,60940131,73611,39818.8
Eye, ear, and nose6,95385201,4468,50414.0
Circulatory and blood system2,4511021,0613,5245.8
Metabolism and endocrine system428211796101.0
Respiratory system3,66230541,2304,9768.2
Diseases of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments5,2222981,8557,11411.7
Digestive system4,59238121,2255,8679.7
Generative system346111244720.8
Gunshot wounds and accidental injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissues8,058112281,89110,08916.6
Skin2,53825125483,1235.2
Areolar tissue482-28780.1
Tumours and neoplastic growth2102-552670.5
Malformations3011-1324340.7
Amputations (not including fingers and toes)5054-225310.9
Urinary tract629731577961.3
Debility445--1095540.9
 Totals48,04548016111,95360,639100.0

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914-18)Second World War (1939-45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary AssistanceTotal
Number in Force
195417,41924,7661046,81029249..49,161
195517,07424,7031647,61628249..49,618
195616,68324,6871838,47926249..50,091
195716,31724,5192009,52024279..50,616
195815,69424,33020310,88121269..51,164
195915,38324,42319912,1572128911652,336
196014,89024,43020912,9612124912752,671
196114,33924,51819714,2511928916153,522
196213,84524,67620914,7491729817853,711
196313,10424,73720315,1851627817453,454
196412,55624,52118414,3501425821251,870
Expenditure (£)
19542,776,8912,107,5759,3771,822,0184,5282,3841,6182,7726,727,163
19553,110,9482,341,94014,5052,212,2235,0512,8671,9343,2657,692,733
19563,043,3952,357,35514,8332,707,3085,3632,6681,9784,2548,137,154
19573,126,5462,410,85917,9902,999,5655,1593,3751,9435,5428,570,979
19583,294,3682,566,81619,3863,539,0985,0883,5902,1017,1029,437,549
19593,332,2392,721,44417,5194,508,7725,4054,0062,2679,05510,600,707
19603,390,1832,837,89817,7014,927,6815,5023,8522,1499,58011,194,546
19613,319,4982,878,56417,6305,704,8735,4954,1082,3239,54411,942,035
19623,291,4162,938,00413,4336,124,8865,3264,2131,99310,88412,390,155
19633,188,9843,208,7978,7666,360,2225,0294,1181,9058,72912,786,550
19643,378,2463,483,54813,6536,463,9115,2024,7832,10914,63813,366,090

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following: (a) travelling allowances of 10s. a week paid to 1,350 pensioners at 31 March 1964; (b) clothing allowances, of which 1,376 were being paid at 31 March and expenditure on which for 1963-64 was £32,950; and (c) gallantry awards of an annual value of £1,642. The following are not included: (a) costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security amounting to £77,238 in 1963-64 and £56,104 in 1962-63; (b) railway and bus concessions to pensioners for total and permanent disablement and for locomotive disabilities for which a permanent pension of over 50 per cent disablement has been granted, costing £21,142 in 1963-64 and £18,748 in the previous year; (c) loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities, expenditure under this heading being £618 in 1963-64; (d) funeral grants, which cost £28,581 in 1963-64; and (e) 40 interest-free loans in 1963-64 totalling £14,888 towards the purchase of motor vehicles by certain seriously disabled pensioners.

Administrative costs for 1963-64 in respect of war pensions and allowances amounted to £13,989 as against £13,227 in 1962-63.

The numbers of First and Second World War and K Force pensions in force as at 31 March of each of the latest six years are given below.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
PermanentTemporaryWidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914-18
195910,3402081,9432,8147815,383
19609,8902341,8102,8867014,890
19619,4811751,6992,9236114,339
19629,1091411,5363,0065313,845
19638,5531221,3363,0494413,104
19648,0381221,2703,0913512,556
Second World War, 1939-45
195915,8045,6927981,49463524,423
196016,1055,3538411,56456724,430
196116,7774,7258421,56061424,518
196217,0014,4408701,60376224,676
196317,3964,1268731,63370924,737
196417,6283,7798491,67658924,521
K Force
195957137212199
196066136412209
1961831102-2197
1962991052-3209
1963101972-3203
1964103772-2184

The number of children for whom payments were made during 1963-64 but who were not included in the preceding table totalled 900, being 70 in respect of First World War pensions, 824 for Second World War pensions, and six for K Force pensions.

The next table shows the number of disability pensions in force at 31 March 1964, classified according to percentage of disablement.

Percentage of DisablementFirst World WarSecond World WarK ForceTotal
PermanentTemporaryPermanentTemporaryPermanentTemporary
* Includes "over 100 per cent" disablement which is a special rate pension for total blindness or other serious disablement.
100*1,697211,3923381143,463
90-99115111436-1267
80-89266829010511671
70-795558561172421,302
60-6944234465204211,148
50-59923171,083344662,379
40-491,194111,225354842,796
Under 402,8462212,4982,226715817,721
 Totals8,03812217,6283,7791037729,747

Details of economic pensions payable at 31 March 1964 are now given, together with the totals as at 31 March 1963.

Class of PensionFirst World War 1914-18Second World War 1939-45K Force
NumberAnnual ValueNumberAnnual ValueNumberAnnual Value
 £ £  £
Ex-members with permanent pensions1,780427,116994237,66671,664
Ex-members with temporary pensions153,19121549,306--
Widows -2,382614,3391,217311,013--
Widowed mothers143,23033269,815--
 Totals at 31 March 19644,1911,047,8762,758667,80071,664
 Totals at 31 March 19634,3971,078,9812,725663,10761,526

REHABILITATION-The Rehabilitation Act 1941 and its amendments made provision for the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen, and an extensive programme was promoted by the Rehabilitation Board, the National Rehabilitation Council, and the Rehabilitation Department. Under the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953 regulations were made for the rehabilitation and protection of servicemen and dependants of servicemen who served overseas in connection with any emergency under the United Nations Charter or otherwise.

The Rehabilitation Board determines the nature and extent of the assistance that may be granted to any class of servicemen, and approves the granting of such assistance.

The board has the assistance of District Rehabilitation Committees, which keep in touch with discharged servicemen and act in an advisory capacity concerning rehabilitation matters in their respective districts. The number of committees at 31 March 1964 was nine.

On 1 April 1954 the Rehabilitation Department ceased to function as a separate Department and became a division of the Department of Internal Affairs, in the form of a board secretariat with regional representation at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. From 1 January 1960 the Rehabilitation Division became part of the Social Security Department.

Rehabilitation Assistance-All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K Force ceased on 31 March 1965. There were 12,548 ex-servicemen settled on farms with rehabilitation assistance, while education assistance was granted in 54,437 cases. Total rehabilitation expenditure to 31 March 1964 was £270,633,822 covering loans, grants, farm trading and settlement, trade training and educational facilities. Demobilisations recorded by the Rehabilitation Division total 217,391.

No closing date has yet been set for resettlement assistance, limited to housing and furniture loans, available to ex-servicemen with service in the Malaysian theatre and who are eligible for this form of assistance in terms of Amendment 3 of the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Regulations 1953.

No time limits have been fixed in respect of the availability of any rehabilitation assistance for (a) children of deceased and totally incapacitated ex-servicemen, or (b) ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be retarded or interrupted or become necessary from war disability. Appropriate forms of assistance for these groups will continue under such terms and conditions as may be considered appropriate by the Rehabilitation Board from time to time.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service with emergency forces.

Expenditure-Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the year ended 31 March 1964, together with the totals to 31 March 1964, was as follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1964To 31 March 1964 From Outset
 ££(000)
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance16,7121,843
Trade training -  
Payments to Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League, etc. -17,1482,228
Trade-training centres operated by Rehabilitation Board-5,860
Training of blinded ex-servicemen2,362131
Other expenditure --235
 19,5108,514
Farm training and settlement (excluding loans) -1,471,59642,483
Loans -  
Interest concessions -874,92213,085
Loans authorised -4,076,904195,954
Reserve Fund contributions35,3552,524
Suspensory loans, etc. -50,0735,570
 5,037,254217,132
Grants and other items-662
 Totals6,545,072270,634

6 C-SUPERANNUATION

General-Superannuation for all Government employees is provided for under the authority of the Superannuation Act 1956, and provisions for members of the Judiciary and members of Parliament are also included in this measure. Members of the armed forces, Police, Post Office, Public Service, Railways, and teachers, are now contributing to the one fund, with slightly differing terms and conditions provided to meet the requirements of the various services.

Local Government employees and the permanent employees of all statutory bodies are provided for under the National Provident Fund Act 1950. For the operations of the National Provident Fund, see Section 6D.

There are also a considerable number of private superannuation funds in existence, some self contained. Information respecting these is given at the end of this subsection.

The Government Superannuation Fund-The Government Superannuation Fund, came into being on 1 April 1948, replacing and absorbing the moneys belonging to the former Public Service Superannuation Fund, the Teachers' Superannuation Fund, and the Government Railways Superannuation Fund. Its revenues comprise contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated and other funds, interest accruing from investments, fines, all moneys that would have been paid into the earlier three funds, and all other moneys that may be payable into the Fund.

The Fund is administered by a board consisting of the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Director of Education, the Director-General of the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and six members appointed on the nomination of the various service organisations.

The benefits of superannuation are now available for all Government servants, i.e., persons in the permanent service of the State. Employees of the Government Service, which includes the Education Service, Police, the Cook Islands Public Service, and the State Advances Corporation, in addition to the Departments of State under the control of the State Services Commission, the Railways Department, and the Post Office, may all become contributors to the Fund. Separate provision is made for persons in the service of the Crown in respect of the Government of New Zealand in other than an honorary capacity-permanent members of the regular armed forces, Police and members of the Prisons Service, Magistrates and Maori Land Court Judges, members of the Judicature (Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Arbitration), and members of Parliament. A contributor to the Fund who enters the service of the Government of Western Samoa or of the Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation may, if the Board so agrees, remain a contributor to the Fund.

Membership is compulsory for any person becoming permanently employed in the Government service since 1 January 1964 who is under 25 years of age and is at least 17 years old. Married women are exempt from this provision. Otherwise, membership is, in general, voluntary.

Contributions range from 5 per cent of annual salary, if under 30 years of age at commencement of contributory service, to 10 per cent where the age exceeds 50 years, the increase being at the rate of 1 per cent for each five-year increase in age group. An alternative modified scheme, within the framework of the present standard scheme, was introduced in 1955, under which contributors may elect to contribute only 60 per cent of the standard contribution rates and receive only 60 per cent of the standard benefits. Standard retiring allowances are computed at the rate of a one hundred and twentieth part of the annual salary for each year of contributory service, increased by a sum equal thereto (i.e., on a £1 for £1 basis) but this further amount is not to exceed one-third of the annual salary. In no case shall the added amount be computed on a lesser salary than £600 per annum. The annual salary for the purpose of this computation is deemed to be the average of that received during the five years immediately preceding retirement, although in special cases, so long as the first computed portion of the retiring allowance is a lesser amount than £150, the average salary received during the last three years may be used if it results in a more favourable computation.

Upon retirement a contributor entitled to a retiring allowance may elect (1) to take an increased allowance to age 65, reducing thereafter, (2) to surrender portion of his retiring allowance in favour of his widow or other approved dependant after his death, (3) to elect to surrender not more than one-quarter of his retiring allowance and to receive in lieu thereof a lump sum payment equivalent to nine times the amount of allowance surrendered, (4) to accept a refund of his contributions.

Payment of retiring allowances and annuities is now made in advance in installments every 28 days, no recovery being made should the beneficiary die during the benefit period. When a married contributor dies, whether before or after becoming entitled to a retiring allowance, his widow may elect to receive a refund of the amount of his contributions less any sums received by him during his lifetime, or to receive an annuity at one-half of the rate of his retiring allowance at the date of his retirement (or, if he died before then, to which he would have been entitled if he had retired on the date of his death on the ground of being medically unfit for further duty) disregarding any election to take a variable allowance or to surrender part of the allowance to an approved dependant.

The amount of the widow's annuity is nut to be less than £130 (£78 in modified scheme). In addition, £39 per annum (£23 8s. in modified scheme) is payable in respect of each child under 16 years of age left by a deceased contributor. The widow's benefit is payable only during widowhood but is reinstated if subsequent to remarriage a person again becomes a widow.

Similarly, when a female contributor dies leaving a husband who in the opinion of the Board was totally or partially dependent on her immediately before her 'death, a widower's annuity may be paid, with a minimum of £130 (£78 in modified scheme).

The above are general provisions only and for a complete survey need to be supplemented by reference to other provisions in respect of age, length of service, sex, sickness, withdrawals, refunds, subsidiary benefits, etc., contained in the Act. Adjustments have been made from time to time in the allowances payable to retired contributors and also to widows of ex-contributors to assist in meeting the increased cost of living.

Contributory membership and retiring allowances as outlined apply generally to permanent members of the regular armed forces.

The Superannuation Act provides for compulsory membership for the Police and members of the Prisons Service, with retirement at age 60. The rate of contribution varies from 5 per cent to 12 per cent. For computing the retiring allowance, each year in the Police or Prisons Service is deemed to be one year and one-seventh where the contributory service commenced after age 25. Where contributory service commenced between 20 and 25 years a lesser proportion is added.

Members of the Judicature are entitled to a retiring allowance based on one twenty-fourth of their salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds, and they may elect to contribute 5 per cent of their salary to provide annuities for their widows, calculated as 15 per cent of the final salary. Magistrates and Judges of the Maori Land Court are also entitled to retiring allowances, subject to age and length of service qualifications, one-fortieth of the annual salary at the date of retirement being allowed for each year of service, but in no case is the retiring allowance to exceed two-thirds of that salary.

Members of Parliament contribute 10 per cent of salary, but if at the date of commencement of the retiring allowance contributions are less than £425 the deficiency must be paid into the Parliamentary Superannuation Account within such time and in such manner as the Minister of Finance may allow. Subject to service of nine years and attainment of the age of 50 years, retiring allowances arc computed at the rate of one thirty-second part of a member's salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. A widow receives one-half of her husband's entitlement or, if he died before having an entitlement, one-half of the retiring allowance he would have been entitled to if he had retired at the date of his death and there had been no provision for his serving a minimum period with a minimum of £130 a year.

At 31 March 1964 there were 82,680 contributors, paying £4,402,622 per annum into the Fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 23,234 and were entitled to £9,068,132 per annum, made up as follows.

Class of PayeeNumberAnnual Allowances
MalesFemalesTotal
    £
Retired for age or length of service11,2533,24514,4987,542,195
Retired for ill health1,1692161,385333,711
Widows6,1346,1341,144,939
Children6176001,21747,287
 Totals13,03910,19523,2349,068,132

Accumulated funds at 31 March 1964 amounted to £45,067,275. Total assets, which amounted to £45,444,765, included: Investments, £43,498,990; interest, due and accrued, £489,631; contributions in course of transmission, etc., £184,861; and cash in hand and at bank, £1,271,283.

The average effective interest earnings (per cent) of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1964 was £4 8s. 8d.

The total revenue of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1964 was £14,279,273, including members' contributions £4,433,600, interest on investments and on contributions, £1,876,610, other items £547, and subsidy £7,968,516. The total amount expended during the year was £10,640,953, including retiring and other allowances £9,583,743, refunds of contributions £894,079, and transfers to National Provident Fund £48,131.

In the Parliamentary Superannuation Account revenue was £25,168, including contributions £12,750 and subsidy £12,418. Expenditure on retiring and other allowances was £28,244.

The following statistics present a review of the operations of the Fund during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual ContributionsInterest Receivable From InvestmentsContributions From GovernmentAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund
  £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
196072,8843,5001,1604,9716,82132,263
196174,4583,7581,3285,3817,23235,259
196275,3733,9701,4685,7027,87438,058
196376,4864,1001,6986,2448,37841,429
196482,6804,4021,8766,6469,06845,067

Private Superannuation Funds-Most large and many small employers have established their own staff superannuation funds. Certain taxation concessions are available to an employer and his employees in respect of their contributions to a superannuation fund provided the fund is approved by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue, and it is probable that there are very few funds being administered which have not been approved. The cumulative totals of approved Funds at 31 March in the latest eight years are as follows; as there is no information available on discontinuances, it is not possible to state the number in active operation.

19573,62519614,404
19583,84419624,702
19593,96719634,979
19604,20119645,197

Some funds, particularly those of larger organisations such as banks, oil companies, and insurance companies, provide for pensions on retirement. Although most funds provide for lump-sum payments on retirement, the relative proportions of persons covered by provisions for lump-sum payments or pensions is not known.

6 D-NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND

GENERAL-The National Provident Fund came into operation on 1 March 1911 and is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and three other members appointed by and holding tenure of office during the pleasure of the Governor-General. The present legislative authority is contained in the National Provident Fund Act 1950, and its amending Acts.

The Act enables any local authority to pay money at credit of any account into the Fund for investment under an agreement providing for the repayment of the money to the local authority when required, together with interest thereon. Any other body or person approved by the Minister may also pay money into the Fund for investment in the same manner as a local authority.

The National Provident Fund Board is authorised to act as sole Commissioner of any depreciation fund or sinking fund established by a local authority. In addition, Commissioners of any depreciation fund or sinking fund may similarly pay money under their control into the Fund for investment.

Any money paid to the Board in its capacity of sole Commissioner of any depreciation fund or sinking fund shall be invested in the Fund or in such other manner as may be specially authorised by the Governor-General in Council.

The interest payable on money paid into the Fund for investment in the Fund shall be at such rate or rates determined from time to time by the Governor-General in Council.

The Act provides for the appointment of an Investment Committee consisting of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Superintendent of the Fund, and two other persons appointed by the Minister. The Board may from time to time, with the consent of the Minister, delegate to the Committee any of the powers and functions of the Board in respect of this investment of money in the Fund.

The National Provident Fund Account is kept at the Reserve Bank with appropriate provision for overdraft authority.

In addition to guaranteeing the benefits payable under the Act, the State provides a subsidy to the extent of one-fourth of the contributions paid into the Fund, and also meets all the administrative expenses.

The Fund now provides four distinct services:

  1. Public Fund-Pensions and subsidiary benefits for members of the general public, with extensions for members of approved friendly societies and employees of firms, trade unions, etc.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation-Superannuation for employees of all local authorities and other statutory bodies.

  3. Local Authorities Investment Pool-Local authorities may temporarily invest otherwise idle loan and other moneys in the pool.

  4. A savings superannuation scheme for farm employees.-This was introduced in 1964.

Public Fund-Membership to the public portion of the Fund is open to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 15 years who wishes to purchase a retirement pension and obtain cover for the various other benefits offered.

Contributors have the option of joining one or both of the schemes offered. The Level Premium Scheme, as detailed in the National Provident Fund Act 1950 and subsequent amendments, provides a medium by which a predetermined amount of pension may be purchased by the payment of fixed regular contributions. After five years' membership subsidiary benefits in the form of an incapacity allowance, widows' and children's allowances attach to membership.

The Single Premium Scheme, introduced by authority of the 1958 amendment, enables residents to purchase a retirement pension by making contributions of varying amounts according to their ability to pay. At the end of each 12-monthly period the total contributions made during the previous 12 months are added up and from this total is calculated the value of the pension purchased during that year which together with purchases in other years becomes available at any age between 60 and 65 years.

Both the Level Premium Scheme and the Single Premium Scheme provide the contributor with optional benefits which become available on retirement. These include a variable pension from 60 to 65 years, the right to accept a joint and survivorship pension with the spouse, and an opportunity of surrendering up to one-quarter of the pension in return for a capital payment.

Both schemes are available without medical examination. The benefits to those contributing for five years or over include a liberal widow's allowance.

Local Authorities Superannuation-Funds earlier established under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act 1908 have been merged with the National Provident Fund, and there is now operating one uniform superannuation scheme to which all local authorities in New Zealand contribute; employees may move more freely from employment in one local authority to another without sacrifice of accrued superannuation benefits.

The principle of voluntary membership introduced into State schemes extends to the National Provident Fund schemes and provision is made for the recognition, by agreement with the employing authority, of General or Local Government service within the British Commonwealth or Western Samoa or within New Zealand. A further provision enacted authorises the board to protect accrued superannuation rights of New Zealanders moving from General or Local Government service to service with a United Nations organisation.

The Fund is the approved superannuation vehicle for all statutory corporations and also provides facilities whereby registered educational institutions may provide superannuation for teachers, thus removing another artificial barrier to the free interchange of teachers in the educational services. With the consent of the Minister of Finance, Government Departments also contribute for nurses and other specialist officers not adequately provided for in the normal superannuation scheme.

The benefits and contributions are substantially the same as those operating in the Government Superannuation Fund, and there is provision whereby employees may transfer from local authority to State employment, and vice versa, without loss of accrued rights.

On retirement there are several options as to joint and survivorship or variable pensions, which enable the income payable after retirement to be arranged to meet individual needs. A superannuitant may elect to surrender his right to a proportion (not exceeding one-fourth) of the pension and to receive instead payment of a sum equal to nine times the amount by which his annual pension is reduced consequent on the surrender.

Investment Pool-Nearly 600 local authorities and other approved bodies are now paying money into the Fund for investment. Since the inauguration of the pool the total amount invested in the Fund is £129.10 million and the total amount withdrawn is £83.75 million leaving a balance of £45.35 million invested in the Fund as at 31 March 1964. The following table shows the various terms at which the money is invested in the Fund and the different classes of local authorities supporting the pool as at 31 March 1964.

Class of Local AuthorityAt CallOne Year and Under Two YearsTwo Years and Under Three YearsThree Years and Under Five YearsFive Years and OverTotals
£ (thousand)
Cities and boroughs8,0442,9878044201,37913,634
Counties1,8945992791975223,491
Electric power boards2,3884984601282,2565,730
Fire boards81519728140
Harbour boards2,3141,7311,1035634656,176
Hospital boards3,0601,89796991,2257,160
Sundry local authorities1,24066369233322,327
Other approved bodies2,2836201,3063032,1826,694
 Totals21,3049,0005,0091,6508,38945,352

Nearly half of the pool is made up of money at call which cannot be expected to be retained by the Fund for any very long period and, as a result, a considerable portion of the pool must of necessity be invested in readily realisable short-term Government stocks. From the balance of the longer term money invested in the Fund has developed a "hard core" from which it has been possible for the Fund substantially to augment its normal investable income for lending to local authorities.

Statistical Summary-The numbers of contributors as at 31 March 1964 were as follows.

FundMalesFemalesTotal
Annual single premium8,1377228,859
Public Fund7,5755758,150
Superannuation8,8223,64912,471
 Totals24,5344,94629,480

Summarised figures are set out for the latest three years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1962Year Ended 31 March 1963Year Ended 31 March 1964
New contributors3,6865,3007,560
Total contributors22,42824,89929,480
Pensioners and other beneficiaries5,6675,8785,204
Income -£££
Contributions1,690,7051,884,7462,575,011
Interest (including fines)1,240,9471,408,9841,576,780
State subsidy405,643471,631550,144
Transfer on account Western Samoa330,000
Total income (including State subsidy)3,337,2953,765,3615,031,935
Outgo -   
Pensions717,233774,332830,289
Other benefits527,457510,139651,107
Total outgo1,244,6901,284,4711,481,396
Funds at end of year27,481,19329,962,08333,512,622
Effective interest earnings (per cent)£4 16s. 1d.£5 0s. 7d.£5 1s. 9d.

The following table shows the details of investments of the funds.

Class of SecurityInvestments
31 March 196231 March 196331 March 1964
 £££
Government stock21,255,90529,280,85538,844,625
Local authority debentures28,236,43933,297,83837,126,656
Mortgages747,668788,635773,595
Company shares and debentures237,800239,200239,200
Reversions7,9793,9333,969
Western Samoan Government Stock--50,000
 Totals50,485,79163,610,46177,038,045

6 E-FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act 1909 and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general superintendence by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

LODGES AND MEMBERS-The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, etc., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31 December of the years shown.

Name of OrderRegistrationsLodge Members
196119621963196119621963
* Membership figures relate to "actuarial" societies only.
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows -23723323328,36029,56630,067
Independent Order of Oddfellows1871841827,0306,7996,690
National Independent Order of Oddfellows111444139
Ancient Order of Foresters12712312310,0949,8779,477
United Ancient Order of Druids13613613613,07012,83312,627
Independent Order of Rechabites4545432,5182,4252,349
Order of Sons of Temperance666358349342
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111676260
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society -7170693,6023,6263,628
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia -101010394377361
Isolated friendly societies727273493*478*461*
Working-men's clubs262627---
Specially authorised societies343439---
 Totals95394194366,03066,43366,101

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, etc., of lodges are required by law. For the year 1963 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 764 "actuarial" lodges, with an aggregate membership of 66,101 at the end of the year, as compared with 769 lodges and 66,433 members for 1962. During the year, 2,861 members were admitted by initiation, etc., and 560 by clearance; 1,359 died, 535 left by clearance, and 1,859 by arrears, etc.

At 31 December 1938 the total membership of lodges was 113,709. Each of the succeeding years up to 1961, however, has witnessed a fall in membership. In 1962 the membership increased slightly. In 1963 the membership decreased slightly. The number at the end of that year (66,101) was, however, 47,608, or 42 per cent, less than in 1938. The various benefits under the social security scheme particularly medical and hospital benefits (see Section 6A), have no doubt had a considerable effect on the membership of friendly societies.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (764 in 1963) for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS-In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence.

YearDeaths of MembersPer 1,000 Members at RiskDeaths of Members' WivesPer 1.000 Members at Risk
19591,36119.743234.68
19601,34519.922824.18
19611,30119.763064.65
19621,36821.002834.34
19631,35920.623004.55

The number of members sick during 1963 was 9,708, equal to 15.2 per 100 members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1963 was 259,271 weeks, equal to 26 weeks 4 days per sick member and 4 weeks for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES-The total funds of the societies and branches as at 31 December 1963 amounted to £11,522,254, made up as follows.

FundsAmountAssetsAmount
 £ £
Sick and funeral funds7,598,177Investments at interest9,927,728
Surplus appropriation funds, etc.1,407,897Value of land and buildings1,515,345
Management funds, goods, etc.820,139Cash not bearing interest16,463
Distress, benevolent funds, etc.1,696,041Value of goods36,444
Total11,522,254Other assets18,731
  Owing by management funds7,543
  Total11,522,254

The net income from investments credited to the sick and funeral funds for 1963 amounted to £425,106, the average rate being £5 16s. per cent, as against £5 9s. 3d. in 1962.

There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies, the increase in the last 10 years amounting to £3,998,371, or 53 per cent. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last 10 years amounting to £70 18s. (69 per cent).

YearTotal FundsAverage Capital per Member
 ££ s. d.
19537,523,883103 8 3
19547,780,419108 2 0
19558,078,280113 6 11
19568,512,156120 10 1
19578,840,887126 10 4
19589,140,125132 10 10
19599,524,723140 18 8
19609,989,885150 11 5
196110,492,453158 18 1
196210,982,198165 6 3
196311,522,254174 6 3

Chapter 7. Section 7 EDUCATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL-The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society-a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors-is reflected in education administration by the policy of giving education at all levels to those' who desire it. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity.

Education in New Zealand has its legal basis in the Education Act 1914 (with a number of later amendments), which was based largely on the original Education Act 1877. The Act provides for compulsory education, which is free and secular in public schools.

The original Education Act, which was mainly concerned with the provision of public primary education, created the Department of Education and prescribed the constitution and functions of education boards and school committees. As far as mere structure is concerned, this still remains the pattern of the system of public primary school administration but there have been, in the intervening years, great changes in the relative function of the three types of authority. The general tendency over the first 50 years of the national system of education was for final power and responsibility to shift from the school committees to the education boards and from the education boards to the Department, but since 1930 this tendency has been arrested.

The Department controls the inspectorate and supervises the staffing of schools and all matters pertaining to curricula and conducts the School Certificate Examination. The Maori schools, the Correspondence School, the Technical Correspondence Institute, and several special schools are administered by the Department. It has official contacts with the University Grants Committee and the National Council of Adult Education, whilst the universities are independent in their educational activities. The Department distributes the funds voted annually for education by Parliament, and it administers the capital expenditure voted for educational building. There are regional offices of the Department in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

All schools, both at the primary and the post-primary level, are regularly visited by inspectors, who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. They also assess teaching efficiency for grading purposes in State-controlled schools.

Education Boards and School Committees-There remains, however, a considerable amount of local and regional control. Statutory boards (i.e. education boards administering public, primary, and intermediate schools, and governing bodies of post-primary schools) are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for teachers' salaries, for maintenance of schools and new building of schools, for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

Each primary school has its locally elected committee of parents (school committee), which is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of the school committee form the electorate for electing the board members. The local boards controlling post-primary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and other local organisations, and, in the case of technical schools, of employers and employees in local industries.

Although the boards and the school committees have lost many of their original powers, they have not ceased to play an important part in the system. A school committee's primary function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters. In the primary field in particular, the education boards are still the initiating bodies on matters of buildings, sites, conveyance of pupils, consolidation, and provision of school facilities generally, and, although the final word often lies with the Minister of Education or the Department, the boards have no small influence in the fixing of policy within their districts.

Trends and Problems-Among the main problems in education at present are those arising from the dramatic increase in the school population during the post-war years. At a time when smaller classes were being planned for, the intake of pupils became greater than ever before and this slowed up the move to reduce the size of classes. Such reduction, however, is still regarded as a major educational objective. The problem has been complicated by a general shortage of adolescent labour and there has been difficulty in training sufficient teachers to staff the schools.

Prominent among trends that have become discernible in recent years are the following: a more flexible school and class organisation; a fuller recognition of individual differences among children; study of subject-matter that has real meaning for children; free post-primary education for all; and developments in the field of advanced technical education to meet needs arising from the expansion and diversification of industry.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND-On 15 February 1960 the Minister of Education announced that Sir George Currie, Vice-Chancellor of the University of New Zealand, had accepted the Government's invitation to serve as chairman on a broadly representative, 11-member commission on New Zealand education.

Under its terms of reference, the Commission was to consider the publicly controlled system of primary, post-primary, and technical education in relation to the present and future needs of the country. It was also to consider the question of financial assistance to private schools.

In July 1960 the Commission presented an interim report on post-primary staffing and recruitment. The public hearings of the Commission which began in May 1960 were completed by the end of June 1961. The hearings were held in various centres and opportunity was taken by the Commission to visit teachers training colleges, schools, and educational institutions of all kinds. The official report of the Commission, which was submitted to the Minister of Education on 12 June 1962, contained a large number of recommendations for improvements in the national system of education, some of which have already been implemented. The Report of the Commission on Education in New Zealand can be purchased from the Government Printer.

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM-A child has wide opportunities for education. He may at the age of three enter a free kindergarten under the control of the Free Kindergarten Association. At the age of five he may enter, and at seven he must enter, either a primary school under one of the 10 education boards, or some other registered primary school, or, if living in an isolated area or physically handicapped, the primary department of the Education Department's Correspondence School. All State primary schools are co-educational. The child passes through the infant classes and Standards 1, 2, 3, and 4. This normally takes six years. The remaining two years of the primary course will be taken either in Forms I and II at the same primary school or, if there is one conveniently situated, at an intermediate school. The intermediate school is a centrally situated school which pupils enter from the surrounding primary schools (called in these circumstances "contributing schools") after they have completed the primary-school course as far as Standard 4. Because the intermediate school comprises a fairly large number of pupils (usually between 300 and 600) who are mainly between the ages of 11 and 13 years it is possible to classify them into groups of approximately equal ability, provide a good range of optional courses, and utilise specialist teachers and advanced equipment to the full. As at this point in his school career the pupil's social and intellectual interests have developed, he is ready to take full advantage of the varied and enriched courses provided.

On completing a course in Form II or on reaching the age of 14 by 31 March of the first year in which he attends a post-primary school, the child becomes entitled to free post-primary education until the age of 19 is reached. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years. This means, in effect, that some period of secondary education is now compulsory for nearly all children. The only provision for exemption is inability to profit from the further period of education.

When a child leaves the primary stage he normally enters Form III of a secondary school or a technical high school. In some towns a secondary school and a technical high school have been amalgamated to form a combined school. In some country areas a child enters the secondary department of a district high school. Since 1944 secondary schools have catered increasingly not only for "academic" pupils, but for those pupils as well who, after fulfilling the core requirements, specialise in the more practical subjects (technical, agricultural, domestic, commercial).

School Certificates-The School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is now regarded as the accepted test of a completed post-primary education for the great bulk of the pupils who do not desire to proceed to university. The School Certificate Examination is taken at the end of the third or fourth year of the post-primary course. The subjects of the examination are English and either three or four other subjects from a wide range. A pupil may, however, on the recommendation of the school Principal, sit the examination in five subjects in addition to English. School Certificates are endorsed on satisfactory completion of an advanced course of instruction for one year.

Higher School Certificates are awarded after a five years' course to pupils who have been awarded a School Certificate and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of two years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the Universities Entrance Board for admission to a University in New Zealand and satisfactorily complete an advanced course of one year. A Higher School Certificate may also be awarded after a four years' course to pupils who have obtained a credit pass or better in the Entrance Scholarship Examination of the Universities Entrance Board.

Since 1961 a Certificate of Education has been awarded to those candidates who, while not successful in qualifying for the School Certificate, have performed creditably in some subjects in the examination. It certifies that the holder has had at least three years' post-primary education and shows the subjects of the School Certificate Examination in which the candidate gains 30 per cent or more of the possible marks. The degree of success in each subject is shown in four grades. The introduction of the new Certificate of Education followed the recommendation of the School Certificate Review Committee which sat during 1960.

Technical Training-The technical schools, combined schools, and some secondary schools run evening classes, particularly in practical and vocational subjects, which an adolescent may attend after he leaves full-time day school. Apprentices in some trades are required to attend day or evening classes, or both, as a part of their trade training. Where evening classes are not available technical correspondence instruction is provided. These classes include boilermaking and panelbeating, carpentry and joinery, cabinetmaking, cutting and tailoring, electrical wiring, mechanical engineering, motor engineering, plumbing, aircraft engineering, radio servicing, heating and ventilating, refrigeration engineering, ship, yacht, and boat building, painting and decorating, signwriting, printing and photo-engraving, sheet-metal work, and moulding and casting. In some of the larger technical schools part-time students may take professional courses in engineering, and accountancy.

Apprentice classes are well established, as is the system of examinations provided for these students by the Trades Certification Board. In recent years there has developed a tendency towards regional consolidation and the substitution of "block" courses for half-day-a-week attendance even though apprentices live within easy reach of a school. An important part in apprentice education is played by the Technical Correspondence Institute, for about two in every five apprentices are on its roll. Its function is threefold: it fills the geographical gaps left by the other schools; it provides, on a national basis, technical education for some of the smaller trades and occupations; and it produces technical textbooks.

A recent development in technical training has been the establishment of special full-time trade courses for Maori youths from areas where apprenticeship opportunities are not normally available. Courses in carpentry and joinery have been established at the Auckland Technical Institute; at the Central Institute of Technology, Petone; and at the Christchurch Technical College. These courses are of two years' duration. Also, one year courses in plumbing, electrical wiring, motor engineering, panel beating, and painting and decorating have been established.

The Technicians Certification Authority was constituted under the Technicians Certification Act 1958 to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations appropriate to the needs of persons in the "middle group". The Authority, in addition to developing the original courses for engineering technicians and draughtsmen, has instituted courses for architectural draughtsmen, and for building, chemical, physics, and plant biology technicians, and inquiries into the needs of other occupational groups for similar courses are in progress. Some of these courses are available in the form of "sandwich" courses and in a few places the first two or three stages may be taken by full-time study.

The Central Technical College, Petone, was split into a Technical High School and a Senior Technical School or Polytechnic-the first of its kind in New Zealand-from the beginning of 1960. The senior school, which specialises in block courses for apprentices and technicians and includes the School of Pharmacy, is now known as the Central Institute of Technology. A similar division of the Seddon Memorial Technical College in Auckland took place towards the end of 1960, and of the Wellington Technical College towards the end of 1961.

The three senior Technical Schools set up in this way, namely the Central Institute of Technology, the Auckland Technical Institute, and the Wellington Polytechnic, were disestablished as technical schools and established formally as technical institutes under the Education Amendment Act 1963. The Act also made provision for the establishment of further technical institutes, which were defined as schools either devoted solely to the provision of technical and continuation education, or providing such a volume of advanced technical education as to warrant being designated technical institutes by the Minister. The first of the additional technical institutes was established in Christ-church from February 1965 and is to be followed by one in Dunedin from the beginning of 1966.

University Entrance-Prior to 1944 all pupils desiring to undertake a university course were required to sit and pass the University Entrance Examination conducted by the University of New Zealand. In 1944 a system of partial accrediting came into operation. Under this system pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' post-primary-school course. The University Entrance Examination is now conducted by the Universities Entrance Board, and pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify in this manner. The standard of the present entrance examination is somewhat higher than that maintained prior to the introduction of the accrediting system.

Pupils who have been accredited for, or who have passed a University Entrance Examination, may without further post-primary education receive a fees bursary entitling them to tuition fees for a recognised course at a university. The term of a fees bursary is normally the minimum period in which a student pursuing a full-time course of study in each year could complete the recognised course taken under the bursary. Where pupils have obtained a Higher School Certificate, they may receive a fees and allowances bursary. Also, a person who during the first year of his tenure of a fees bursary has obtained passes in three units of a course for a degree of bachelor of arts or of bachelor of science, or equivalent passes in some other recognised course, may transfer to the second year of a fees and allowances bursary. A fees and allowances bursary is tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the student pursues a full-time course of study during each year of the bursary. The term of a fees and allowances bursary is similar to that of a fees bursary. Students who complete a bachelor's degree in not more than one year in excess of the minimum period in which that degree may be completed by a student taking a full-time course each year are eligible for the award of a master's bursary. Further details of bursaries are set out later.

Universities-There are universities at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christ-church, and Dunedin. The University of Waikato, located at Hamilton, enrolled students from 1965. The State supports the universities and acts through the University Grants Committee.

Between 10 and 12 per cent of pupils leaving post-primary school matriculate at the universities, but less than half of the number obtain a bachelor's degree between three and five years later. This pass rate is partly explained by the fact that only three fifths of the university students are attending full time. The pressure on the universities to cater for part-time students has been partly a result of the national urge for equality of opportunity in education, but there is more full-time study today than in the past as a result of moves to encourage a greater proportion of full-time students, a course which was recommended by the Committee on New Zealand Universities, chaired by Sir David Hughes Parry, in 1959. The Committee estimated that the New Zealand universities would probably be producing about 2,000 persons with bachelors' degrees in 1965, and about 2,600 in 1970, but was certain that graduates in excess of these numbers would be required by the New Zealand community. It has been estimated that the number of students attending lectures in 1962 (15,881) may be doubled by 1972, and this is presenting the University Grants Committee with a major problem in the forward planning of a big and complex programme of buildings.

Special Groups-The State system also caters for the needs of certain special groups of children. Maori children may attend the public schools, but there are also public Maori schools provided for their primary education. There are also a few private church schools remaining from the pre-Maori War system established with the help of Government subsidies. For his post-primary education the Maori child may go free to any available public post-primary school or Maori district high school. If he lives in a rural area he may gain a Maori scholarship awarded by the Department of Education which will enable him to attend one of a number of full post-primary schools where boarding facilities are available. Of these, 11 are private church schools operated on a single-sex basis and providing full post-primary courses. Some of them are partly financed out of public endowments originally provided for the purpose of Maori education.

As mentioned earlier, children living in isolated areas or prevented in other ways from attending school may be enrolled in the Correspondence School for both primary and post-primary work.

For children with various types of handicap there are provided numerous special educational services. The mentally backward are grouped in 160 special classes attached to ordinary schools throughout the country and in two residential special schools. For children who are extremely backward mentally there are 25 occupation centres in the main cities, and full-time or part-time occupation groups in 12 smaller towns. Two residential schools cater for the needs of the deaf and those partially deaf children who cannot profit from teaching in an ordinary primary school. In addition, six classes for severely deaf and one for partially deaf children are attached to ordinary schools. A national diagnostic and guidance service organised in association with the two schools for the deaf gives assistance to deaf babies and infants and their parents and advises teachers in ordinary schools who have children with a hearing loss in their classes. Children with speech defects attend regularly one of 71 speech clinics. In six of the largest cities there are ten remedial clinics to assist children suffering from serious educational retardation (mainly in reading). Ten reading advisers assist teachers in ordinary schools in coping with backward readers. Classes have been established for partially sighted children in the four main cities, and blind children are catered for in a school for the blind attached to the Foundation for the Blind, Auckland. Six schools have been organised as separate units for cerebral-palsied children. Where a sufficient number of children in hospital justifies it, teachers are made available to conduct hospital classes which are attached to a local school. There are 46 classes of this type. There are five classes for physically handicapped or delicate children. Children who are admitted to one or other of the seven health camps for a period of six to 10 weeks attend the school associated with each health camp. There are four day classes for maladjusted children and the Department of Education operates a residential school for severely disturbed children. Other special schools and homes which take care of children with the most serious and deep-seated problems of maladjustment or delinquency, the schools for the deaf, and the two special schools for the mentally backward, are administered for the Department by the Child Welfare Division, which, in educational matters, is under the control of the Minister of Education. All other special classes and centres are controlled by the education boards. The boards also employ 30 visiting teachers whose task it is to help children whose progress at school is causing concern, by acting as a link between the school, the home, and the community. The psychological service of the Department of Education is established in 17 centres. It comprises 45 psychologists, who offer a comprehensive diagnostic and guidance service, and ten area organisers of special classes for mentally backward pupils. The Department conducts special classes in six prisons for prisoners whose basic education is of a low standard.

Private Schools-In addition to the various State schools described, a parent may send his child to a private school, either primary or secondary, conducted by either religious bodies or private individuals. No Government free place is tenable at these schools,* but an academic bursary or a secondary school bursary (referred to later) may be tenable at a private school, while assistance for transport by rail and road and a boarding allowance under certain conditions may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or post-primary. All private schools must be registered, and are subject to regular inspection by the Department's inspectors. The majority of the private schools are conducted by the Roman Catholic Church. Amongst the private schools are two endowed secondary schools modelled after the English public school.

Coeducation-To complete the sketch of the school system it should be added that coeducation exists in all stages of the system. At the primary stage, all public, intermediate, and Maori schools and some private schools teach boys and girls together. At the teachers' training colleges and the universities, students of both sexes attend together. At the post-primary level all district high schools and technical colleges have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst just over one-third of the secondary and combined schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all post-primary schools (State as well as private) in 1963 with that over 25 years earlier shows that the ratio of pupils in single-sex to coeducational schools has changed from 51 to 49 in 1935 to 41 to 59 in 1963.

*Except for Maori scholarship holders in the denominational secondary schools.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS-The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July (except in the case of kindergartens for 1959 and 1960 which are as at end of year).

Class of Institution19591960196119621963

* Pupils on roll at end of year.

†There were also students taking part-time courses (3,174 in 1963).

‡Includes part-time students enrolled with Technical Correspondence Institute (7,710 in 1963) and part-time students enrolled with Correspondence School (2,027 in 1963).

§There were also 790 "part-time students" who were full-time day pupils included under primary and post-primary education.

∥Includes students taking short courses.

¶Students holding post-primary teacher studentships (1,712 in 1963) and bursaries (43 in 1963) arc included under universities.

Preschool Education     
Kindergartens (morning and afternoon sessions) -14,807*15,168*15,51716,62518,024
Primary Education     
Public (State) schools351,906357,907363,167371,762380,333
Intermediate schools and departments
Maori schools -13,15313,18712,66311,93711,112
Maori private church schools766689656606586
Registered private primary schools50,67052,09053,32754,61255,679
Lower departments of secondary schools113108967576
Correspondence classes (primary)1,1501,1251,0381,046964
Chatham Islands schools117121125125137
Special schools for handicapped children613613521489525
 Totals, primary418,488425,840431,593440,652449,412
Post-primary Education     
State post-primary schools (i.e., secondary schools, technical schools, and combined schools) -80,46891,001100,797110,059117,525
Secondary departments of district high schools9,0128,3618,8348,4647,453
Maori secondary private (boarding) schools8759601,0171,0311,132
Registered private and endowed schools16,78818,33319,73521,25922,471
Correspondence classes (secondary)507551532505482
 Totals, post-primary107,650119,206130,915141,318149,063
Part-time Post-primary Education     
Classes conducted by education boards and post-primary school boards providing part-time post-primary instruction51,57054,84557,640§63,153§68,858
Higher Education     
Universities -12,45513,67814,43314,94915,732
Lincoln and Massey Colleges of Agriculture1,3501,5841,4841,4831,658
Students exempt from lectures1,0981,2621,4941,3331,304
Teachers' colleges3,7533,8383,8144,2234,536
  Totals, higher18,65620,36221,22521,98823,230
 Totals, scholars and students611,171635,421656,890683,736708,587

The preceding table reveals the marked enrolment increases of between 20,000 and 30,000 in each of the last five years. The expansion of the education system began in 1945 when the enrolments of primary and post-primary full-time pupils rose by some 9,000. and by another 8,500 in the following year. In the period between 1953 and 1963 the total increase in enrolments was 185,000 full-time pupils, and the number of part-time students at day and night classes increased by 37,000 in those 10 years. This development led in turn to proportionate increases in the recruitment of teachers, and in the provision of classrooms, of teaching equipment, and other facilities such as school transport.

The expansion was in the first instance due to the increase in the yearly number of births. This number was some 28,000 in 1936, but had risen to nearly 64,000 in 1963. The number of pupils and students at all educational institutions increased from 192 per 1,000 population in 1936 to 279 per 1,000 population in 1963. A second factor, accentuating the rate of expansion in the post-primary school sector, was the gradual increase in the number of students who stayed at school beyond the age of 15, and left school from a higher form. The effect of this second movement has been that the number of candidates for the School Certificate Examination increased by 305 per cent in the 15 years 1948 to 1963.

The school enrolment increases were felt first in the primer classes, then in the lower standards. They gradually spread to the upper primary classes, and finally reached peak figures at the postprimary school level by 1961-62. With the increasing numbers of school leavers qualified for university entrance, a similar expansion at the level of higher education is to be expected, with a more rapid rate of enrolment increases expected between 1963 and 1968. Projections of school and university enrolment as far as 1972 were published in a statement by the Minister of Education (E. 2, 1959), which sets out in some detail the assumptions on which the projections were based.

The development since 1930 of the school enrolments is illustrated by the diagram below, which gives for the years 1963 to 1972 estimates based on the most recently revised enrolment projects.

The changes in total enrolment were accompanied by changes in the yearly number of school leavers entering occupations. The first change was that fewer and fewer pupils leaving primary or intermediate school went directly to work, and more and more went on to some form of post-primary education; the latter proportion was 60 per cent in 1936, it rose to over 80 per cent in 1945, and has now reached over 95 per cent. The educational implications of this change for the kind of post-primary education, that now must cater for almost the Whole of the country's child population, are obvious. The second change, which is now gradually taking effect, is that more and more of the pupils leaving post-primary school do so from higher forms than formerly. Finally, the total numbers of school leavers, have been increasing from an estimated 26,000 in 1951 to 39,631 in 1962; in 1964 more than 45.000 pupils are expected to leave school, and over 50,000 in 1970.

The enrolment at universities which reached a total of 18,303 in 1963 has almost trebled since 1939. From about 1956 onwards the age groups born after the depression years began to reach the institutions of higher education, and these had from then on to be ready to accommodate increasing numbers of students. The intake at the teachers' training colleges has increased in order to meet the higher demand for certificated teachers. The total rolls at the training colleges were 2,710 in 1952, 2,769 in 1953, 2,744 in 1954, 2,741 in 1955, 3,549 in 1956, 4,055 in 1957, 4,436 in 1958, 4,915 in 1959, 5,318 in 1960, 5,407 in 1961, 5,830 in 1962, and 6,291 in 1963. (These figures include holders of post-primary teacher studentships and bursaries, who attend university full-time.)

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS-The numbers of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Department of Education and also by the Trades Certification Board during the latest five years are given below.

Examination19591960196119621963
* These numbers represent subjects taken. The number of individual candidates in 1962 was 119 and in 1963 was 123.
Teachers' Certificate336303352361417
School Certificate21,17022,36224,93830,69234,606
London University1410---
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate7619---
Homecraft Teachers' Certificate-----
Technological102110103114102
City and Guilds of London111106---
Samoan Public Service230403528480457
Engineers' and Surveyors' Assistants4534325245
New Zealand Certificate in Engineering140222413532846
Technical Teachers' Certificate-203*264*295*274*
Diploma in Teaching---249314
  Totals22,22423,77226,63032,77537,061
Trades Certification7,0027,7168,62810,01611,059

Of the candidates in 1963 for School Certificate, 17,074 or 49.5 per cent, gained a pass, while 70 persons were awarded certificates of attainment.

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
19597,3403,949774
19608,1124,362777
19618,6494,670818
19629,5835,150880
196311,9576,427862

The universities conducted examinations in 1963 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, music, architecture, and divinity; for diplomas in journalism, in fine arts, in banking, in social science, and in physical education; and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 20,733 entrants for the degree and professional examinations in 1963 compared with 19,747 in 1962.

TRADES EXAMINATIONS-The Trades Certification Act 1948 provides for the establishment of the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, consisting of the following members:

  1. Three persons to be appointed on the recommendation of the Director of Education, one of the three to be appointed as chairman of the Board on the Director's recommendation.

  2. Two persons to be nominated by the New Zealand Employers' Federation and two by the New Zealand Federation of Labour.

  3. Two persons to be nominated by the New Zealand Technical School Teachers' Association and one by the Technical Education Association.

  4. The person for the time being holding the office of Commissioner of Apprenticeship.

  5. Three other persons, one of whom is to be nominated by the New Zealand Electrical Wire-men's Registration Board, one by the New Zealand Motor Trade Certification Board, and one by the Plumbers' Board of New Zealand.

  6. Additional members of whom one shall be nominated by each other authority which conducts examinations and issues certificates for the whole of New Zealand in connection with a particular trade or trades, and which the Board recommends should be represented on the Board for the time being.

The members of the Board, other than the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, are appointed by the Minister of Education for a term of three years. Provision is made for reappointments, removals from office, etc.

The functions of the Board are to make provision for the examination of persons practising or intending to practise any trade who desire from time to time to present themselves for examination, and, secondly, to grant or issue, either independently or in conjunction with any other examining body, diplomas or certificates to any such persons in recognition of proficiency in any trade, or in any art, science, or matter relating to any trade.

The Board may also (a) co-opt if necessary any person or persons for advice in connection with any trade; (b) make representations to the appropriate New Zealand apprenticeship committee in regard to the prerequisite education for apprentices wishing to enter any industry, or in regard to other educational matters affecting apprentices; (c) appoint, with approval of the Minister, advisory or technical committees to advise the Board on such matters within the scope of its powers and functions as are referred to them by the Board, and appoint any person to be a member of such a committee even if he is not a member of the Board; and (d) charge fees for entry for any examination.

Payments incurred for the expenses of the Board and for administration generally are paid from the proceeds from fees and otherwise, and where the amounts from such sources are insufficient, the deficiency is met from the annual vote for the Department of Education.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION-The following table shows the expenditure (after recoveries have been deducted) from public funds on each branch or service of education for the three years ended 31 March 1962, 1963, and 1964.

ItemExpenditure Year Ended 31 March
196219631964
Expenditure from vote, education -£££
General -3,712,4994,067,0044,176,102
Buildings, land, furniture, and equipment11,462,34811,429,19411,692,808
Primary education14,478,40615,432,48717,051,965
Post-primary education8,475,0999,758,13910,963,122
Higher education3,510,4644,829,1526,350,115
Training of teachers2,560,7852,946,1863,358,451
Maori schools580,038594,605607,626
Education of the blind142,248203,984253,209
Special schools230,969248,941267,196
Child welfare924,5931,018,4901,126,930
Miscellaneous grants388,665482,461523,648
National Library Service362,557404,921416,226
  Totals, vote Education46,828,67151,415,56456,787,398

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following figures show Government expenditure on education during the period 1953-54 to 1963-64.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of National IncomeExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
 £(000)per cent£ s.
195424,0473.311 13
195525,4093.212 1
195628,5193.413 5
195731,6363.614 8
195834,0363.715 3
195935,9293.715 13
196039,1683.716 14
196143,5533.918 5
196246,8294.019 1
196351,4164.120 11
196456,7874.122 4

Education Buildings-The increases in school population have led to an expansion of the school building programme. The following numbers of additional classrooms were completed in recent years. The figures do not include classrooms provided in replacement of obsolete accommodation.

 PrimaryPost-primary
1958468301
1959473339
1960423463
1961388357
1962602457
1963623363

The need to expand the school building programme has resulted in a number of measures being taken in recent years to increase the supply of classrooms. An emergency measure introduced in 1946 was the provision of prefabricated buildings. A further important step in the efforts to meet rapidly increasing rolls was the use of standard plans for both primary and post-primary schools. In 1951 a Dominion Basic Plan for primary schools was introduced, while, in the post-primary field, three standard designs were evolved; and a number of new schools were built to each of these plans over the period 1953 to 1956.

The year 1955 saw the application in New Zealand of the "block" principle in the planning of schools, giving improved teaching facilities and amenities at a lower cost. The first primary schools planned on the "block" principle opened in 1955, and the first post-primary school in 1957. These planning principles are now being developed further in two-storied post-primary schools.

Education boards are able to plan and build primary schools within specified limits or "white lines" defined on the one hand by a building code which lays down minimum requirements for each type of building, and on the other by the upper limit placed by the Government on the amount of money which it is prepared to allocate to any particular project.

Pre-school Education-Children below the age of five years are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens controlled by local free kindergarten associations which are voluntary bodies formed for the purpose, or at play centres controlled by play centre associations.

Since 1942 the Government has made grants available to kindergarten students in training, and in 1949 accepted responsibility for the cost of sites and buildings for training centres. The salaries of kindergarten teachers and full-time training centre staff have, since 1948, been paid by the Department of Education, and grants are available towards the fees of part-time lecturers in the training centres. Subsidies of £2 for £1 on voluntary contributions raised for the purchase of land, buildings, and initial equipment for free kindergartens are paid by the Government.

Play centre associations receive from the Government a small annual maintenance grant in respect of play centres which meet a required standard of equipment, and a small establishment grant towards initial costs is paid to new centres.

In July 1963 there were 18,024 children enrolled at 235 free kindergartens (9,330 for morning sessions and 8,694 for those held in the afternoon). At the end of 1962 there were 16,871 and 223 respectively. In 1963 there were 200 recognised play centres for 5,779 children.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS-The primary-school system at the end of 1963 consisted of 2,076 public schools (including district high schools and intermediate schools or departments), 142 Maori schools, 337 registered private primary schools (which included 8 Maori private church schools), and two lower departments of secondary schools.

Lower departments of secondary schools may be run for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met from public moneys. At the end of 1963 the total number of pupils in the two departments of secondary schools was 76 with two teachers.

The curriculum of the primary school, as set out in the syllabus of instruction, includes character training, English, arithmetic, geography and history, arts and crafts (including needlework), nature study, physical education (including swimming), health education, and music. Teachers are advised on the teaching of nature study, physical education, and arts and crafts by itinerant specialists. At the Forms I and II levels woodwork and metalwork instruction is given to boys at manual-training centres, and girls are taught domestic subjects, including cookery and hygiene.

The syllabus as a whole has been revised in recent years. Textbooks are issued free to pupils in all schools, both State and private. A series of basic primer readers and a considerable amount of equipment for primer classes are also provided by the Government.

Public (State) Schools-The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in public primary schools and intermediate schools and departments. Pupils in secondary departments of district high schools are not included.

YearNumber of Schools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at End of YearAverage of Mean Weekly RollAverage Attendance over YearAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll

* Includes Chatham Islands and Maori schools.

†Average roll and average attendance figures for first four weeks of third term.

19592,010373,807356,877330,31392.6
19602,028378,927359,580335,88593.4
19612,057403,028*393,270365,47392.9
19622,062407,482*395,917370,20993.5
19632,076416,371*406,535380,00793.5

While the number of schools has not increased greatly, mainly owing to the consolidation of small rural schools, the total rolls have increased by 112,000 since 1953. The changes which have taken place in the size of schools may be seen from the following table.

Number of Public Schools19531963Increase (+) or Decrease (−)

Note: In addition there were four public schools in the Chatham Islands and 32 special schools for handicapped children.

Roll 70 and under1,057842−215
Roll 71 to 350534713+ 179
Roll 351 and over308485+ 177
 Totals1,8992,040+ 141

In each of the education districts are located inspectors of primary schools who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school inspectors at 31 March 1964 was 75, allocated as follows: Auckland, 18; South Auckland, 12; Hawke's Bay, 5; Taranaki, 4; Wanganui, 4; Wellington, 10; Nelson, 3; Canterbury, 11; Otago, 4; Southland, 4. In addition there are one chief inspector and four inspectors in the Head Office of the Department.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms I and II only of intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age in Years1961: Total Pupils1962: Total Pupils1963Percentage of Total Pupils
BoysGirlsTotal Pupils196119621963
546,01747,78425,06523,74748,81212.712.912.8
645,90847,50024,86023,46848,32812.612.812.7
744,29645,83324,38423,00547,38912.212.312.5
842,96044,83323,81322,41546,22811.812.112.2
942,78543,07723,07622,11845,19411.811.611.9
1041,65342,47422,07220,96843,04011.511.411.3
1141,40941,98722,19220,90843,10011.411.311.3
1239,62940,46021,19919,53440,73310.910.910.7
1316,24615,6339,1266,45815,5844.54.241
142,1392,0031,0986321,7300.60.50.5
1516718911578193......
16 and over831148356139......
 Totals363,292371,887197,083183,387380,470100.0100.0100.0

The next table gives the number of public primary schools in each education district as at 30 September 1963, classified according to roll numbers. The number of intermediate schools and departments is also shown.

Roll NumbersEducation DistrictTotal Number of Schools
AucklandSouth AucklandTaranakiWanganuiHawke's BayWellingtonNelsonCanterburyOtagoSouthland

Note: In addition there were four public schools in the Chatham Islands and 32 special schools for handicapped children.

* One normal intermediate school is included in this figure.

1- 8-1-216-31-14
9- 2423241429363310461823256
25- 305931161071911889
31- 7059724537453414884346483
71-1104651111719209281719237
111-15021291081513115104126
151-19015246469514117101
191-230151144610-46969
231-270111054643115-59
271-3101384168387563
311-35099233112117158
351-39027123387248377
391-4302035265396160
431-4701913346154102278
471-5101310-5410172557
511-550169-333-31240
551-590871224-10--34
591-63053-5-2-5--20
631-67024-1-2-22-13
671-71061-1-2-4--14
711-75011---2-2--6
751-790-1---2-1--4
791-830---------- 
831-870-1--------1
871-910---------- 
911-950-----1----1
951-990----1----1 
Normal schools21-1-2-11-8
Intermediate schools and departments23*12*45*6726*4*271
Totals359326120152184223663111621372,040

Primary Schools for Maoris-Some 74.5 per cent of the Maori children in New Zealand are educated in the public schools, 19.6 per cent at Maori schools, and 5.9 per cent at registered private schools (including those at Maori private church schools). At 1 July 1963 there were 38,703 attending public schools out of a total of 51,972 Maori children receiving primary education in New Zealand. The long-term policy, endorsed by representatives of the Maori people themselves, is gradually to transfer the Maori schools now directly under the Department of Education to the control of the local education boards. However, transfers will take place only after full consultations with the local Maori people.

The language of instruction in the Maori schools is English, but the schools are not completely English in outlook, for Maori arts and crafts, songs, legend, and history are taught.

Methods of teaching are practical, and objectives closely related to the special needs of the Maori people. In many of the Maori schools, such equipment as woodwork rooms, cookery rooms, model cottages, baths, hot and cold showers, and laundries is supplied. Health education is featured in every Maori school.

The number of pupils on the rolls of the 142 Maori schools at 1 July 1963 was 11,112 (including 930 European children), while the total roll number of the 8 Maori private church schools was 586. In addition 2,501 Maori children were on the rolls of registered private primary schools.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Maori schools during the latest five years.

YearNumber of Schools at End of YearRoll at 1 JulyAverage Attendance, Whole YearAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly RollNumber of Teachers
MaoriEuropeanMalesFemales

* Average roll and attendance figures for first four weeks of third term.

†Includes junior assistants (1 male and 84 females in 1963).

195915612,0631,09011,54786.0240309
196015612,0981,08911,61988.5252310
196115411,6061,05711,17188.9234312
196215010,95398411,405*95.1*227289
196314210,18293010,166*90.7*210271

Four inspectors of schools attached to the Department of Education are engaged in the inspection of Maori schools, Maori private church schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Intermediate Schools-Pupils on the rolls of the 67 intermediate schools and 4 intermediate departments at the end of 1963 numbered 36,090. The progress that is being made with the establishment of this type of school may be gauged from the fact that 23 years earlier (1940) the number of pupils was 5,450. Of all children in Forms I and II of public (primary and intermediate) schools at 1 July 1963, 42.5 per cent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest three years were as follows.

Age, in Years196119621963
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10134178312123200323160234394
114,9615,52010,4815,0765,60610,6825,8816,31312,194
127,8017,46015,2618,1957,78715,9828,6067,95016,556
133,7022,5216,2233,6032,4696,0723,8042,6396,443
14535275810484259743449272721
15363369572784472976
16 and over3584598210
 Totals17,17215,99233,16417,54216,35333,89518,95517,43936,394

The average roll at September 1963 was 36,097 and the average attendance for the same period was 34,228.

Private Schools-No private school may be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration. Certain standards of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum have to be fulfilled as a condition of registration. In general, the instruction afforded must be as efficient as in a State school of the same class.

The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools for each of the last five years. The figures include Maori private church schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsRoll at End of YearAverage Yearly AttendanceTeachers
BoysGirlsTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Average attendance as at September.
195832425,07425,98951,06347,0321801,1361,316
195933726,83026,60153,43148,2771991,2051,404
196033527,05127,11754,16849,7881791,2451,424
196133627,72827,81555,54351,3702001,2801,480
196233928,24528,58156,82653,027*2081,3121,520
196333728,85429,10457,95854,477*2141,3531,567

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 273 at the end of 1963 with 50,693 pupils (25,318 boys and 25,375 girls) and 1,264 teachers (104 males and 1,160 females). The remaining private schools comprised 53 church schools of other denominations with 259 teachers and 6,291 pupils, and 11 undenominational schools with 44 teachers and 974 pupils.

POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS-One of the most striking features in the development of New Zealand education is the marked increase in the proportion of pupils who proceed to some form of post-primary education at the conclusion of the primary course. The raising of the school leaving age to 15 years from 1944 stimulated the movement towards secondary education for all. Every child completing the work of Form II or attaining the age of 14 years by 31 March of the year of entry to post-primary school becomes entitled to free post-primary education. Extension of a free place beyond the age of 19 years is allowable in special cases approved by the Director of Education. The post-primary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of post-primary schools are required to give to all pupils during the first two years of their post-primary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

Post-primary schools are either public (State) or private. The following table shows the number of post-primary schools in existence during each of the latest five years.

YearState Post-primary Schools (i.e., Secondary Schools, Technical Schools, and Combined Schools)Secondary Departments of District High SchoolsMaori Secondary SchoolsEndowed and Private Secondary SchoolsTotal
19591391061194350
1960150961197354
1961160951199365
1962169921199371
19631808411102377

A combined school is an amalgamation of a secondary and a technical school under a single governing body. District high schools are public primary schools with a secondary "top" and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial work, and domestic science. Technical schools are described later in this section. Most State post-primary schools are established under their own controlling authority, and district high schools are controlled by the education boards. Where a post-primary school is established in place of a secondary department of a district high school, the education board of the district will usually control the new school for the first few years. Thereafter, the school will be placed under its own board.

The inspection of post-primary schools is carried out by inspectors of post-primary schools attached to the Department of Education. There were (in 1964) 46 inspectors, one chief inspector of post-primary schools, and one superintendent of technical education.

The number of pupils at the end of each of the latest five years is shown in the following table. No account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary departments are included.

YearState Post-primary Schools (i.e., Secondary Schools, Technical Schools, and Combined Schools)District High SchoolsMaori Secondary SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsCorrespondence SchoolTotal
195975,9288,23674216,496496101,898
196085,2157,54292717,757467111,908
196195,0767,93198619,237439123,669
1962103,4987,7331,01620,742469133,458
1963110,5466,7441,08921,956431140,766

The foregoing table does not include part-time students attending technical classes (59,121 in July 1963), students receiving part-time tuition from the Correspondence School (2,027 in July 1963), and students receiving part-time instruction from the Technical Correspondence School (7,710 in July 1963).

The numbers of each sex attending post-primary schools at the end of 1963 were: State post-primary schools, 58,999 boys and 51,547 girls; secondary departments of district high schools, 3,302 and 3,442; Maori secondary schools, 688 and 401, endowed and registered private secondary schools, 10,752 and 11,204; and full-time at Correspondence School, 162 and 269.

Technical Schools-The technical schools fall roughly into two types: (a) those in the small centres, which provide for all the post-primary needs and are distinguishable from secondary schools only by having in general a rather more strongly developed practical side; and (b) the large technical schools in the main centres, in which there is less evidence of the generalised academic curriculum, since this is adequately provided by the city secondary schools.

However, even in the latter type most of the courses in the day schools are still designedly prevocational and not genuinely "technical" in character. A more recent tendency in the largest centres is for technical schools of the second type to split up into two schools, one a local technical high school, and the other a senior technical school or technical institute providing technical classes or courses of a special or advanced character and serving a wider regional area. Technical schools are normally controlled by a board of managers, but the education board of the district may act in a similar capacity. Control of a technical school by an education board will, however, usually be for a limited period of up to three years; thereafter the school will, if it remains a technical school, be placed under its own board of managers.

Technical Classes-The number of centres at which technical classes for part-time day and evening students are provided was 211 in 1963.

The total of individual students including apprentices attending day classes in 1963 was 68,858, including 9,737 part-time students at 1 July on the rolls of the Correspondence School and the Technical Correspondence Institute, but excluding 790 students who were also full-time day pupils at primary and secondary schools.

N.Z. Technical Correspondence Institute-In July 1946 the Department took over the responsibility for the study courses previously conducted by the Army Educational and Welfare Service. The Technical Correspondence School was established in Wellington to develop these courses for men in the armed services, and also to provide correspondence instruction in vocational and technical subjects for apprentices and advanced students unable to attend technical schools or classes.

The expansion of the work of the school has been remarkable. It was established in 1946 with a staff of two teachers and gave instruction in 12 technical subjects. Instruction is now given in 315 technical subjects. This work is mainly in three categories: first, the correction of students' test papers and the supervision of student studies; second, the preparation of new, and the revision of old assignments for students' use; third, the preparation of textbooks. So far the school has published 13 textbooks and two are at present being written.

The main function of the school, now known as the Technical Correspondence Institute, is to provide technical education at the apprentice and technician levels for those who are unable to obtain such education through the usual institutions. In particular, the Institute meets many demands for apprentice training and for technical education at the senior and advanced levels which could not be met, in view of the distribution of population in New Zealand, by the establishment of additional local schools. All students are employed in an industry or profession and their correspondence studies provide a valuable supplement to their practical experience.

In addition to this technical education service provided on a national basis throughout the country, the Technical Correspondence Institute serves the Island Territories and gives some assistance to Samoa and Fiji, as well as to certain member states of the Colombo Plan.

The work of the Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching given in the other senior technical institutes and instruction is given in some subjects not taught elsewhere. The Institute plays an important role in the education of many of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board. It will also be expected to make its contribution to new courses for technician training for the Certificates to be issued by the Technicians Certification Authority.

The number of students on the roll at 1 July 1963 was 7,710. There were 124 full-time teachers, besides the Principal, on the staff at 30 September 1963.

Probable Destination of Public and Private Post-primary Pupils-An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils leaving post-primary schools during 1963 is contained in the next table. Of the totals, 9.9 per cent of boys and 4.2 per cent of girls intended to proceed to full-time university studies, while a further 2.2 per cent of boys and 11.9 per cent of girls stated their intention of entering the teaching profession. Clerical occupations (including typing) claimed 11.7 per cent of boys and 28.6 per cent of girls; shops and warehouses. 7.8 per cent and 12.0 per cent; manual trades, 27.9 per cent and 4.0 per cent; farming, 16.3 per cent and 0.8 per cent; 0.4 per cent and 8.2 per cent intended to stay at home and take up domestic duties; various other occupations claimed 23.8 per cent and 30.3 per cent.

OccupationTotalsMaoris Included in Totals
BoysGirlsBoysGirls
University2,175891254
Teachers' college4822,5202845
Professional cadetship -59613984
Health services662,637-155
Office work -    
(a) Government or local authority9421,39350106
(b) Industry and commerce1,6254,6762496
Shop and warehouse assistants1,7202,54769119
Skilled trades -    
(a) Government or local authority1,0109415114
(b) With private employers5,12274922932
Farming (including those engaged at their own homes)3,58816938723
Clothing workers -518273112
Factory operatives -775739161191
Domestic work and at home901,75024483
Armed forces (not included elsewhere)498283914
Other occupations -3,2492,054667374
Not known
 Totals21,98921,2131,8651,772

Duration of Stay at Public and Private Post-primary Schools-The following table gives particulars of pupils who left post-primary schools in 1963, classified according to years of attendance.

Year of AttendanceState Post-primary Schools (Including Secondary, Technical, and Combined Schools)District High SchoolsPrivate Post-primaryAll Schools
TotalsPer Cent
First1,7992031512,1535.0
Second9,40387885911,14025.8
Third11,7149351,62514,27433.0
Fourth8,0494181,92810,39524.1
Fifth3,840519544,84511.2
Sixth and over3204713950.9
 Totals35,1252,4895,58843,202100.0

It has been mentioned earlier that, except in special circumstances, children are not permitted to leave school until they reach the age of 15 years, and it would appear that many pupils entering post-primary schools remain there only as long as they are required to, as approximately 30.8 per cent did not proceed beyond the second year of attendance. However, in 1948 the proportion not proceeding beyond the second year was approximately 50 per cent.

Secondary Schools for Maoris-At the end of 1963, 883 Maori pupils were receiving post-primary education at the 11 Maori secondary schools, 174 of the total being Government scholarship holders. There were 65 scholarship holders enrolled in public post-primary schools and 26 at other private secondary schools. In addition, 206 European pupils received post-primary education at Maori secondary schools.

A further step forward in the provision of post-primary education for Maoris was the approval of the establishment of Maori district high schools. These schools, unlike the private denominational schools, are controlled by the Department of Education; they provide courses of a practical nature specially suited to the needs of the Maori pupils. There were 10 such schools in 1963.

Academic Bursaries-Bursaries of a maximum annual value of £50 may be granted to pupils of above average ability who are obliged to live away from home in order to obtain tuition in all of the subjects of their chosen course of study for the School Certificate Examination. The bursary, limited to 400 awards each year, is tenable for up to three years subject to satisfactory reports on the pupils' progress.

Secondary School Bursaries-Bursaries, of a maximum annual value of £50 and tenable for a period of up to two years, may be granted to pupils obliged to live away from home in order to take a Sixth Form course at a post-primary school (public or private) which is approved for accrediting purposes. In order to qualify, applicants must be under 18 years of age and must have passed either the School Certificate or the University Entrance Examinations or have been accredited for the latter.

Technical School Bursaries-Bursaries of a maximum value of £50 may be awarded to pupils who have completed at any post-primary school a two years' course preparatory to a specialised course in agriculture, fine arts, engineering, building construction, commerce, or home science which can be completed only at some technical school. The bursaries are tenable at post-primary schools approved for that purpose and may be held for a maximum of two years. Applicants must be under the age of 17 years at the commencement of the specialised course and must be obliged to live away from home in order to receive satisfactory instruction in the courses to be followed.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE-Vocational guidance centres have been opened in the four main centres, and in Lower Hutt, Hamilton, and Napier. The vocational guidance officers are, however, in close contact with the post-primary schools in other centres. The vocational guidance officers, acting in conjunction with headmasters and special careers teachers in the schools, offer their services at any point in the child's career where a choice has to be made, whether of school course or of vocation. When a child has made his choice of career the vocational guidance officer will if requested find suitable employment for him and endeavour to follow up his progress until he is finally and satisfactorily settled in his line of work.

The centres are in frequent touch with a number of voluntary agencies such as "Heritage", Crippled Children Society, and lay tuberculosis associations.

For the year ended 31 December 1963 the total callers at the centres numbered 24,578. In addition, 17,368 pupils were interviewed individually in post-primary schools. Group interviews were carried out with many children and "careers courses" were organised by several centres during school holidays so that groups of pupils were enabled to see conditions and operations in occupations selected for their own particular requirements. Other activities, apart from attention to numerous inquiries by letter and the preparation of information sheets covering over 100 occupations, included 1,742 visits to schools, addresses at 259 meetings, and the placement of 1,077 young people in employment.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools-In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been undertaken wherever practicable. The extent of this consolidation will be evident from the fact that, whereas in 1934 there were 2,532 public primary (excluding intermediate) schools, the number in 1963, despite a considerable increase in the school population in the intervening period, was 1,969.

Transport and Board-A natural consequence of consolidation was an increase in the numbers of pupils requiring some form of transport to enable them to attend school. In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now 17 per cent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education. Financial aid towards the cost of fares is given in some cases where the number of pupils is insufficient to warrant a special school bus service. In addition, free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to eligible children living near a railway line but at some distance from a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, combined schools, district high schools, and private secondary schools, as well as to part-time pupils travelling to attend technical schools or classes, and pupils attending manual-training centres.

In areas where there is no organised transport, capitation payments are made to parents for the conveyance of their children to school by car. Horseback allowances are also payable.

The expenditure on transport of pupils for the financial year 1963-64 was £1,983,314, as compared with £1,921,724 in 1962-63.

In certain cases, boarding allowances are granted to pupils living in areas where there are no available or convenient transport services to enable them to attend school. Boarding allowances are also granted to post-primary pupils to allow them to take, in other centres, certain specified courses not available at their local school.

The expenditure on boarding allowances of pupils attending schools for the last three years is given in the table below.

 1961-621962-631963-64
 £££
Public primary and intermediate6,0476,9055,919
Private primary7,4468,48011,329
State secondary82,708108,555125,119
Maori7,4597,1788,017
Private secondary57,78673,77376,128
 Totals161,446204,891226,512

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1963, according to the type of school attended. Totals for the two preceding years are also shown.

Type of SchoolNumber of Pupils on RollTotal Pupils Transported to SchoolNumber Receiving Boarding Allowance
* Includes intermediate schools and departments and Maori schools.
Public primary schools*391,44563,705138
State post-primary schools (including district high schools) -124,97834,9793,585
Private primary schools and lower departments of secondary schools56,3413,249193
Private post-primary schools23,6032,1912,244
 Totals, 1963596,367104,1246,160
 Totals, 1962579,930100,8875,744
 Totals, 1961560,417100,4865,744

Correspondence School-Since 1922 correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in very remote areas and of those unable to attend school on account of lengthy illness or other causes. The usual subjects of the syllabus of instruction are taught at the school, and in addition pupils who require instruction which is usually available in a special class in a public school can receive instruction by correspondence. One of the features of the school is the provision of instruction in subjects involving practical work, such as needlework, woodwork, and the science subjects. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened and the work of the school facilitated by a number of teachers from the school visiting pupils in their homes in the first term each year and, in four areas, by round-the-year visiting by resident teachers. Residential schools arc held in November each year to give pupils the opportunity of taking part in group activities and of intensive tutorial work in subjects not readily dealt with by correspondence. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held in order to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small public schools and junior assistants in Maori schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of postprimary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government Departments, and others who are unable to attend evening classes at post-primary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School. In addition the school enrols teachers for the diploma in teaching courses.

At 1 July 1963 there were 4,620 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 964 being in the primary division and 482 full-time and 3,174 part-time students in the post-primary division. The staff of the school consists of the headmaster, deputy head teacher, 108 post-primary and 31 primary assistant teachers.

Agricultural Clubs-More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are adjudged annually on the club field day. usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and nature study specialists employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES-Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Public Health) of this Yearbook.

Free Issue of Milk-The milk-in-schools scheme, for the free issue of a half-pint daily ration of milk to children, commenced on 1 March 1937. The cost of the scheme is charged to the Department of Agriculture, expenditure in 1963-64 being £722,842.

TEACHING PROFESSION: Training of Teachers-In 1963 there were eight teachers' training colleges (at North Shore, Auckland, Ardmore, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christ-church, and Dunedin) available to students who desired to enter the teaching profession. At 1 July 1963 there were 6,291 students in training. This number includes 1,712 holders of post-primary teacher studentships (Division U) who are attached to training colleges while attending university as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and who are therefore an integral part of the training colleges. Included in the remainder, were 3,825 "Division A" students undertaking training for primary teaching and 367 "Division C" students undertaking training for post-primary teaching. The minimum academic qualification for admission to Division A has been the School Certificate, but approximately two-thirds of these students have an Endorsed School Certificate or University Entrance. From 1964, Endorsed School Certificate has been the minimum academic qualification for admission to Division A. Nearly all "Division C" students are university graduates at the time of admission.

The following table shows the number of students in these two groups in December of each of the years 1959-1962, and at 1 July 1963.

YearDivision ADivision CTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
19597752,2751041193,273
19608522,2691071243,352
19618772,2811231403,421
19629482,5041731813,806
19631,0532,7721811864,192

The normal course of training for "Division A" students is a period of two years at a teachers' training college, followed by a further period of one year as a probationary assistant attached to a public school. In addition, a new primary teacher studentship scheme introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teacher training course. The allowance payable to the holders of these studentships while taking a full university course will be similar to those paid to holders of the post-primary teacher studentships while attending their university course. Third-year studentships, which entitle holders to an extra year's training in lieu of a probationary year, are available to selected students who wish to specialise in music, or who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of the deaf. For students of "Division C" the course is for one year. These students are university graduates or near graduates who train for service in post-primary schools. To enable students to qualify to teach homecraft subjects, bursaries providing training at a teachers' training college and at a technical high school were instituted in 1943. There were 152 homecraft trainees in the Auckland and Dunedin Training Colleges in 1963. A further 44 trainees were being trained in 1963 as manual training instructors.

In order to meet future staffing requirements due to the rapidly increasing school population a special training scheme was started in September 1949 for selected trainees aged 21 years and over. The scheme was suspended in 1960 but reopened in 1962. The minimum age limit for entering this course is now 25 years. On completion of the special training-college course of one year these trainees were required to serve for one year as probationary assistants before being granted trained teachers' certificates. These trainees are not included in the figures in the tabulation of students at training colleges shown earlier, nor are some fee-paying students (Division B) of whom there were 25 in 1963.

Post-primary teachers' bursaries and physical education bursaries, although still awarded in some cases, have been largely replaced by post-primary teacher studentships. To be eligible for one of these awards an applicant must have reached the age of 16 years on 31 December of the year of application, and must at the time of application have qualified for entrance to the university, or hold some equivalent or higher qualification approved by the Director of Education. Students are attached to the training college in the appropriate university centre, and a senior lecturer, appointed to each training college, supervises the work of the students and assists them towards the completion of their university courses. Each student on accepting the award, signs an agreement that he will satisfy the stated conditions. One important condition is that if he does not achieve reasonable success in his university studies he will transfer to the "Division A" course at training college and there complete his training as a teacher.

The allowances payable are -

For the first and second year of the studentship, £280;

For the third and further years of the studentship, £390;

For the graduate training year-First step on the teachers' basic scale (£710).

Tuition fees are paid in addition to the allowances. During the four years of the studentship a boarding allowance at the rate of £46 a year is paid if the student is required to live away from home.

In 1963, 722 post-primary teacher studentships were awarded and of these 643 were taken up in 1964. In addition 33 holders of post-primary teachers' bursaries in 1963 qualified to transfer in 1964 to post-primary teacher studentships.

There were 40 holders of post-primary teachers' bursaries and 1,715 holders of post-primary teacher studentships attending university institutions in 1964.

Public Primary-school Teachers-The following table shows the number of teachers in public primary schools in the various education districts as at 30 September 1963, together with totals for 1962, 1961, and 1940.

-Sole TeachersHeads of SchoolsAssistant TeachersProbationary AssistantsTotal Number of TeachersPercentage of Male to Female Teachers
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Education District -          
Auckland28-30526961,323832332,67071.4
South Auckland30-2804461891611721,89978.0
Taranaki18-95198231154650481.3
Wanganui444972180335275374288.3
Hawke's Bay3731353189386236584184.0
Wellington4171663333751311191.45164.9
Nelson16-49-81122526299102.0
Canterbury7532244460735511371,68992.2
Otago2911282207356296982191.8
Southland3011021109233134052992.4
Intermediate schools and departments--67-62941621241.157163.0
 Totals, 1963348191,648223,4435,77935998412,60285.2
 Totals, 1962386251,583153,3575,39334896712,07488.7
 Totals, 1961382211,553193,2685,13534695611,68090.5
 Totals, 19406443639911478862,8902274386,58671.6

Between 1940 and 1963 the total numbers of teachers increased by 6,016, male teachers contributing 3,050 of this increase and female teachers 2,966. The average number of pupils per teacher (including probationary assistants) in all public primary schools was 30.0 in 1940, 32.6 in 1961, 31.8 in 1962, and 31.4 in 1963; but the basis in recent years is September rolls and not average yearly attendance.

Post-primary-school Teachers-The following table indicates the number of full-time teachers employed in the post-primary schools mentioned. The principals are included except in the case of district high schools, the figures for which apply to assistants in the secondary department only.

YearState Post-primary Schools (Including Secondary, Technical, and Combined Schools)District High SchoolsTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesCombined
19592,4341,305338982,7721,4034,175
19602,7431,5062951033,0381,6094,647
19613,0131,6492921183,3051,7675,072
19623,2461,8432801233,5261,9665,492
19633,3181,9662511093,5692,0755,644

Male teachers employed in post-primary schools fell from 908 in 1940 to 707 in 1942, this decrease being almost entirely due to enlistment in the armed forces. The position was slightly improved in 1943, and each succeeding year has shown a further advance, the number in 1963 being 3,569, an increase of 2,661 as compared with 1940. The number of female teachers rose from 630 in 1940 to 838 in 1945, this increase being partially due to the employment of women during the war period in positions normally occupied by men. There was a fall to 795 in 1946, but the number at the end of 1963 (2,075) was 1,445 in excess of the number employed in 1940. Teachers employed in private post-primary schools and Maori secondary schools are not included in the figures. In 1963, 1,041 full-time teachers (528 male, 513 female) were employed in these schools.

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS-Free textbooks were supplied to all primary and postprimary pupils in both State and private schools from the beginning of 1959. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS-Regular broadcasting programmes for schools were initiated in 1931. A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

Visual Aids-The National Film Library, a branch of the Department of Education, lends films and gramophone records free of charge to schools. It also lends films free-of-charge to other organisations having some educational purpose. Films are also supplied to the education services in Western Samoa, Rarotonga, and in the Niue, Pitcairn, Cook, and Chatham Islands. A branch of the library is situated in Auckland and supplies films to schools and organisations in the upper half of the North Island. A branch is being set up in Christchurch in 1965 servicing the South Island except Nelson and Marlborough. The rest of New Zealand is serviced from Wellington. Approximately 2,400 schools and 2,400 other organisations having some educational purpose have 16 mm sound projectors.

The Library contains more than 28,000 films with about 7,000 titles. Up to 6,500 reels of film are issued each week, and of these 70 per cent go to schools or colleges.

Film strips are also available on free loan from the film-strip libraries in the offices of education boards. They can also be purchased by schools for a nominal sum from the National Film Library. Nearly all schools are equipped with film-strip projectors.

A tape-copying service is also provided by the National Film Library for some 2,000 schools with tape recorders. Tapes submitted by the schools are transcribed from master tapes held by the National Film Library.

Museums-To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers' training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

Publications-The School Journal, an illustrated paper, is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published six times in the year while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear four times a year. Primary School Bulletins, dealing with topics of New Zealand history, geography, nature study, and family life in other countries, are published every year. These publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private. Vernacular Journals are also issued to schools in Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands.

Arithmetic textbooks for all classes in primary schools have been prepared and published over the last few years and a set of infant readers is being issued.

A series of handbooks for teachers in primary schools dealing with English, social studies, arts and crafts, and reading in the infant school, have been prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education, and have been issued free to primary schools, both State and private, on the basis of one copy per classroom. Further handbooks on physical education and on the teaching of numbers in the infant school are being issued.

The Post-Primary School Bulletin is published 10 times a year and issued free to all public and private post-primary schools. It provides background reading for subjects of the revised curriculum particularly in social studies, science, and literature.

The Education Gazette is published by the Department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State schools throughout New Zealand, and private schools receive one copy free of charge.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year.

HIGHER EDUCATION: The University System-The system of higher education in New Zealand has evolved in recent years from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities and a university college of agriculture. From 1 January 1962, the University of New Zealand ceased to exist and its constituent institutions, the University of Auckland, the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury, and the University of Otago became autonomous universities. In addition the two agricultural colleges which had been associated with the University of New Zealand became, on the dissolution of that body, university colleges of agriculture. One of these, Massey College, then became associated with the Victoria University of Wellington, and the other, Lincoln College, became a constituent College of the University of Canterbury. A later development was the provision under the Massey University College of Manawatu Act 1962 for Massey College and the branch of the Victoria University of Wellington at Palmerston North to be united to form the Massey, University College of Manawatu, a university college in association with the Victoria University of Wellington. This association ceased at the end of 1963, and the university college became an autonomous university on 1 January 1964 under the provisions of the Massey University of Manawatu Act 1963. A new university, the University of Waikato was also formally established on 1 January 1964 under the University of Waikato Act 1963. The university is located in Hamilton. It enrolled its first students in 1965.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee which was established by an Act o Parliament passed in 1960 and re-enacted in 1961 when the major reorganisation was finally completed. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory subcommittee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of the Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibilities in respect of the development of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The Board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements for admission of candidates as barristers and solicitors of the Court.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral engineering, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, and chemical), and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil), and postgraduate courses in obstetrics and gynaecology; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in public administration and social science. The Massey University of Manawatu provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science, and also provides extramural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The establishment of a veterinary faculty at the Massey University of Manawatu in 1964 removed New Zealand's dependence on Australia for the training of veterinary surgeons.

Free University Education: Scholarships-The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships and the University National Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for three to six years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full-time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of £110 a year and the University National Scholarship an allowance of £60 a year. Both scholarships are tenable with a Fees and Allowances bursary (see Bursaries below). These scholarships, together with the Taranaki Scholarships and certain privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them) and John Tinline Scholarships of £90 a year awarded by the University Grants Committee. The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The scholarships awarded at the end of the university course, which are listed in full in the university calendars, include the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, Post-graduate Scholarships and Post-Doctoral Fellowships, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarship, the Shirtcliffe Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the Shell Post-graduate Scholarship, the Michael Hiatt Baker Scholarship, the Rutherford Scholarships, the Orford Studentship, and the National Research Scholarships. Many of the Post-graduate Scholarships and some of the Post-Doctoral Fellowships are tenable in New Zealand. The other awards are in general tenable overseas.

University Bursaries-The system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course which has been in operation for a number of years was changed as a result of a Government decision made at the end of 1961. The new system came into effect from the beginning of 1962 and replaced the former system of entrance bursaries, Higher School Certificate part-time bursaries, Higher School Certificate full-time bursaries, and Higher School Certificate boarding bursaries. The new bursaries are known as fees bursaries, fees and allowances bursaries, and masters' bursaries. In general, fees and fees and allowances bursaries are tenable for the minimum period, not exceeding six years for medicine, or five years for other courses, in which a student following a full-time course in each year could complete the recognised course taken under the bursary. There is provision for these bursaries to be extended for an additional year in any case where, in the opinion of the Director of Education, the personal circumstances of the bursar warrant it. Masters' bursaries are tenable for up to two years. Further particulars of these bursaries are as follows.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university either by examination or accrediting, or who, having been granted provisional admission, pass two units in any one year. These bursaries provide for payment of tuition fees during their term.

Fees and Allowances Bursaries are awarded to students who hold the Higher School Certificate and are tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the bursar undertakes a full-time course of study in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who during the first year of his tenure of a fees bursary has obtained passes in three units of a course for a degree of bachelor of arts, or bachelor of science, or equivalent passes in some other recognised course, may transfer to the second year of a fees and allowances bursary.

A fees and allowances bursary entitles the holder to payment of tuition fees plus allowances of £40 in the first year of the bursary, £60 in the second year of the bursary, £60 in the third year of the bursary, and £100 in the fourth year of the bursary and in any subsequent year.

The holder of a fees and allowances bursary who is obliged to live away from his home or his usual place of residence in order to attend a university affording tuition in the subjects appropriate to his course and year may also qualify for a boarding allowance of £80 a year.

Masters' Bursaries are awarded to students who have completed a bachelor's degree, in not more than one year in excess of the minimum period in which that degree could be completed by a student taking a full-time course each year. They must, however, proceed in the next year or in the year following that year to take a full-time course leading to a master's degree. The holder of a master's bursary is entitled to tuition fees and an allowance of £100 and he may also, in the same way as a fees and allowances bursar, receive a boarding allowance of £80 a year if eligible.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to suspension and cancellation. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in the following year he is credited with a prescribed number of passes. Only one such suspension is allowed and subsequent failure results in cancellation of the bursary.

Further details of the amounts payable and other qualifying conditions for the various classes of bursaries are available from vocational guidance centres and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

The Government offers for competition annually two bursaries to students wishing to attend the School of Social Science at the Victoria University of Wellington. Preference is given to candidates nominated by non-State organisations engaged in social work. These bursaries provide for full fees, a bursary allowance of £80, and a boarding allowance of £80 where appropriate.

The total number of University National, Entrance, Higher School Certificate, Fees, and Fees and Allowances bursaries current in 1963, was 7,418.

Bursaries, etc., are also awarded annually by other Government Departments and include medical, dental, physiotherapy, and dietetic bursaries (Department of Health), national research scholarships and national research fellowships (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), rehabilitation bursaries (Rehabilitation Board), coal-mining bursaries (Mines Department). Study awards are made to selected public servants to enable them to undertake university study. The Department of Education has a very generous system of studentships available for those intending ultimately to qualify as post-primary teachers.

The following table gives the number of students, including those taking short courses at agricultural colleges, who received free university education during each of the latest five years.

YearJunior University, University National, and Taranaki ScholarshipsSenior University ScholarshipsUniversity National, Entrance, and H.S.C. Bursaries*Teachers' College StudentshipsOtherTotal
* Includes also fees, fees and allowances, and Masters' Bursaries awarded under University Bursaries Regulations.
1959156295,2037562,0328,176
1960162375,6797222,3958,995
1961186326,1537322,4049,507
1962156306,7347663,19410,880
1963220567,4181,0643,72112,479

Holders of rehabilitation bursaries numbered 37 in 1959, 42 in 1960, 16 in 1961, 12 in 1962, and 84 in 1963.

Students-In 1963 there were 16,999 students actually in attendance at the four universities and the two agricultural colleges. Of these, 1,643 were graduates, 14,474 undergraduates, and 882 unmatriculated students. In addition, there were 1,304 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 391 students who were taking short courses at the agricultural colleges. Comparable figures for the latest five years are given in the following table.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
* Does not include 391 students taking short courses at agricultural colleges.
19599,9423,34892117714,388
196010,8803,6671,05221015,809
196111,6063,7201,15334116,820
196212,0673,8141,03929417,214
196312,8114,18899930518,303*

The following table gives particulars of students who were taking definite courses at universities, including agricultural colleges, during the latest three years.

Course196119621963
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

NOTE- Physiotherapy first year students only.

Agriculture and Agricultural Science-         
Degree325933436873753317338
Diploma213321625412552952297
Dairy Technology (degree)5-5------
Horticulture (degree)3433718-1836238
Horticulture (diploma)1752230636331043
Certificate in Agriculture---19-1926531
Wool (diploma)901918018189-89
Intensive course35-35------
Architecture -         
Degree118111910831111479156
Diploma11641207948394599
N.Z.I.A.4314410-1011-11
Arts3,1332,5335,6663.0692,5645,6333,1172,8035,920
Banking (diploma)30-302212315-15
Commerce (including accountancy2,476832,5592,5221092,6312,414872,501
Dentistry175217716731701885193
Diagnostic Radiology (diploma)1-11-12-2
Divinity465515466060565
Education (diploma)142421841916525616269231
Educational Psychology (diploma)5-58-87-7
Engineering (degree) -         
First professional247-24725622582641265
Chemical37-3745-4551-51
Civil245-245250-250222-222
Electrical136-136127-1271511152
Mechanical77-7785-85115-115
Metallurgical9-94-424-24
Mining25-2525-2522-22
Engineering (professional)6-62-28-8
Fine Arts -         
Diploma51771288010118169108177
Preliminary1527421896814
Non-diploma385694------
Food Processing -         
Food Technology161172612723-23
Dairy Technology (diploma)64-64------
Dairy Engineering (diploma)------5-5
Home Science -         
Degree-3838-2626-3030
Diploma-140140-147147-140140
Industrial Chemistry1-1------
Intermediate courses -         
Agriculture443474624890494
Agriculture (horticulture)31412214639
Architecture70171140414466268
Dentistry461474624844 44
Engineering4571458515-5154802482
Food Technology------10515
Home Science-88-1717-1717
Medicine310433533275037723845283
Optometry------1-1
Pharmacy---10212---
Surveying---10-1020-20
Veterinary Science3824044-4466369
Law1,040661,1061,009581,0671,100511,151
Medical Science8-8121134-4
Medicine -         
Degree521535745285958755061611
Microbiology (diploma)1-12-23-3
Mining (diploma)---2-2---
Music -         
Degree446110545591045949108
Diploma38112461-1
Executant (diploma)11516415198715
Pharmacy (degree)------426
Physical education (diploma)376910645801255080130
Physiotherapy, certificate6616756368115768
Public administration (diploma)12-1212-128-8
Public Health (diploma)5-55-53-3
Radiology (diploma)-1010-111111213
Science1,9185012,4192,2275382,7652,3465822,928
Social Science (diploma)99188122091019
Surveying (diploma)1-119-192-2
Town Planning (diploma)12-1219-1917118
Urban Valuation (diploma)24-2420-2028331
Other4-4------
 Totals12,5853,94416.52913,0054,03217,03713,2224,29517,517

The spread of these students over the universities in 1963 was: University of Auckland, 4,857; Victoria University of Wellington, 3,792; University of Canterbury, 3,826; University of Otago, 3,384; Massey University of Manawatu, 1,252; Lincoln College, 406.

Graduates-The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities in 1963 are shown in the following table.

CourseHonoursMastersBachelors
Agriculture--6
Agricultural Science51065
Agricultural Science (Hort.)--5
Architecture--30
Arts -12891620
Commerce3-106
Dental Surgery1246
Divinity ---4
Engineering (Chemical)-1012
Engineering (Civil)-102
Engineering (Electrical)-46
Engineering (Mechanical)-44
Engineering (Metallurgical)-4
Food Technology--3
Home Science-115
Laws -61101
Medical Science1-3
Medicine and Surgery--122
Music ---8
Science -6236440
 Totals2061511,782

In addition, doctorates were completed in Science (4), Medicine (6), Philosophy (29).

Staff-The teaching staff of the universities and agricultural colleges in 1963 consisted of 1,099 persons on full-time appointments and 275 persons working part-time. On full-time appointments there were 134 professors, 421 senior lecturers, 333 lecturers, 136 junior lecturers, and 75 instructors and demonstrators engaged in teaching. Non-teaching staff numbered 1,047 full-time and 295 part-time workers.

COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH-In 1933 the Carnegie Corporation of New York set up a committee to report on the proposal to found in New Zealand a Council for Educational Research. This committee called a conference of representative educationists to consider the proposal and approached educational authorities for their cooperation. In view of the unanimous support given to the proposal, the committee recommended the foundation of the Council, and in November 1933 the Carnegie Corporation appropriated a substantial grant for the purpose, payable in five-yearly instalments, beginning in 1933-34. In 1938 the corporation extended the grant to cover a second five-year period, from 1940 to 1944.

When the corporation grants ceased in 1944 the Government passed legislation giving statutory existence to the Council, and since 1945 has made an annual grant to it. In 1953 the Government grant was raised from £3,000 to £4,000, and again raised to £6,000 in 1959. The annual Government grant in 1961, and again in 1962, was £7,000, and contributions from other sources exceeded £3,500 in both of those years. The Carnegie Corporation has continued to show an interest in the work of the Council, and from time to time has made smaller grants for specific purposes.

The Council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications (39 research reports and 18 shorter studies in education) consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and of accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. The work done under the auspices of the Council has been carried out not only by its own permanent staff but also by part-time investigators.

In addition to its activities as a research organisation, the Council acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters.

The Council's activities are under the control of a permanent officer (the director), who was, in the year ended 31 March 1963, assisted by a staff of five. There are local institutes for educational research in Auckland. Wellington, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION-This Council was set up in 1958 following a conference of parties interested in technical education called by the Minister for the purpose of advising him on all matters pertaining to education and training for employment in industry and commerce. It was envisaged that the Council would encourage close relations between those concerned with technical education, industry and commerce. The Council has the following constitution:

  1. A Chairman appointed by the Minister;

  2. One member appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of each of the following bodies:

    1. Department of Education;

    2. University Grants Committee;

    3. Associated Chambers of Commerce;

    4. New Zealand Manufacturers' Federation;

    5. New Zealand Employers' Federation;

    6. New Zealand Institution of Engineers:

  3. Two members appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of the Technical Education Association, one of whom shall be a principal;

  4. Two members appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of the Federation of Labour;

  5. The Commissioner of Apprenticeship;

  6. Such additional members, not exceeding five, whom the Minister may appoint for a limited period on the recommendation of the Council to represent regional and special interests;

  7. One member appointed on the recommendation of the State Services Commission;

  8. Three members appointed on the direct nomination of the Minister.

The functions of the Council are as follows:

  1. To advise the Minister of Education on matters pertaining to education and training for employment in industry and commerce;

  2. To make recommendations to the Minister of Education and to other interested bodies on topics-

    1. submitted for consideration by the Minister of Education;

    2. initiated by the Council;

    3. submitted to it by interested bodies or educational institutions:

  3. To foster close relations between technical education and industry and commerce and more particularly:

    1. to ascertain the needs of industry and commerce and of sections thereof for technical education;

    2. to promote coordination between technical education, industry and commerce, workers' organisations, and government departments in various ways; including research, exchange of staff, provision of visiting lecturers, loans and gifts of equipment, consulting service to industry, advanced lecture courses and seminars;

  4. To consider the coordination of the work of senior technical colleges and the technological activities of the universities;

  5. To advise on location of new or existing national courses.

The Council, which is an autonomous body responsible through its Chairman to the Minister of Education, has under review the possible need to restate its functions in view of developments in the field of technical education.

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION-The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The Act provided for the constitution of a Board of Trustees of the Foundation consisting of a chairman appointed by the Governor-General; the Director of Education (deputy-chairman); the Secretary for Maori Affairs; the officer for Maori Education or some other officer of the Department of Education appointed by the Director of Education; and four Trustees appointed by the Governor-General, one a Maori member of Parliament appointed on the nomination of the other Maori members of Parliament, one appointed on the nomination of the Maori Council of Tribal Executives, one appointed on the nomination of the Dominion Executive of the Maori Women's Welfare League, and one appointed on the nomination of the Minister of Maori Affairs. The Government made an initial grant of £125,000 and the Minister of Finance may approve further grants and also subsidies on contributions to the Foundation of money, land, and other property. By the end of 1964 the capital resources of the Foundation had risen to £718,000. Some of the principal purposes for which the Board of Trustees was empowered to apply the income of the Foundation include the education and vocational training of Maoris; the granting of financial assistance or of equipment to schools and institutions at which Maoris are receiving education; the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending post-primary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects. Although the bulk of the Foundation's income is expended on grants to individuals, the major endeavours of the Foundation are being concentrated on fostering the greater participation of Maori parents, in play-centres and kindergartens. During the 1964 academic year assistance was granted to over 800 pupils and students. While over 200 grants were of comparatively small amounts for school clothing or equipment, the bulk of the grants were towards the cost of board and tuition of post-primary boarding school pupils. In a number of cases Foundation grants are a necessary supplement to other scholarships and awards. Forty-eight university students were being assisted in 1964.

ADULT EDUCATION: National Council of Adult Education-The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education as set out in the Adult Education Act 1963 (which replaced the Adult Education Act 1947) are as follows:

  1. To furnish information and advice to the University Grants Committee and the Director of Education on any matter relating to adult education, and in particular in regard to any matter which may be the subject of representation or recommendation through the Minister to the Government of New Zealand by the University Grants Committee or the Director of Education:

  2. To conduct such surveys and experiments in adult education as it may consider necessary or desirable:

  3. To advise and assist wherever possible and whenever desirable any bodies or organisations which are engaged in adult education activities, including any such bodies or organisations which are financed partly or wholly from public funds:

  4. To initiate from time to time experimental, exploratory, and pioneering activities relating to adult education; and to help to fill temporary gaps in existing activities:

  5. To call conferences and to cooperate with and foster cooperation between Universities and other bodies and organisations engaged in adult education:

  6. To collect, examine, and disseminate information relating to adult education:

  7. Generally to take an overall cognisance of the development of adult education; and subject to the provisions of this Act or any other Act, to do whatever it considers necessary or desirable in order to stimulate activity in adult education so that it may best accomplish the purposes for which it exists.

From the coming into operation of the new Act on 1 January 1964, the Council ceased to make grants to the universities for adult education purposes (as it had done previously) and each university's adult education department is now financed from the block grants negotiated for the universities by the University Grants Committee. Although full responsibility and control of their adult education activities rests with the universities, each is advised by a committee representative of various community interests.

The adult education department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers or tutors. This staff contains general and specialist tutors, the latter catering for special interests such as music, drama, art, and home science. The two North Island universities also have tutors specialising in work among the Maori people. Some of the tutors are stationed in different parts of the university district and serve as area tutor-organisers. A large number of part-time tutors supplement the activity of the full time staff (numbering approximately 60). The work is carried out by various methods-lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses written for group study and discussion. Cultural activities such as organising itineraries of groups of musicians, dancers, and art exhibitions are also undertaken.

In addition to the adult education activities of the universities, a growing amount of adult education is being done by the post-primary schools under the Manual and Technical Regulations of the Department of Education. There has also been an increase in the number of polytechnics which cater for a wide variety of adult educational interests. It was to ensure an orderly and coordinated development of these forms of adult education, as well as that carried out by the numerous voluntary bodies, that the National Council was given the functions mentioned earlier.

The National Council consists of two members appointed by the Minister of Education, two appointed by the University Grants Committee (one from a list of names suggested by the universities, and one from a list of names suggested by the voluntary bodies actively engaged in adult education), the Chairman of the University Grants Committee and the Director of Education (or their nominees) ex-officio. The council has the power to co-opt one member.

Education of New Settlers-The large number of new settlers who have come to New Zealand from European countries in recent years has led to the establishment of evening classes for teaching English and what may broadly be called civics. Several thousands of new settlers have now passed through these classes and many are now becoming naturalised New Zealand citizens. For those persons not in the position to attend classes, a correspondence course is provided. Special textbooks and other material have been prepared for use by teachers and students. The classes arc normally held at technical colleges.

Community Centres-In 1938 an experimental community centre was established at Feilding under the supervision of two experienced educationists specially appointed to the staff of the Feilding Agricultural High School. Classes have been conducted in drama, child care, literature, art appreciation, and physical welfare, both at the centre and in outlying areas. In 1944 a community centre was opened in a suburb of Christchurch. Subsequently, experimental centres were opened in Westport, Wakari, Hawera, and in the coal-mining districts of the Buller. All these receive some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. There are, however, many other community centre schemes supported by voluntary effort.

The Adult Education Act 1947 gave the Minister of Education power to establish or recognise community centres and to make grants to them. On the repeal of this Act in 1963, similar provision was made in the Education Amendment Act 1963.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE-This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library Service, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Regular exchanges of children's and young people's books are sent on a circulating basis to approximately 3,000 schools. The schools served are primary, both public and private, intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including post-primary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 691,120 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1964.

LIBRARY SCHOOL-The Library School of the National Library Service offers professional training to those holding university degrees or with equivalent education. Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of teachers' training colleges. Facilities for training are offered to students sponsored by UNESCO and by countries participating in the Colombo Plan.

PACIFIC ISLANDS EDUCATION-The Department of Education acts in liaison with the Departments of External Affairs and Island Territories to assist other administrations including those in Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, and Pitcairn Island with their educational problems.

As part of this assistance, the Department of Education assumes responsibility for filling in the vicinity of 210 education posts in the Pacific. These officers and teachers are inspected and their rights protected against their return to New Zealand. The Officer for Islands Education has a staff including two inspectors, two scholarships officers, and two textbook writers. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands and supplies of modern textbooks and apparatus are sent regularly. Many publications have been produced.

In addition, a very important function of the Division is to operate and supervise closely a scholarship system which enables some 217 islands students to obtain in New Zealand schools, trade training centres, and universities, more advanced education than would otherwise be available to them. During the term of their scholarship these students are fully maintained by the Departments of Island Territories and External Affairs. In 1963, approximately 237 other students from Fiji and Tonga, the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands and New Hebrides were supervised and assisted in obtaining the benefits of a more varied or advanced education than they could gain in the islands.

The following table shows the numbers of teachers and estimated numbers of pupils in the areas receiving some help from the Islands Education Division of the Department of Education for the year 1964.

TerritoryTeachersPupils
New ZealandLocalPrimaryPost-primaryTotal
* Indicates areas where New Zealand assists but has no administrative authority.
Cook Islands292674,7767735,549
Niue13901,3681601,528
Tokelau Island-24587-587
Western Samoa*4075132,1602,28034,440
Tonga*1184015,9406,70022,640
Fiji*832,91788,8417.77696,617
C.A.A. Nandi4-95-95
Gilbert and Ellice*148711.59643312,029
Pitcairn*1-22-22
 Totals1825,376155,38518,122173,507

CHILD WELFARE-The Child Welfare Act 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Department of Education now known as the Child Welfare Division. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are placed specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children. The powers conferred by the principal Act were further defined and extended by the Child Welfare Amendment Act 1927. The meaning of the expression "delinquent" was extended by a 1954 amendment to the principal Act.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorised to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was made for the appointment of child welfare officers with wide responsibilities connected with the welfare of children. There were 221 men and women child welfare officers employed at 31 December 1963.* The Act also provided for the appointment of honorary child welfare officers. These officers are people of integrity and local standing in their communities who are appointed annually by the Minister in charge of the Division. At 31 December 1963 there were 154 men and women serving in an honorary capacity.

Very wide discretionary powers are given to Children's Courts. Wherever practicable the hearings arc conducted in premises apart from the Magistrate's Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child for the purposes of the Act is a person up to 17 years of age.

Children's Courts deal with cases of children brought either (a) on a complaint under the Child Welfare Act that a child is neglected, indigent, delinquent, not under proper control, or living in a detrimental environment or (b) charged with an offence. After hearing the complaint or the charge and in the light of the child welfare officer's report, the Court may, according to the needs of the case, commit the child to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare, or place him under supervision of a child welfare officer for a period (usually one year or two years) or discharge him with an admonition and, on occasion, an order for restitution or a fine.

A new approach to the problem of delinquency was the establishment throughout New Zealand in 1959 of a Juvenile Crime Prevention Section of the New Zealand Police. The aim is to detect delinquency at an early stage and, by close cooperation between child welfare officers and specialist police officers, to deal with the less serious offenders without Court action. The police, after consultation with child welfare officers, decide whether or not there will be a prosecution. For those not being prosecuted appropriate action is taken, for example in the form of a warning from the Police or continuing informal supervision by child welfare officers. During the year ended 31 December 1963, 3,802 cases were dealt with under this scheme without prosecution.

The number of appearances before the Children's Courts in the latest three years were as follows.

 Year Ended 31 March 1962Year Ended 31 March 1963Year Ended 31 December 1963
On "complaints" (under the Child Welfare Act)572636665
For offences (including offences against Acts, regulations, or bylaws) -4,3453,8144,161
 Totals4,9174,4504,826

On the basis of the total juvenile population at the time, the incidence of appearances for offences is shown as follows.

 Year Ended 31 March 1962Year Ended 31 March 1963Year Ended 31 December 1963
* Number of cases per 10,000 of the population aged seven to 17 years.
Total Court appearances for offences4,3453,8144,161
Rate* -847275
Court appearances for all more serious offences (excluding offences against special Acts, regulations, or bylaws)3,3563,5353,801
Rate* -656669

The decisions made in Children's Courts during the year ended 31 December 1963 are shown in the summary below.

DecisionYear Ended 31 December 1963
* Before 1963 these figures and others which follow in this section were presented for the year ending 31 March. Due to revised methods of statistical recording they will now be shown as for the calendar year ending 31 December.
Committed to the care of the Child Welfare Superintendent559
Placed under supervision of child welfare officers2,039
Admonished and discharged with or without costs, restitution, or fine1,532
All other decisions -696
 Total4,826

Many of the children who are committed to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare and who are thereby under his guardianship are placed immediately in foster homes and either at school or in employment. Those who require special care and training which cannot be provided in the ordinary life of the community are placed in institutions administered by the Superintendent. Some few reside in private institutions and some are in boarding schools.

Of the total of 12,499 children under the control and supervision of the Child Welfare Superintendent and his officers at 31 December 1963, 3,494 were under the guardianship of the Superintendent. These 3,494 children were at that date placed as shown in the following summary.

 NumberPercentage of Total
Residing in individual private homes (foster homes, employers' or relatives' homes) -2,63475.4
In institutions administered by the Child Welfare Division (including those temporarily admitted)55415.9
In mental hospitals -1674.8
In residential schools and colleges (including schools for handicapped children)912.6
In hospitals, convalescent homes, etc. -40.1
In children's homes (including orphanages, etc.)401.1
Attending university or teachers' training college40.1

For the children requiring institutional care and training the Child Welfare Division administers several different types of institution. The Girls' Training Centre at Burwood, Christchurch, and the Boys' Training Centre at Levin each provide for the more difficult or disturbed girls or boys. The centres are open institutions providing full educational facilities with qualified and trained teachers and also a wide range of vocational training. Another small institution at Featherston provides specially to girls of primary school age who are so difficult or disturbed as to require special educational and social training. Two small hostels for girls at Wellington and at Burwood, Christchurch, provide for those who, while in ordinary employment, require for the time being the conditions of supervision and care obtainable in a hostel, There are 11 receiving homes and boys' homes in the larger centres providing for temporary care and observation, as well as one girls' home.

Children not requiring institutional care but presenting behaviour and personality problems beyond the capacity of most ordinary foster parents are provided for in "Family Homes". These are private houses owned by the Division and occupied rent-free by specially selected married couples who agree to care for children on a long-term basis, as a condition of the tenancy. These homes are also used to provide transit accommodation in areas in which there is no receiving home or boys' home. There are 24 of these homes at present in operation throughout the country and more are planned.

Children placed by the Courts under supervision of child welfare officers are supervised in their own homes, except that in a few cases, with the approval of the parents or guardians, the child welfare officer arranges placement elsewhere-e.g., in employment. Magistrates have the authority to order that part or all of the period of supervision be spent in an institution. Most children placed under supervision respond well; where they do not they may appear before the Court again and be committed to the care of the Superintendent. There were 2,464 children under supervision at 31 December 1963.

Preventive cases, numbering 3,531 at 31 December 1963, consist of children who, without any Court appearance, are being supervised and assisted by child welfare officers under arrangements made voluntarily with the parents or guardians.

Child welfare officers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. In the year ended 31 December 1963, 8,158 cases were handled. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even two or three years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and Court action is the outcome of inquiries.

As provided for in the Child Welfare Act 1925, child welfare officers, on receiving from the Registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child.

Child welfare officers administer the provisions of the Infants Act 1908 by which children under six years of age living apart from their parents or guardians for more than seven consecutive days are required to be in licensed foster homes unless they are residing with close relatives and providing payment or reward is involved. At 31 December 1963, 764 such children were being supervised.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a child welfare officer must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child under 15 years, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the Court. The Court is required to obtain a child welfare officer's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least six months is required, during which the placement is supervised by a child welfare officer, before a final order can be made.

The Division also has a measure of responsibility towards handicapped children generally, partly because of its role in assisting in the administration of residential schools for children who are deaf, mentally backward, or emotionally maladjusted. Child welfare officers, more especially in country areas, also assist in locating children who require special education, in advising parents or teachers concerning the facilities available, and in ensuring that the circumstances become known to appropriate agencies.

Inspection of children's homes operated by private organisations and administration of schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important function of the Division. Financial assistance is given in the form of capitation payments for children in care and subsidies of up to 50 per cent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities.

The Child Welfare Amendment Act 1958 provided for the making of regulations for the registration and licensing of "Child Care Centres" (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.). These regulations were made on 7 November 1960 and came into force on 1 March 1961.

Chapter 8. Section 8 JUSTICE

Table of Contents

LAW OF NEW ZEALAND-The law applied in the Courts of New Zealand has three principal sources-the common law of England, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted prior to 1947, and statutes of the New Zealand Parliament.

The initial law of New Zealand when it became a British colony was the law of England as it existed on 14 January 1840-that is, the common law together with those statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date. Subsequent law consists of those enactments of the United Kingdom Parliament between 1840 and 1947 which extended expressly or by necessary implication to New Zealand, and the enactments of the New Zealand Legislature.

In interpreting the common law the Courts have been concerned to preserve uniformity with the common law as interpreted in England. This unity is ensured not only by the existence of the Privy Council as the final Court of appeal for New Zealand, but by the practice of the Judges of following English decisions even though they are in theory not bound by them.

The New Zealand Parliament is now the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country, and there are no constitutional restrictions on the law which it can pass. Before the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 the powers of Parliament were limited in two respects. First, there was a somewhat uncertain and ill-defined incapacity to make laws having extra-territorial application, and, secondly, there was an incapacity to make laws conflicting with a statute of the United Kingdom Parliament extending to New Zealand. Since 1947, however, both these limitations have disappeared, although the United Kingdom Parliament still has the power to make laws extending to New Zealand at the request and with the consent of the New Zealand Legislature.

REVISION OF LAW-In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility of bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other Departments of State is in the hands of the Attorney-General and Minister of Justice. In formulating these proposals the Attorney-General is assisted by the Department of Justice and by the Law Revision Committee, an informal advisory body first set up in 1937. In addition to the Attorney-General, who is chairman, the Committee (at the beginning of 1965) comprised a representative of the Parliamentary Opposition, the chairman of the Statutes Revision Committee of the House of Representatives, the Permanent Heads of the principal legal Departments of State (the Solicitor-General, the Law Draftsman, and the Secretary for Justice), three representatives of the New Zealand Law Society, three representatives of the university faculties of law, and a barrister and solicitor in private practice.

The purpose of the Law Revision Committee is to bring into the work of reforming the law the principal groups, both inside and outside the ordinary Government machinery, which by their interest or expert knowledge can contribute in a special way to this task. The existence of the Law Revision Committee ensures that before proposals for the amendment of the law are put forward for Parliamentary approval they have been considered from many different points of view and have secured a substantial measure of informed support.

COURTS-The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Courts.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a President and two Judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional Judge or Judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal in any particular case where it is expedient. The Judges of the Court of Appeal are also Judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other Judges of that Court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters.

The Court of Appeal, unlike other Courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior Courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to the Privy Council. This leave may be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final Court of appeal in all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The Members of the Court are a Chief Justice and 15 other Judges, the number being fixed by statute. An amendment in 1953 provides, however, that an additional Judge or Judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the Judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of Judges, together with the provision that the salary of a Judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who retire at 72, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives. The Governor-General may suspend a Judge upon a like Address.

Magistrates' Courts are now set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. The jurisdiction of the Court is exercised by Stipendiary Magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 40, there being 35 at present holding office. Justices of the Peace, however, still sit as a Magistrates' Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges.

Stipendiary Magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least seven years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several Courts with specialist functions. These include the Court of Arbitration, which makes awards governing pay and working conditions in industry, and also makes general wage orders; the Compensation Court, which determines claims under the Workers' Compensation Act; the Land Valuation Court, which determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes; and the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

JURIES-The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every male British subject (other than a Maori) between 21 and 65 years of age and resident within 15 miles of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. There is provision for Maoris to serve on juries in criminal cases where both the victim and the accused are Maoris and in civil cases where one of the parties is a Maori.

The special provisions for Maori juries were abolished with effect from the end of 1964 by the Juries Amendment Act 1962. All jury cases are heard before a jury of which Europeans and Maoris are equally qualified to be members.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; Judges of the Supreme Court and of the Compensation Court; Judges and Members of the Court of Arbitration and of the Land Valuation Court; Judges and Commissioners of the Maori Land Court; Magistrates; Visiting Prison Justices and members of Parole Boards; Coroners; the Chairman of the Local Government Commission; the Chairman and Members of the Licensing Control Commission; Officers of Parliament; clergymen; nuns; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in Court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Provision was made by the Women Jurors Act 1942 for women to serve on juries voluntarily. The Juries Amendment Act 1963 altered the law to provide for the automatic inclusion of women on the jury rolls but giving them the right to exemption on request. The age limits for women are the same as for men.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the Court or a Judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the Court or a Judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

The Grand Jury was abolished in New Zealand by the Crimes Act 1961.

LEGAL PROFESSION-At 31 December 1963 there were 2,273 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates. These members included 25 females.

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts-From the beginning of settlement in New Zealand there has existed a speedy and inexpensive forum for determining everyday disputes between citizens. From 1846 to 1925 there were two types of Lower Court, as well as the Supreme Court. President Magistrates' Courts (from 1893 called Magistrates Courts) dealt with the smallest claims, while larger minor claims were determined first by Courts of Requests, and from 1858 by District Courts.

The most important feature of this period was the gradual replacement of the three-tier structure by a two-tier structure as the jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts became more extensive and the District Courts fell gradually into disuse. The jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts was considerably extended in 1893, but the main reason for the increasing importance of these Courts was the requirement, first introduced in 1913, that every Magistrate should be a qualified barrister and solicitor. In 1925 District Courts were formally abolished, leaving the Magistrates' Courts and the Supreme Court as the sole Courts with general jurisdiction.

Before 1947 the jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts was limited (a) as to amount, the maximum sum which could be claimed being £300, and (b) as to remedies, which virtually limited jurisdiction to claims for debt or damages.

The Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 revised the whole framework of Magistrates' Courts procedure, which had been substantially unchanged for 80 years, and brought it into line with present-day jurisdiction and requirements. The jurisdiction of the Court was also widened and has been further increased by an amendment in 1961. It may now hear all claims up to £1,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the Court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may now grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 11 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for Which Judgment Entered
  £ ££
195353,2772,183,45229,8421,180,2751,014,240
195458,1562,496,38832,9321,288,5451,064,327
195566,0782,843,10938,4751,502,3981,318,362
195672,7463,066,94643,8721,859,0331,599,585
195779,0003,212,82046,4771,865,3311,575,680
195882,4933,182,05350,0941,819,1691,575,016
195980,8562,885,95951,3861,805,7101,570,604
196081,1853,147,66649,4991,476,1971,278,360
196192,3833,696,90654,2261,923,9571,716,559
1962108,6984,461,55860,5372,342,3642,051,183
1963112,6924,759,64666,6632,543,7972,235,573

The average amount claimed in each plaint was £41 in 1953 and £42 in 1963.

Supreme Court-The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrates' Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount Recovered
     ££
19531,435106282423367,166232,733
19541,527130237355458,177291,041
19551,614137198365528,585255,513
19561,735146199393826,497400,341
19571,817144206414744,352354,528
19581,931153242477836,059467,872
19592,1361382404711,017,032585,891
19602,162138248443930,991505,078
19612,2011282784661,043,208485,498
19621,891144286466950,778518,297
19632,0081442564361,517,421932,259

Court of Appeal-During the five years 1959 to 1963 there were 237 civil appeals, of which 59 were allowed, and also 10 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in five judgments for the plaintiffs and five for the defendants.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts-The criminal jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts has gradually grown out of the general jurisdiction historically enjoyed in respect of minor offences by Justices of the Peace. The Court previously had power to deal with all summary cases-that is, cases where a statute provides that an offence shall be dealt with summarily-and with a few indictable offences. Since 1952, however, Magistrates have had jurisdiction, which is now given by the Summary Proceedings Act 1957, to deal with the majority of indictable offences. This Act gives a Magistrate jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. If the Magistrate deals summarily with an indictable offence, he may impose a sentence of imprisonment of up to three years or a fine of up to £200. A Magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than three months.

Justices of the Peace now hear only a small number of summary cases where the statute creating the offence provides that one Justice or two or more Justices are to have power to deal with it, or where jurisdiction is expressly conferred on Justices in a particular case. This is provided for in the Summary Proceedings Act and is a departure from the previous law, under which Justices had jurisdiction in all summary cases unless otherwise provided. The tendency is to have all but the most trivial criminal cases dealt with by Stipendiary Magistrates, although the extent to which this is practicable varies from district to district.

The following table shows the number of criminal charges dealt with in Magistrates' Courts in the latest 11 years. These figures and all the figures relating to Magistrates' Courts, Supreme Court, and prisons, include Maoris; Children's Court cases arc excluded and will be found under the section relating to juvenile offences.

YearNumberPer 1.000 of Mean Population
Against MalesAgainst FemalesTotalAgainst MalesAgainst FemalesTotal
195385,8954,60690,50183.384.5244.17
195484,2003,97788,17779.933.8242.09
195582,2184,31786,53576.414.0640.46
195691,3145,26296,57683.184.8544.24
1957104,1425,655109,79792.775.0949.18
1958113,5066,804120,31098.725.9952.63
1959106,3606,622112,98290.595.7148.39
1960117,0617,735124,79697.986.5452.50
1961126,0308.925134,955103.287.3955.60
1962140,9929,918150,910112.658.0260.65
1963147,10110,759157,860115.128.5062.07

The great majority of these charges are, as may be expected, for comparatively minor offences, particularly against the traffic laws. Traffic offences alone accounted for more than two-thirds of the convictions in the Magistrates' Courts in 1963; of the 143,013 convictions, 104,261 were for traffic offences, while 4,918 were for offences against the liquor laws, and 5,118 for drunkenness.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest five years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year.

Type of Offence19591960196119621963
* Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.
Common assault8439791,0671,3121,401
Sexual offences -407376564748602
Other offences against the person176175152153234
Theft3,9973,9193,5003,9503,904
Wilful damage -734977852931943
Other offences against property (including forgery)-5,5085,5615,1075,8656,461
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)4,5564,7154,4945,2945,118
Application for prohibition order696733637764817
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, etc., of police, and vagrancy2,1642,4122,6943,6974,092
Other offences against good order9211,7951,8091,6071,628
Breach of probation356398436472486
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing Act4,2974,8685,0364,9514,918
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income1,7632,7004,1183,5893,604
Failing to pay maintenance1,6901,5311,3131,5311,650
Deserting merchant ships139145226244160
Breaches of price control orders16856139243
Other offences -5,2804,1494,6544,9404,890
Sub-totals33,69535,48936,79840,07240,911
Minor traffic offences67,96077,40085,74697,323102,102
Totals101,655112,889122,544137,395143,013
Distinct Cases*82,30793,273102,340114,749119,870

The total convictions (143,013) for 1963 represents a rate of 56.23 per 1,000 of mean population. Comparing 1963 with the previous year, the larger increases or decreases according to types of offence were as follows:

  Change Per Cent
Common assault -+ 89+ 7
Other offences against the person+ 81+ 53
Other offences against property (including forgery)+ 596+ 10
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, etc., of police, and vagrancy+ 395+ 11
Failing to pay maintenance+ 119+ 8
Minor traffic offences -+ 4,779+ 5
Sexual offences- 146-20
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)- 176- 3
Deserting merchant ships- 84- 34

The next table classifies the result of hearing and punishment inflicted on summary conviction for all cases during 1963.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyOffences Against Good OrderOther OffencesTotal
* A large proportion are traffic offences.
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out6571,8786,2145,18713,936
Committed for trial or sentence2405462877891
Admonished and discharged-910120
Imprisonment5403,3891,0446045,577
Corrective training317--20
Detention in detention centre282304814320
Detention in borstal institution, etc.251,32655641,470
Released on probation2622,5803931193,354
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence -15128220166700
Fined1,1352,583108,242*11,653123,613*
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs939012,8587304,582
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases) ----1,4881,488
Miscellaneous--9169731,889
 Totals3,13413,741120,00920,976157,860
 Distinct cases2,4906,712105,32715,909130,438

Traffic Offences-Traffic offences form so large a proportion of summary convictions that a further analysis is of interest. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed, but cases of negligent or dangerous driving have shown a steady increase.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest five years.

Offence19591960196119621963
Negligently driving motor vehicle causing death2928222741
Negligent driving causing injury3031313264
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle causing injury--112
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury -1824121136
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use1,1351,0799471,0951,161
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle711707713782814
Drunk in charge of other vehicle106225
Excessive speed in motor vehicle16,59021,71325,05927,89228,095
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor vehicle11,43712,67114,05815,05216,266
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle128126115149157
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles -3,0922,6043,3174,1113,931
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles -6,1055,7816,0446,4507,321
Offences relating to driver's licence3,7274,3835,0796,0506,113
Breaches of parking regulations18,02720,96722,00924,65025,206
Other traffic offences8,8549,15510,06512,96915,049
  Totals69,89379,27587,47499,273104,261
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population29.9433.3536.0439.9041.00

Convictions for traffic offences in 1963 were 4,988, or 5 per cent higher than in 1962. Major increases in convictions (with percentage increases in parentheses) were recorded for the following: unlawfully converting vehicle to own use, 66 (6.0); negligent or dangerous driving of motor vehicle, 1,214 (8.1); and offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles, 871 (13.5). It should be noted that the number of motor vehicles increased from 984,576 at 30 June 1962 to 1,027,487 at 30 June 1963.

The previous table excludes the more serious cases involving death or injury, which are sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1963, 23 such cases were sent forward and there were 20 sentences, comprising 12 for negligent or drunken driving causing death, and 8 for negligent or drunken driving causing injury.

Of the 104,261 convictions for traffic offences, 6,078 persons had their drivers' licences cancelled for varying lengths of time. The periods of cancellation are given below, together with the figures for the two preceding years.

Period for which Licence Cancelled196119621963
Under 3 months1,6771,6201,902
3 months and under 6 months9889721,306
6 months and under 1 year265308404
1 year and under 2 years9901,2231,259
2 years and under 3 years274236350
3 years and under 4 years586669766
4 years and under 5 years121410
5 years and over1178081
Total cancellations4,9095,1226,078

Drunkenness-The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for each of the latest five years.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19594,4021544,5563.750.131.95
19604,5381774,7153.800.151 98
19614,3811134,4943.590.091.85
19625,1271675,2944.100.142.13
19634,9551635,1183.880.132.04

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table, but the figures do not include cases of application for prohibition orders of which there were 817 in 1963, compared with 764 in 1962. The rates of convictions have fallen in the latest year, with convictions of females following the same trend as convictions of males.

Supreme Court-Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes-those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal Sentences
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMFTotal
(a) Total Cases
19595784027414302557619595
19601,3015360335107471039749
19619017539425113-50725532
196281711840148217161849667
19631,0304753217219775124775
(b)Distinct Persons
1959262171461252219814212
1960354241961572326818286
1961406282221260-28212294
1962368192011350125114265
1963416212501242529217309

Of the 437 distinct persons indicted during 1963, 262 were convicted and 144 acquitted, and "no bill" was returned or the prosecution was not otherwise proceeded with in the remaining 31 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyForgery and Offences Against the CurrencyOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyForgery and Offences Against the CurrencyOther OffencesTotal
1959115421283159583104916212
19601705151648749118139524286
1961209282132853216111959294
19621984311622667118134-13265
19632264315860775149125233309

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19591960196119621963
* Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder -31243
Attempted murder121-1
Manslaughter*86434
Traffic offences involving death or injury1421212020
Assaults and wounding2224442538
Sexual offences3459805971
Other offences against the person159712
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering -4837385044
Theft, receiving, and fraud4886687569
Other offences against property81613712
Forgery and uttering95522
Other offences162491333
Totals212286294265309
Per 10,000 mean population0.911.221.211.061.22

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years were as follows:

Sentence19591960196119621963
* Commuted to life imprisonment.
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)1944342821
Ordered to come up for sentence45572
Discharged -12-13
Fined -1731293957
Imprisoned -137160172173205
Corrective training587-3
Detention centre---44
Borstal training10163364
Preventive detention171913710
Death -2*1*1*--
 Totals212,286294265309

In 1941 the death sentence for murder was abolished, life imprisonment with hard labour being substituted there for. It was restored in 1950 by the Capital Punishment Act but was again abolished by the Crimes Act 1961. The only crime for which the death penalty may be imposed is treason. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Flogging and whipping were also abolished in 1941 and have not been restored.

CRIMINAL APPEALS-The law relating to criminal appeals is now contained in the Crimes Act 1961. Both the prosecutor and the accused may appeal on a point of law. In addition, any person convicted on indictment or committed for sentence may appeal to the Court -

  1. Against his conviction on any ground involving a question of law.

  2. With the leave of the Court or on the certificate of the Judge who tried the case, on any ground involving a question of fact or on any other ground deemed sufficient by the Court.

  3. With the leave of the Court against the sentence passed unless it is one fixed by law.

The Court may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

The Act does not affect the Crown's prerogative of mercy, but contains a provision enabling the Governor-General to refer to the Court any application for the exercise of the prerogative.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN-Of the 157,860 criminal charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1963, 10,759, or 6.8 per cent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase on the 1962 total which was 9, 918.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women arc of a trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences during 1962 and 1963 included the following:

 19621963
Common assault3034
Drunkenness149144
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.6663
Theft -584740
Fraud and false pretences98238
Offensive conduct or language62110
Vagrancy167181

Supreme Court statistics also suggest that women in general are of a law-abiding disposition; 17 females (5.5 per cent of the total) were sentenced in 1963 for criminal offences.

Women received into prison under sentence during 1963 numbered 169. The principal offences concerned were: cruelty to children, 6; burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 14; embezzlement, 5; theft, 39; fraud and false pretences, 6; vagrancy, 51; failing to pay fine, 6; breach of probation, 5. The corresponding total in 1962 was 160, and the main offences were: burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 8; embezzlement, 5; theft, 44; fraud and false pretences, 4; vagrancy, 51; breach of probation, 17.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS-As previously mentioned, Maoris are included in the statistical tables presented elsewhere in this section, the data given here being for purposes of comparison. According to the population estimate of 31 December 1963, 5.4 per cent of the total population of New Zealand aged 15 and over were Maoris.

It is not possible to classify Maoris and non-Maoris in Magistrates' Court summons cases, but an accurate classification can be arrived at in the case of arrests, and the following summary shows total charges for arrest cases in 1963. Figures for non-Maoris are quoted for comparative purposes.

Class of OffenceTotal Charges for Arrest Cases
RaceAgainst the PersonAgainst PropertyAgainst Good OrderOther Offences
DrunkennessotherMalesFemalesTotal
Maoris5012,7504791,0402804,5904605,050
Non-Maoris1,4897,8403,7593,89289816,6771,20117,878
 Totals1,99010,5904,2384,9321,17821,2671,66122,928

Of the total number of arrests and convictions 22.0 per cent and 22.3 per cent respectively were Maoris.

The total number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during the five years 1959 to 1963 was 259, or 10.9 per cent of the total of 1,366. Of the 64 Maoris (including three females) sentenced during 1963, 15 were committed from Magistrates' Courts and 49 were tried and convicted in the Supreme Court. The following table shows the number of Maoris sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years, together with the percentage of Maori offenders to total persons sentenced in each case.

YearOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property*Total Offences
Sexual OffencesOther
Maoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total Sentences

* Including forgery and uttering.

†Includes other offences.

1959617.61020.42421.24119.3
19601322.01322.01611.54214.7
19613240.02024.71612.96823.1
19621728.81118.61410.44416.6
19632839.41417.91915.06420.7

During 1963, 1,022 Maoris (including 78 females) were received into prison under sentence, this being 29.3 per cent of the total number of distinct committals. Of the 1,804 persons held in custody on 31 December 1963, 628, or 34.8 per cent, were Maoris. Corresponding figures for 1962 were: 1,010 received under sentence (including 69 females) this being 28.4 per cent of the total of distinct committals. Maoris in prison on 31 December 1962 were 610, or 34.5 per cent, of the 1,770 persons held.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS-Children's Courts were established in New Zealand under Part IV of the Child Welfare Act 1925, and are expressly designed to separate youthful offenders and children in need of protection from the atmosphere and associations of the regular Courts. All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children's Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary Courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular Court, the Court may order his case to be heard in the Children's Court.

To fulfil the object for which Children's Courts were set up, the legislation prescribes that as far as possible persons attending a Children's Court shall not be brought into contact with persons attending any other Court. Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children's Court are not held in a courtroom and, where a Children's Court is in the same building as any other Court, it does not sit when that other Court is in session. Proceedings in Children's Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding Magistrate.

When a child was brought before a Children's Court and charged with any offence, the Court was formerly not required to hear the charge against him. The law was changed in 1948, and all charges must now be heard and determined. It is not necessary, however, to record a conviction even if the charge is proved, and in practice convictions are not entered. The Court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction had been recorded.

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts during each of the latest 11 years. It is shown in two ways; i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only one charge, the most serious, is counted, irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19533,7755764,3512,1384162,554
19544,8515715,4222,4094222,831
19555,0266855,7112,7305483,278
19565,4205936,0132,9494953,444
19577,3068758,1813,7706464,416
19588,0841,0899,1734,3587455,103
19597,1588097,9673,5256404,165
19609,2971,06810,3654,8038065,609
19619,1041,35610,4604,6788675,545
19628,0921,3309,4223,7138974,610
19639,0001,41410,4144,1391,0475,186

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the latest five years are as follows.

Type of Offence19591960196119621963

* Includes forgery and uttering.

NOTE-Distinct cases figures arc included in those for total charges.

Total Charges
Sexual offences11681167159138
Assaults -8213111496112
Other offences against the person98111314
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering -1,3361,5211,5442,1262,593
Theft, receiving, and fraud2,6073,4553,2623,3093,192
Unlawful conversion of vehicles8309801,1649101,217
Wilful damage457673574545590
Other offences against property*561565314565
Offences against good order1,4822,1602,357829940
Indigent or delinquent child8249409081,0271,181
Other offences168260306263372
Totals7,96710,36510,4609,42210,414
Distinct Cases
Sexual offences8867109106106
Assaults -6696908089
Other offences against the person96111213
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering -5826297439281,021
Theft, receiving, and fraud1,1731,6341,5001,3871,428
Unlawful conversion of vehicles255390351276359
Wilful damage185291227229257
Other offences against property*2550153922
Offences against good order9371,4491,555526618
Indigent or delinquent child7328307658821,067
Other offences113167179145206
Totals4,1655,6095,5454,6105,186

The cases heard during 1963 resulted as follows:

 Total ChargesDistinct Cases
Dismissed or withdrawn575346
Admonished and discharged1,636974
Committed to care of Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education -1,494655
Placed under supervision4,1531,977
Committed to an institution676163
Fined1,029715
Otherwise dealt with851356
  Total cases10,4145,186

PROBATION-The present legislation on probation is contained in Part 1 of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The Court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily.

An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than one year nor more than three years, and during this time he must observe certain statutory conditions governing his behaviour and must accept the supervision of a Probation Officer. The statutory conditions of probation relate to such matters as reporting to a Probation Officer, employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. In addition, the Court may impose particular conditions designed to assist his rehabilitation and to prevent further crime. It may also impose a fine in addition to probation. At the end of his period of probation the offender is deemed to be a free man, but if at any time during the period he breaks any of the conditions on which probation has been granted to him, he may be brought back to Court and becomes liable to a term of imprisonment or to a fine. In addition, he may be sentenced for the original offence for which he was placed on probation.

The probation method has come to be accepted as an integral part of the penal system and is widely used in New Zealand. The following figures show the number of persons released on probation during each of the past 11 years.

YearNumber Admitted to Probation
19531,098
19541,278
19551,429
19561,692
19571,749
19581,870
19591,804
19601,979
19611,944
19621,978
19631,162

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1963, together with the period of their probation.

Age, in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
1 Year15 Months18 Months2 Years3 Years
* Includes three offenders placed on probation for 30 months.
Under 2034742175161471,231
20-2416339118351491
25-2954-324927162
30-3960-415119171
40-4935-1320977
50-598-48121
60-692-1115
70 and over--1214
Totals6697400830*2562,162

Probation is a conditional suspension of imprisonment and provides the opportunity whereby the offender may, with the assistance and supervision of a Probation Officer, rehabilitate himself. The real purpose of probation is to prevent further offences, and it is more freely used in the case of first offenders and young offenders.

CRIMINAL INJURIES COMPENSATION-The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 provides for the establishment of a Crimes Compensation Tribunal to assess compensation to be paid by the State (with recovery where practicable from the offender) for persons injured by certain criminal acts, and for dependants of persons killed by such acts.

PRISONS: Historical Development-The historical development of prisons is summarised in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Administration-The object of imprisonment is the protection of society, and this may be achieved by the processes of deterrence and reformation. It is the duty of the prisons administration to exert every effort to divert the young and malleable offender from further crime and to attempt reformation in any case offering any hope of success. It is also necessary to balance the demands of reformative training and security. The interest of the community as well as of the offender demand that so far as possible the time spent in prison should be so used as to bring about the greatest likelihood that the prisoner will lead a law-abiding and socially purposeful life on his discharge.

The Criminal Justice Act 1954, which came into force on 1 January 1955, revised the penal system. The Act had a twofold purpose: the first, to provide every possible means of diverting the young or inexperienced offender from a life of crime, and the second, to protect the community against the hardened offender by keeping him away from society for a long period.

From the coming into force of the Act the sentences of detention which the courts may impose are as follows:

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding the maximum prescribed by the Act. This was formerly three years but was reduced to two years by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being three months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to one month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. (The part of the Act relating to this type of punishment was brought into force for male offenders sentenced by Courts in the North Island in June 1961 and for male offenders sentenced by Courts in the South Island in August 1962.) After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. If the sentence is for less than 12 months the Court may order that the offender be on probation for a period of up to 12 months from his release. If the sentence is for 12 months or more the offender will automatically be on probation on his release, the period of probation being for 12 months or for the unexpired term of his sentence, whichever is the greater. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Parole Board, but in any event not less than three years nor, except where the offender has qualified for preventive detention through certain sexual offences, more than 14 years. The offender must be 25 years of age or over and must have qualified for preventive detention by the number of his previous convictions and the type of his previous sentences. After serving three years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the Board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends until the expiry of the full 14 years or for life, as the case may be.

The sentence of corrective training, which was formerly available for certain offenders between the ages of 21 and 30 years, was abolished in 1963.

The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for another type of sentence for young offenders-the sentence of periodic detention. This is at present available only to Courts in Auckland, Wellington and the Hutt Valley.

Under the Act any person between the ages of 15 and 21 years who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. The person will then be required to attend at a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody will be kept busy attending classes or groups, undergoing physical training or performing work either in the centre or outside it. Outside work may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person or on Crown or local authority property. The sentence is designed primarily for young offenders of the vandal and larrikin types.

Subject to the overall control of the Minister of Justice, the administration and general management of the prisons and the borstal institutions are the responsibility of the Secretary for Justice.

Classification-The key to successful prison work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end Classification Boards operate in the three main reception centres, Auckland Prison, Wellington Prison, and Christchurch Prison, and in Wi Tako Prison, an institution for those in prison for the first time.

Every man sentenced to imprisonment for a term of six months or more comes before the classification board which can call upon a psychologist, psychiatrist, vocational guidance officer, probation officer, or any other form of specialist service to assist in defining the offender's character and potential, and advise upon the most hopeful form of treatment while he is in prison.

In New Zealand the total number of prisoners is not high. There is therefore little opportunity for special categories of prisons. The task of the Classification Boards is to advise on the question of allocation of prisoners. Boards have no executive powers, but they furnish to the prisons administration a report on each prisoner whom they see and their recommendations are as far as possible carried out.

Measures Employed in Treatment-This section may conveniently be dealt with under six heads-vocational training; non-vocational training; earnings; punishments; pre-release; and after care.

Vocational Training-Every prisoner must assist by his labour to reduce the cost of his maintenance in custody; it is also necessary that he should develop the habit of hard and consistent work. In New Zealand all available prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, there are courses of trade training.

Non-vocational Training-If a prisoner is eventually to be released into the community, then it is important during his period of imprisonment to pay regard to every aspect of his life as a citizen. It is not enough merely to restrict his freedom and to train him to work; he must also be kept or made mentally and morally fit.

An increasing number and variety of evening activities are being introduced into the prisons, and the number of prisoners engaged on them is likewise increasing. Very real training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are full-time teachers in Auckland Prison, Christchurch Prison, Waikeria Youth Centre, Arohata and Invercargill Borstal Institutions, and part-time teachers in many other institutions. It is their task to seek to improve the general education of those prisoners who have been unable to reach the level of Form II, and also to assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses through a Correspondence School. The interest shown in education is encouraging, since in many cases it fits a prisoner for better employment on his release and thereby helps to reduce the chances of his further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a generous supply of well chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the Library's Request Service.

Earnings-All prisoners are credited with earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence and conduct. The present system has been in operation for several years and is proving beneficial. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure.

Punishments-An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the Superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a Visiting Justice or to the Court. A Visiting Justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the Superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the Court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a Superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

Pre-release-Various means are used to prepare inmates for their release. In 1961 the first pre-release hostel was opened in Invercargill. It provides accommodation for up to seven borstal trainees who are permitted to take private employment during the last few weeks of their sentence. Similar hostels for borstal trainees have been opened in Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington. It is planned to open one for adult prisoners in Christchurch.

Under the Penal Institutions. Amendment Act 1961, selected inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. In accordance with the Act the selection of inmates for this privilege is made, on the recommendation of Superintendents, by a special committee chaired by a Magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute some of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Justice Department for payment upon final release.

After Care-Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, corrective training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are released on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a Probation Officer, and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose-it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and discipline during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing Court so orders.

Parole Boards-The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present four parole boards; the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and three Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. Persons serving sentences of imprisonment. other than life imprisonment do not normally have their cases considered by a board but any particular case may be referred to the Prisons Parole Board in special circumstances.

Until 1961 there was only one board, called the Prisons Board in 1910 when it was established, and known as the Parole Board after 1954, when the Criminal Justice Act amended its jurisdiction to conform with the changes then made in the penal law. The provision for separate boards for the review of borstal cases was made by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1961.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least one but not more than five other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for three years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a Magistrate as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and two residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for three years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearBorstal Detention*Corrective TrainingImprisonment or Hard LabourHabitual Criminals or Preventive DetentionPersons on ParoleTotal
* Under jurisdiction of the Borstal Parole Boards from November 1961.
19591,075198406741,384
19607812053797121,132
19611,0221613280101,305
19621,4181152883121,656
19631,4361062060161,638

Of the cases coming before the Board in 1963, there were 554 recommendations made for release on probation and eight persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

STATISTICS OF PRISONERS-There are 14 institutions serving as prisons or borstals in New Zealand, and 11 police gaols. Any person serving a sentence of not more than eight days may be detained at any police station, which is deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1963 is shown in the following table.

 MalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at 1 January 19631,661991,760
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)5,9384206,358
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)5,8844136,297
Persons in prison at 31 December 19631,7151061,821
Daily average number of prisoners1,7571041,861

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. In 1963, 201 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a Court order, 31 were classed as mental defectives and transferred to mental hospitals, while 2,140 persons were not returned to prison after release for hearing of the charge, being acquitted, fined, placed on probation, etc.

The following table analyses the ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1963.

Age, in YearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary. Theft, and FraudConversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Vagrancy and DrunkennessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesAssaultsOther
Under 213362748613632209965
21-24335582497655230706
25-29324191611839164464
30-39493492061991250658
40-49291513112994148420
50-59155-5025782211
60 and over73-161221665
 Totals198215461,2802613901,0993,489
Maoris (included above)638712376109872881,022

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1963.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 YearsOver 5 YearsOtherTotal
* Sentenced to life imprisonment.
Under 2152124280497831965
21-24121222210118287-706
25-2990119144851781464
30-39161149220103196-658
40-4911311412852751420
50-595573552161-211
60 and over211817522-65
 Totals6138191,05488187323*3,489

The next table shows the special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1963. These figures were included in the previous table. Corresponding categories are: three months and under twelve months-detention centre; one and under three years-borstal training; three and under five years-corrective training; and over five years-preventive detention.

Age, in YearsDetention CentreBorstal TrainingCorrective TrainingPreventive DetentionTotal
Under 21207443--650
21-24--7-7
25-29--224
30-39---11
40-49---55
50-59-----
60 and over-----
Totals20744398667

Of the total of distinct persons received into prison in 1963 no less than 73.4 per cent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 32.7 per cent of these had been convicted more than six times.

The number of prisoners received to serve sentence imposed during the year 1963 for criminal offences was 3,983, but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 3,489 (3,320 males and 169 females). The corresponding figures for 1962 were 4,065, of which 3,559 were distinct persons (3,399 males and 160 females).

An analysis is given below of distinct persons received into prison according to nature of sentence imposed in 1961, 1962, and 1963.

Nature of Sentence196119621963
Imprisonment2,6732,9742,822
Corrective training42349
Detention centre67170207
Borstal training414375443
Preventive detention1268
Death1--
 Totals3,2093,5593,489

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 11 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in JailProportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
19531,088271,1155.245.37
19541,196271,2235.655.77
19551,117371,1545.165.33
19561,362411,4036.176.35
19571,469441,5136.496.69
19581,636591,6957.067.32
19591,702441,7467.297.48
19601,770581,8287.457.69
19611,810561,8667.467.69
19621,704561,7606.857.07
19631,744601,8046.867.09

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the latest 11 years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in the next table.

YearNumberPer 10,000 of Mean Population
19532,35411.49
19542,40411.48
19552,53111.83
19562,88613.22
19573,03713.60
19583,05613.37
19592,95512.83
19603,05712.86
19613,20913.22
19623,55914.30
19633,48913.72

POLICE-The Police in New Zealand are maintained wholly by the Central Government. The law relating to the establishment and regulation of the Police is contained in the Police Act 1958.

Organisation and Duties-A Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners with headquarters at Wellington, subject to the directions of the Minister of Police, have the general superintendence and control of the Police. In addition an Assistant Commissioner is stationed in charge of the Auckland District. The other 14 districts in New Zealand are each under the charge of a Chief Superintendent, Superintendent, or Chief Inspector of Police, who is responsible for the maintenance of good order and the proper execution of police duty therein. Districts are divided into subdistricts under the charge of Chief Inspectors, Inspectors, senior sergeants, sergeants, or constables, and cities and towns, where regular beat duty is performed, are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants, and supplemented by mobile patrols.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the provisions of the Police Offences and the Official Secrets Acts, there are several statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Secondhand Dealers Act, etc. They also undertake certain types of inquires and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold such additional appointments as Registrars and Bailiffs of Magistrates' Courts, Probation Officers, and Inspectors of Sea Fishing.

Recruiting-In general, male recruits for the Police must be between the ages of 19 and 35 years, be not less than 5 ft 8½ in. in height, and female recruits must be between the ages of 20 and 33 years, with a height of not less than 5 ft 5 in. Recruits must pass a departmental pre-entry test. They must be of British nationality, of good character, smart, active, intelligent, and be passed as medically fit. The selection of recruits is made after exhaustive inquiries into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. On appointment they undergo a three months' course of training at the Police Training School, Trentham, where they are drilled and receive comprehensive training in their powers and responsibilities as police officers, fitting them to deal with the situations which may be faced on duty.

Appointments to vacancies in the higher ranks up to the rank of Chief Inspector are made from those members of the next lower rank who have qualified by examination, efficiency, and seniority for such promotion.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Criminal Investigation Branch, which is attached to each district headquarters and undertakes the investigation and detection of the more serious crimes.

Strength-The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1964, inclusive of 42 women police, was 2,611 (2,338 Uniform Branch; 273 Criminal Investigation Branch). In addition, 17 members who had commenced retiring leave prior to retirement were on the non-effective strength. Details of the effective strength were: Commissioner, 3 Assistant Commissioners, 6 Chief Superintendents, 18 Superintendents, 27 Chief Inspectors, 37 Inspectors, 118 senior sergeants, 324 sergeants, 13 temporary sergeants, 2,022 constables and 42 women police. In addition to the above, there were also 109 police cadets, 8 matrons, and 1 district constable.

Women Police-At 31 March 1964 the women police consisted of 1 senior sergeant, 1 sergeant, and 40 policewomen and these were stationed at Auckland, Hamilton, Napier, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, Timaru, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Their duties are mainly the investigation of complaints in respect of women and children, and patrol duties in uniform. Some policewomen are employed in the Criminal Investigation Branch.

Chapter 9. Section 9 DEFENCE

Table of Contents

DEFENCE POLICY-The principles which successive Governments have over the years accepted as providing the framework for the formation of defence policy, as well as the responsibilities and obligations which have been accepted in conformity with those principles, and the forces and equipment required to discharge them, are described in a series of White Papers on defence policy. The most recent of these was published in 1961 as parliamentary paper A. 19.

CONTROL AND COORDINATION OF DEFENCE-In November 1962 the Government announced its intention to establish a Department of Defence as a small separate coordinating department to advise the Minister on defence policy, planning, and expenditure. Further examination of the requirements for a higher defence organisation led to a subsequent decision that a unified Department of Defence should be established to provide the greatest possible degree of central control and coordination, while at the same time making provision for the three Armed Services to retain their separate identities within the Department. The Government therefore announced in October 1963 its intention to establish a unitary Ministry of Defence combining not only all joint service functions but also the departments of Army, Navy, and Air, and this was carried out with administrative effect from 1 January 1964.

Formal legislative provision for the establishment of the unified Ministry of Defence is contained in the Defence Act 1964. The Ministry consists of the New Zealand Naval Forces, the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, and certain other civilians. The former Army, Navy, and Air Departments have been abolished. The Ministry is responsible, under the Minister of Defence, for the whole field of national defence. The Governor-General remains Commander-in-Chief of New Zealand.

The Defence Act provides for the appointment of a Secretary of Defence as permanent head of the Ministry and as the principal civilian adviser to the Minister. The Secretary is responsible for coordinating the business of the Ministry as a whole and for the coordination of long-term financial planning and defence expenditure. He is not responsible for the command and efficient and economic administration of the Services but has the power to investigate and report to the Minister in matters of such administration. The former appointments of Navy Secretary, Army Secretary, and Air Secretary have been replaced by Deputy Secretaries of Defence.

The Act also provides for the appointment of a Chief of the Defence Staff as the principal military adviser to the Minister. The Chief of the Defence Staff is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he may carry out inspections of the Services and report to the Minister.

The major corporate body within the Ministry of Defence is the Defence Council which consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of the Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the three Services. In addition, the Defence Council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Subject to the over-riding control of the Minister of Defence, the Defence Council is responsible for the administration and command of the Defence Forces. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of the Defence Staff, the Council is responsible for advising the Minister on important matters of defence policy. It is also specifically required constantly to examine the possibilities of integrating common functions in the Services.

The independent Naval Board, Army Board, and Air Board established under the Navy Act 1954, the New Zealand Army Act 1950, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 have been abolished, and in their place Naval, Army, and Air Boards of the Defence Council have been constituted as subordinate bodies of the Defence Council. These Boards carry out such functions in respect of their respective Services as are delegated to them by the Defence Council.

All existing joint committees remain in existence, but the Defence Council has power to reconstitute or abolish them or establish new committees and prescribe their functions.

The central core of the Ministry of Defence is provided by the Defence Office. Under the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of the Defence Staff this is responsible for policy, finance, and general administration, and for the joint military machinery.

Cooperation With Other Countries-To facilitate exchanges on military matters, New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, and Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur and Singapore). In addition the head and deputy head of the New Zealand Joint Services Liaison Mission in Washington are accredited to the Canadian service authorities as advisers to the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa. The United Kingdom and Australia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington, and there are service attach−s on the staff of the United States Embassy. Several other countries have service attach−s accredited to the New Zealand authorities, but not resident in Wellington.

Defence Science-A Defence Research Organisation was established in 1948 to coordinate defence research in New Zealand and to assist the Services with specific scientific problems. At present the organisation is administered by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and its activities are guided by the Defence Science Policy Committee, comprising the Chiefs of Staff and the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The future of the Defence Research Organisation is being examined, in the light of the establishment of the new Ministry of Defence.

Machinery for Commonwealth cooperation in defence science is provided by the Commonwealth Defence Science Organisation based in London, with an executive committee consisting of the chief defence scientists of Commonwealth countries. In addition, a Commonwealth Defence Science Committee, on which New Zealand is represented, meets from time to time in London.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED SERVICES-The principal statutes governing the armed services are as follows: The Defence Act 1964; the New Zealand Army Act 1950 and its amendments; the Military Manoeuvres Act 1915; the Navy Act 1954 and its amendments; the Naval Discipline Act (U.K.); the Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908; and the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 and its amendments.

Two other Acts of general application, are the National Military Service Act 1961 and the Courts-Martial Appeals Act 1953. The latter provides for the establishment of a special Court of Appeal for the Navy, Army, and Air Force, to which persons convicted by a court martial may appeal against conviction.

National Military Service Act 1961-This Act, as amended in 1964, provides that every male British subject ordinarily resident in New Zealand (normally one who has lived in New Zealand for a continuous period of not less than a year) becomes liable to serve in the Army upon reaching 20 years of age and must then register. Selection of those who will be called upon to serve is made by ballot based on birth dates in a given period. Those selected may then be required to serve in the Army for (a) a period of whole-time service in camp not exceeding 14 weeks; (b) three years' part-time service during which training may be required for a total of 60 days; (c) three years in the Reserve. The current annual intake is 3,000 out of an estimated total number of some 15,000 persons fit and eligible for service. Provision is made in the Act for persons to apply for postponement of liability for service on grounds of hardship or for registration as conscientious objectors.

STRENGTH OF DEFENCE SERVICES-The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the three services together with any emergency force over the latest 11 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19542,9155,9704,69113,576
19552,8094,5714,76312,143
19562,8324,3804,70111,913
19572,9263,9074,79011,623
19582,9984,4004,76912,167
19593,0074,2304,54711,784
19602,9195,3424,51012,771
19612,8534,9054,39012,148
19622,8485,4344,50512,787
19632,8775,0494,05811,984
19643,0355,5594,33812,932

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY-The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Naval vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Naval ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration-The command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Navy under the Navy Act 1954 and the Defence Act 1964 are carried out by the Defence Council by delegation to the Naval Board. The Naval Board consists of the Chairman (the Minister of Defence), Chief of the Naval Staff and First Naval Member (a Rear-Admiral), Second Naval Member and Chief of Naval Personnel (a Commodore), Third Naval Member and Chief of Naval Technical Services (a Commodore), and the Deputy Secretary of Defence (Navy).

Role of the Royal New Zealand Navy-Through the collective defence arrangements made by New Zealand, e.g., under UN, SEATO, and ANZUS agreements, and within the Commonwealth, the Royal New Zealand Navy provides forces capable of integrating with the navies of friendly nations. These forces are also planned to provide a measure of defence for the home territories should the need arise.

One ship is permanently attached to the Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve and others could reinforce it at short notice. The normal peacetime duties are many and varied, and include flag-showing cruises to foreign ports and around New Zealand and its island territories; support for New Zealand Antarctic interests, surveying, fishery protection, and servicing weather stations. These are in addition to training both active service personnel and reserves for their wartime tasks.

State of the Navy-Her Majesty's New Zealand ships are at present:

* In reserve.
CruiserRoyalistAt least one cruiser or frigate is maintained on the Far East Station if required. The remaining ships in commission are normally employed within the New Zealand Naval Station.
Frigates (Otago Class)Otago Taranaki
FrigatesRotoiti
 Pukaki
 Kaniere*
 Hawea* 
Survey shipLachlan 
Supply shipEndeavourAntarctic support and fleet replenishment.
Ocean minesweepersStawell* 
 Kiama* 
 Inverell* 
 Echuca* 
Fleet auxiliaryTuiNaval and oceanographic research.
Motor launchesTwelveFishery protection. Training. Survey work. Harbour duties. RNZNVR Divisions.

Shore Establishments-Navy Office, Wellington, is the office of the New Zealand Naval Board and its associated naval and administrative staffs.

The Naval Base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore, Auckland, HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and training establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, and Dockyard.

The Dockyard (administered by a Captain Superintendent) includes the Naval Store Depot and is capable of refitting ships up to light cruisers.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry training establishment for the Navy and is situated near HMNZS Philomel, Auckland. HMNZS Irirangi is the wireless station for the New Zealand Naval Station and is situated at Waiouru in the centre of the North Island.

Personnel-Entry into the Royal New Zealand Navy is open to young men through the following channels:

BoysAges 15 years 3 months to 16 years 3 months.
Artificer apprenticesAges 15 years to 17 years 6 months.
YouthsAges 16 years 3 months to 17 years 6 months.
Adult entriesAges 17 years 6 months to 25 years (28 years for tradesmen).

With the exception of the artificer apprentices who carry out their initial training in Philomel before proceeding to the United Kingdom for trade training, all new entries receive their basic training in Tamaki. Technical and specialist training is, as far as possible, carried out in New Zealand, but where no facilities exist, ratings attend courses in naval establishments in Australia and the United Kingdom.

There are two schemes for direct entry as officer cadets on the General List. Candidates between the ages of 15 years and 16 years 6 months are eligible for selection as cadet midshipmen; these cadets carry out three years' training at the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, New South Wales, before proceeding to the United Kingdom for specialist technical training. To cater for the older age group, young men between the ages of 17 years and 19 years are eligible for selection as special entry cadets; these cadets undergo approximately 20 months' preliminary training at the Royal Australian Naval College before proceeding to the United Kingdom. Cadets entered under both schemes carry out a short period of sea training in the Royal New Zealand Navy before undergoing their specialist training in the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom those cadets who will become seamen and supply specialists spend two years at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, and the cadets who will become engineering specialists undergo about four years' technical training at the Royal Naval Engineering College, Plymouth. On completion of their United Kingdom training the officers return to New Zealand to take up appointments as trained officers in the Royal New Zealand Navy.

There is also a short service entry for candidates between the ages of 17 and 23. These cadets go to the Royal Australian Naval College for a year and return to New Zealand for further training at sea. Short service cadets join initially for eight years but they may be selected for further engagements up to a full career.

Suitable ratings who qualify educationally and professionally are eligible for promotion to officer rank, depending on age and experience.

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service-The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service. In 1949 the WRNZNS became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Employment of members of the WRNZNS is varied and includes duties as cooks, stewards, writers, shorthand typists, chart correctors, motor-transport drivers, and teleprinter operators. These duties are supplemented or amended as necessary to meet the requirements of the Navy.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve-There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the four main centres-Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. When the Military Training Act 1949 was introduced these divisions accepted the responsibility for training the Navy's compulsory naval reservists. In all they trained 1,992 men before it was decided in 1957 to cease compulsory training for the Navy. The divisions then reverted to their former purely volunteer role.

Strength of the Navy-The strength of the Navy as at 31 August 1964 is shown below:

 OfficersRatingsTotal
Regular Forces (including WRNZNS)3232,6442,967
Active Reserves:   
Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve10-10
Royal New Zealand Volunteer Reserve121420541
  Total131420551
Inactive Reserves:   
Royal New Zealand Fleet Reserve-1,7881,788
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve283-283
Royal New Zealand Naval Emergency Reserve --169169
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Emergency Reserve-1919
Retired Officers and Pensioners268122390
Compulsory Naval Reservists-505505
Royal Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve -21-21
Royal Naval Special Reserve (National Service) --55
  Total5722,6083,180

Naval Expenditure-During the year ended 31 March 1964 the sum of £7,677,905 was expended on the Royal New Zealand Navy. Of this sum £7,233,161 was expended from vote "Navy", and the sum of £444,744 from vote "Defence Construction and Maintenance-Subdivision III-Navy". The total expenditure for the previous financial year was £7,444,606.

THE ARMY-The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the New Zealand Army Act 1950, and the Defence Act 1964.

The Army consists of the Regular Force, the Territorial Force, the Army Reserve, the Cadet Corps, and military forces raised in time of war or other like emergency. The New Zealand Army Act as far as possible places the officers and soldiers of the Regular and Territorial Forces on the same footing.

The New Zealand Army comprises the following Corps:

  • Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery.

  • Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

  • Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers.

  • Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.

  • Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment.

  • New Zealand Special Air Service.

  • New Zealand Army Air Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

  • Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

  • Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.

  • New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Legal Service.

  • Royal New Zealand Provost Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Education Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Physical Training Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

  • New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.

  • New Zealand Cadet Corps.

Command and Organisation-The command and administration of the New Zealand Army are carried out by the Defence Council, by delegation to the Army Board. The Army Board consists of:

The Minister of Defence as Chairman; The Chief of the General Staff (First Military Member); The Vice-Chief of the General Staff (Second Military Member); The Adjutant-General (Third Military Member); The Quartermaster-General (Fourth Military Member); The Deputy Secretary of Defence (Army); and an Associate Member (Territorial Force).

The Army is organised, trained, and equipped so that, in the event of war, or other emergency, it can undertake rapidly and efficiently the tasks which may fall to it.

The Army is organised into the following major components:

(a) The Static Support Force; (b) The Field Force; (c) The Army Reserve; (d) The Cadet Corps.

The Static Support Force: This Force commands, administers, trains, and equips the Army as a whole. The establishment is approximately 3,000 regular all ranks. It is assisted in its tasks in peace by the service units of the Field Force.

The Field Force: This consists of operational formations containing Regular and integrated Regular and Territorial units. It is designed to provide an infantry brigade group plus its logistic support and reserves for overseas service. The Force also provides a Regular Force contribution to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve. The Field Force establishment totals approximately 3,250 Regulars and 10,000 Territorial all ranks.

The Army Reserve: Contains Regular and Territorial officers and soldiers who have completed their Active engagement. In time of war or other like emergency the Governor-General may, by proclamation, transfer the Army Reserve or any specified portion thereof to the Regular Force or the Territorial Force.

The Cadet Corps: The Cadet Corps is undergoing reorganisation and when this is completed the Army cadet units will total approximately 13,000 all ranks. Service is voluntary and, subject to satisfying the necessary standards, schools may raise and train units. All units axe designated by the name of the school raising them. Cadet Corps officers are provided from the school staffs.

Conditions of Service:Regular Force-All officers and soldiers are liable for service overseas with the exception of minors and the Home Service Section. Enlistment in the Regular Force is voluntary and is until retiring age for officers, with provisions for special short-term engagements, and for soldiers of the General Section as follows:

Men: Eight years, of which three, four, or five may be served on the Active List and the balance on the reserve. Re-engagement may be for a period to complete five, eight, or 12 years' service on the Active List or until retiring age. Reserve service after re-engagement will be for three years or until retiring age, whichever is the sooner.

Women: Three years, with re-engagement for one, two, or three years, until retiring age.

Promotion of long service Regular officers to lieutenant, captain, and major is normally gained after two, four, and six years' service respectively in the previous rank, provided that the prescribed promotion courses and examinations are passed and the officer is recommended for promotion. A regular lance-corporal is required to qualify at a unit test before promotion to corporal, at a district course for sergeant, written examination set and marked by Army Headquarters for staff sergeant, and at a course at Army Schools for warrant officer.

Territorial Force: In time of war or other emergency the Governor-General may, by proclamation, declare the Territorial Force liable for continuous service within New Zealand or overseas. In peace time the Territorial Force is to be maintained at a planned strength of 10,000 by a selective National Service Scheme which was commenced in 1962, in addition to voluntary enlistment from citizens satisfying certain requirements. Following a period of 14 weeks' full-time training National Servicemen are required to complete three years' part-time service before being posted to the Army Reserve. National Servicemen may also volunteer for further service on the active list on completion of their three years' obligatory service.

Before promotion to captain and major, officers are required to qualify at prescribed courses and examinations, and before promotion to lieutenant-colonel at a promotion course.

Training:Regular Force-Except in the case of special entries and Quartermaster officers commissioned from the ranks all Regular officers are commissioned on graduation from the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, England, the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Australia, or from the Officer Cadet School, Portsea, Australia. Post-graduate and specialist training is received either in New Zealand or at overseas training establishments. Candidates for Staff College must pass the same entrance examinations as British Regular officers except for military law, and administration and morale, upon which candidates are examined by Army Headquarters, Wellington.

Regular soldiers are trained at the Army Schools, Corps Schools, or Depots, and in Regular units in New Zealand. In certain cases special training is received at overseas training establishments.

Territorial Force-Officers and soldiers are required to carry out annually a minimum of 20 days training to be classified as efficient. Of this training a minimum of 14 days must be annual camp training. In addition to this part-time training obligation, National Servicemen and volunteers with no previous training are required to complete a period of 14 weeks' full-time training at the commencement of their service.

The maximum number of days annual part-time training including attendance at courses, for which officers and soldiers can receive pay is: (a) commanding officers of units, 60 days; (b) other officers, 50 days; (c) non-commissioned officers, 50 days; and (d) privates, 40 days.

Cadet Corps-Training covers a three-year cycle with emphasis on leadership training, weapon handling, fieldcraft, and adventure type training. Specialist training is limited to signals, medical, and intelligence. In order to retain a unit, schools must complete a minimum of 30 hours training plus a five-day barracks week annually. Courses for officers and non-commissioned officers are held at district training camps.

Training Establishments:The Army Schools-Headquarters, The Army Schools, commands and administers a group of Army schools situated at the one centre, which provide courses for all ranks of the Regular Force as well as for officers and specialist non-commissioned officers of the Territorial Force and New Zealand Cadet Corps.

The group consists of the Tactical School, Regular Force Depot, School of Army Administration, School of Artillery, School of Armour, School of Signals, School of Infantry, Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps School, Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School, the Regular Force Cadet Unit, and the Regular Force Cadet School.

The Regular Force Depot provides basic recruit and instructor courses for all arms of the Regular Force, including Regular Force Cadets.

The Regular Force Cadet School provides academic training for cadets between the ages of 15½ and 18 years. Trade training of cadets is carried out at the appropriate corps school or depot.

The School of Military Engineering, Medical Corps Depot, and the Army Ordnance School are situated apart from the central Army School organisation but fulfil similar functions. In addition, each military district from time to time holds courses for Territorial officers and soldiers, and for personnel of the New Zealand Cadet Corps.

Rifle Clubs and Associations-All rifle clubs and associations (including the parent body, the National Rifle Association of New Zealand) must be formally recognised by the Army Board. There are 104 rifle clubs and 23 rifle associations and subassociations in New Zealand.

The planning, construction, and maintenance of rifle ranges, and precautions to be observed in conducting rifle practices and competitions, are governed by orders issued by the Army Board.

Army Expenditure-The following table shows Army expenditure for the financial years 1962-63 and 1963-64.

 1962-631963-64
 £(000)£(000)
Vote: Army -9,81710,160
Vote: Defence Construction and Maintenance915974
 10,73211,134

Strength of the Army-The strength of the Army as at 31 August 1964 was as follows.

 OfficersSoldiersTotal
Regular Force (including force in Malaysia, women, and personnel seconded from the British and Australian Armies)5864,5615,147
Territorial Force (Active)6156,0586,673
Reserve of Officers (General List) -1,094-1,094
Class A Reserve (Territorial Force) --18,61018,610
Class B Reserve (Regular Force) --1,6241,624
Cadet Corps83238,77039,602

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE-The Royal New Zealand Air Force had its inception in the New Zealand Permanent Air Force and the New Zealand Air Force (Territorial), established as part Of the defence forces of the country in 1923. Permission for a change of name to Royal New Zealand Air Force was granted in 1934. By the Air Force Act 1937, the RNZAF was constituted as a separate armed service, and its administration was vested in the newly formed Air Department. Until 1951 the administration of Air Force law was in accordance with Royal Air Force practice, but with the coming into force that year of the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 a separate New Zealand system of Air Force law was established. Until 1964 the Civil Aviation Administration also formed part of the Air Department, but in 1964 the Civil Aviation Act and the Defence Act established a separate Department of Civil Aviation and transferred the remainder of the Air Department of the Ministry of Defence. Provision is made in the Defence Act 1964, however, for the Civil Aviation authorities to be associated with discussions of issues where military and civil aviation interests are both concerned.

Command and Organisation-The RNZAF is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 and the Defence Act 1964. The force consists of: (a) The Regular Air Force; (b) The Territorial Air Force; (c) The Air Force Reserve; (d) The Women's Royal New Zealand Air Force; (e) The Air Training Corps.

The command and administration of the RNZAF are carried out by the Defence Council, by delegation to the Air Board which consists of the Minister of Defence as Chairman; the Chief of the Air Staff; the Air Member for Personnel; the Air Member for Supply; the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff and the Deputy Secretary of Defence (Air). RNZAF Headquarters is located in Wellington. There are seven RNZAF stations in New Zealand, including Headquarters Unit, and one in Fiji, which is being gradually closed down.

Role-The role of the RNZAF is to provide forces for the defence of New Zealand and her island territories, for the defence of sea and air communications, and for deployment overseas as necessary to support the United Nations and to meet obligations to, and defence arrangements with, the Commonwealth and allied countries. In order to meet these commitments the RNZAF is organised to provide an operational force immediately available in an emergency. In addition the RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area.

Operational Units-Operational Units comprise a medium range transport squadron based with the RAF in Singapore; a maritime squadron stationed at Hobsonville, with an element in Fiji; a long range transport squadron at RNZAF Whenuapai; a light bomber squadron (serving in Singapore at the end of 1964); and a day fighter/ground attack squadron based at RNZAF Ohakea. These squadrons are backed by operational training and support units.

Technical Services-RNZAF technical services are organised and patterned on the Royal Air Force. All RNZAF stations are equipped to undertake routine servicing of the aircraft they operate. The overhaul and repair of aircraft engines and accessories are carried out at No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Woodbourne, but a large proportion of the repair and overhaul work is contracted to the two principal airlines-the National Airways Corporation at Christchurch and Air New Zealand (TEAL), in Auckland.

Personnel:Regular Air Force, Officers-Candidates for commissions in the General Duties (Flying) Branch are drawn mainly from civil life. Candidates for other officer branches are mostly selected from the ranks, although some candidates with high educational and specialist qualifications are enlisted from civilian sources. After a probationary period of service they are initially granted short service commissions with the opportunity of qualifying for a permanent commission later. Applications from officers of other Commonwealth services who have retired, or are about to retire, are accepted from time to time.

Some officer cadets are enlisted and on completion of up to four years' military and university studies are granted permanent commissions in the General Duties, Technical, Administrative and Supply, or Education Branches. Normal retiring ages for officers holding permanent commissions in the General Duties Branch are: squadron leaders and below 45 years; wing commander, 48 years; group captain and above 53 years. For other branches the equivalent retiring ages are 49, 51, and 53 years respectively. In special cases the retiring age of any officer may be extended up to the age of 55 years, or exceptionally, 57 years.

Airmen and Airwomen-Service for airmen in the Regular Air Force is mainly through initial engagements of up to eight years on the active list, according to trade, with a reserve liability of four years in each case. Twelve-year engagements are granted to men who are selected for apprentice training. This training was formerly carried out at the RAF apprentice schools at Halton and Locking in Britain, but from 1960 has been provided by the Royal Australian Air Force apprentice school at Wagga, New South Wales. The RNZAF also trains its own apprentices in certain trades, under a scheme known as the New Zealand Certificate in Engineering Training Scheme. Trainees commence their service at RNZAF Woodbourne and take a four year course as fitters to the level of the New Zealand Certificate in Engineering. For airwomen, the initial term of service is normally three years with no reserve obligation. Opportunities exist for both airmen and airwomen to re-engage in order to qualify for superannuation, for which a minimum period of 20 years' service before attaining the age of 55 years is required. Lump sum gratuities are paid at the completion of short term engagements.

Non-regular Forces-The non-regular forces of the RNZAF consist of: (a) The Territorial Air Force; (b) The Active Reserve; (c) The General Reserve; and (d) The Air Training Corps. Except for the airmen who comprise the Band of the Royal New Zealand Air Force, the Territorial Air Force is manned in specialist officer branches only.

The Active Reserve is manned by personnel who either have reserve obligations following service in the Regular Air Force, or who volunteer on the expiry of those obligations. Not all Active Reserve personnel are required to carry out training annually but they are required to carry out such training as the Air Board determines is necessary. The General Reserve has no training obligation in time of peace.

The Air Training Corps is essentially a disciplined youth movement which fosters an interest in the air and provides a valuable source of recruits for the Regular Air Force.

Recruitment-There are recruiting offices at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and an RNZAF representative in Dunedin.

Training:Flying Training-The training of all aircrew is undertaken at the Flying Training School at RNZAF Wigram.

Ground Training-Airmen Cadets take an education, general service, and basic training course for 12 months at the Airman Cadets' School, RNZAF Woodbourne. During this period cadets enlisted in non-technical trades are trained to specialist level, while those enlisted in technical trades complete training to a basic engineering level. All other recruits, both airmen and airwomen, receive initial general service training, followed by basic engineering and specialist training for airmen, technical recruits, or specialist training only for recruits enlisted in the non-technical trades. Airmen and airwomen who graduate from specialist training are employed on units for periods ranging from six months to two years, depending on the trade, and are then returned to the appropriate trade training school for advanced training. Training for security guards, provosts, ATC, and general service instructors is conducted at the General Service Training School, RNZAF Wigram. This school also conducts specialist courses in management and leadership training for junior noncommissioned officers.

Officer Training-The RNZAF conducts formal courses of officer training in New Zealand at three levels: indoctrination of officer cadets; junior command and staff training for flight lieutenants; and senior command and staff training for squadron leaders and wing commanders. In addition, selected RNZAF officers attend the Royal Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force Staff Colleges; the British Joint Services Staff College; the Air Warfare College of the Royal Air Force; and the Imperial Defence College in London. The RNZAF has exchange-of-personnel agreements with the Royal Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, and the United States Air Force; up to twelve RNZAF officers are on exchange at any one time. Each year up to 10 officer cadets are recruited under a University Cadetship Scheme conducted in conjunction with the University of Canterbury. These Cadets read for bachelor degrees in science, arts, commerce, or engineering and during university vacations receive their military training. On completing the degree course, students are appointed to permanent commissions. Officer Cadet and University Cadet training is carried out at RNZAF Wigram, and the two levels of command and staff training are carried out at the Command and Staff School, RNZAF Whenuapai.

Strength of the Air Force-The strength of the RNZAF at 31 August 1964 was:

Regular Air Force 4,110; WRNZAF 308; Territorial Air Force 108; Active Reserve 781; General Reserve 3,652; Air Training Corps 8,896 (7,130 in school units and 1,766 in town squadrons).

Air Force Expenditure-The total expenditure of the RNZAF for the year ended 31 March 1964 (including Works Construction and Maintenance) was £10,242,903. The comparable figure for 1962-63 was £9,908,485.

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS-A brief summary of forces raised and employed overseas up till 1959 in Japan; with the United Nations forces in Korea; in Cyprus; and in the former Federation of Malaya is given in the 1959 and earlier issues of the Yearbook. The following is a brief account of New Zealand's contributions to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, and of other elements of the New Zealand Armed Services serving overseas at the end of 1964.

Commonwealth Strategic Reserve: New Zealand agreed in 1955 to contribute forces to a Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve to be established in the South-East Asian area. That year an Army Special Air Service Squadron was formed and began anti-terrorist operations in Malaya in January 1956. The Squadron comprised 133 officers and men and operated as a sub-unit of the British Army's 22nd Special Air Service Regiment. It was replaced in late 1957 by a regular infantry battalion and till the end of 1963 the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the New Zealand Regiment served alternately for two-year terms in Malaya as part of the Strategic Reserve. At present the 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment, consisting of 750 officers and men, is serving in Malaysia. Like its predecessors it has carried out operations against the terrorist remnants in the area in northern peninsular Malaysia bordering on Thailand. It has also been engaged on operations against Indonesian infiltrators.

Regular contributions of air and naval units have also been made. From 1955 to 1958 No. 14 Squadron RNZAF, a day fighter/ground attack squadron, was based in Singapore. It was replaced by No. 75 Squadron RNZAF, a light bomber squadron, which was withdrawn to New Zealand in early 1962. No. 14 Squadron RNZAF, equipped with Canberra light bombers, returned to Singapore on indefinite deployment towards the end of 1964. Half of No. 41 Squadron RNZAF, a medium range transport squadron, continues to be based in Singapore as part of the Strategic Reserve.

The naval contribution to the Reserve consists at any one time of the cruiser HMNZS Royalist or an Otago-class frigate, or occasionally two frigates. The usual tour of duty is a year and the ships serve as part of the Royal Navy's Far East Fleet.

Thailand: As a result of the worsening situation in neighbouring Laos during early 1962, the Thai Government appealed to the New Zealand Government for assistance. On 22 May of that year a token force of 4 officers and 27 other ranks of the 1st Special Air Service Squadron left New Zealand for service in Thailand. The force operated with United States and Thailand units prior to being withdrawn to New Zealand in September 1962.

As part of general efforts to improve communication facilities in Thailand, British, Australian, and New Zealand forces are engaged in building an airfield in North-East Thailand. The New Zealand component of 33 men is provided by 2nd Plant Troop, 2nd Construction Squadron, Royal New Zealand Engineers. Elements of the RNZAF transport squadron based in Singapore as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve have assisted in this project and in a United States programme for the improvement of logistic and communications facilities in North-East Thailand.

South Vietnam: During 1964 the New Zealand Government offered the Republic of South Vietnam the services of an engineer team to assist in construction work. This offer was accepted and the New Zealand Army Detachment Vietnam left New Zealand for South Vietnam in June 1964. The detachment of 25 men is employed on road and bridge reconstruction projects.

United Nations Observers: At the request of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the New Zealand Government agreed to provide officers to act as military observers in United Nations truce supervisory operations in Kashmir and since January 1951 the New Zealand Army has continued to provide three observers in this area. In 1954 the Secretary-General made a similar request for observers to serve in Palestine and in July 1954 two New Zealand officers were provided. Their number was increased to a maximum of seven during 1956. Since that date New Zealand has provided five observers in the Middle East. New Zealand continues to provide one military member of the Commonwealth liaison mission in Korea.

STRENGTHS OF THE ARMED SERVICES IN WAR: South African War-Approximately 6,500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914-18-A total of 124,211 persons (including 91,941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these 100,444 went overseas. This total comprised 98,950 troops serving with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces in the European, Mediterranean, or Samoan areas; 550 nurses; and 944 others (including 211 British Army reservists, 541 naval personnel, and 192 Royal Flying Corps personnel). In addition, it was known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand and enlisted in British and Australian forces, while others (exact numbers unknown) are known to have joined Canadian and South African forces.

At Armistice date in November 1918 New Zealand had over 56,000 troops overseas and a further 10,000 were ready to embark or in training.

The troops provided for overseas service represented nearly 10 per cent of the total population of New Zealand in 1914 and over 40 per cent of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45 years. These percentages do not take into account New Zealanders who served in the British or Australian naval or military forces.

Second World War, 1939-45-Approximately 60,000 men volunteered for service in the New Zealand forces in the Second World War before conscription was introduced in July 1940.

The net intake of men to the armed forces-i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries-was 194,000, equivalent to 67 per cent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140,000 persons served overseas.

A total of 104,988 Army personnel served overseas with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and, of these, 99,343 (97,893 males and 1,450 females) left New Zealand on or before 15 August 1945, and 5,645 (5,491 males and 154 females) left New Zealand on or after 16 August 1945. (Some detailed tables are given on pages 269-271 of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

The following table shows the approximate strength of each of the services from the outbreak of war in September 1939 at yearly intervals until August 1945, when hostilities ceased. The figures at July 1942 are also shown, as that month marked the peak for mobilisation, there being 151,073 men in the armed forces at that time, representing approximately 43 per cent of the male population of military age.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceAll ServicesTotalFemale Personnel (Included in Previous Columns)
In New ZealandOverseas
1939 (September)1,32018,0001,48620,39241420,806-
19401,79129,3003,80827,6287,27134,89918
19413,57975,14810,21354,99733,94388,940202
19425,605109,38918,22882,20151,021133,2222,356
1942 (July)6,110124,77323,666104,49050,059154,5493,476
19437,657104,08733,77782,74062,781145,5217,302
194410,01872,66241,59555,03969,236124,2757,942
194510,41246,69835,00442,73149,38392,1145,609
1945 (August)10,46640,94231,57836,96246,02482,9864,632

CASUALTIES ON ACTIVE SERVICE-The following table gives particulars of casualties suffered on active service by members of the armed forces in the wars, etc., listed. For the Second World War the figures shown for Navy and Air Force include New Zealand personnel serving with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. Deaths and injuries due to accidental causes while on active service are included in the figures of deaths and wounded respectively. The number shown as "missing" refers to the number so classified at the end of the period quoted.

 Deaths (Including Died as Prisoner of War)Wounded and InjuredPrisoners of WarWounded and Taken Prisoner of WarInternedMissingTotal
* At 4 August 1919 this total comprised 16,688 deaths, 41,315 wounded and 1 missing.
South African War, 1899-1902228166----394
First World War, 1914-18 (up to 12 November 1918)       
1 N.Z.E.F.16,30241,262356--8458,004*
Samoa2-----2
Nurses13-----13
  Totals16,31741,262356--8458,019
Second World War, 1939-45 (up to 31 December 1946)-       
Navy57317054-3-800
Army6,79315,3246,6441,219-4630,026
Air Force4,1492555203223-4,979
Mercantile Marine110---123-233
  Totals11,62515,7497,2181,2511494636,038
Jayforce (up to December 1948)11-----11
Korea (up to December 1954)       
Navy21----3
Army37801---118
  Totals39811---121
Malaya (up to September 1960)       
Army1021----31
Air Force52----7
  Totals1523----38

SUMMARY OF WARTIME ACTIVITIES OF ARMED FORCES-A condensed account of the wartime activities of the three armed services was given in the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

PERSONS WITH OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE-Census statistics on overseas war service are now given.

Wars19561961
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Plus any with service in both World Wars.
Overseas service      
Only in Korean War4,290194,3094,948344,982
Only in Second World War138,2704,618142,888140,5495,447145,996
Only in First World War55,6161,10056,71645,8791,06446,943
Only in South African War1,61861,624991141,005
In Korean War and Second World War1,21251,2171,33031,333
In Korean War and Second World War and/or First World War98210067269
In Second World War and First World War2,995443,0393,274623,336
In South African War and First World War79727994705475
In South African War and Second World War*8428644-44
Totals with overseas war service204,9805,798210,778197,5526,631204,183

Although the number of First World War veterans declined by 16 per cent between the censuses of 1956 and 1961, there still remained 50,858 (49,725 men and 1,133 women). Of this figure, 38,848 served with the New Zealand Forces, and the remaining 12,010, who served with the Australian, United Kingdom, Indian, and Other Commonwealth Forces, will include an unknown number of immigrants who have arrived in New Zealand since 1918.

The number of Second World War servicemen in New Zealand is increasing, because the number of Second World War servicemen of overseas forces coming to New Zealand has been greater than the number of veterans of the New Zealand Forces dying or emigrating.

Figures from the last three censuses showing the increases in number of persons who served overseas in the Second World War, are: 1951, 141,901 (137,740 men and 4,161 women); 1956, 147,296 (142,626 men and 4,670 women); 1961, 150,771 (145,257 men and 5,514 women).

The increase (amounting to 2.3 per cent between 1956 and 1961, compared with 3.8 per cent between 1951 and 1956), is accounted for mainly by immigration of persons who served in the United Kingdom Forces. The number of those with overseas service in the New Zealand Forces only, declined from 124,394 (122,557 men and 1,837 women) to 122,939 (120,885 men and 2,054 women) between the last two censuses, the decline being accounted for by emigration as well as deaths.

PERSONS WITH WAR SERVICE IN NEW ZEALAND ONLY-In the following table the numbers of persons mobilised for at least 28 days in home service only are given.

-MalesFemalesTotal
Home service only, First World War9,1202179,337
Home service only, Second World War84,2788,27592,553
Home service, First World War and overseas service Second World War210-210
Home service Second World War and overseas service First World War7,754437,797

CIVIL DEFENCE-The Civil Defence Act 1962 made provision for a civil defence organisation, the preparation of plans for civil defence to operate in the case of a national emergency or a major disaster, and the carrying out of those plans if a national emergency or a major disaster occurs. Provision is made for the appointment of a Director of Civil Defence, a Deputy Director, and Regional Commissioners, and the constitution of a National Civil Defence Committee. Local authorities are responsible for preparing local civil defence plans.

Chapter 10. Section 10 LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, VALUATION, ETC.

10 A-GENERAL

LAND UTILISATION-The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories comprising Cook and associated islands and Tokelau Islands, but inclusive of the minor islands since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,700 acres.

The broad grouping of land use in 1960 for farm and other purposes is shown in the following table:

 Acres (million)
Occupied farm land 
Improved grassland18.4
Tussock and other native grassland13.0
  Totals grassland31.4
Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards1.4
Plantations -0.9
Land in fern, scrub, and second growth5.7
Standing bush2.7
Barren and unproductive land1.9
  Totals other occupied farm land12.6
  Totals occupied farm land44.0
Land cities and borough -0.4
National parks, reserves, and domains5.1
State forest land9.8
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads etc. -7.1
  Totals land66.4

Tenure of Occupied Lands-The area of land in occupation as at 31 January 1960, classified according to tenure, was as follows:

 Acres
Crown land (including leases and licences)18,256,493
Freehold (including all land held on deferred payment)22,335,285
Leasehold3,427,119
  Total occupied area44,018,897

Size of Holdings-Although approximately 31 per cent of holdings surveyed in 1960 were less than 100 acres in extent, the total area of such holdings represented only a little under 3 per cent of the occupied land of New Zealand. A further 24 per cent of the holdings ranged between 100 and 200 acres, but the aggregate area of these amounted to less than 9 per cent of the total. At the other end of the scale it was found that 64 per cent of the occupied land was held in areas of 1,000 acres and upwards, although the number of such holdings was only a little under 9 per cent of the total. Holdings of 5,000 acres and upwards, of which there were 1,013 in 1960, accounted for 38 per cent of the total area of occupied land.

The number of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation, grouped according to size, as returned in each of the years 1949, 1952, 1957, and 1960 are given below. For these years, excepting 1960, statistics were collected for areas under 10 acres.

Area, in AcresNumber of HoldingsPercentage of Total
19491952195719601949195219571960
1- 911,46312,36311,765..13.1613.6913.90..
19- 4913,61113,71610,39611,72115.6315.1912.2915.24
50- 9912,96213,46011,93212,35314.8914.9114.1016.06
100- 19917,25018,10417,94918,38419.8120.0521.2223.90
200- 31910,08410,30810,28910,68711.5811.4212.1613.89
320- 63910,65311,08311,18412,10912.2312.2713.2215.74
640- 9994,2154,3824,3574,6594.844.855.156.06
1,000- 4,9995,8275,8665,7456,0026.696.506.797.80
5,000- 9,9995385355315510.620.590.630.71
10,000-19,9992782762612640.320.310.310.34
20,000-49,9991441431411450.170.160.170.19
50,000 and over515254530.060.060.060.07
  Totals87,07690,28884,60476,928100.00100.00100.00100.00

The total acreage of holdings in each group is given in the following table.

Area of Holdings, in Acres1949195219571960
acres
1- 953,05356,40150,871..
10- 49344,548346,400265,188299,766
50- 99949,958989,287882,805918,596
100- 1992,417,3422,536,2302,521,2342,618,512
200- 3192,527,4012,584,8762,579,1612,692,109
320- 6394,823,0685,011,0735,061,4575,470,835
640- 9993,349,9843,470,2973,452,8093,683,904
1,000- 4,99911,377,53911,367,37011,125,37511,537,911
5,000- 9,9993,661,1383,670,1823,592,5873,755,107
10,000-19,9993,891,5863,870,9483,704,4433,839,876
20,000-49,9994,457,0354,404,0014,326,1514,330,396
50,000 and over4,864,8474,912,6384,989,2844,871,885
  Totals42,717,49943,219,70342,551,36544,018,897

The following additional details not normally obtained in the annual farm production survey were collected under the special census of agriculture in 1960:

Holdings at 31 January 1960NumberPercentage of Total
Occupied by Maoris5,2276.79
Lying entirely idle and unused4,5915.97

A classification of all holdings in 1960 according to the status of the occupier showed the following position:

Holdings at 31 January 1960NumberPercentage of Total
Owner44,11957.35
Lessee13,57117.64
Manager3,6834.79
Partner3,9505.13
Shareworker2,1072.74
Part owner, part lessee9,49812.35
  Totals76,928100.00

Condition of Occupied Land-In 1963, 43,660,375 acres were assessed as being occupied, including reserves and Maori lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, and holdings of less than 10 acres in extent. The land in occupation in New Zealand at 31 January 1963 was classified according to condition and use as follows.

 AcresPercentage of Total

* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.

†lncludes unimproved land together with domestic orchards, residences, private gardens, and grounds.

In principal cereal crops and crops for threshing*438,0971.00
In green, root and other crops* -768,8611.76
In fallow123,1330.28
In sown grasses and clovers-  
 Cut for hay, seed or silage1,387,2993.18
 Not cut for hay, seed or silage -17,950,96841.12
In orchards (commercial only)16,7380.04
In market gardens and nurseries -15,2100.03
In plantations -1,024,3532.35
  Total area in cultivation21,724,65949.76
Balance of land21,935,71650.24
  Total area in occupation43,660,375100.00

Information collected in 1960 in conjunction with the World Census of Agriculture showed that 36 per cent of the total area in occupation was stated as being capable of cultivation by ploughs or discs.

Land in cultivation (under crop and in pasture) forms the subject matter of Section 14-Farming. An indication of the condition and geographical distribution of unimproved land is afforded by the following table, which relates to the position at 31 January 1960.

Land DistrictPhormium (New Zealand Flax)Tussock and Naturally Established Native GrassesFem, Scrub, and Second GrowthStanding Native BushBarren and Unproductive LandTotal, Unimproved Occupied Land
acres
North Auckland3,575107,539871,412263,17795,0231,340,726
South Auckland1,71762,3221,299,029687,679107,2062,157,953
Gisborne65116,171310,830178,1362,368634,570
Hawke's Bay55286,719341,21269,53842,198739,722
Taranaki614,295150,328193,13617,863365,683
Wellington7,923589,474672,635290,726126,6721,687,430
 North Island13,3961,166,5203,645,4461,682,392418,3306,926,084
Marlborough5,8381,407,022278,281112,482225,5662,029,189
Nelson2,089200,676380,029190,72341,938815,455
Westland4,32343,758207,166214,841126,146596,234
Canterbury4,8973,931,458242,723113,033539,7954,831,906
Otago2,0315,054,486614,061250,702439,0496,360,329
Southland6,9561,231,629303,981147,45267,2011,757,219
 South Island26,13411,869,0292,026,2411,029,2331,439,69516,390,332
 New Zealand39,53013,035,5495,671,6872,711,6251,858,02523,316,416

RESERVES AND NATIONAL PARKS: History-Land has been set aside for public purposes from the early years of colonial administration in New Zealand. The New Zealand Act 1840 (Imperial) authorised the disposal of land "to any persons, bodies, public or corporate, for the public uses of our subjects there resident or any of them". Royal Instructions of 1840 to Governor Hobson elaborated on this and provided that such lands were not to be granted conveyed or demised or occupied by any private person or for any private purpose. A subsequent Royal Instruction dated 1846 and the New Zealand Company's Colonisation Act 1847 (Imperial) authorised the vesting of reserves in trust for public purposes or uses.

The wisdom of reserving areas for public purposes on the subdivision of land into residential sections has also long been recognised by legislation. The Plans of Towns Regulations Act 1875 provided for reserves in the case of Crown subdivisions. Legislation requiring the provision of reserves on subdivisions of private land was first enacted in the Land Laws Amendment Act 1912. The Land Act 1924 specified that not less than 5 per cent of the area of any subdivision was to be reserved for public purposes and the Land Subdivision in Counties Act 1946 added the alternative, at the option of the Minister of Lands, of the subdivider paying costs or contributing land for sale with the proceeds earmarked for the purchase or improvement of reserves.

Subdivision is controlled by the local authority under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 or the Counties Amendment Act 1961. Land is normally set aside as reserves, but the local authority may take a cash payment for reserve development. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made on subdivision for reserves and with subsequent administration of reserves. The Crown is not bound by this legislation, but in practice refers its subdivisions to local bodies for approval and makes generous provision for reserves.

The first statute providing for the reservation of Crown land for parks and domains was the Land Act 1877; an amendment in 1884 permitted the reservation of land containing "natural curiosities"; and the Land Act 1892 allowed Crown land to be set aside as scenic reserves. It was in 1887 that the three mountain peaks of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro were given to the nation by Te Heuheu Tukino and associated chiefs as "a national park for the benefit of everybody". This gift came only 15 years after Yellowstone was established as America's and the world's first national park and the gift area formed the nucleus of New Zealand's first national park-Tongariro-in 1894. The second national park-Egmont-was constituted by special legislation in 1900.

The first general legislation on national parks was enacted in 1928-this provided a uniform means of setting up and administering new parks. Under this legislation two new parks were established-Arthur's Pass in 1929 and Abel Tasman in 1942.

Interest in national parks increased after the Second World War and a review of the administration led to the passing of the National Parks Act 1952. This made the Minister of Lands responsible to Parliament for national parks and laid the foundations for an integrated system of parks. Fiordland (part of which was first reserved in 1905) became a national park and four new parks were constituted-Mount Cook (1953), Urewera (1954), Nelson Lakes (1956), and Westland (1960). In 1964 the Mount Aspiring National Park was constituted. The National Parks Act established the National Parks Authority consisting of the Director-General of Lands (Chairman), the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of Department of Tourist and Publicity, three persons appointed by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand and the Royal Society of New Zealand respectively, and one person appointed by the Minister of lands to represent the national park boards.

The National Parks Authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey and a Supervisor of National Parks has been appointed to assist in coordinating and integrating policy in the nine parks. Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board of which the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the Land District is chairman. Each Board comprises not more than eight persons appointed by the Minister of Lands but in the case of Egmont and Tongariro special provisions exist regarding the appointment of members to the Boards. Each Board employs one or more salaried rangers responsible for development, protection, and interpretation, and their work is supplemented by the voluntary help of about 250 honorary rangers appointed from those whose interests bring them into the parks frequently or who live nearby.

Scenic and historic reserves are controlled by scenic and historic boards, by local authorities, or by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district. A large number of honorary rangers help in the supervision of these reserves. The legislation governing these and all other reserves is the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. Once land has been reserved for a specific purpose, either by notice in the New Zealand Gazette or by deposit of a subdivisional plan, the purpose of the reservation can only be changed or the reservation revoked by the Minister of Lands. In some cases advertising is first required and in all cases the Minister will not approve a change of purpose or the revocation of the reservation unless it is in the public interest. The Minister is also responsible through the Department of Lands and Survey to see that use of these areas is consistent with the purpose for which the land was reserved.

Description-Nine national parks have been constituted in New Zealand covering 4,572,689 acres or one-fifteenth of the country's land area. They are set aside as the law says "for the purpose of preserving in perpetuity as national parks, for the benefit and enjoyment of the public, areas of New Zealand that contain scenery of such distinctive quality or natural features so beautiful or unique that their preservation is in the national interest". The National Parks Act requires that parks be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; that, as far as possible, native flora and fauna is preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated; and that, subject to restrictions necessary to preserve native flora and fauna or for the general welfare of the parks, the public has freedom of entry and access. The only restricted area is the "special area" set aside to protect the habitat of the takahe (notornis)-128,000 acres out of the three-million acre Fiordland National Park.

Any form of development not provided for in the National Parks Act must be sanctioned by Act of Parliament. Permitted development includes the erection of houses for park rangers and huts for Government employees engaged in noxious animal destruction, the erection of huts by mountaineering, tramping, or other similar clubs, the erection of ski tows and similar facilities. Appropriate commercial undertaking may operate in the parks under licence while boards controlling the parks may, with the consent of the Authority, establish camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses, or other buildings, and may help private enterprise in their establishment. "Wilderness areas" where development is restricted to access by foot track are provided for in the Act and a number have been set aside. Virtually all the finance for parks is provided by the Government, but donations by private individuals or organisations are encouraged and earn £2 of £1 subsidy from the Government.

Three of the nine national parks are in the North Island and six in the South. Tongariro National Park (163,356 acres), includes the three volcanoes-Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro-and is the skiing playground of the North Island. Egmont (82,280 acres) contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains and preserves forests within a 6-mile radius. It varies from heavily forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice of the upper levels. The remaining park in the North Island, Urewera (492,763 acres), surrounds Lake Waikaremoana and contains the largest remaining forest area in the North Island. Kiwi, kaka, and most other native birds are found and the area is rich in Maori history.

In the South Island, Abel Tasman National Park (43,939 acres), contains coastal and elevated bush-clad country along the shores of Tasman Bay and includes off-shore islands and reefs. It has a broken coastline with many bays, coves, and beaches of golden sand. Nelson Lakes (141,127 acres) is centred on the twin lakes of Rotoiti and Rotoroa and is surrounded by mountainous country with extensive beech forests on the lower slopes. Further south, Arthur's Pass (242,888 acres), preserves an alpine and forested area straddling the Southern Alps. Mount Cook (172,979 acres) and West-land (210,257 acres) national parks share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps, and Westland takes in forest and lake country and a small strip of sea coast as well as the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers. Mount Cook National Park contains most of New Zealand's highest mountains and includes the 18-mile-long Tasman Glacier. Fiordland (3,023,100 acres), one of the world's largest national parks, contains majestic scenery with fiords, mountains, forests, and lakes. It includes Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau while the road through the Homer Tunnel gives access to Milford Sound. The park is the only known habitat of the takahe (notornis) and the kakapo. Mount Aspiring National Park (492,300 acres) embraces the alpine region in north-west Otago and South Westland extending from the Haast Pass to the Routeburn area at the head of Lake Wakatipu and including Mounts Aspiring and Earnslaw.

Scenic Reserves-Scenic reserves, of which there are 892 with a total a of 677,799 acres, preserve native forest, and preserve access by the public to other scenic features such as the sea coast, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, limestone caves, thermal areas, and vantage points. Forest areas range from large tracts of remote forested land with considerable conservation value to small remnant areas in developed districts. Large scenic reserves have been set aside along main highways, but, in general, barren mountainous regions not included in national parks remain Crown land.

There are 17 reserves in excess of 5,000 acres and some are larger than the smallest national park, Abel Tasman. Some areas at present set aside as scenic reserves could, in future years, achieve national park status.

Scenic reserves over 5,000 acres are: Lewis Pass, Haast Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Routeburn, Rakeahua (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, South Cape (Stewart Island), Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Tennyson Inlet, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuka Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge), and Waioeka Gorge.

Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, as does the extent of development of them. Some are well developed with cleared areas used for camping and picnics and have formed tracks. Facilities on those flanking highways are mainly the provision of off-road parking combined with picnic areas. Many reserves have no facilities as yet. Among the best known reserves not in the preceding list are Trounson Kauri Park in North Auckland, Huka Falls, near Taupo, Hongi's Track, and various thermal areas near Rotorua, Waitomo Caves, Ball's Clearing in Hawke's Bay, Pelorus Bridge and Hundalee in Marlborough, the Summit Road Scenic Reserves and Peel Forest in Canterbury, Punakaiki, and Lake Ianthe in Westland, and Forest Hill and Curio Bay in Southland.

In an endeavour to recreate the natural New Zealand scene in an area where exotic trees, noxious weeds, and engineering development have intruded, the Department of Lands and Survey has established a plant nursery at Taupo where native trees and shrubs are being propagated for beautification of reserves in the Taupo basin.

There is provision in the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 for land to be declared private scenic reserves-this land remains in private ownership, but receives the protection of the Act. There are 2,528 acres in 18 private scenic reserves and these include White Island, where grey faced and other petrels nest in large numbers, as well as about 3,000 pairs of gannets annually. The Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust area is a private scenic reserve near New Plymouth in native bush being planted with native trees as well as rhododendrons. Other large private scenic reserves are Moncrieff, near Nelson, and Makarora on the Haast Pass Road.

Historic Reserves-Forty-two areas of historic interest totalling 3,007 acres are set aside as historic reserves and the Department of Lands and Survey cooperates closely in administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

The Treaty House area at Waitangi administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not an historic reserve, in the strict sense.

Bird Sanctuaries and Allied Reserves-Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. Such areas are now reserved under the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. In all there are 32 reserves in this category with a total area of 447,252 acres; some of them are mainland areas, but most are off shore, outlying, and subantarctic islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird; Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and the Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meterological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for the preservation of flora and fauna and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

Generally, access to reserves of this type is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and bird life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there.

Nature Conservation Council-The Nature Conservation Council Act 1962 provides for the establishment of a Nature Conservation Council. This Council of independent members, expert in the field of conservation, has been set up to coordinate scientific and technical information on nature conservation, to inquire into the effect of proposed public works on any aspect of nature conservation and to act as an advisory body to Government on matters affecting nature conservation which is defined in the Act as "the preservation of the native flora and fauna and the natural features and natural beauty of New Zealand".

Wildlife Refuges and Sanctuaries-The Wildlife Act 1953 provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries are now termed wildlife refuges. Occupiers of any land in wildlife refuges can be authorised to carry out certain operations necessary for the normal use of land.

Public Domains-Domains of which there are 911 covering 61,324 acres provide districts with land for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. Many domains are designed primarily to provide for organised sport but there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal domains are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city domains are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on domain land.

Summary of Areas Reserved-The following table records the main classes of reservations as at 31 March 1964.

Type of ReservationNo.Acres
National Parks94,572,689
Scenic reserves892677,799
Historic reserves423,007
Bird sanctuaries and allied reserves32447,252
Public domains91161,324

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS-Practically all title to privately owned land and interests in land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system administered under the Land Transfer Act 1952. This system was introduced into New Zealand by the Land Transfer Act 1870. While that Act retained some of the provisions and innovations of the Land Transfer Act 1860 which it repealed and superseded, it was largely based on the revolutionary Torrens system of registration of title devised for South Australia.

Under this land transfer system, which with certain modifications has operated in New Zealand since 1870, the title to land is not secured or effected by the mere execution of deeds or documents. Registration of a valid title is the fundamental principle, and it is only by such registration that title to land or any interest therein may pass or be obtained. The District Land Registrar appointed in and for each of the land registration districts is responsible for the registration in his district, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

No instrument or dealing may be registered unless it is in accordance with statute or general law or if forbidden by positive law. An increasing number of statutes and regulations expressly impose upon the District Land Registrar the duty and responsibility of ensuring that no instrument is registered or no interests in land are acquired in contravention of the statutory provisions and requirements regulating the aggregation and subdivision of land, the alienation of Crown land, Maori land, or public reserves, the dedication or constitution of roads, streets, and access ways, and many other matters involving Government policy.

The land transfer system has proved so successful and has provided such a reliable record of dealings with land that over the last half century there has been an increasing tendency on the part of local authorities and other statutory bodies to use its facilities to give specific notice of obligations and restrictions attaching to land by virtue of their respective statutes. When national or district schemes of drainage, irrigation, water supply, or sewerage which result in improvement to land are undertaken today, statutory authority is customarily given to charge part of the cost against the land. These charges are recorded against the titles concerned. While entries of this nature on the register were not envisaged in the original land transfer system they do ensure that a prospective purchaser, by inspection of the Register, can acquaint himself with all matters affecting the property. The land transfer registration system is also used extensively to ensure that other statutory restrictions governing the acquisition and subdivision of land and dealings with land are not contravened.

Special procedures are necessary for the registration of dealings with Crown land and Maori land and these are contained in the Land Act 1948, the Maori Affairs Act 1953, and the various related Acts respectively.

The demand for land for housing development has resulted in adaptations to the system. The normal procedures relating to subdivision title and finance have been streamlined and, as in most forms of substantial purchase today, provision made for payment by instalment. The State-sponsored group building schemes, the Housing Act 1955, and the housing provisions in the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 have met this situation. Agreements for sale and purchase and occupation licences are registered today in great numbers in the same way as the traditional forms of dealing with land.

The Joint Family Homes Act which was passed in 1950 provides for settlements of land as "joint family homes" and increasing use is made of this procedure year by year. (See Section 19.)

Certificates of Title Issued-The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 11 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
195426,907
195525,356
195624,069
195722,948
195823,590
195925,521
196026,953
196129,337
196231,743
196328,764x
196429,049

LAND TRANSFERS-The total consideration involved in land transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the year ended 31 March 1964 was £209.9 million, a rise of almost 25 per cent over the figure of £168.2 million recorded during the year ended 31 March 1963. The previous highest annual total during the decade was £187.8 million, recorded during the year ended 31 March 1961. This was followed by a fall to £180.0 million in 1961-62, and by a further fall to £168.2 million in 1962-63.

The total consideration involved in transfers of urban property rose from £118.6 million in 1962-63 to £149.5 million in the latest year, a 26 per cent rise. Consideration involved in rural property transactions rose from £49.5 million in 1962-63 to £60.4 million in 1963-64, a 22 per cent rise.

Regarding all land transfer statistics a word of caution is necessary. Very diverse types of property are included in the land transfer figures, and consequently the averages should not be taken for more then they purport to show, e.g. average consideration figures per acre for rural freehold properties should not be taken as representing average prices per acre for farm property.

The table following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the past 11 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTown and Suburban PropertiesCountry PropertiesAll Properties: Total Consideration
NumberAreaConsiderationFreeholdTotal Freehold and Leasehold
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberConsideration
  acres£(000)acres (000)£000)  £000)£(000)
195443,42710,92575,5038,4421,37136,5969,18838,915114,419
195546,97811,84088,7618,8041,72544,4609,59347,964136,725
195641,37810,36380,6847,1121,23737,3667,72240,256120,940
195738,0669,57875,6146,6771,20536,0897,26839,064114,678
195842,18310,39189,6417,7031,44046,1138,39050,060139,701
195941,85410,28385,2166,7961,07239,6197,29942,400127,616
196045,12510,99994,8667,2041,26344,5767,73047,859142,725
196152,23316,000119,8948,4031,71062,1769,17967,888187,782
196249,35813,979116,7057,7871,40858,5788,45563,343180,048
196346,27715,108118,6356,7821,13546,2327,28949,541168,175
196451,94216,572149,5347,2691,29755,4907,89460,403209,937

The numbers of transfers shown in the table relate only to transfers of land on sale, i.e., they do not include transfers of land from trustees to beneficiaries or to new trustees, transfers of mortgages, easements, etc.

As already stated, land transfer figures do not five a precise indication of any changes that may take place in property values. In the case of town and suburban properties, however, the numbers involved are probably sufficient to smooth out changes from year to year in the proportions of different classes of property included in the total.

URBAN LAND TRANSFERS-The following table shows urban transfers classified by amount-groups for the latest five years, and includes figures of average consideration per transaction for each amount group.

Year Ended 31 MarchUnder £1,000£l,000-£9,999£10,000-£24,999£25,000 and OverTotals
NumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverage
  ££ ££ ££ ££ ££
  (000)  (000)  (000)  (000)  (000) 
196019,5549,66149425,14476,6003,0463454,77913,853823,82546,64845,12594,8662,102
196121,46111,10451730,08994,9523,1565427,63314,0831416,20544,00752,233119,8942,295
196219,89010,72353928,73991,3433,1785818,06113,8741486,57944,44949,358116,7052,364
196317,6319,81055627,87389,6653,2176108,69114,24816310,46964,22646,277118,6352,564
196417,3349,72656133,467110,3403,29792113,09214,21522016,37674,43451,942149,5342,879

In general, transactions included in the under £1,000 group would involve vacant sections. While there were no significant changes in numbers, consideration, or average consideration in this group between 1962-63 and 1963-64, the continued slight fall in the number of transactions involving under £1,000 brought it to the lowest point since 1956-57. After building up to a peak of 21,461 in 1960-61, the number of transactions in this consideration group fell to 19,890 in 1961-62, 17,631 in 1962-63, and 17,334 in the latest year.

Urban land transfers in the £l,000-£9,999 group would be, in the main, residential properties. Transactions within this group have increased considerably in both number and total consideration during the latest year. During the two preceding years the number of transactions in this group declined, falling from 30,089 in 1960-61 to 28,739 in 1961-62, and again to 27,873 in 1962-63. The increase to 33,467 in 1963-64 represents a rise of slightly more than 20 per cent over the previous year. The total consideration involved in the transactions in the £l,000-£9,999 group in 1963-64 showed a 23.1 per cent rise from £89.7 million to £110.3 million. Average consideration per transaction increased by £80, from £3,217 to £3,297.

The two remaining consideration groups, £10,000 to £24,999, and over £25,000, would represent mainly commercial and industrial properties. Sales in these groups have been rising steadily during the past five years. In the £10,000 to £24,999 group the number of transactions and the total consideration both rose by approximately 50 per cent in 1963-64.

The following table shows urban land transfers by land registration districts. The continued growth of Auckland urban area is reflected in the figures referring to North Auckland Land Registration District.

Land Registration District1962-631963-64
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsideration
  acres£(000) acres£(000)
North Auckland15,4254,16441,90717,7335,05653,050
South Auckland5,8651,86313,7166,7612,48119,636
Gisborne4109658025702801,241
Hawke's Bay1,7244804,0581,8014354,539
Taranaki1,1892952,4521,2973093,000
Wellington8,7532,30526,48210,0903,34434,369
Marlborough412170922428156895
Nelson1,1379962,6091,0383752,471
Westland3007540025976332
Canterbury6,5201,90015,5006,7121,45916,913
Otago3,0349626,4403,4661,6568,400
Southland1,5089333,3481,7879474,689
 Totals46,27715,108118,63551,94216,572149,534

Rural Land Transfers-The following analysis shows, for 1963-64, transfers of country freehold properties classified by size groups. The average consideration per acre for the previous year is given in parentheses. Statistics by size groups are available for freehold land transfers only, but these comprise the great proportion of transfers.

Size Group (Acres)NumberAreaConsiderationConsideration per Acre
  acres£(000)££
Under 303,35524,70612,143491.51(510.45)
30- 4944517,9282,462137.31(140.34)
50- 9992667,5367,539111.63(104.88)
100-14967181,4686,51980.02(80.58)
150-249678130,9147,81659.72(53.98)
250-499641224,9859,02640.12(35.75)
500 and over553749,8179,98513.32(13.15)
 Totals7,2691,297,35355,49042.77(40.72)

These transactions would mainly involve farms and farm land. Compared with the previous year, the area of rural freehold land sold in 1963-64 increased by over 14 per cent, while the consideration involved increased by just over 20 per cent, the difference in rate of increase being reflected in the rise in average consideration per acre from £40.72 to £42.77. However, where the property involved was under 30 acres in extent, the average consideration per acre fell from £510.45 in 1962-63 to £491.51 in 1963-64, and there was a similar if lesser fall in the average consideration per acre in the 30 to 49 acre group-from £140.34 to £137.31. The rise in average consideration per acre was mainly in properties of between 150 and 499 acres.

Further particulars relating to transfers of country freehold properties are contained in the next table.

Year Ended 31 MarchAverage Value per TransactionAverage Value per Acre
 ££
19533,98924.61
19544,33526.69
19555,05025.77
19565,25430.21
19575,40529.94
19585,98632.03
19595,83036.97
19606,18835.30
19617,39936.36
19627,52241.59
19636,81740.72
19647,63442.77

Differences exist in average consideration, average value per transaction, and average acreage per transaction in sales of rural freehold property in the North Island and in the South Island. The following table shows the figures for the two Islands for the year ended 31 March 1964. It will be noted that the average consideration per acre for properties of below 150 acres in extent, and for properties of over 500 acres in extent was lower in the South Island, while for properties of 150 to 499 acres the average consideration in the South Island was above that in the North Island.

ItemSize Group (Acres)Total Acreage
Under 3030-4950-99100-149150-249250-499500 and over
Average consideration per acre by size group- £ N.I.526.97147.66118.4083.9859.3438.8114.0949.80
  £ S.I.426.66106.0190.9269.1360.2541.7912.4933.65
  £ N.Z.491.51137.31111.6380.0259.7040.1213.3242.77
Average value per transaction by size group- £ N.I.4,3485,9558,65610,18211,28513,45017,8998,032
  £ S.I.2,6264,2606,5848,42411,91314,91018,2496,971
  £ N.Z.3,6195,5328,1419,71611,52814,08118,0567,634
Average acres per transaction by size group- N.I.840731211903471,270161.3
  S.I.640721221983571,461207.2
  N.Z.740731211933511,356178.5

In 1963-64 rural freehold land transfers in the North Island totalled 4,543, involving 732,651 acres and a total consideration of £36,489,000, as compared with 4,413, involving 699,120 acres and a total consideration of £31,758,000, during 1962-63.

South Island rural freehold land transfers during 1963-64 totalled 2,726, involving 564,702 acres and a total consideration of £19,002,000, compared with 2,369, involving 436,343 acres and a total consideration of £14,475,000 during the previous year.

The following table shows all rural land transfers freehold and leasehold, by land registration districts for the year ended 31 March 1964.

Land Registration DistrictFreeholdLeaseholdTotal
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsideration
  Acres (000)£(000) Acres (000)£(000) Acres (000)£(000)
North Auckland1,64812711,2132751391,67513211,352
South Auckland1,14416610,38348102901,19217610,673
Gisborne194619692320175217801,143
Hawke's Bay350893,76259247124091134,474
Taranaki361722,8546026416421983,271
Wellington8462197,30886366309322547,938
Marlborough233558393941293272961,133
Nelson376581,2995615188432731,486
Westland4791571910436619200
Canterbury1,0062038,36780807211,0862839,087
Otago6171433,893841008497012424,742
Southland447974,44644184574911154,903
 Totals7,2691,29755,4906253844,9137,8941,68160,403

Monthly statistics of transfers on sale of land registered under the Land Transfer Act are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

LEGISLATION CONCERNING LAND DEVELOPMENT, SETTLEMENT, AND SALE OF LAND - Legislation governing this aspect is found in the Land Act 1948, the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952, and the Marginal Lands Act 1950. The Land Act provides for the administration, development, and disposal of Crown lands and authorises the purchase and development of private land for settlement purposes. The Land Settlement Promotion Act provides for the closer settlement of farm land by preventing the undue aggregation of land and providing for the acquisition of farm land that is, or when subdivided will be, capable of substantially increased production. The Marginal Lands Act 1950 assists farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on marginal lands, by providing finance where it is not available through normal lending channels.

Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952-Part I of the Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production. Land cannot be taken from any person owning less than the equivalent of two economic farms, and provision is also made for the retention of land for the owner's children. The owner may object to the Land Valuation Committee or the Land Valuation Court to the taking of land. The Court may also be called in to assess compensation for land taken if the owner does not accept the Crown's offer.

Part II deals with the control of sales and leases of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The Act applies to sales of freehold farm land and, with certain exceptions, to leases of farm land for terms of three years or more. The consent of the Land Valuation Court is required to such transactions unless the purchaser or lessee files a declaration with the District Land Registrar within one month of the date of the transaction to the effect that he owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and that he has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents, without the consent of the Land Valuation Court or Committee, the purchase of farm land by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are less than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction.

Marginal Lands Act 1950-The administration of the Act is the responsibility of the Minister of Lands and is carried out by the Department of Lands and Survey. Actual control is vested in the Marginal Lands Board. To assist it in the administration of the Act the Board has appointed Marginal Lands Committees in each land district. Each committee consists of three members-the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district, who is chairman, an officer of the Department of Agriculture, and one other person selected from a panel of farmers appointed for each committee. The farming members are selected for their experience in the farming or management of marginal lands.

The Board is empowered to make loans for the purchase of additional land, refinance, development-in fact for any purpose having for its object the successful development and farming of a property regarded as suitable for a loan.

It is the policy of the Board not to compete with existing lending institutions and before it will make an advance the applicant must satisfy the Board that finance cannot be obtained through normal business channels. The Board will not normally provide finance for the improvement of a property unless it is capable of being developed into an economic unit. The policy is to assist competent men to make their holdings economic rather than help farmers already substantially established to bring into production additional land which could be developed from their private resources or out of revenue.

The scheme is achieving its objective of increasing production from marginal country. Many farmers on difficult and unattractive properties have, with Marginal Lands Board assistance and with application and energy established and maintained profitable production. Many have completed their development programmes and, as a result, have been able to convert their current account mortgages to instalment mortgages, repaying the advances over a term of years, while others have repaid their advances in full.

An estimate of the area of grassing undertaken with Marginal Lands Act finance is 110,000 acres with increases in carrying capacity estimated at 256,000 sheep, 11,000 run cattle, and 12,000 dairy cows.

For the year ended 31 March 1964 the Board granted 112 loans totalling £922,731. In all, from the inception of the marginal lands scheme, 1,044 loans have been approved, amounting to £5,092,246.

The present rates of interest payable on advances are:

Current account first mortgage5 per cent.
Current account second and subsequent mortgages5½ per cent.
Instalment mortgage, first -5½ per cent, reducible to 5 per cent.
Instalment mortgage, second and subsequent mortgages6 per cent, reducible to 5½ per cent.

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RIVERS CONTROL-The problem of damage by flooding and soil erosion, and of exhausted soils on hill country, deteriorating pastures, and increasing run-off led to the enactment of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941. This provided for the establishment of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, and catchment boards in problem districts. There are 13 catchment boards and three catchment commissions and the Waikato Valley Authority, covering three-quarters of New Zealand.

River Control-New Zealand has a generous and well distributed rainfall exceeding 45 in. over about 70 per cent of the country, and has only a very small area with less than 25 in. In some districts, such as the West Coast of the South Island and the western central plateaus of the North Island, annual rainfall exceeds 100 in., with extremes over 200 in.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off, both on total annual flow and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some river systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding. Severe storms are likely to occur at any season of the year and extreme falls have been experienced of 12 in. to 20 in. in 24 hours in certain areas. It is therefore not surprising that flood control is a major problem in New Zealand, with total run-off and peak flood discharges being among the highest in the world.

With the passing of the Act and the setting up of catchment boards with their specialist staff, great progress has been made with river control throughout the country. Action has naturally been focussed first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owners have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, in the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers. Schemes range from channel clearing, training, and bank protection, with partial flood protection up to 5-10-ycar frequency, to complete protection with stopbanks up to floods of 100-year frequency. Such schemes may involve expenditure up to £2,500,000, and subsidies vary generally from £1 for £1 to £3 for £1 or more depending on the capacity of the property owners to meet their share of the cost.

The policy of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is to encourage soil conservation as complementary to river control. In the case of two large river schemes and several smaller schemes planning has included the whole catchment. As farmers become aware of the benefits of soil conservation work comprehensive planning for other river catchments will follow.

There are many rivers in New Zealand where major control schemes cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller individual works covering clearing, training works, bank protection, minor stopbanking, and the like are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified. Type and cost of works have to be related to the financial capacity of the area. Subsidies are generally £2 for £1 but may be up to £3 for £1. Continuity of control and maintenance is of greatest importance in river work and the Council therefore encourages the planning of comprehensive schemes where rating districts are established to ensure the meeting of capital charges and adequate future maintenance.

Most of the major river-control works are carried out by catchment boards, the Waikato Valley Authority, or river boards, but smaller works are also carried out by Ministry of Works, counties, and drainage boards.

Drainage-The high rainfall and run-off factors indicated above have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys where river gradients are flat or in coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes and include floodgates and pumping stations. Particularly in the North Island, there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem of development because of shrinkage and necessity for water-level control. These areas have been largely held and developed by the Lands and Survey Department.

Drainage work is generally more straightforward with quicker returns, and subsidies rarely exceed £1 for £1. Only community drains giving benefit to more than one owner qualify for subsidy. Drain maintenance is also subsidised to encourage a higher standard of maintenance, the subsidy usually being £1 for £2.

Drainage works are carried out primarily through catchment authorities, Waikato Valley Authority, and a large number of drainage boards, but are also carried out by the Ministry of Works on behalf of the Lands and Survey Department and by counties. It is emphasised that drainage works must be properly coordinated with river works.

Soil Conservation-Soil erosion and flooding problems have their origin on the hill-country pastoral lands, especially where farming has forced grass to take over the protective functions of vigorous native forest, scrub, fern, and swamp vegetation. The changes in the vegetation brought about by developing farm resources have been reflected in drastic changes in the soil in the hill country. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soils. The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbent combination of soil and vegetation with a satisfactory capacity to control water, which causes most soil erosion. Successful techniques which have been developed include spelling, control of burning and of animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, the wider use of cattle, subdivision fencing, stock water ponds, gully-control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and spaced and close tree planting for stability.

To assist farmers directly to tackle their own problems subsidies are made on farmers' contributions. These are form £ for £1 to £2 for £1 on tree planting for stability and wind breaks, materials for conservation fencing, contouring, or flood-control dams, and on gully-control planting and structures.

Land Capability and Catchment Control-Experience has proved that the American system of land classification for soil conservation purposes is very satisfactory. In this system an inventory is made of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, and soil erosion. Along with a knowledge of vegetation and farming experience a land capability map is prepared classifying the land into classes according to the way in which the land in each class can be used. The required soil conservation practices are also determined for each class.

From this basic classification of the land in a catchment more detailed surveys of individual farms provide the data necessary for detailed conservation farming plans. These plans are then discussed with the farmer and fitted into his capacity for implementing them over a period of years. Great care is taken to support the necessary special soil conservation practices with accepted good farm management practices. The conservation treatment and farm management practices can then be dovetailed with the river control and drainage plans for the lower catchment to provide the ultimate plan for catchmčnt control. Allied operations of importance are soil conservation forestry, fire prevention, and animal pest destruction.

Plans have now been developed in this country to integrate farming practices with the physical limitations of the land in order to assure permanent production consistent with stability and permanence of the land and conservation of the rain that falls.

Agricultural Aviation-The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council has an advisory committee on agricultural aviation, which since 1949-50 has sponsored new developments in aviation for conservation purposes. The promotion of aerial topdressing, aerial oversowing with grasses and clovers, dropping of fencing materials, and spreading of rabbit poison is enabling millions of acres of denuded and eroded high country to receive conservation treatment progressively. These aerial aids to farming, coupled with the wider adoption of provident management practices on the land, provide a practical soil conservation approach with great potentialities on the dominantly hilly problem lands.

Staffing and Finance-The Ministry of Works and Department of Agriculture provide the technical and administrative services required by the Council. The Council and the catchment boards have built up a team of specialist engineers and soil conservators, which ensures that investigations, planning, supervision, and execution of works are carried out to high standards.

An administrative rate of up to 1/12d. in the pound on capital value over the district provides for the services of catchment boards, but special rates struck on a classification according to the benefit accruing provide the local contribution for actual works.

Public Relations-The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council sponsors information services by way of publications, movie films, show displays and radio broadcasts.

Publications-A list of the soil conservation, hydrological, and other publications available may be obtained by writing to the Secretary, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, P.O. Box 8024, Government Buildings, Wellington, New Zealand.

10 B-CROWN LAND

ADMINISTRATION-Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands, who is the Permanent Head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (Chairman), the Director-General of Lands (Deputy Chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the Valuer-General, a representative of the State Advances Corporation, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than two other persons appointed by the Governor-General. The Director of Rehabilitation and a representative of the New Zealand Returned Services' Association are members of the Board for matters concerning the rehabilitation of ex-servicemen of the Second World War.

The duties of the board are broadly defined in the Act as follows:

It shall be the duty of the board to carry out the provisions of this Act for the administration, management, development, alienation, settlement, protection, and care of Crown land; and to carry out all negotiations for the purchase of land by the Crown under this Act and the performance and completion of all contracts of purchase so entered into by the Crown.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more Land Settlement Committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of three members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and two private farmer members. The board may also appoint as an associate member of any committee any person who in the opinion of the board possesses expert knowledge of advantage to the committee in the execution of its functions. The functions of these committees are not expressly set out in the Act, but the board has wide powers of delegating to committees any of its functions.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND-Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and if necessary a ballot is conducted to decide the successful applicant, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any urban or commercial or industrial land may be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price. Every applicant must be of the age of 17 years or upwards, and must apply for Crown land solely for his own use or benefit. Two or more persons may make application to purchase or take on lease or licence as joint tenants or tenants in common.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial or industrial land-(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. The board may, however, determine that any specified farm land or urban land may be taken on renewable lease only, but without the right of acquiring the fee simple. The board may also determine that any specified commercial or industrial land may be taken on lease only, but without the right of acquiring the fee simple, for any term with or without a right of renewal, but so that the aggregate term, including renewals (if any), does not exceed 50 years.

  2. Pastoral land-(a) On pastoral lease for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding five years.

In some cases a holder of a lease or licence is required to effect within a certain specified period such improvements as the board determines. In most cases the lessee or licensee of any farm or pastoral land is required to commence to reside on the land within one year after the date of his licence.

SELECTIONS-The following table shows details of the various freehold selections during the year 1963-64, together with totals for 1962-63.

FreeholdNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price
Crown lands acres£
Farm34311,56545,399
Urban333165204,688
Commercial or industrial528991,220
 Land Subdivision in Counties Act2776,320
 Totals, 1963-6475511,826347,627
Totals, 1962-6375711,042337,791

Corresponding details concerning selections made under leasehold tenures are given for similar periods.

Leases and LicencesNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedAnnual RentalAnnual Instalments
* Areas and rents not shown; licences on royalty basis only.
Crown lands acres££
Renewable leases 
Farm -5920,8386,750333
Urban -275820...
Commercial or industrial2191,167...
Pastoral leases223,561465...
Pastoral occupation licences17,40010...
Deferred-payment licences
Farm -9233,387...10,936
Urban -1,193419...67,001
Commercial or industrial43302...8,963
Land Subdivision in Counties Act18646...12,009
Special leases (section 67, Land Act)6011,7206,99049
Licences for removal of minerals*49.........
Flax leases -11315...
Licences to occupy1,89742,10786,590...
  Totals3,612139,935102,79799,291
Endowment and other lands 
Leases under section 169, Land Act13934200...
Leases under section 48, Land Act723,5644,064...
Leases under section 47, Land Act12552...
Westport Harbour Board324510...
Sundry endowment leases231,144428...
Grand totals, 1963-643,724145,824108,05199,291
Grand totals, 1962-634,168170,415140,02995,911

LEASES AND LICENCES CURRENT AT 31 MARCH 1964-The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current at 31 March 1964. This table is in two parts, the first (a), dealing with leases and licences issued under the Land Act 1948, and the second (b), with those issued under Acts other than the Land Act 1948 and still current at 31 March 1964.

TenureNumberAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment (Including Improvement Loading)
* Areas and rents not shown; licences on royalty basis only.
(a) Tenures Under the Land Act 1948
Crown lands acres££
Renewable leases    
Farm -5,0252,671,141478,59711,571
Urban -2,71293153,053318
Commercial or industrial8013720,609131
Pastoral leases4566,839,82390,1011,386
Pastoral occupation licences56396,0404,251...
Deferred-payment licences
Farm -1,480548,971...179,478
Urban -11,4163,041...543,709
Commercial or industrial3792,910...97,886
Land Subdivision in Counties Act1,198280...60,249
Special leases (section 67, Land Act)
Renewable
Farm -18647,9027,957961
Urban -813294190
Commercial or industrial614,14220,612277
Non-renewable
Farm -9440,7157,528133
Urban -1416175...
Commercial or industrial139333,473...
Licences for removal of minerals*188.........
Flax leases -61,18822415
Communal grazing licences224454...
Miscellaneous licences4,972396,861114,289...
  Totals, Crown lands28,34610,954,448831,015896,704
Endowment and other lands
Leases under section 169, Land Act403,906772...
Leases under section 48, Land Act27346,12827,6432,856
Leases under section 47, Land Act101021,077...
Westport Harbour Board Endowment993,434211...
Sundry endowment leases178221,3267,028...
 Totals, tenures under Land Act 194828,94611,229,344867,746899,560
TenureNumberAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment (Including Improvement Loading)
(b) Tenures Under Acts Other Than the Land Act 1948
Crown lands acres££
Renewable leases4,9231,374,696152,3072,008
Leases under section 5, Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Amendment Act 1921-22 -93,018603...
Special tenure leases344130,66515,46874
Leases in perpetuity6,3641,292,785153,314280
Perpetual leases314816...
Mining district land occupation leases3726356...
Pastoral regulation licences (mining districts) -202,81981...
Small grazing-run leases1557,9801,928...
Pastoral-run licences781,122,5338,151...
Education reserves: Public Bodies Leases Act -1589,6242,34233
Deferred-payment licences475118,058...22,687
Small-farm leases1210225...
Leases under Education Lands Act    
Leases -545,5063,851116
Temporary tenancies207272,835...
Hanmer Crown leases3711140...
Former mining tenures636242322...
Sundry leases381,333265...
  Totals, Crown lands13,2234,120,510341,70425,198
Endowment and other lands    
Westport Harbour Board Endowment56210,1192,835...
Thermal Springs licences4524186...
Sundry other endowments11131,8324,269...
Miscellaneous licences92933,3596,674329
 Totals, tenures under Acts other than Land Act 194814,8704,195,844355,66825,527
  Grand totals, all tenures43,81615,425,1881,223,414925,087

LEASES AND LICENCES FREEHOLDED-Over the past few years many Crown lessees have availed themselves of the provisions of the Land Act 1948 and have freeholded their leases, either for cash or on deferred-payment licence.

In 1963-64, 365 leases were freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments. The area embraced by these leases was 61,889 acres and the total purchase price £464,112, of which £354,638 was on deferred payments. These figures are an increase on those for 1962-63 when 295 leases over 44,171 acres were freeholded for a total of £314,352.

Leases and Licences FreeholdedPurchased for CashPurchased on Deferred Payments
NumberAreaPurchase PriceNumberAreaPurchase Price
Crown lands acres£ acres£
Farm8110,98572,67311150,820297,263
Urban1095030,4594717.38,800
Commercial or industrial1-3,2005313,254
 Totals, Crown lands19111,035106,33216350,840349,317
Endowment and other lands      
Farm---1113,000
Urban823,142212,321
  Grand totals19911,037109,47416650,852354,638

PURCHASE OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENT-The Land Act 1948 authorises the Land Settlement Board to purchase private land or the interest of any lessee or licensee in any Crown land or Maori land for the purposes of settlement as farming, urban, commercial and industrial, or pastoral land. The Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952 gives power to the Minister of Lands, under certain conditions, to take any farm land suitable for settlement where additional farm land is required for settlement of landless discharged servicemen and others requiring land on which to establish themselves in farming. This provision has not been operated, however.

LAND DEVELOPMENT-The Land Settlement Board, constituted in 1941 to administer land policy and land development through the Department of Lands and Survey, has had the responsibility of developing, for the settlement of ex-servicemen of the Second World War, both Crown land and undeveloped private land purchased or acquired for the purpose. Initially all land developed was offered exclusively to ex-servicemen eligible for rehabilitation farming assistance, but with the commitment to settle ex-servicemen largely fulfilled, a civilian land settlement policy has been introduced. The few remaining ex-servicemen awaiting farms still receive preference at ballots, but as few are applying, the great bulk of farms offered by the Land Settlement Board go to civilians.

Development, of land for settlement includes clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, erection of buildings, and installation of water supplies. To consolidate pastures and to control regrowth of scrub and weeds, the land is farmed as part of the development process. This helps to meet the cost of development and to ensure that, when the farms are disposed of, the new settlers will not experience stock troubles or reversion.

The major development districts are Rotorua with 267,000 acres under development, Southland (255,000 acres), North Auckland (181,000 acres), and Te Kuiti (133,000).

The following table contains particulars of land acquired for development and settlement during the year ended 31 March 1964, and from the establishment of the Land Settlement Board in 1941 to 31 March 1964; also shown are those areas made available for settlement and the balance on hand at the latter date. The figures do not include particulars relating to ex-servicemen who have been assisted by way of rehabilitation loans to purchase established farms on their own account. Further information concerning the settlement of ex-servicemen on the land will be found in Section 9B, Rehabilitation.

As the table shows, the bulk of the land has been purchased by voluntary negotiation or was formerly unoccupied Crown land which has been included in development blocks. All the land shown as acquired compulsorily was acquired between 1943 and 1953.

Nature of TransactionYear Ended 31 March 1964From Inception (1941) to 31 March 1964
AreaUnitsAreaUnits

Areas include adjustments.

* Tentative figures only. Final subdivision and utilisation is decided as development is approaching completion.

   ACQUISITIONS    
 acres acres 
(a) Purchased by voluntary negotiation33,844551,606,770..
(b) Compulsorily acquired (Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 and Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950)--281,472..
(c) Properties where ex-servicemen substituted under section 31 (3)(b), Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950--17,390..
(d) Crown land made available11,8739839,711..
   Totals, acquisitions45,717642,745,3435,630
   DISPOSALS    
  I-To Grade "A" Ex-servicemen    
(a) Developed units (including substitutions)5,302151,363,7333,512
(b) Unimproved units -69912,0136
 6,001161,365,7463,518
   II-To Civilians    
(a) Developed units27,84262151,458404
(b) Unimproved units -1,350245,15991
 29,19264196,617495
   III-Sundry Disposals    
(a) Transferred to Maori Affairs Department for settlement--12,11631
(b) Adjacent owners, reserves, workers' homes unsuitable for settlement, etc. -7,4591127,92221
 7,4591140,03852
   Totals, disposals42,652811,702,4014,065
Land on hand for development in farm settlements--1,042,9421,565*

10 C-MAORI LANDS

DEFINITION OF MAORI LANDS-Before European settlement, all the land in the country was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Practically all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown.

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes European land by the following processes:

  1. If all interests in it are sold to or otherwise vested (including vesting by succession) in a person or persons each of whom is less than one-half Maori blood for a beneficial estate in fee simple.

  2. If the land (being solely owned) is declared to be European land by the Maori Land Court.

  3. If the Maori owner of solely owned land had been declared to be a European by Order in Council under provisions since repealed or has obtained an exemption order under section 433A of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

Even though one of many Maori owners may sell, the land remains Maori land until all have disposed of their interest, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. The term "Maori" includes a half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

Since 1954, by virtue of various provisions in the Maori Affairs Act 1953, emphasis has been placed on the need for the improvement of existing Maori land titles by the elimination of small fractional interests and the reduction in the number of owners. The idea behind this is to clear the way for the better use of the land in an attempt to keep Maori freehold land in the possession of the Maori people.

POWERS OF ALIENATION-The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Maori land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Maori cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Maori cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Maori land by a Maori except an alienation to the Crown or a State lending Department has any effect until it is confirmed by the Maori Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Maori alienating; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase money or other consideration is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law. A lease of Maori land cannot be for a longer term than 50 years except in the case of a lease for afforestation purposes which may be for 100 years.

With regard to Maori freehold land, the Court during 1963-64 approved of leases comprising 34,129 acres to Europeans and 11,714 acres to Maoris, the previous year's figures being 21,327 and 21,581 acres respectively. It confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 21,412 acres of freehold land to Europeans and 3,502 acres to Maoris in 1963-64, the corresponding 1962-63 figures being 28,019 and 6,663 acres respectively. During the year ended 31 March 1964 timber-cutting rights were confirmed by the Court in respect of 219,828 acres.

REMAINING LAND-The area of Maori land still held by Maoris in the North Island is estimated at 3,750,000 acres, and in the whole of New Zealand at 4,000,000 acres. In many cases the Maoris are utilising their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by the Maori Trustee. Extensive areas formerly managed for the Maori owners by the East Coast Commissioner, acting under statutory powers, have practically all been returned to the management of the owners, who are farming them under the system of incorporated owners provided by Part XXII of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

BOARD OF MAORI AFFAIRS-The Board of Maori Affairs constituted under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 consists of the Minister of Maori Affairs, the Secretary for Maori Affairs, the Director-General of Lands, the Valuer-General, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the member of the Executive Council representing the Maori race or, if there is no such member, any member of the Executive Council appointed by the Governor-General to be a member of the Board, and three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The functions of the Board include, inter alia, the following:

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Maori land or land owned or occupied by Maoris.

  2. The approval of investment and advances, and of certain expenditure from the Maori Trustee funds.

  3. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown.

  4. The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Maori Housing Act 1935, as amended in 1938.

MAORI LAND COURT-The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General may think fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorises. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are:

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Maori freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. The sanctioning of exchanges for other Maori land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and effecting succession to the estates of Maoris.

  5. Appointing trustees for Maoris who are minors or under other disability.

  6. The incorporation of the owners of Maori land.

  7. Granting confirmation of alienation of Maori land.

  8. Making awards under the Family Protection Act 1955.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

MAORI TRUSTEE-The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in stat and function with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts. A detailed review of the functions and powers of the Maori Trustee is contained in parliamentary paper G. 9 of 1954.

The Maori Trustee may be appointed executor of the will of a deceased Maori or administrator of an intestate Maori estate. He may also be appointed trustee to manage the property of Maoris who are minors or suffer from some other legal disability, and is statutory trustee of the estates of Maori mental patients. The Maori Trust Office Regulations 1954 prescribe the rates of commission and fees chargeable by the Maori Trustee and the rates of interest payable in respect of moneys held by him in his Common Fund.

In addition to the administration of Maori reserves, situated mainly in Taranaki. and Nelson, Greymouth, and other South Island localities, the Maori Trustee has the responsibly for the administration of large areas of Maori land elsewhere. Most of these lands are, like the Maori reserves, vested in the Maori Trustee, who is responsible for leasing them and distributing the proceeds to the owners. The two principal Statutes under which the Maori Trustee acts in relation to the control and leasing of land are the Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954 and the Maori Reserved Land Act 1955. Another function is the collection and distribution to owners of rents from most other Maori land leased under Parts XIX and XXIII of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

The Maori Trustee has extensive lending powers used principally for the settlement and improvement of Maori land, for the establishment of Maoris in business, and for housing purposes. Most advances are made on the security of Maori land.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in the latest two years.

ItemAs at 31 March
19631964
Assets -££
Cash36,90945,450
Investments -  
Government securities2,777,9662,622,768
Local authority debentures54,65071,436
Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft1,366,0001,490,701
Land, buildings, and miscellaneous139,185159,069
   Totals4,374,7104,389,424
Liabilities -  
Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors3,215,9403,160,843
Reserves and Appropriation Account1,151,4911,224,117
Sundry creditors, etc. -7,2794,464
   Totals4,374,7104,389,424

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT-Maori land development policy is directed to the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will assure them of a reasonable standard of living based on today's costs and standards; to secure them the best possible tenure for the lands they farm; to assist them to develop the land and to teach them modern methods of farming. The means at the Department's disposal have permitted the development of approximately 10,000 acres of new land annually. In the year ended 30 June 1964 there were 29 farms settled. Up to 30 June 1964 the Department had settled 2,280 Maoris on farms.

The Lands and Survey Department has estimated that Maori land at 31 March 1955 totalled 4,072,398 acres. This total is broken down, very tentatively, by the Department of Maori Affairs into the following categories:

 Acres
Leased to Europeans750,000
Under control of the Department (Part XXIV) and the Maori Trustee445,230
 (This includes 210,000 acres being developed or suitable for development) 
Farmed by Maoris, Trusts and Incorporations1,477,770
Idle land suitable for development550,000
Idle land not suitable for development777,000
 4,000,000

The estimated area of Maori land suitable for settlement is thus limited to 760,000 acres (210,000 acres under departmental control and 550,000 acres of idle land).

If the use of the remaining 760,000 acres follows the usual pattern of one-third sheep farms and two-thirds dairy farms, only 3,910 more Maori farmers can be settled, i.e., 560 sheep farmers and 3,350 dairy farmers.

10 D-SURVEYS AND MAPS

INTRODUCTORY-The surveys of Crown lands, Maori lands, land purchased under the former Settlements Acts and the Land Act 1948, lands acquired under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952, and lands acquired or taken for public works, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands, and are carried out by staff and contract surveyors registered by the Survey Board under the provisions of the Surveyors Act 1938. This Act provides that in order to undertake land title surveys all registered surveyors must hold annual practising certificates, issued by the secretary of the New Zealand Institute of Surveyors. The necessary qualification is completion of a three-year diploma course at the University of Otago, two years' practical survey experience, and final examination by the Survey Board.

The surveys of private lands for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act 1952 are carried out by private surveyors similarly registered.

Statutory authority for the surveyor to enter upon any land and to place survey marks thereon is contained in several Acts, and the wilful destruction of these marks is subject to a severe penalty.

All surface surveys are made in accordance with regulations laid down and are subject to field check (if thought necessary) and to office examination prior to approval and deposit.

The standard of length is the chain of 22 Imperial yards divided into 100 links, and all linear measurements have to be expressed in terms thereof, and areas in acres, roods, and perches, with decimals of a perch. Standard comparison bands are available in each district office of the Department of Lands and Survey, as well as at the office of the Surveyor-General.

In the 1957 and earlier issues of the Yearbook there is described the survey system of minor triangulation adopted in 1876 to enable settlers to be given possession of definite pieces of land, with each section having for the purpose of record and title registration a complete identification by means of its number, the number of the block, and the name of the district.

A national series of completely contoured maps is being produced with the assistance of photogrammetrical plotting machines, but progress with these maps has been slow and it has been found necessary to resort to a system of interim stream and ridge-pattern maps using aerial photographs with slotted template assembly and radial line plotting.

STANDARD SURVEYS-In order to more adequately correlate and redefine old boundary marks for land-title purposes and to provide a permanent standard of reference for future surveys in cities and boroughs where land values are high, and on highways and on main arterial roads where modern road surfaces have eliminated survey marks, a precise survey is carried out, all intersections being referenced with permanent standard marks, normally iron tubes in concrete blocks protected by an iron cover.

These surveys are of two classes-(1) those in the cities and boroughs, being of standard of accuracy of 2 inches to the mile, the cost of which is borne partly by the local authority concerned and partly by the Department of Lands and Survey and (2) those carried out on highways and arterial roads to a lesser standard of accuracy, for the purpose of referencing survey marks lost or obliterated by road works and surfaces.

These standard traverses will in the future be correlated with precise levelling traverses, thus providing a standard level datum for engineering works.

PRECISE LEVELLING-Approximately 1,547 miles of precise levelling have been carried out for the purpose of correlating the level data of irrigation and drainage and other engineering works. This type of levelling has been carried out in accordance with international standards of accuracy-namely, 0.012 feet or 0.144 inches per mile.

These levels are at mean sea-level datum determined from the tidal records of the principal tidal stations or of tide gauges established specially for that purpose. The traverses are referenced at approximately 25-mile intervals by fundamental bench marks and at approximately 1-mile intervals by standard bench marks.

This work is being further extended to meet the requirements of national drainage, irrigation, hydro-electric, and river-control development, where related and coordinated levels in terms of a fixed datum are essential.

AERIAL SURVEY AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING-Extensive use is made of aerial photographs for other than purely mapping purposes. All types of land and engineering development, investigations into geological resources, afforestation, and town and rural planning are now based on data extracted from the aerial photographs. The Department is responsible for the maintenance of a complete library of aerial photographs, which are made available for all national purposes. At present the North Island has been completely photographed while two-thirds of the South Island has been covered.

There is an increasing demand for topographical` maps of all scales for land development, forestry, engineering, geological and soil survey, and other governmental purposes. New cartographic techniques have revolutionised the production of better and more varied scales and types of maps. In consequence it can now be claimed that New Zealand has a mapping organisation that compares more than favourably with overseas mapping agencies.

Mapping is also undertaken of islands and territory within the Ross Dependency, Antarctica. Information for these maps is based on aerial photography supplied by the United States, field work from New Zealand field parties, and maps prepared by other countries.

GEOGRAPHIC BOARD-The New Zealand Geographic Board, constituted under the provisions of the New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946, is the official place-names authority.

The main function of the board is to adjudicate on matters pertaining to place and feature names in New Zealand. The board has authority to assign new names for localities, geographical features, post offices, railway stations, etc., and to alter existing names subject to the right of appeal vested in the general public and to the rights of local authorities concerning names within the areas administered by such local authorities.

The board together with three co-opted members also acts as the Antarctic Place Names Committee. This committee is the official New Zealand authority for approval of names in the Antarctic. Its activities are confined mainly to the Ross Dependency but liaison is maintained with the place-name authorities of other countries.

The membership of the board comprises the Surveyor-General, two representatives of the Maori race, a representative of the New Zealand Geographical Society, a representative of the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and two members appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Lands.

MAPS-Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition 347 private selling agents have been appointed throughout the country and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue of Maps published by the Department.

10 E-VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL-Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) The levying of land tax; (b) The apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) The levying of rates by local authorities; (d) The advancing of money on mortgage by Government Departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) The assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) The fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE-The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government Department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Court Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the "unimproved value".

"Improvements" on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land.

The "capital value" is the sum of the "unimproved value" plus the value of "improvements".

THE VALUATION ROLL-A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property.

Revision of Rolls-District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than five years unless the Governor-General in Council directs otherwise.

Equalisation of Values-The Valuation Equalisation Act 1957 provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times.

The Supplementary Roll-There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes-e.g., the granting of loans by Government Departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties-are entered on the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations-In the case of a revision of a district roll the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any. valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, only the owner has a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Land Valuation Court.

LAND VALUATION COURT-The Land Valuation Court consists of three members appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one of whom is the Judge of the Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Valuation of Land Act 1948, the Court hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952. Land valuation committees for particular localities operate under the general jurisdiction of the Court.

Except that the Judge of the Court may on the application of any party to proceedings, or of his own motion, state a case for the opinion of the Court of Appeal on a question of law, the decisions of the Land Valuation Court (either decisions of the Court itself or orders of the committees sealed by the Registrar) are final.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Land Valuation Court's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may within 14 days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING-The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act 1932 provides for rating relief for farm lands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farm lands lower than the values for the same lands appearing on the district valuation rolls.

Local authorities can rate on the annual (rental) values of properties within their areas, these values being assessed by the local authorities' own valuers. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 per cent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 per cent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 per cent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND-The figures in the following table show valuations over a long period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

At 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
 £ (thousand)
187899,56762,574
1885113,271..
1888111,13875,497
1891122,22575,832
1897138,59184,401
1902154,81694,848
1905197,684122,937
1907236,645149,683
1909271,516172,760
1911293,117184,063
1913340,560212,963
1915371,077230,705
1916389,165241,322
1917405,466251,088
1918421,383260,922
1919445,533275,988
1920470,094290,880
1921518,584317,631
1922544,503329,174
1923553,404330,791
1924568,501333,870
1925587,350339,310
1926603,250341,048
1927618,264341,519
1928631,455335,217
1929655,907344,758
1930664,571338,887
1931667,911331,635
1932662,829321,799
1933653,708314,556
1934650,362309,770
1935637,604301,138
1936635,802295,696
1937632,230287,845
1938636,363282,326
1939652,899282,806
1940660,524278,881
1941673,118277,542
1942681,922276,885
1943684,181276,881
1944688,795277,039
1945697,366277,495
1946710,425279,214
1947746,412284,274
1948796,038291,617
1949889,268307,152
1950985,880324,465
19511,112,747349,160
19521,314,879394,228
19531,532,358449,814
19541,702,727487,125
19552,068,313579,128
19562,306,585644,410
19572,496,337697,540
19582,677,250751,129
19592,832,252805,299
19603,066,231889,821
19613,248,684952,831
19623,472,8641,030,529
19633,686,7991,106,072
19643,880,1871,172,901

The table shows a continuous decrease in land values from 1929 to 1943. Probably the lowest point in real values was reached about 1934, and the decreases shown after that year merely indicate that the new valuations being made were still at levels lower than the existing pre-depression figures. After 1943 land values were stabilised through the operation of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943, and the increases shown to 1950 mainly reflect the writing into new valuations of increases which had occurred prior to 1943.

The lifting of land sales control on urban properties from 23 February 1950 was reflected in the 1951 general revaluations of boroughs and cities. County revaluations did not, however, reflect the transition to a free market basis until the 1952 revaluations, the effect of the higher basis having been postponed 12 months as provided for by section 38 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1950.

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up to date has the effect in the preceding table of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes. Rural land values are generally conditioned by the prices received for exports of primary products, improved efficiency in farming methods, growth of population, improved internal transport, and other facilities, etc.

In the following table the gross values are analysed in more detail for the latest five years.

As at 31 MarchNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
£(thousand)
Counties
1960854,809245,950427,397154,9981,282,206400,949
1961898,134258,858461,050174,4461,359,185433,304
1962953,475272,300499,816189,5231,453,291461,824
1963994,726291,837525,747201,0311,520,473492,867
19641,056,434315,398546,815207,3381,603,250522,737
Boroughs
19601,297,221364,848477,498122,6531,774,719487,501
19611,381,388393,128498,088124,9451,879,476518,073
19621,480,049432,188528,091134,6662,008,140566,853
19631,602,511469,694553,133141,8002,155,644611,495
19641,690,361498,192575,195150,0702,265,556648,263
Independent Town Districts
19607,4331,2321,8731399,3061,371
19617,9801,2952,04315810,0231,453
19629,3251,6932,10815911,4331,852
19638,5091,5512,17315910,6821,710
19649,1531,7412,22616011,3791,901
Grand Totals
19541,223,171342,660479,556144,4651,702,727487,125
19551,477,970405,183590,343173,9462,068,313579,128
19561,641,247446,658665,338197,7522,306,585644,410
19571,750,298476,779746,039220,7612,496.337697,540
19581,870,739511,266806,511239.8642,677,250751,129
19591,977,571549,558854,681255,7412,832,252805,299
19602,159.464612,030906,767277,7903,066,231889,821
19612,287,502653,281961,182299,5493,248,684952,831
19622,442,849706,1811,030,015324,3473,472,8641,030,529
19632,605,746763,0821,081,053342,9913,686,7991,106.072
19642,755,950815,3321,124,237357,5693,880,1871,172,901

RATEABLE VALUES-The following summary indicates rateable values for counties, boroughs, and independent town districts as at 31 March 1964. The value of improvements in urban areas is much higher than in rural areas.

Local Authority DistrictNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
£(thousand)
Counties952,888296.037504,866198,8331,457,754494,871
Boroughs1,503,179450,472508,194136,5372,011,374587,009
Town districts (independent)7,7351,5581,9611479,6961,705
 Totals2,463,803748,0681,015,022335,5173,478,8251,083,586

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 1 April 1964, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts as at 31 March 1964.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationRateable Property Values
Capital ValueUnimproved ValueValue of Improvements
Percentage Distribution
Counties99.434.241.845.740.1
Boroughs0.665.657.954.159.6
Town districts (independent)-0.20.30.20.3
  Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the Report on Local Authority Statistics, where similar data are also given for dependent town districts and for road districts.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD-The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. There were 318 classified as rural valuers, 358 as urban valuers, and 55 as both rural and urban valuers at 31 March 1964.

Chapter 11. Section 11 TRANSPORT

11 A-SHIPPING

PORT DEVELOPMENT-The Bay of Islands was the first New Zealand port used by commercial shipping, but port development soon followed in other northern harbours such as Hokianga, Mangonui, and Auckland. Wellington came later, followed by New Plymouth. With settlements becoming established in the South Island, shipping was next recorded at Nelson, Akaroa, and Port Chalmers. By 1853, when statistics were first compiled for New Zealand as a whole, 11 ports were receiving shipping direct from overseas. The number of ports in use by overseas vessels increased during the gold-rush period, but later decreased to a number which has not changed greatly during the past 60 years.

With increasing trade and the growing size of ships handled at New Zealand ports since 1950, harbour boards have had to meet the demand for shipping facilities by extensive development of the ports. A new wharf at Opua in the Bay of Islands opened the port to overseas shipping for the export of butter in 1957, while extensions to the port of Tauranga are enabling it to serve the rapidly growing timber, woodpulp, and paper industries of the Bay of Plenty area. At Bluff in Southland a development scheme involving a capital expenditure of £5 million has been designed to make it into one of the most important meat exporting ports of the country. All-weather package loaders, which came into operation in 1963, have enabled the rates of loading to be substantially improved for meat and cheese. Successful operation in all weathers has been effected by the use of mechanical loaders which enable produce to be under cover from wharf shed to ship's hold.

At Whangarei, where an oil refinery has been built and has come into operation, a new wharf at Marsden Point and other oil refinery facilities have involved an expenditure of £3 million.

At Auckland an overseas passenger terminal with modern facilities for handling passengers was opened in 1961, and in Wellington a like two-storey passenger terminal costing nearly £1 million has been built.

Rail-road ferry terminals have been built at Wellington and Picton for the Cook Strait service of G.m.v. Aramoana.

Major development work is under way or projected at most other ports, including Lyttelton and Otago. (The linking of Lyttelton with Christchurch by a road tunnel constructed at a cost of £3 million and opened on 27 February 1964 is an important ancillary development.)

New Zealand's first loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) has been authorised for harbour development. It involves £2.8 million which the Government is relending to five harbour boards, namely, Auckland, Lyttelton, Napier, Timaru, and Whangarei.

SHIPPING STATISTICS-Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls made each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage
  Tons (000) Tons (000) Tons (000)
19542,0498,33213,5024,78215,55113,114
19552,2009,18913,2394,74015,43913,929
19562,2689,75312,9844,85515,25214,608
19572,44310,30512,9274,82815,37015,133
19582,97711,88012,7354,79315,71216,673
19592,87512,70010,9994,97313,87417,672
19603,12413,54910,2494,97813,37318,527
19613,65216,17710,2475,03613,89921,213
19623,60316,45710,6545,46714,25721,924
19633,76416,43311,0766,18914,84022,622
19643,56815,68910,6537,02214,22122,711

These figures reflect the increased number of ports visited by overseas ships while on the New Zealand coast. The average number of coastal calls made by each overseas vessel was 3.3 in 1959, 3.2 in 1960, 3.5 in 1961, 3.6 in 1962, and 3.6 in 1963. Movements of coastal vessels declined from 1953 to 1962 when the rail-road ferry Aramoana came into operation. The Aramoana displaced other coastal vessels but its daily return trips between Wellington and Picton have added to the number of calls at ports.

The following table shows for the latest three years the total shipping traffic handled inwards at the various ports. Overseas and coastal vessels calling at more than one port in the course of a single voyage have been recorded as entered at every port visited. The figures given in this section include all registered merchant vessels trading at New Zealand ports: thus they exclude naval vessels when engaged in their normal duties, private launches, lighters engaged in loading or unloading vessels in roadsteads, trawlers, other fishing vessels, and pleasure craft.

Port196119621963
NumberTonnageNumberTonnageNumberTonnage
Awanui1035,797741,93795760
Mangonui714,42021838261,456
Whangaroa421,341721,323883,078
Bay of Islands108260,433101237,64696244,789
Whangarei865298,594585369,415742467,111
Auckland3,6104,535,0013,5484,485,8173,3194,446,614
Onehunga10737,64717665,91719671,056
Raglan5719,4976521,3806521,703
Thames1301,9391152,0921462,431
Coromandel1064,5481074,6851195,530
Whitianga901,995831,816741,718
Tauranga330804,460328803,344350942,156
Ohiwa145,446228,4212911,105
Tokomaru Bay133,228112,39961,864
Tolaga Bay142,91582,08982,439
Gisborne218240,947228238,814256222,298
Napier4481,170,2654871,324,3994941,276,316
Taranaki3031,017,5003151,006,8003261,013,408
Wanganui23894,89726096,70921985,587
Wellington2,3004,841,7172,4324,858,2072,6245,104,915
Picton282379,892352543,824548852,804
Wairau434,257666,534737,227
Nelson782365,021833401,176866408,978
Motueka26028,55925232,43228434,512
Tarakohe145104,56113794,830153110,225
Westport150113,555145116,315141115,625
Greymouth119122,69510693,157117107,843
Jackson Bay2770----
Kaiapoi1239,93515512,13115713,029
Lyttelton1,2193,409,1771,3613,429,0581,3393,531,508
Timaru370803,090469958,734462866,964
Oamaru8155,22710660,65413077,408
Otago5341,539,0946041,595,9606401,510,861
Bluff501881,2475051,020,9275161,020,889
Half-moon Bay12143,16512824,38013638,127
  Totals13,89921,212,83214,25721,924,16014,84022,622,339

In 1963 Wellington ranked as the first port of New Zealand as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Otago, Napier, Bluff, Taranaki, Tauranga, and Timaru, in that order. Steadily increasing volumes continue, to be recorded at Whangarei, Tauranga, Nelson, and Oamaru.

In the cases of Wellington, Lyttelton, Picton, Bluff, and Half-moon Bay, the figures arc inflated by the recording of the regular inter-island steamer services.

The following table shows for the three latest years the number and net tonnage of all calls of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port196119621963
NumberTonnageNumberTonnageNumberTonnage
Bay of Islands50259,31951234,71944240,669
Whangarei30138,60048212,85364267,147
Auckland8544,186,7388384,147,6048864,113,190
Onehunga147713852673
Raglan----1385
Tauranga243779,078244776,190283918,126
Gisborne37178,88536174,18826141,666
Napier2661,099,1622791,249,3152801,193,366
Taranaki204967,421193949,343209956,533
Wanganui31,08931,4283864
Wellington6543,163,4056153,007,1916322,978,908
Picton21105,53326136,91830162,637
Nelson88241,56183262,62378264,828
Westport61,16435825762
Greymouth612,173--1288
Jackson Bay2770----
Lyttelton4982,136,5454872,106,0075142,170,462
Timaru153685,313163816,379153728,280
Oamaru59,73411,992712,439
Otago3351,423,8013241,449,9573251,350,728
Bluff196786,315208929,593221931,122
 Totals3,65216,177,0833,60316,457,2673,76416,433,073

Overseas vessels called at 20 ports in 1961, 18 in 1962, and 20 in 1963. In the years 1936-38 approximately 24 New Zealand ports were visited by overseas vessels. The following table shows the percentages of inward overseas shipping tonnage recorded at the ports of Wellington, Auckland, and Lyttelton for the latest five years. In recent years these three ports have handled slightly more than half of the total tonnage of overseas shipping, whereas their share in earlier years was two-thirds of the total.

Port19591960196119621963
per cent
Auckland28.328.225.925.225.1
Wellington21.019.519.618.318.1
Other North Island18.219.121.121.922.6
North Island67.566.866.665.365.8
Lyttelton13.413.413.212.813.2
Other South Island19.119.820.221.921.0
South Island32.533.233.434.734.2
New Zealand totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Direction of Overseas Shipping-Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries are given in the following table.

Country19621963
EnteredClearedEnteredCleared
No.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.
* Vessels entering from or clearing for Singapore are included in Malaysia from 1 January 1963.
Aden27,51528,35528,083318,655
Australia3781,695,0094331,804,4393661,414,3164341,556,119
Bahrein746,794746,979532,847213,423
Belgium733,099317,498630,179--
Canada1695,905643,71517114,498867,747
Ceylon25,103--15,825--
Fiji46147,61454296,50642142,70244170,469
France636,47153290,103420,60631166,244
Gilbert and Ellice Islands630,655846,5971271,1881378,234
Hong Kong2157,9471122,5831429,409515,349
India1263,555512,5771358,873515,288
Indonesia213,693314,86117103,139428,997
Iran743,91l958,3581069,17221141,435
Japan86261,68083235,26595260,778100263,824
Malaysia----26144,60229173,434
Nauru Island35193,01325138,60022130,00127152,070
Netherlands Antilles1178,6791276,673743,238955,918
Singapore*21124,3081979,926............
South Africa823,963519,965512,306622,194
Sweden----311,193--
United Kingdom119782,183106741,6921731,258,7381581,182,306
United States of America57377,94857395,67472420,68471418,141
Other countries142669,78799535,063117527,46164335,938
 Totals9914,788,8321,0004,885,4291,0294,909,8381,0344,875,785

In earlier years the tonnage of shipping entering from and clearing for the United Kingdom was higher than that for any other individual country. In 1954, however, shipping to and from Australia exceeded that recorded for the United Kingdom, and this has been the case for subsequent years also.

The next table shows the net tonnage of shipping between New Zealand and certain principal countries for the latest six years.

YearAustraliaUnited KingdomUnited States of AmericaCanadaPacific Islands
net tons
Entered
19581,405,602955,345304,144141,185422,736
19591,432,370881,554359,270116,364381,656
19601,511,736876,522559,855149,915493,516
19611,782,653872,666398,189136,347562,570
19621,695,009782,183377,94895,905543,006
19631,414,3161,258,738420,684114,498493,463
Cleared
19581,346,4411,016,060415,77495,303358,363
19591,494,841966,890391,36469,406382,653
19601,649,682839,598380,67972,876474,714
19611,900,142710,087378,08095,266624,798
19621,804,439741,692395,67443,715695,045
19631,556,1191,182,306418,14167,747479,945

Ports of Arrival and Departure-The next table shows the extent to which various ports were made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure by overseas vessels during the last three years. The relative overseas trade of the various ports can be judged only by taking into account the coastwise visits of overseas vessels in the course of unloading and loading.

PortEnteredCleared
196119621963196119621963
net tons
Whangarei-22,918107,903-21,792101,003
Auckland2,793,0282,645,5092,698,5851,967,7181,952,6211,881,174
Tauranga142,840118,103137,754439,791417,465460,330
Gisborne410-2881,72717,07510,093
Napier59,17677,16568,215243,409249,731246,975
Taranaki112,477106,658132,532205,798236,810221,460
Wanganui706321288385--
Wellington1,242,7671,069,1431,084,4101,007,642916,024766,719
Picton20,82830,49123,0412,24529,18440,183
Nelson19,23834,6725,99074,56092,49176,728
Greymouth7,419-288---
Lyttelton367,652428,164387,492317,763281,049309,811
Timaru38,75343,68549,49840,30956,32277,831
Otago94,49566,74582,729349,492350,937358,874
Bluff54,140145,258130,825272,583263,928324,604
 Totals4,953,9294,788,8324,909,8384,923,4224,885,4294,875,785

As will be seen, in 1963,77 per cent of overseas vessels (on a tonnage basis) arriving in New Zealand made Auckland or Wellington their first port of entry, and 54 per cent used one of these two ports as the final departure point.

Passengers-The overseas passenger traffic is concentrated principally at Auckland and Wellington. Small numbers of overseas passengers, however, arrive at and leave from the other ports. The following table gives the numbers of passengers arriving at and departing from each port for the latest five years.

PortPassengers Arriving from OverseasPassengers Departing for Overseas
1959196019611962196319591960196119621963
Auckland20,62220,26426,43827,07423,63320,86520,30622,46123,25021,598
Napier487244589113617215197
Wellington19,52316,75720,08320,64018,77015,32816,06913,02512,88312,190
Lyttelton1,151816795952264193262252273248
Dunedin375883314661285159591
Timaru276132332161x182015
Other626662179362130598161178614
 Totals41,47037,97447,49848,94443,07336,68937,500x36,60436,85034,853

Shipping Between New Zealand and Island Dependencies-In the tables of overseas shipping no account is taken of ships moving between the main islands of New Zealand and the island dependencies of Cook Islands and Niue. These islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, and shipping to or from them is not treated as overseas. The following table illustrates the extent of this shipping movement during the latest five years.

YearEntered New Zealand Ports from Cook Islands and NiueCleared New Zealand Ports for Cook Islands and Niue
VesselsNet TonnageVesselsNet Tonnage
19591315,85395,679
1960106,4011216,536
19611617,9451625,610
19621418,0061314,704
19631319,0591516,396

In most years all the departures to the islands are from Auckland. Of the 13 vessels bringing cargo from the islands in 1963, 12 were of New Zealand registry.

Shipping on Inland Waters-Although New Zealand is well supplied with rivers few can be used by shipping for other than short distances. There are no regular passenger or cargo services on any of the rivers. The only inland-water shipping of consequence is the service on Lake Wakatipu operated with the Earnslaw. This vessel is the property of the New Zealand Railways. Passengers and cargo are carried from Queenstown to other points on the shores of the lake. Farmers use this service for transporting livestock. The next table shows the operations of this service during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassengersLivestockTimberOther GoodsRevenueExpenditure
 No.No.super. ft. (000)tons££
196033,43010,9213063,82421,83828,994
196135,72613,9365063,86123,40332,625
196235,97617,5352954,10824,61333,711
196336,65111,9091403,61122,50735,501
196436,97812,2961623,57721,14734,776

Values of Exports and Imports by Ports-Tables showing the values of exports and imports through the various ports are included in Sections 22B and 22c respectively.

CARGO STATISTICS-The following table gives the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels entering and clearing New Zealand ports during the last 11 years, distinguishing those entered and cleared "with cargo" (cargo manifest tonnages are also shown for these) from those "in ballast".

YearWith CargoIn BallastTotal
VesselsNet TonnageCargo Manifest Tonnage*VesselsNet TonnageVesselsNet Tonnage

* Direct comparisons of import and export tonnages are invalid since the former contain a much higher proportion of goods recorded in "measurement" tons than do the latter.

†"In ballast" means (a) inwards-"having no cargo for discharge in New Zealand"; (b) outwards-"having no cargo loaded in New Zealand".

Entered
19546872,882,3104,453,50664277,8227513,160,132
19557533,173,2114,858,36971353,3578243,526,568
19567203,022,7134,422,90560341,8357803,364,548
19577953,503,8754,560,463101436,0648963,939,939
19587943,445,5434,536,110135608,2259294,053,768
19597503,355,6483,989,897133671,4778834,027,125
19608183,800,2554,636,376154700,6379724,500,892
19618654,150,0154,951,635173803,9141,0384,953,929
19628504,054,8204,832,023141734,0129914,788,832
19638834,145,525..146764,3131,0294,909,838
19649014,592,275..169848,9541,0705,441,229
Cleared
19544271,800,3051,224,9783081,332,6297353,132,934
19554512,014,9521,328,1553491,435,5218003,450,473
19564642,017,8291,476.0963211,346,8927853,364,721
19575492,488,506l,516,7803461,451,3508953,939,856
19585542,495,8081,531,0333571,478,4849113,974,292
19595772,506,5931,791,1653261,608,1369034,114,729
19606102,643,6821,747,8973511,764,7439614,408,425
19616512,999,0251,848,8693801,924,3971,0314,923,422
19626803,064,1902,233,4653201,821,2391,0004,885,429
19637303,043,665..3041,832,1201,0344,875,785
19647333,385,294..3191,973,1471,0525,353,441

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo handled at all ports for the last eleven years.

YearInwards*TranshipmentsOutwards*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

* Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons
19542,120,7864,529,665170,8551,948,1951,277,57210,217,928
19552,155,5885,050,090204,3051,951,0141,389,65710,954,959
19562,148,7334,947,327190,1721,943,7841,555,59810,975,786
19572,252,6055,169,225174,1091,963,7101,610,98811,344,746
19582,259,4874,865,187148,2822,018,0761,664,98411,104,298
19592,179,6894,494,627127,6331,930,0031,912,67710,772,262
19602,282,9685,059,083109,9631,995,5781,932,78611,490,341
19612,433,1775,704,028157,5462,164,4911,983,15812,599,946
19622,464,0355,156,683116,3172,231,4952,045,36312,130,210
19632,881,9425,696,657109,4662,546,8992,119,73913,464,169
19643,835,3627,187,038103,2843,503,0142,596,27617,328,258

The next table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1963. Loadings of bunker fuels amounting to 190,772 tons are not included. The high proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is due to the central position of the port and the fact that much overseas cargo is transhipped from Wellington to South Island ports.

PortInwards*TranshipmentsOutwards*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

* Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons
Mangonui3,007--130-3,137
Whangaroa5,152----5,152
Bay of Islands4,3871,695-50029,51736,099
Whangarei181,897112,8651,297215,10159512,516
Auckland670,4282,078,71339,152168,158541,4523,537,055
Onehunga93,5711,120103108,547-203,444
Raglan16,652479-1,448-18,579
Thames2,480--264-2,744
Tauranga17,455373,2951,43322,565464,066880,247
Ohiwa1,470--15,725-17,195
Tokomaru Bay22--805-827
Tolaga Bay1--893-894
Gisborne56,3461,951-17,54116,94892,786
Napier97,808285,8521.85716,589148,767552,730
Taranaki52,447299,322716,665149,323507,899
Wanganui111,5031,020-7,873-120,396
Wellington647,7111,222,76556,086595,976229,4972,808,121
Picton263,9232,566-263,66911,893542,051
Wairau5,723--2,379-8,102
Nelson59,81859,19435579,62556,625255,972
Motueka5,776--16,110-21,886
Tarakohe15,277--142,518-157,795
Westport2,9912,892-178,910-184,793
Greymouth10,957--175,696-186,653
Kaiapoi16,538--18,715-35,253
Lyttelton288,129740,6821,361295,420143,1551,470,108
Timaru58,32722,691-77,04590,437248,500
Oamaru16,5691,308-22,8518240,810
Otago112,695288,7537,75170,18897,809584,947
Bluff60,378199,494-23,302140,109423,283
Half-moon Bay2,504--1,691-4,195
 Totals2,881,9425,696,657109,4662,546,8992,119,73913,464,169

In any consideration of these statistics it is advisable to note that the term "ton" docs not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulae as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the ton. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

In the Section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 90 per cent of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the main pastoral produce items in the outward overseas cargo, including transhipments, during 1963. Although pastoral products constitute the bulk of New Zealand's exports on a value basis, a number of other types of commodities constitute an important part of the total outward overseas cargo. The table also shows the extent to which exporting ports participated in the handling of the major remaining items.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen MeatHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tons
Bay of Islands12,884-1,79612,1382501,12326
Whangarei-------
Auckland131,55016,773125,438107,45620,36518,14747,280
Tauranga--1,396--564693
Gisborne3,870--8,9274968232,554
Napier-1452155,1436,86310,17150,987
Taranaki14,77162,1759,62446,3064,2025,2662,838
Wellington11,41312,39515,73471,82614,18016,63758,465
Picton---5,109-194617
Nelson216818-3,053133482341
Lyttelton15371185648,6548,63910,83734,091
Timaru-1,205-52,0503,6604,78621,744
Oamaru-------
Otago1332,21633632,0215,2577,49236,894
Bluff1414,4791,30178,8246,1848,66335,469
 Totals175,131100,917156,502521,50770,22985,185291,999
PortFruit, FreshBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodWood PulpAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tons
Bay of Islands-----1,30029,517
Whangarei-----142142
Auckland2,0191091,0519,46237370,542550,565
Tauranga15-111,530282,93064,3152,821464,264
Gisborne-----27816,948
Napier12,650926---12,723149,629
Taranaki-----4,141149,323
Wellington6,7173,909602,773-26,494240,603
Picton3,7011,724---54811,893
Nelson29,657267-19,852-1,80656,625
Lyttelton6696,399118135-31,999143,261
Timaru-1,1363134-5,79190,437
Oamaru-----8282
Otago898733876-11,95098,014
Bluff-75-80-4,893140,109
 Totals56,32615,278112,798315,34264,688175,5102,141,412

Transhipments-Transhipments of cargo during 1963 totalled 109,466 tons, of which 56,086 tons were transhipped at Wellington. As was noted earlier, the central position of this port tends to increase the quantity of goods transhipped. Quantities of inwards overseas cargo, particularly motor spirit, kerosine, and mineral oils, are transhipped at Wellington for delivery to other ports, while significant, though reducing, quantities of New Zealand produce are carried to Wellington coastwise for transhipment there to overseas ships. The main contribution to transhipment at Wellington is the carriage of apples by coasters across from Nelson.

REGISTRY OF OVERSEAS SHIPS-The following table shows the country of registry of vessels arriving in New Zealand during the latest five years.

Country of Registry19591960196119621963
net tons (000)
British Commonwealth
United Kingdom1,9132,2392,5412,5162,561
New Zealand516484428422423
Other British Commonwealth287243269214130
With cargo2,3372,5592,8122,7022,609
In ballast379407426450505
Totals, British Common-
wealth countries2,7162,9663,2383,1523,114
Percentage of total6766656663
Other
Norway282272363334428
Sweden88101919591
Netherlands205324373398353
Panama102668011198
United States of America381394372278222
Remaining countries253378437421604
With cargo1,0181,2421,3381,3531,537
In ballast293293378284259
Totals, other countries1,3111,5351,7161,6371,796
Percentage of total3334353437
 Grand totals4,0274,5014,9544,7894,910

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING REGISTER-The figures for vessels registered in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearSailing VesselsSteam and Motor VesselsTotals
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
1954392,0421,643465253,387130,648504255,429132,291
1955371,8311,497476255,107131,090513256,938132,587
1956371,8311,497481258,924132,547518260,755134,044
1957361,8211,487490264,309134,669526266,130136,156
1958361,8211,487495271,179137,660531273,000139,147
1959412,3381,898490260,248131,409531262,586133,307
1960422,4712,031491243,008122,631533245,479124,662
1961422,4712,031503241,096120,992545243,567123,023
1962402,6522,096493250,399124,724533253,051126,820
1963504,0513,505496244,047120,603546248,095124,108
1964534,1803,628521251,032122,798574255,212126,426

In the table which follows, the vessels on the New Zealand register at 31 December 1963 are classified into sailing, steam, and motor, and are listed for the various ports of registry.

Port of RegistrySailing VesselsSteam VesselsMotor Vessels
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
Whangarei23834---1376-
Auckland403,9443,423154,6712,26029858,07627,512
Napier---181944983,6771,543
Wellington659442450,63125,2796882,86443,048
Nelson------247,1022,965
Lyttelton15274,6951,774143,5711,676
Timaru152194248811,240497
Otago---57,3143,6731316,5538,865
Bluff---31,05742813459146
 Totals504,0513,5055670,12934,351440173,91886,252

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's "mosquito" fleet, the average net tonnage of the 353 vessels on the Auckland register being only 94 tons.

In the next table vessels registered in New Zealand at the end of 1963 have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given therein do not agree with those shown above, as vessels employed exclusively within "restricted limits" and pleasure craft are not included. The total number of vessels engaged in trading was 137, of an aggregate net tonnage of 108,310.

Size of VesselsEmployed in the Coastal Trade OnlyEmployed Partly in the Coastal and Partly in the Foreign TradeEmployed in the Foreign Trade Only
Number of VesselsNet TonnageNumber of VesselsNet TonnageNumber of VesselsNet Tonnage
Tons      
Under 5032583----
55-99161,101----
100-19981,018----
200-29961,508----
300-399176,1871369--
400-59983,740----
600-7991691----
800-9991807190943,599
1,000-1,199------
1,200-1,49922,771--1013,128
1,500-1,99911,625--1529,227
2,000 and over39,710--1131,337
  Totals9529,74121,2784077,291

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES-The examinations for masters, mates, and engineers serving in the Mercantile Marine are conducted by the Marine Department, the regulations relating to these examinations being based upon those of the United Kingdom Ministry of Transport with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions. The Ministry of Transport recognises the following certificates only as of Commonwealth validity: extra master, master, first mate and second mate foreign-going ships, first- and second-class steam and motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the Ministry of Transport. Regulations provide for the examinations for masters and mates and for marine engineers in both foreign going and home trade.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS-The Marine Department carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and during the period 1 January 1963 to 31 December 1963 certificates of survey were issued to the following categories of New Zealand ships:

Passenger ships engaged in international voyages3
Cargo steamships engaged in international voyages7
Cargo motorships engaged in international voyages36
Home-trade steamships6
Home-trade motorships84
Restricted-limits steamships24
Restricted-limits motorships314
  Total474

In addition to the certificates of survey required under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Department is required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1948, to which the New Zealand Government is a signatory. Special surveys additional to the above were made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSES-The rugged and windswept coastlines of New Zealand's two main islands and Stewart Island which are over 4,000 miles in length are lit by 25 manned and 90 unmanned automatic coastal lights (not including harbour entrance and other harbour lights). The main harbours are on the east coasts of both islands and the majority of lights are located on these coasts, in Cook Strait between the North and South Islands and in Foveaux Strait between the South and Stewart Islands. The Marine Department maintains the coastal lights, fog signals and radio beacons, and harbour boards maintain their own lights and fog signals. Fog and low visibility are not frequent on the New Zealand coasts which can be said to be well served by 13 radio beacons.

In the New Zealand Light Service all manned lights are electrified, where possible from the national mains supply, otherwise with diesel-electric generating plant. Electric alarm bells cover all types of failure. The unmanned automatic light beacons are equally divided between electric lights (mains or battery operation) and acetylene gas lights. Fifteen of the principal lighthouses are equipped with radiotelephone.

Fog signals of the diaphone type are established on Tiritiri Matangi, at Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, and Taiaroa Head; while radio beacons have been established at Cape Reinga, East Cape, Portland Island, Cuvier Island, Mokohinau, Baring Head, Stephens Island, the Brothers Island, Cape Campbell, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

The most powerful light is that of Stephens Island, which, placed some 600 ft above high water, is visible at a distance of 32 nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Reinga (altitude 542 ft), visibility 31 miles; East Cape (505 ft), visible at 30 miles; Cape Brett (altitude 490 ft), visible at 29 miles; Cuvier Island (altitude 390 ft) and Mokohinau (altitude 400 ft), both of which have a visibility of 26 miles; Godley Head (altitude 317 ft) and Portland Island (altitude 300 ft), both visible at 24 miles. Thirteen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over, being Centre Island, Baring Head, and Akaroa, of 23 miles; Cape Palliser, Brothers, and Nugget Point, of 22 miles: Cape Foulwind, of 21 miles; Tiritiri Matangi, Cape Saunders, Channel Island, Marotiri, Taiaroa Head, and Gibson Point, 20 miles each. The remaining lights have visibilities of under 20 miles.

WRECKS-In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

The numbers of shipping casualties reported to the Marine Department during the year ended 31 December 1963 are shown in the following table. It should be noted that figures list all casualties including small craft.

Type of ShipMiscellaneous, Berthing, Machinery Breakdown, etc.CollisionFireFounderingStrandingExplosionTotal
Passenger1---1-2
Cargo73117-19
Fishing112124-20
Pleasure-111--3
 Totals9541412-44

11 B-RAILWAYS

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT-Railway history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton, and the first portion of this line was opened on 1 December 1863.* A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on 5 February 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1865 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury, and in 1870 the General Government established an Immigration and Public Works Department with one of its objects the building of a system of railways to open up the country for settlement.

Although practically the whole of the railways are now State owned, some sections were built by private enterprise, notably the 83-mile line from Wellington to Longburn constructed by the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Co. Ltd. in 1882-86 and operated by the company until 1908.

By 31 March 1880, 1,182 miles of State-owned lines were open for traffic and by 31 March 1900 more than 2,100 route miles in 10 separate sections were in use. The 369-mile trunk line between Christchurch and Invercargill was completed for through traffic as early as 1879, but the 426-mile North Island main trunk railway between Auckland and Wellington was not completed until November 1908.

More recently, other main lines have been completed, linking up most of the hitherto isolated sections. Westland was connected with Canterbury via the 5 ¼-mile Otira Tunnel in 1923; Whangarei was connected to the main North Island, system in 1924; Gisborne and Dargaville to the same system in 1942; and Westport was linked with the South Island system in 1943. In 1945 the Christchurch-Picton main line was completed.

The past decade has seen the building of new lines to serve the extensive man-made forests in the North Island. An 18-mile branch railway from Putaruru through Tokoroa to Kinleith was opened in 1952 and the 9-mile Kawerau branch and 36-mile Murupara branch were completed in 1957.

In 1957 the main highway between Blenheim and Nelson was deemed to be a notional railway connected at Blenheim to the South Island railway system. In 1962, with the commencement of a rail-road ferry service connecting the North and South Island railway systems, a link was also established between the notional railway and the North Island system.

Government railways in most instances have been constructed by the Ministry of Works and transferred to the Railways Department when completed. The gauge is 3 ft 6 in. Standard rails for heavy traffic main lines weigh 91 lb per lineal yard, and for secondary and branch lines 72 lb per yard. At present much of the track is laid to the standards adopted prior to 1950-viz, 85 lb, 70 lb, and 55 lb rails. Sleepers, 2,400 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood, but since 1960 substantial use has been made of treated radiata pine sleepers from New Zealand mills.

*There is a special article in the 1963 issue of the Yearbook (pp. 1175-1195) covering 100 years of development of New Zealand Railways.

Vast improvements have been made to existing railways during the past 60 years and many sections have been reconstructed at considerable expense to ease gradients, shorten distances, and reduce curvature. The Auckland-Westfield deviation, opened in 1930; the Wellington-Tawa deviation, brought into full use in July 1937; and the Turakina-Okoia deviation, opened in December 1947, are typical examples. Recent examples are the Rimutaka deviation and its 5½-mile tunnel between Upper Hutt and Featherston, which was opened in November 1955 to eliminate the 1-in-15 Rimutaka Incline used from 1878; and the Porirua-Plimmerton deviation and duplication completed in 1961.

Construction of a 15½-mile railway, including a 5½-mile tunnel through the Kaimai Hills between the Rotorua line at Waharoa and the East Coast main line near Apata, was authorised in 1964. This Kaimai railway deviation will reduce the rail haulage distance between Hamilton and Tauranga from 94 to 62 miles, and between Rotorua and Tauranga from 146 to 84 miles. It is expected to be completed about 1970.

The total route milage of railways vested in the Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1964 was 3,265-1,647 miles in the North Island and 1,618 in the South Island. In addition, traffic was being worked by the Railways Department over a further 4 miles of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was provided on 157 route miles of track.

The Otira-Arthur's Pass section of line, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923, the Christchurch-Lyttelton section in 1929, the Wellington-Johnsonville line in 1938, and the Wellington-Paekakariki section in 1940. The first part of electrified services between Wellington and the Hutt Valley was brought into operation in 1953, and the last stage of this project was completed in July 1955.

The introduction of main-line diesel electric locomotives in 1952 was the beginning of a radical change in motive power operation in New Zealand, and there has been a steady increase in the percentage of total traffic hauled by this means. During the year 1963-64 diesel traction accounted for 58.3 per cent of the gross ton-miles; diesel railcars ran 45.2 per cent of the total passenger train-miles.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service-An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947; information on its operation is given in Subsection 11D.

Cook Strait Rail/Road Ferry Service-A ferry to carry rail and road vehicles, and passengers, is operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. The Aramoana (4,160 tons) is designed to carry a maximum of 34 railway wagons, or about 85 motorcars, on the vehicle deck and a further 30 motorcars in an upper deck garage. There is all-weather accommodation in lounges and cabins for nearly 500 passengers, but it is possible to carry up to 1,150 passengers on special occasions. Regular sailings began on 13 August 1962. A second ferry, the Aranui, was ordered for this service in 1964. It is due to be delivered early in 1966.

Traffic statistics for the ferry service since 13 August 1962 are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchReturn CrossingsPassenger JourneysMotor VehiclesFreight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnageDeadweight TonsManifest Tons
* Seven and one-half months only, from 13 August 1962.
1963*246123,52021,474107,37048,92293,100
1964505186,13937,362186,810143,655267,738

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait rail/road ferry service are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengersRefreshmentsMotor VehiclesOther GoodsTotal
* Seven and one-half months only, from 13 August 1962.
 ££££££
1963*152,77017,070152,793329,812652,465429,230
1964221,33129,741240,150858,6011,349,823814,763

ADMINISTRATION-In 1876 the railways that had been operated by Provincial Governments passed under full control of the Public Works Department, which itself operated some of the opened lines that it had built. In 1880 a separate Railways Department was established with a General Manager responsible to the Minister for Public Works, but in 1889 a board of three Railway Commissioners was appointed. This was the form of management until 1 January 1895 when, under the Government Railways Act 1894, a Minister for Railways was appointed for the first time, with a General Manager once again as the permanent head of the Department. Control by a Minister of Railways and a General Manager has continued since, except for two short periods of board management from 1925 to 1928 and from 1931 to 1936 respectively, and management by a 5-member Railways Commission from 12 January 1953 to 31 March 1957.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION-The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five financial years is given below.

Item31 March 196031 March 196131 March 196231 March 196331 March 1964
* Together equal to £42,987 per mile of open line. Includes cost of rolling stock, buildings, and equipment as well as right of way and track.
£ (thousand)
Open for traffic-
Railway lines and works92,60895,78198,523101,380102,942*
Rolling stock35,11035,25936,02037,36737,368*
Cook Strait rail/road ferry service-2611,2161,7901,887
Other subsidiary services10,75411,31711,87512,03612,191
  Totals138,472142,618147,634152,573154,388
Works under construction298379379376377
  Grand totals138,770142,997148,013152,949154,765

So varied are the geographical features of New Zealand that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. Numerous mountain chains and rivers make railway construction in general both difficult and expensive. The Otira Tunnel is 5 miles 26 chains long, and the Rimutaka Tunnel is 5 miles 37 chains. The length of the longest bridge, over the Rakaia River, is 5,720 ft, and the largest viaduct, the Mohaka, 887 ft long and 318 ft above water level.

ROLLING STOCK-Information as to the rolling stock in use on the State railways as at 31 March 1964 is given in the following table.

Locomotives 
* In addition there are 5 small diesel-electric shunting locomotives in use in workshops and 101 diesel and petrol shunting tractors, both road and rail type, in use at stations.
Steam (tender)353
Steam (tank)28
Electric -28
Diesel-electric139
Diesel-electric shunting38
Diesel-mechanical shunting86
  Total685*
Passenger vehicles 
Sleepers -18
First class83
Second class587
Composite5
Railcars50
Electric multiple units128
Postal -9
  Total880
 Four WheeledBogie
Wagons  
Horse boxes1138
Cattle95385
Sheep2,66617
Frozen and chilled meat723816
Cool, ventilated1,212..
Covered goods827481
High side18,476203
Low side1,108..
Platform2991,149
Vegetable..29
Brake vans..3
Other3,004515
  Totals29,2873,757
 33,044

From 1901 to 1939 most of the locomotives and rolling stock were built in the railway workshops, but many steam locomotives and goods wagons were imported after the 1914-18 war. A number of electric locomotives, multiple-unit electric coaches, and railcars were also imported from England between 1923 and 1939.

After the 1939-45 war, construction of steam locomotives in railway workshops continued until 1950 in the North Island and until 1956 in the South Island. Construction of goods wagons has also continued in railway workshops, the annual output being dependent on the availability of staff and materials. Other requirements have been met by importations of locomotives, railcars, multiple-unit coaches, and goods wagons, mainly from the United Kingdom.

Since 1945 more than 15,000 goods and livestock wagons of modern design have been placed in service to cover replacements and to provide for more diversified traffic. Total wagon stock at March 1964 was 32,612. In addition to this wagon stock owned by the Department, some privately owned specialised wagons are in use including 25 bulk-cement bogie-type wagons and 198 petrol-tank wagons.

Dieselisation of locomotive power commenced in 1949 with the purchase of four 25-ton diesel-mechanical shunting locomotives, and by 1964 there were 86 of varying sizes in service.

In 1959 eighteen 40-ton diesel-electric shunting locomotives were imported for heavy shunting duties. These have been supplemented by 24 similar locomotives built in railway workshops.

The first 15 diesel locomotives for main-line service were imported in 1952; they were 51-ton 660 h.p. locomotives. The fleet was subsequently increased during 1954-58 by importation from Great Britain of forty-two 750 h.p. and ten 1,500 h.p. locomotives.

In 1955, thirty 1,425 h.p. diesel-electric locomotives were imported, 15 from Canada and 15 from the United States. They were followed in 1957 by 10 similar locomotives from Australia. Further deliveries from Canada in 1961, 1962, and 1963 brought the fleet total of this type to 72, and a further 20 have raised the total to 92.

The 1,425 h.p. type of diesel-electric locomotive is ideally suited for heavy goods haulage on the North Island Main Trunk and such secondary lines as can cope with the axle loading.

Dieselisation of the two limited express trains in the North Island was accomplished in April 1963, and of the other regular express trains between Auckland and Wellington in February 1965. Steam for carriage heating is supplied by special steam-heating boiler vans constructed in the railway workshops.

The latest diesel railcars, of which 35 were placed in service between 1955 and 1959, each weigh 57 tons unladen and seat 88 passengers. Designed for a top speed of 65 m.p.h. on level track, they are powered by two 210 h.p. diesel engines. With 15 railcars of earlier design, they provide fast passenger services covering a total of more than 7,000 miles daily spread over 12 main lines.

Standard main-line passenger cars are 56 ft in length, have chair seats, and are steam heated and electrically lit. They are steel sheathed and fitted with enclosed vestibules and gangways. Sleeping cars are provided with wash basins in each two-berth cabin, wall mirrors, reading lights, and plug-in sockets for electric razors.

Typical of the modern wagons now in use are steel high-side open wagons with a capacity of 15 tons; double-deck sheep wagons able to carry 80 sheep; 50 ft covered goods wagons for express goods trains; and high-capacity all-steel insulated wagons for frozen meat and chilled beef traffic. A new type of wagon, 42½ ft long and 9 ft wide, for the Murupara-Kawerau log traffic, was specially designed for carrying a 26-tor, bundle of logs loaded up to 12 ft above rail level. Deliveries of a new type of 14-ton capacity covered goods wagon designed for palletised goods traffic began in 1960, and special wagons have been introduced for the conveyance of cement in bulk, heated bitumen, bulk tallow, and packaged timber.

The proportions of railway traffic moved by the different types of motive power are shown in the following table. In recent years, diesel power has become steadily more important at the expense of steam.

In these traffic figures, the weight of motive power is excluded-except in the case of diesel railcars and multiple-unit electric trains.

Types of Trains1961-621962-631963-64
Gross Ton-miles (Million)Per CentGross Ton-miles (Million)Per CentGross Ton-miles (Million)Per Cent
Passenger trains
Steam locomotives294.938.3299.138.5213.627.1
Diesel locomotives56.97.460.87.8149.418.9
Diesel railcars177.7231179.123.0184.523.4
Electric locomotives47.06147.66.148.06.1
Electric multiple unit193.525.1191.224.6193.024.5
  Totals, passenger770.0100.0777.8100.0788.5100.0
Mixed and goods trains
Steam1,656.048.01,356.740.41,301.835.9
Diesel1,718.249.81,925.057.42,239.861.9
Electric77.62.274.22.280.12.2
  Totals, mixed and goods3,451.8100.03,355.9100.03,621.7100.0
All trains
Steam locomotives1,950.946.21,655.840.11,515.434.3
Diesel locomotives1,775.142.01,985.848.12,389.254.2
Diesel railcars177.74.2179.14.3184.54.2
Electric locomotives124.63.0121.82.9128.12.9
Electric multiple unit193.54.6191.24.6193.04.4
 Grand totals, gross ton-miles4,221.8100.04,133.7100.04,410.2100.0

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE-Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue
* Loss recovered from General Reserve.
 £££
196034,936,91435,500,047-563,133*
196136,238,99836,301,757-62,759*
196236,639,38036,801,304-161,924*
196336,443,47838,293,953-1,850,475*
196439,738,34739,199,565538,782

The expenditure figures do not include interest on capital (£6,881,442 in 1963-64). The chief items of expenditure for 1963-64 were wages, £23,709,808; locomotive fuel (including electricity), £1,719,393; stores and material, £4,905,346; depreciation and renewals, £4,569,520; miscellaneous, £4,295,498.

A sum of £4,667,228 was set aside in 1963-64 for depreciation and track renewals, while expenditure from these funds amounted to £7,694,403. The amounts standing to the credit of the Depreciation and Renewals Account for 31 March 1964 were £15,501,612 and £219,564 respectively.

The revenue and expenditure for the last five years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
£ (thousand)
196030,2714,66630,7584,742-487-76
196131,4294,81031,4894,813-60-3
196231,6954,94531,8164,986-121-41
196331,3765,06733,4374,856-2,061+211
196433,8245,91433,9735,226-149+688

NOTE-On 1 April 1962 the Refreshment Branch, until then a subsidiary service, became an operating branch, and revenue and expenditure is now included in railway operation.

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1963-64 year.

AreaRevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or LossRatio of Expenditure to Revenue
 £££per cent
North Island23,518,90421,452,5882,066,31691.2
South Island10,305,20112,520,933-2,215,732121.5
 Totals33,824,10533,973,521-149,416100.4

The various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years, are shown below. Full working costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1962-631963-641962-631963-64
 £ (thousand)
Lake Wakatipu steamers23213635
Advertising service961018290
Departmental dwellings4134261,3121,255
Leases of bookstalls, etc.104106113110
Road services-Passengers and goods2,9643,0312,8842,921
Rail/road ferry services6521,350429815
Miscellaneous receipts815879......
  Totals5,0675,9144,8565,226

Revenue-In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger FaresGoods and LivestockRefreshments and BookstallsTotal
* Included with subsidiary services revenue.
 £ (thousand)
19602,79827,473*30,271
19612,82628,603*31,429
19622,90128,794*31,695
19632,92627,73371731,376
19642,93230,16772533,824

The revenue from passenger fares and luggage during the year 1963-64 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £1 2s. 11d. per head of mean population. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £13 4s. 7d. per head.

Expenditure-The railway operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Refreshments and BookstallsTotal

* Includes superannuation subsidy.

†Included in subsidiary services expenditure.

£ (thousand)
19608,2887,2205,5398,90180930,758
19618,3747,2325,5519,48884431,489
19628,0957,3895,6189,86185331,816
19638,6567,5095,6479,93894174733,437
19648,4817,9115,74210,15092676333,973

The increase in expenditure has been due chiefly to an increased wages bill, mainly the result of higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment.

PASSENGER TRAFFIC-From about 1925 until 1933 there was a steady decline in the number of passenger journeys recorded. This was attributed to the development of motor competition and, after 1930, to the severe economic depression. As economic conditions improved from 1933 to 1939 there was an upward trend, and from 1939 to 1944 there was a sharp increase caused by the wartime movement of members of the armed forces, the curtailment of road services, and the restrictions placed on private motoring by rationing of petrol and shortage of motor tyres.

In January 1944 train services had to be reduced drastically owing to shortage of coal. This fact, together with the large decline in armed forces traffic after the cessation of hostilities, caused the annual number of railway passenger journeys to recede considerably until the 1948-50 period, when restoration of a number of main line and suburban passenger train services became possible. Many branch-line and country main-line mixed-train services that had been discontinued were not restored, however, and the short-distance traffic that they carried was transferred permanently to road services.

Curtailment of main line and suburban services was again necessitated in 1951 because of shortage of coal arising from industrial disputes. Subsequent staff shortages prevented any large-scale restoration of services until more railcars could be introduced on main lines and until the Hutt Valley electrification scheme was nearing completion. Nevertheless, the number of passenger journeys per annum rose steadily from 1952 to 1957, reaching 25,377,170 in 1956-57. There was a decline to 24,816.639 in 1957-58, attributed partly to the continuing development of private-car competition and air services, and also to the exceptional series of floods and line blockages during the year, but a subsequent steady increase brought the number of journeys up to 26,324,017 in 1961-62. Journeys for 1962-63 totalled 25,665,557 and for 1963-64, 25,734,513.

Passenger train-miles run during 1963-64 totalled 5,833,988; and the total passenger revenue (including luggage) received represents 121d. per passenger train-mile, and £1,209 per mile of line operated by passenger services.

The following table shows passenger journeys over the latest four years.

Type of Journey1960-611961-621962-631963-64
Non-suburban
Ordinary
Standard fares1,893,4391,861,0121,842,9141,827,227
Reduced fares416,911385,141395,935373,332
Season645,913766,426829,712873,890
  Totals, Non-Suburban2,956,2633,012,5793,068,5613,074,449
Suburban
Ordinary6,150,4915,495,7114,644,9764,438,964
Season -17,126,67617,815,72717,952,02018,221,100
  Totals, Suburban23,277,16723,311,43822,596,99622,660,064
   Grand totals26,233,43026,324,01725,665,55725,734,513

Computed passenger miles are shown in the following table.

YearPassenger Miles
 (000)
1947-48535,863
1953-54460,338
1954-55476,343
1955-56469,424
1956-57471,912
1957-58442,830
1958-59441,604
1959-60447,644
1960-61446,244
1961-62449,261
1962-63452,300
1963-64455,585

The following table shows the revenue received from passenger journeys over the latest four years.

Type of Fare1960-611961-621962-631963-64
Non-suburban    
Ordinary££££
Standard fares1,665,9581,621,5511,651,7951,672,635
Reduced fares168,079158,989161,681149,489
Season43,84142,27744,90746,542
Miscellaneous119,223133,820136,133130,797
  Totals, Non-suburban1,997,1011,956,6371,994,5161,999,463
Suburban    
Ordinary300,127321,881294,002282,221
Season529,213622,518638,107650,366
  Totals, Suburban829,340944,399932,109932,587
   Grand totals2,826,4412,901,0362,926,6252,932,050

GOODS TRAFFIC-The quantity of goods traffic carried by New Zealand Railways increased steadily year by year until 1929-30, but declined considerably during the depression until 1933. Since 1933 there has been a steady upward trend, with only occasional and brief recessions reflecting fluctuations in economic activity.

The quantity of goods carried in 1963-64 (11,090,174 tons) was the highest ever recorded and was 1,046,442 tons (10.4 per cent) higher than in 1962-63. Revenue-earning ton-miles increased to 1,303 million, and the average haul rose from 115 to 117 miles.

The numbers of livestock carried for the last two years were as follows.

Item1962-631963-64Variation
    per cent
Cattle and horses850,267793,228—57,039—6.7
Calves588,864585,885—2,979—0.5
Sheep5,962,3735,885,771—76,602—1.3
Pigs396,274400,186+3,912+ 1.0
 Totals7,797,7787,665,070—132,708—1.7
Equivalent tonnage571,112548,880—22,232—3.9
Revenue£1,605,596£1,526,665—£78,931—4.9

The next table shows the tonnage of goods carried, freight train-miles run, and net ton-miles run, together with the respective averages.

Year Ended 31 MarchTonnage CarriedFreight Train-milesTons 1 MileGross Revenue
Per TonPer Freight Train-milePer Ton-mile

* From 1960 revenue includes parcels traffic.

†From 1962 revenue includes demurrage, cranage, engine hire, and other miscellaneous revenue.

   (000)£s.d.£s.d.d.
1960*10,543,0978,762,6091,170,71421093125.5
196110,830,0339,022,0741,204,737211531105.5
196210,822,3539,121,1661,221,08421323325.7
196310,043,7328,776,0511,156,43221533335.8
196411,090,1749,069,9501,303,02921463685.6

The following diagram illustrates the growth in the tonnage of goods and livestock carried over the last 80 years.

A classification of goods traffic is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchAgricultural and Pastoral ProduceAgricultural Lime and ManuresTimberCoalMotor Spirits and KerosineOtherTotal
Agricultural ProduceDairy ProduceMeat, Fish, and LivestockWool
Tons (thousand)
19605694031,1302571,1871,5691,8103253,29310,543
19615414091,1012581,2201,6521,7553363,55810,830
19625333541,0972531,2481,5921,7813363,62810,822
19635113631,0802571,0931,4901,4672453,43710,043
19645153811,0482611,3411,6641,8123903,67811,090

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES-The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1964 was 24,515. The staff is divided into two divisions-namely, the salaried division, and the general division-and is further classed in a number of branches, as shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTrafficWay and WorksLocomotive RunningWorkshopsRoad ServicesOtherTotal
19607,5716,4953,6135,0461,5161,27825,519
19617,3706,1983,5234,8241,4951,23124,641
19627,2735,8563,4584,6791,4901,23423,990
19637,3746,1213,6324,8911,5131,27424,805
19647,2025,9323,5905,0191,4981,27424,515

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896 and revised at various times since, applies to railway employees. A Board is constituted to hear appeals of members against decisions in regard to promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Minister of Railways and the other elected by the members of the Department. The Government Railways Amendment Act 1944 provided for the establishment of a tribunal of three members whose principal functions are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages for railway employees; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, etc.; and terms and conditions in regard to leave of absence, railway travel concessions, etc. This tribunal, known as the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, is deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The members, who must not be members of the Railways Department or of any of the railway employees' organisations, are appointed for a term of three years.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS-During the year ended 31 March 1964, 20 persons were killed and 333 injured in all kinds of accidents associated with train working and movements of rolling stock. Comparative figures for the previous year were 27 killed and 373 injured. These figures do not include employees who were killed or injured whilst engaged on other duties, e.g., railway workshops.

Of the 20 persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1963-64 none were passengers or employees; one was killed in an accident on the line, 16 at level crossings, and three while trespassing. Of those injured 21 were passengers, 247 employees (chiefly in minor accidents), and 65 were neither passengers nor employees. Of the 65 other persons, 35 were injured in crossing accidents.

In furtherance of departmental policy, an additional 32 automatic road-crossing alarms were installed in 1963-64, bringing the total number of automatic alarms now in operation up to 459.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS-There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and sawmills. The most important are the 7-mile line of the Ohai Railway Board, extending from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai, and the 4-mile line from Stirling to the State Mines at Kaitangata (South Otago). These lines carry substantial coal traffic in departmental wagons. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd in the North Island operates logging trains over the 15-mile Matahina Tramway from Matahina to Edgecumbe, thence by running rights over the Government railways for 4 miles to Awakeri and finally over their 6½-mile Une from Awakeri to the mill at Whakatane. At Portland, near Whangarei, Wilsons Portland Cement Co. Ltd., operates an extensive private railway system serving its works.

11 C-ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

ROADS AND BRIDGES-Two major developments in recent years have been the Auckland Harbour Bridge and the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel; tolls are charged to users to provide for upkeep and repay the loans raised for their construction. The Auckland Harbour Bridge, with its approaches, is nearly 2 miles long and was opened in 1959. The Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel, which was opened in 1964, comprises 2½ miles of motorway, of which l ¼ miles is actual tunnel. The total milage of formed roads in New Zealand at 31 March 1963 was 57,183. Details are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCountiesBoroughsTown DistrictsRoad DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
* All on county roads.
Paved8,3135,1244,41386617,942
Metal or gravel30,9711,7397558111433,660
Unmetalled5,405212319325,581
 Totals: formed roads51,5545,291186152*57,183

The formation of roads in many parts has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system as at 31 March 1963, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges. There is an average of slightly under 15 ft of bridging per mile of formed road.

Materials of which Bridge ConstructedCountiesBoroughsTown DistrictsRoad DistrictsTotals
No.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total Length
* Includes Bailey bridges erected as a temporary measure.
  ft ft ft ft ft
Concrete reinforced or stone2,576250,26521321,2759675--2,798272,215
Steel girders and concrete deck*1,084113,7317711,1624152--1,165125,045
Timber with steel or concrete1,870169,848697,94639541001,946177,989
Timber3,203245,409988,3234252103953,315254,379
 Totals8,733779,25345748,706201,174144959,224829,628

ROADS ADMINISTRATION-The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956, and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways. There are 7,142 miles of State highways.

By the National Roads Act a National Roads Board was established from 1 April 1954, and its functions are defined as follows:

  1. To administer the National Roads Fund in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

  2. To provide an advisory service in respect of the whole roading system of counties, boroughs, and town districts throughout New Zealand, and to report to the Government from time to time on the progress being made in providing a roading system adequate for needs arising from current developments in motor traffic.

  3. To advise the Government of any changes necessary in the legislation and regulations relating to the use of roads.

  4. To act as the final authority in disputes relating to road classifications.

  5. To advise the Government of changes necessary in the provision of finance for road construction and maintenance, particularly of changes considered advisable in the levying and collection of motor taxation, including exemptions therefrom.

  6. To assist and advise local authorities generally on roading matters and any special roading problems arising from development of industries, etc.

  7. To undertake at not more than five or less than three year intervals a comprehensive survey into the roading position in New Zealand, including standards, growth of traffic, adequacy, etc.

  8. To give effect to any special matter of roading policy communicated to it by the Government.

  9. To initiate and conduct research into roading problems in New Zealand.

  10. To collect information on roading developments in other countries and make this available to roading authorities in New Zealand.

  11. To undertake any other activity for the provision of a roading system adequate both for the needs of an efficient road transport system and for the benefit generally of motor-vehicle operators and the safety of the public in relation to motor traffic.

The composition of the National Roads Board is: (a) one member, to be appointed Chairman of the Board; (b) the person holding the appointment in the Ministry of Works as Director of Roading; (c) an officer of the Ministry of Works; (d) an officer of the Transport Department; (e) two nominees of the New Zealand Counties Association (Incorporated); (f) two nominees of the Municipal Association of New Zealand (Incorporated); (g) a representative of commercial road users; and (h) a representative of private motorists.

District Roads Councils-New Zealand is divided into 21 roads districts, composed of local authorities grouped according to geographic situation and community interest.

For each roads district there is an advisory body, known as the District Roads Council, which is constituted to include the District Commissioner of Works, one representative of each constituent county and road district, one person to represent boroughs and independent town districts for each two members representing counties or road districts, a representative of commercial road users, a representative of private motorists, and a nominee of the Commissioner of Transport.

District Roads Councils function as advisory bodies, with the principal duties of recommending upon the maintenance and improvement programmes for State highways, and upon the yearly allocation of subsidies and grants from the National Roads Fund for local authority roading. They also make recommendations to the National Roads Board on standards and requirements for roads and highways in their particular districts, and on general matters affecting road users or road safety.

Finance-The National Roads Act 1953 provided for a National Roads Fund to be established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund to be derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

On the revenue side of the Fund's operations the Act reintroduced the principle of reserving motor taxation for roading purposes, and now provides for the apportionment of fixed minimum percentages thereof for expenditure on State highways, county roads, and municipal streets.

Details of the classes of revenue automatically paid into the Fund from 1 April 1954 are as follows:

  1. Fees and charges from registration and licensing of motor vehicles.

  2. Heavy traffic licence fees.

  3. Motor spirits tax and milage tax.

  4. Tyre tax.

  5. Receipts from any source in respect of the construction, maintenance, or control of any highway.

  6. Receipts from transfers, sales, or hire of materials or plant or property of any kind or from executing works for other organisations.

  7. Any other moneys credited to the Fund.

From April 1954 to March 1964 a tax on motor spirits of 1s. 3 ¾d. per gallon was paid into the National Roads Fund and was then from 1 April 1964 supplemented by the remaining 2d. per gallon of the tax imposed from 27 June 1958 and previously paid to the Consolidated Fund.

Expenditure from the Fund may be made without appropriation as follows:

  1. Payment of annual subsidies to local authorities for roading purposes.

  2. Payments by the Crown in respect of the construction, maintenance, and control of State highways.

  3. Compensation payable by the Crown for acquisition of land for a State highway.

  4. Compensation and damages payable by the Crown for accidents and injuries in relation to works the cost of which is chargeable to the Fund.

  5. Cost of purchase or hire of machinery or equipment.

  6. Cost of survey and other preparatory work for State highways.

  7. Cost of experimental work.

  8. Cost of administration by the Ministry of Works.

  9. Contributions towards the cost of regional or comprehensive transportation surveys.

  10. Other expenses by the National Roads Board in exercise of its functions.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the years ended 31 March 1963 and 1964.

 1962-631963-64
Receipts££
Petrol tax (net)17,323,11518,863,416
Milage tax -656,906776,263
Tyre tax26,12436,280
Fees and charges
Registration and license fees -2,690,4592,810,586
Heavy traffic fees -2,850.3193,070,266
Contribution from Consolidated Fund-1,000,0001,000,000
Miscellaneous receipts
Repayments of plant purchases21,54717,309
Repayments of advances to local authorities6,4455,286
Rents -47,58073,951
Fees -7392
Sales of land and buildings -16,73531,606
Interest on plant purchases -2,2042,296
Interest on advances to local authorities917769
Transfer of bridging material -3,74656,827
Bailey bridging hire15,73119,539
Interest on investments25,25022,167
Miscellaneous2,131896
Hamilton arterial routes: (Railway lowering) contribution from Hamilton City Council and Consolidated Fund37,500101,500
  Total receipts24,726,78226,889,079
Expenditure
Highways maintenance4,239,6504,392,961
Highways construction7,930,39310,768,489
Local authority roading subsidies and grants11,189,16611,743,471
Administration and general expenses
Ministry of Works administration1,220,3471,181,398
Purchase of plant (local authority)32.9755,603
Fees and travelling expenses -3,4254,973
Miscellaneous expenses -27,56239,007
Bridging expenses
Bailey bridging38,4383,435
Unauthorised expenditure -3,3461,756
  Total expenditure24,685,30228,141,093
Balance in Fund at end of year2,068,360816,346

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1959-601960-61*1961-62*1962-63*1963-64*
* On 1 April 1961 milage of highway system reduced from 13,200 to 7,060. Figures for previous years relate to State and main highways.
 £££££
Construction and improvement8,954,5347,384,3046,230,5066,833,1579,653,538
Renewal of bridges1,558,542925,754975,8731,097,2361,114,951
Maintenance, repairs, etc.5,554,6594,117,7714,205,2384,239,6504,392,961
 Totals16,067,73512,427,82911,411,61712,170,04315,161,450

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island, as compared with the number of motor vehicles in each Island at 31 March of each of the last five years, appears in the following table, the percentages relating to New Zealand totals.

Item1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
Percentage of New Zealand Totals
North Island
Maintenance expenditure69.0468.0866.4668.9166.22
Motor vehicles67.4667.4767.7467.8268.21
South Island
Maintenance expenditure30.9631.9233.5431 0933.78
Motor vehicles32.5432.5332.2632.1831.79

The following table shows the milage of State highways in the North and South Islands at 31 March 1964, together with a classification as to the type of construction or surface.

IslandLength of Highways
Dustless SurfaceGravel or Macadam SurfaceTotal
 miles
North Island3,0068093,815
South Island2,5065213,327
 Totals5,5121,6307,142

State Highways-The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works.

The National Roads Board has the sole power of construction, maintenance, and control of all State highways. These powers may be delegated, for any State highway or portion thereof, to the local authority in whose district the road is situated. Any construction or maintenance work that is not delegated by the Board to a local authority is carried out by or through the agency of the Commissioner of Works and the cost borne by the Fund. The Board may also delegate to the Ministry of Works its duties in connection with design, supervision, construction, or maintenance, or the administration of any specified State highway. No new construction works are to be commenced by the Board, however, without the prior consent of the Minister of Works.

For State highways, the whole cost of construction is to be met from the National Roads Fund.

Highway Standards-In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadmaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests, and during recent years advances have been made in the direction of framing standard specifications which allow of a wider use of certain local materials which formerly were not accepted.

Motorways-Legislation by means of the Public Works Amendment Act 1947, as amended by section 44 of the Public Works Amendment Act 1948, makes provision for the declaration of motorways. It is emphasised that motorways are not merely better all-purpose highways, but are limited as to access, and restricted as to class of traffic.

In addition to providing the most efficient and economic transport service, the main distinguishing features of a motorway are the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development, both of which will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total milage of motorways in use at 31 March 1964 was 39.55 miles. During 1963-64, 3 motorway bridges, totalling 519 ft, were completed. Additional lengths are under construction at Auckland and Wellington. The figures quoted for motorways' milages and bridging are included in those shown under highways.

Activity During the Year Ended 31 March 1964-During the year ended 31 March 1964, 182 miles of new sealing on highways were completed, giving an aggregate of 5,512 miles sealed, or 77.2 per cent of the total highway milage. In addition, improvements to existing scaled surfaces were effected on 606 miles of highways.

New bridging totalled 8,141 linear feet, compared with 8,387 linear feet in the previous year.

Local Authority Roading-Under the National Roads Amendment Act 1959 the National Roads Board pays from 1 April 1960 a subsidy at the rate of 15s. for each £1 that is spent by the local authority out of its own funds in the financial year on such programme of subsidised works as has been accepted for that financial year by the Board; the amount of subsidy is to be not less than 14 per cent of the Board's revenue in the case of boroughs and independent town districts and not less than 30 per cent in the case of counties, dependent town districts, and road districts. (The 1964 Amendment Act reduced the latter to 26 per cent.)

In addition to these statutory subsidies the Board may, so far as money available in the Fund permits, provide such additional finance as it thinks justified to a local authority having regard to its particular financial problems or special circumstances Such additional aid is provided by way of grant.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the Board decided that a more generous subsidy would be available to all local authorities for bridge replacement work, and such additional aid is provided by grants.

For the year ended 31 March 1964 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 £££
Municipalities3,034,503764,2323,798,735
County councils (including road boards)4,865,3283,079,4087,944,736
 Totals7,899,8313,843,64011,743,471

Loan Assistance-In special circumstances the Board may advance money by way of loan to local authorities to provide for the proportion of cost payable by a local authority in respect of a subsidised work. Such loans must be repaid by instalments extending over a period (not exceeding 10 years) to be agreed upon between the Board and the local authority, and interest is payable at a rate approved by the Minister of Finance.

The Board is also empowered to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, and equipment to local authorities on such terms as it thinks fit, including terms for the repayment of the purchase money by instalments extending over not more than four years, with interest on the unpaid balance at such rate as is fixed by the Board. Since this scheme was introduced by the Main Highways Board, plant, etc., has been purchased to the value of £1,163,106, of which sum £30,809 was outstanding at 31 March 1964. New advances made and repayments received during 1963-64 totalled £5,603 and £17,309 respectively.

Development Roading-In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) for development road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farm lands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roading to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character such as the through road linking Paringa-Haast-Haast Pass.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1964 was approximately £929,263.

Overall Roading Expenditure-The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1964.

National Roads Fund££
State highways15,161,450 
Subsidies, etc.-local roading11,743,471 
  26,904,921
Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) 929,263
Local authority funds  
Municipalities7,063,884 
County councils, etc.7,067,196 
  14,131,080
 Total 41,965,264

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES-The following scale of fees is at present operative: Registration fees are £1 for any tractor, trailer, or power cycle, and £2 for any other motor vehicle. Annual licence fees are as follows: Power cycles, £1; motor cycles, £2; motorcars and private station wagons, £3; traction engines, £7 10s.; motor vehicles not otherwise specified, £4; trailers (not exceeding two tons laden weight), £1 10s. Other fees include drivers' licences, 5s.; changes of ownership, 10s.; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, £2; any other motor vehicles, £3). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, are credited to the National Roads Fund.

The Transport Act 1962 provides that the annual licence may take the form of new registration plates or be in such other form as prescribed by regulation. The Motor Vehicles (Registration and Licensing) Regulations 1949, authorise the alternative of a licensed label system instead of an annual change of registration plates. A system of issuing permanent registration plates for motor vehicles was brought into partial operation on 1 July 1963. Permanent plates have been issued in respect of dealers in motor vehicles, for motor cycles and power cycles, and for motorcars.

The following table shows the numbers of the various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years.

Type of VehicleLicensed as at 31 March
19601961196219631964
Cars502,574523,847553,181583,867630,490
Light trucks (i.e., 2 tons and under, laden)49,72451,02554,09655,48458,438
Heavy trucks (i.e., over 2 tons laden)69,68673,38276,06277,54279,886
Contract vehicles1,6791,7061,7561,7761,761
Omnibuses -2,3172,2552,3302,4722,558
Public taxicabs2,4452,4912,6912,8592,615
Rental cars -2,2252,4232,5822,9162,777
Private taxicabs174158170207146
Service coaches628586546537487
Vehicles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (other than exempted Government-owned vehicles)57,22462,16968,88171,27074,910
Government vehicles16,68317,48017,13218,30719,647
Motor cycles26,87428,43631,28832,48831,030
Power cycles9,93710,85413,06513,19515,881
  Totals742,170776,812823,780862,920920,626
Trailers -100,855117,597134,516138,734148,056
Dealers' cars3,0543,1353,2643,2363,249
Dealers' motor cycles152145116133140
  Grand totals846,231897,689961,6761,005,0231,072,071

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, logging machinery, cranes, etc.

The rate of increase in the number of motor vehicles has exceeded the rate of increase in population. The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 11 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19546.43.8
19555.93.7
19565.53.5
19575.23.4
19584.83.2
19594.83.2
19604.73.2
19614.63.1
19624.53.0
19634.32.9
19644.12.8

The next table shows the estimated total consumption of motor spirits in New Zealand, together with the quantity consumed by motor vehicles, for each year during the last 11 years.

Calendar YearConsumption of Motor Spirits
By Motor Vehicles on Public RoadsTotal Consumption
million gallons
1953160.5196.7
1954172.1213.0
1955185.0228.5
1956200.7244.6
1957207.0252.4
1958217.0263.7
1959218.5261.0
1960234.3280.4
1961245.4296.4
1962253.0298.7
1963273.0317.1

The following diagram illustrates the movement that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles since 1933. The low consumption of motor spirits during the depression period, the effects of rationing during the war years, the post-war recovery, and the subsequent increases paralleling the greater number of vehicles licensed in later years, are clearly demonstrated.

The following table gives particulars of the numbers of motor vehicles newly registered during each of the last six financial years. It should be noted that if a vehicle is again brought into use after its registration has been cancelled, it is treated as a new registration.

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
195931,6447,75726,08515,70481,190
196030,9325,98024,29116,66777,870
196136,3856,64017,71129,18289,918
196240,4006,70520,72024,57792,402
196345,2606,62318,58621,09191,560
196462,3206,20719,95521,583110,065

Since 1 April 1958 registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are available separately. These particulars (which exclude re-registrations) are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
195929,8726,14931,20667,227
196028,3383,46427,62059,422
196134,3764,74313,80821,15274,079
196239,0505,28814,12617,03375,497
196343,3604,66513,00218,19479,221
196460,9124,35014,80517,12997,196

ROAD TRANSPORT-The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the operations of the Transport Department. The Traffic Regulations 1956, made pursuant to the Transport Act, set out the rules of the road the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

The Heavy Motor Vehicle Regulations 1955 fix, in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local authorities for road-maintenance purposes, and also for classifying roads and providing other measures. Quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicle Regulations range from £2 8s. 4d. (not above 2½ tons) to £98 (30 tons), with £3 10s. for each additional ton or part thereof above 30. The fees for farmers' trucks range from £1 6s. 8d. to £92 6s. 8d. on a corresponding basis. No distinction is now made between passenger and goods vehicles, while the range of weight classes is considerably extended. Heavy-traffic fees, less the cost of collection, etc., were apportioned among the local authorities having control of roads within each heavy-traffic district, either as might be mutually agreed upon by such local authorities or, in default of such agreement, by the Minister of Transport, but from 1954 the fees (less collection costs as fixed by the Minister of Finance and not exceeding 5 per cent) have been paid to the National Roads Fund.

The Motor Spirits Taxation Act 1927 imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases were not connected with road taxation). From November 1953 the full duty was increased to 1s. 3 ¾d. per gallon, and this amount was paid into the National Roads Fund instead of only the first 6d. per gallon. An additional duty of Is. per gallon (reduced to 8d. and then 4d. per gallon in 1959 and to 2d. per gallon in 1960) was imposed by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1958 but this was payable to the Consolidated Fund until 31 March 1964. This additional tax of 2d. per gallon is now paid to the National Roads Fund, making the full duty now Is. 5 ¾d. per gallon.

There is also a tyre tax collected under the Customs Act and paid to the National Roads Fund.

Third Party Insurance-Owners of motor vehicles are required to insure against liability to pay damages on account of the death of any person or of bodily injury to any person in the event of the death or bodily injury being caused by, or through, or in connection with, the use of motor vehicles in New Zealand. The premium is paid with the annual licence fees and no licence is issued until the prescribed insurance premium has been paid. The Transport Act 1962 also makes provision for compensation in respect of death or injury caused by uninsured or unidentified motor vehicles.

TRANSPORT LICENSING-The Transport Act 1962 provides that passenger services, goods-services, rental services, and harbour-ferry services may only be carried on under licence granted under the Act.

The constitution of transport, goods-service, rental service, and harbour-ferry-service districts is provided for in the Act, together with the establishment of a licensing authority for each district. Goods-service districts may be identical with a transport district or be a part of the latter. The Governor-General may also declare any specified harbour or harbours or parts thereof to be a harbour-ferry-service district.

The licensing authority for any transport district may also be declared to be the licensing authority for the goods-service district and rental service district. The Act provides for the appointment of a licensing authority for each harbour-ferry district instead of the former practice under which the licensing authority for the transport district to which the harbour is contiguous was to be the licensing authority for the harbour-ferry district. The Minister may authorise any specified licensing authority to exercise jurisdiction in respect of licences which would otherwise come within the jurisdiction of some other licensing authority.

The licensing authority, is to consist of either one or three persons as the Minister may determine, who are appointed for a term of up to five years' duration. Members are also eligible for reappointment. The sole member or the chairman (where the authority consists of three members) has the authority and privileges of a Magistrate in respect of proceedings.

The Act provides that any authority under the Act when dealing with an application or any other matter concerned with road transport or harbour-ferry services, is to have regard primarily to the public interest, the desirability of the service, and the needs of the district. More generally the authority is to have regard also to the following:

  1. The provision of modern transport facilities best suited according to the nature of the service to meet the needs of national production and living standards and of national defence.

  2. The fair and impartial regulation of all forms of public transport in order to develop and maintain transportation facilities adequate to meet the needs of New Zealand and of national and Commonwealth defence; and, for these purposes, to administer such facilities so as to recognise and preserve the inherent advantages of each form of transport; to promote safe, adequate, economic, and efficient service, and the fostering of sound economic conditions in transportation; to encourage the establishment and maintenance of reasonable transport charges without unjust discrimination, undue preference or advantage, or unfair or destructive practices; and to promote good working conditions for workers.

A transport licence is required for the carriage of any goods (whether for hire or reward or not) by any goods service vehicle the weight of which exceeds 2½ tons if there is available for their carriage a route that includes not less than:

  1. In the case of fresh meat or fresh fish, 75 miles of open Government railway.

  2. In the case of logs, 50 miles of open Government railway or the Murupara-Kawerau railway.

  3. In the case of biscuits or confectionery, 50 miles of open Government railway.

  4. In any other case, 40 miles of open Government railway.

Where a farmer is carrying his own farming goods (other than lime) in a goods-service vehicle owned by him a transport licence is required if the gross laden weight exceeds 6½ tons and if there is an available route that includes:

  1. In the case of fresh milk, fresh cream, fresh vegetables, fresh fruit, eggs, poultry, or fresh meat, 75 miles of open Government railway.

  2. In any other case, 40 miles of open Government railway.

These provisions do not apply -

  1. Where the route that includes the railway is longer by more than one-third than the shortest road route.

  2. Where the owner of the vehicle is the Crown.

  3. Where the vehicle is owned by a local authority or public body and the goods are carried within the district of the local authority or public body.

  4. To the carriage of livestock.

A transport licence is not required for: (1) the carriage to and from school of school children and their teachers only; (2) the carriage by a contract vehicle or a harbour ferry of a private party on a special occasion; (3) carriage of workmen to and from work by the Government or a public body, where the vehicle is not designed principally for the carriage of persons and such service has been approved by the Commissioner for this purpose; (4) carriage of newspapers, or in connection with funerals or repair and wreckage of vehicles which have met with mishap; (5) farmers carrying milk, cream, or whey to and from dairy factories for their neighbours where a licensed goods service is not available; (6) relieving or assisting inhabitants of a locality where the usual communications are interrupted by flood, earthquake, or fire; (7) carriage of showman's goods, and equipment by a vehicle owned by the showman; (8) carriage of goods in connection with repair and maintenance of service-station equipment; (9) carriage of goods by an apiarist in connection with business; (10) carriage of household effects by an owner on change of residence; (11) letting on hire agricultural tractors and trailers; (12) carriage of soft drinks by manufacturers for retail distribution unless there is an available route which includes at least 75 miles of open Government railway; (13) carriage (otherwise than for commercial purposes) to or from an exhibition or show of a vehicle or farm machinery registered with a vintage farm machinery club if approved by the Commissioner of Transport in writing; (14) a goods service (not within section 109 of the Act) exclusively for the collection and disposal of domestic, industrial, or commercial refuse; (15) every goods service for the carriage by any member of a hunt club or pony club or amateur horse sports club of a horse or pony belonging to any member of the club to or from any hunt, gymkhana, amateur horse sports meeting or other club function (excluding meetings under the control of the New Zealand Racing Conference or the New Zealand Trotting Conference); (16) every goods service for the carriage of goods from one part of a farm to another part of the same farm or from one farm to another adjoining farm which is owned or managed by the same person; and (17) other passengers, goods, rental, or harbour-ferry services otherwise exempted by Order in Council.

In considering applications for taxicab licences a Licensing Authority is to have regard to the extent to which the proposed service is necessary or desirable in the public interest; the extent to which an improved standard of taxicab service is necessary or desirable in the public interest: the provision of an adequate supply of taxicabs to meet the reasonable public demand; any increase or decrease in the population of the area to be served; the extent to which the existing licensed taxicabs in the area are available for public use; the desirability of providing and maintaining a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the taxicab industry; the special needs of the area in respect of the travelling public; any evidence and representations made at a public sitting by or on behalf of any local authority or the licensee of a passenger service operating over a defined route; any representations contained in any petition presented at a public sitting signed by at least 25 adult residents of any locality proposed to be served; and any other matters that the Licensing Authority considers relevant to the application.

In considering applications for passenger service (other than taxicab) or harbour-ferry service licences the licensing authority is to have regard to the extent to which any proposed service or improved service is necessary or desirable in the public interest, and the needs of the district concerned and the protection of public funds where the Minister of Railways holds a licence. If further consideration be then given, factors to be taken into account are exiting services, financial ability of applicant to carry on the service, provision and maintenance of a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the transport industry, the manner in which a service has already been carried on, or the likelihood of satisfactorily carrying on a service, timetable or frequency of service, vehicles or ferries to be used, conditions of roads, routes and load restrictions, speeds, etc., and representations that may be made by various bodies, persons carrying on transport services and likely to be affected, and petitions of 25 or more adult persons of the locality concerned, etc.

Preference is to be given to applications for passenger service licences by local authorities or other public bodies under certain conditions, chiefly where no existing services are available or where the proposal is for an extension of an existing service, or if the new service is wholly within the applicant's district in the case of a local authority, etc., or where there will be no competition with an existing service to the same locality by means of another route.

In considering applications for goods service licences the licensing authority is to have regard to the interests of the public generally, including primarily those of persons requiring facilities for transport and secondarily those of persons providing such facility; the needs of the district concerned; the public interest and whether this would be adversely affected where the application involves exemption from the railway protection provisions.

In considering applications for rental-service licences a licensing authority is to have regard, among other things, for the ability of the applicant to provide satisfactory facilities for the proper maintenance and upkeep of the vehicles to be used in connection with the proposed service; and the ability of the applicant to ensure that the vehicles used in connection with the service are operated with due regard to road safety.

The licensing authority is to prescribe the terms and conditions of the licences such as class (continuous, seasonal, or temporary), commencement date, localities and routes, timetables, etc.

Additional requirements may be prescribed for taxicab licences to ensure the control of the service in the interests of efficiency and of the public-e.g., complying with roster of duties, joining an organisation for the purpose of obtaining telephone facilities, etc. There is no limitation on the period for which licences may be issued except in the case of rental services licences which are issued for a term of three years, and they may be transferred subject to certain conditions.

Certificates of fitness are required for each passenger service, rental service, or goods-service vehicle and all trucks with gross laden weight exceeding two tons. Charges are to be fixed, in the case of a service owned by a public body, by that body itself, and in the case of any other service, by the Commissioner of Transport, there being a right of appeal to the Transport Charges Appeal Authority in either case.

The Transport Charges Appeal Authority, as in the case of the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority, also established under the Act, is to be a barrister or solicitor of not less than seven years' practice.

Applications to fix road and harbour-ferry charges may be made by the holder of, or an applicant for, the licence; any other person whose interests are affected, being the holder of a licence, an applicant, the permanent head of a Government Department, a local authority, or a public body; any 25 or more adult residents of a locality in which the charges are or would be in force; all parties to a contract for the carriage of passengers or goods by any such services; and incorporated bodies whose members have a special interest in the type of transport concerned or whose principal objects are the protection of the interests of transport operators. The power to fix fares to be charged on any road passenger service carried on by the Minister of Railways to which Part III of the Government Railways Act 1949 applies, is expressly excluded from the jurisdiction of the charge-fixing bodies, but there is now right of appeal to the Charges Appeal Authority.

The principles to be observed in determining transport charges include: the promotion and maintenance of the economic stability of New Zealand; desirability of increasing national production by granting concessions on the carriage of producers' goods; desirability of providing special fares for all regular users of passenger services, and that children under four years be carried free, with children from the age of four years and under 15 years at half adult rates; desirability of maintaining a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the road-transport and harbour-ferry industries; and the maintenance of efficiency of the transport services to which the proceedings relate.

Included in the general provisions is one under which the owner of any motor vehicle licensed for passenger services or rental services or goods services and involved in an accident attended by serious injury to any person, or serious damage to the property of any person, shall notify the Commissioner of Transport within 48 hours of the occurrence.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services-The following tables review the operations of licensed road transport services to which the preceding paragraphs relate. The first of these tables gives the estimated overall figures concerning licensed road goods services for each of the four latest years ended 31 March.

Road Goods Services1959-601960-611961-621962-63
Revenue- £(000)40,00044,00045,00045,000
Capital- £(000)28,00029,00030,00031,000
Total vehicle-miles-(000)246,000257,000257,000259,000
Number of goods service licences6,8176,9006,9116,690
Average revenue per vehicle-mile d.38.9740.9242.3041.65
Average number of miles per vehicle15,11315,46415,05015,268

The second table shows traffic data, revenue, and number of vehicles used by the road passenger services operating in New Zealand, and is inclusive of services in the four metropolitan transport districts, for each of the latest four years ended 31 March.

Road Passenger Services1959-601960-611961-621962-63
Traffic statistics
Passengers carried162,759,069191,449,968189,491,557189,994,085
Vehicle-miles70,568,90874,378,14076,417,96079,898,999
Total revenue—£9,673,69511,025,57111,460,03311,719,310
Total revenue, per mile-d.32.8935.5835.9935.20
Number of vehicles included3,6563,8634,0163,875

ROAD SAFETY-The New Zealand Road Safety Council, first set up in 1936 to advise the Government on matters of road safety, was reconstituted in 1947. Subcommittees have now been set up dealing with the following: the motor driver, motor vehicle, roads, traffic laws, traffic law enforcement, road accident statistics, road safety publicity, and child education in traffic. Since April 1953 local road safety committees have been formed to deal with local problems and make recommendations to the parent body. There are now 36 local organisations operating throughout New Zealand.

Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out per medium of the press, posters, screen slides, and radio, concentrating on simultaneous presentation, as far as possible, of specific aspects of the problem. Other means employed in furthering road safety consist of traffic instruction in schools, inspection of motor vehicles, and enforcement of traffic laws.

The Transport Act 1962 contains several provisions designed to achieve greater safety on the roads. A maximum speed limit of 55 miles per hour is fixed, but lower limits are provided for special classes of vehicles-e.g., motor cycles with pillion riders, 45 miles per hour (30 miles per hour without safety helmets); heavy passenger vehicles, 45 miles per hour; vehicles drawing trailers, 40 miles per hour; and heavy goods vehicles, 40 miles per hour. A uniform speed limit of 30 miles per hour is fixed in boroughs, town districts, or other localities which have been declared to be closely populated localities by notice published by the Minister of Transport in the New Zealand Gazette. The Act also gives the Minister power to exempt any road in a particular borough or town district from the provisions of the maximum speed limit, and further exceptions are ambulances (fitted with a siren or bell) or police or traffic officer vehicles travelling on urgent duty, or fire engines on urgent fire service. Limited-speed zones may now be defined and indicated by signs at the approaches to closely settled areas, and there a maximum speed-limit of 30 m.p.h. operates when adverse conditions prevail, such as poor visibility, heavy traffic, condition of road or presence of children.

Persons convicted on indictment of reckless driving, dangerous driving, or driving while under the influence of drink or a drag to such an extent as to be incapable of having proper control of a motor vehicle, if injury or death to any person results from their actions, are liable to a maximum penalty of five years' imprisonment or a fine of £500. Where no person is injured or where the offence as above results in summary conviction, the maximum penalty is three months' imprisonment or a fine of £100. For driving while under the influence of drink to such an extent as to be incapable of having proper control of the vehicle the minimum disqualification from obtaining a licence, unless the Court thinks fit to order otherwise, is three years for the first offence and 10 years for any subsequent offence if convicted within seven years from the date of the immediately preceding conviction. For reckless or dangerous driving the minimum cancellation of licence is now one year. Application may be made to the Court to review the disqualification after six months except for intoxicated driving for which the period is 12 months and two years for a subsequent offence. The Act prescribes penalties for careless or inconsiderate driving, certain accident-promoting offences (3 months' disqualification), and makes compulsory the reporting to the police of all motor-vehicle accidents involving injury.

Included in the Traffic Regulations 1956 are the requirements to which motor drivers must conform and which are designed to promote the safety of those using the roads.

The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest four years ended 31 March.

Type of Offence1960-611961-621962-631963-64

* Includes 655 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

†Includes 722 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

‡lncludes 751 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

§Includes 689 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

∥The maximum speed limit was increased to 55 m.p.h. as from and including 26 January 1962.

(a) Road traffic offences
Intoxicated in charge202232290301
Negligent driving21292025
Driving in a dangerous manner172201215267
Dangerous speed106101107108
Careless or inconsiderate driving8811,0281,1771,339
Exceeding 30 m.p.h.4,5345,7617,6338,336
Overtaking offences561604837853
Failing to keep left494554715834
Failing to yield right of way368394400550
Driver's licence offences1,1091,5182,0792,379
Licensing and registration offences8747649131,229
Lighting offences8861,2911,6851,828
Defective brakes144204296328
No warrant of fitness2,2423,0734,5785,926
Loading offences104216133136
Exceeding 50 m.p.h. or 55 m.p.h.1,0821,3841,3831,744
Cycling offences929836993943
Failing to dip88113131136
Failing to give right of way to pedestrians96131147126
Exceeding 40 m.p.h. with pillion passenger253235283368
L plate offences323473499604
Crossing railway line56124154127
Compulsory stop8251,2131,5352,094
Parking -6,6007,8597,1328,563
Miscellaneous1,839*2,5492,9723,461§
(b) Heavy motor-vehicle offences
Exceeding heavy-traffic licence600786773896
Exceeding axle load1,1281,7372,0202,299
No heavy-traffic licence490551645773
Speeding -946751926947
Miscellaneous699711199
(c) Transport licensing offences
Unlicensed goods service165129102160
Breach of goods service licence219816578
Unlicensed passenger service1-12
Breach of passenger service licence3152
No certificate of fitness224268285340
No vehicle authority47415868
Drivers' hours breaches ---1318
Overloading -628388111
Rental vehicle offences78638286
Miscellaneous transport offences75504076
(d) Miscellaneous offences under miscellaneous
Acts and regulations741017493
  Totals28,97035,62641,59548,653

The above table covers only the offences reported by officers of the Transport Department.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS-Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the police. For the year ended 31 December 1963, 10,071 such accidents, resulting in 394 fatalities and in injuries to 14,477 other people, were reported. Comparative figures for 1962 and 1961 years were (1961 figures being given in parentheses): number of accidents, 9,644 (9,031); fatalities, 398 (393); persons injured, 13,776 (12,796). The increase in the traffic flow over the last few years, caused largely by the increased number of vehicles on the road, has been an important factor in the increase in motor accidents. New Zealand has one of the lowest motor accident death rates (based on deaths per 10,000 licensed motor vehicles), the figure for 1963 being 4.5. Details of the number and nature of road accidents for the latest five calendar years, which have been compiled by the Transport Department, are as follows.

Nature of AccidentNumber of Accidents
19591960196119621963
Collisions
Between two or more motor vehicles3,5323,8864,0884,2484,453
Between motor vehicle and bicycle1,2591,2791,3311,3641,297
Between motor vehicle and pedestrian1,3101,3461,3301,4221,490
Between motor vehicle and fixed object642735721794925
Between motor vehicle and animal or horse vehicle -5352565166
Between motor vehicle and railway train5642465338
Multiple and other collisions229239204260294
  Totals, collisions7,0817,5797,7768,1928,563
Non-collisions
Drove off road264244267326346
Went over bank291330326342372
Overturned on roadway475510505600650
Person fell from vehicle116138121145115
Other3843363925
  Totals, non-collisions1,1841,2651,2551,4521,508
   Total accidents8,2658,8449,0319,64410,071

Particulars of fatal motor-vehicle accidents included in the foregoing table are now given. It should be noted that the figures relate to the number of accidents and not to the number of deaths, which, as stated above, numbered 394 in 1963.

Nature of AccidentNumber of Fatal Accidents
19591960196119621963
Collisions, motor vehicle with
Pedestrian9089958493
Motor vehicle77828610593
Train1013696
Bicycle2630303126
Horse vehicle or animal--4--
Other4748475963
Otherwise6379848676
   Totals313341352374357

Statistics of deaths resulting from motor-vehicle accidents are available for many years from vital statistics, these figures being discussed briefly in Section 4c.

The following table summarises the presumed main causes of casualties in 1963.

Road User or Circumstance Considered Primarily Responsible for AccidentFaultsKilledInjuredTotal Casualties
Faults of drivers of motor vehicles7,16225511,02111,276
Faults of pedal cyclists54018567585
Faults of pedestrians -1,091601,0771,137
Mechanical or other condition of motor vehicles43932710742
Mechanical or other condition of pedal cycles5325456
Road conditions -33411498509
Weather conditions -954131135
Miscellaneous and unknown causes35712419431
   Totals10,07139414,47714,871

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1963 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10,000 VehiclesKilled per 100,000 PopulationInjured per 10,000 VehiclesInjured per 100,000 Population
New Zealand39414,4774.515.5165.9569.2
Australia2,57566,2878.024.0204.0553.0
Great Britian6,922349,2576.113.3306.8668.7
United States of America43,4001,600,0005.223.0192.8848.7

URBAN TRANSPORT OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES-In recent years the use of motor-bus and trolley-bus services has increased and electric tramways have been superseded. The last electric tramway system serving a city area was in Wellington; this service was terminated in May 1964.

The data provided in this section cover the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities in the respective periods. These consist of: (1) Motor-bus services only; (2) combined trolley-bus and motor-bus services; (3) combined tram, trolley-bus and motor-bus services.

No account is taken in this section of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways or by any private enterprise.

Systems Comprising Motor-bus Services Only-In the following tables information is given on the operations of those municipal services which consist entirely of motor-buses.

ServiceYear Ended 31 March
1961196219631964
Number of Passengers Carried
Gisborne786,534781,200766,815769,963
Palmerston North1,500,5301,505,8761,500,8561,501,903
Eastbourne1,209,0771,219,5091,214,1291,215,704
Christchurch21,614,70022,061,55921,944,97620,262,579
Timaru1,324,8451,287,2621,252,0561,176,158
Invercargill2,481,1912,225,5062,359,1722,403,954
 Totals28,916,87729,080,91229,038,00427,330,261
Average Number of Passengers per Mile Run
Gisborne4.534.163.853.71
Palmerston North4.744.744.534.41
Eastbourne2.122.192.172.21
Christchurch4.844.884.884.52
Timaru5.114.944.774.49
Invercargill5.054.204.304.57
 4.614.564.544.29
ServiceYear Ended 31 March
1961196219631964
Revenue
 ££££
Gisborne28,31629,31429,79931,903
Palmerston North40,47340,32541,89441,597
Eastbourne77,98479,02979,61279,469
Christchurch597,313613,139613,006662,121
Timaru39,25238,70538,01636,522
Invercargill50,57152,05354,99756,647
 Totals833,909852,565857,324908,259
Expenditure
 ££££
Gisborne27,67829,23129,34431,352
Palmerston North45,57244,04441,988x43,032
Eastbourne73,74871,17773,51175,552
Christchurch755,333778,093788,241821,722
Timaru39,09452,27351,75849,763
Invercargill79,09587,03289,68787,058
 Totals1,020,5201,061,8501,074,529x1,108,479
Number of Buses in Use
Gisborne991010
Palmerston North15121414
Eastbourne22212121
Christchurch155156156168
Timaru17171616
Invercargill20202022
 Totals238235237251
Seating Capacity
Gisborne302310349349
Palmerston North461402482516
Eastbourne778751755743
Christchurch6,2006,2406,2406,888
Timaru647647660614
Invercargill744740744840
 Totals9,1329,0909,2309,950
Miles Run During Year
Gisborne173,737187,603198,932207,761
Palmerston North316,337317,697331,270340,321
Eastbourne569,924557,799558,561549,736
Christchurch4,464,4564,521,9284,500,7974,482,285
Timaru259,034260,449262,483262,025
Invercargill491,623530,072548,428525,524
 Totals6,275,1116,375,5486,400,4716,367,652
ServiceAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per MileExpenditure per Mile
196219631964196219631964196219631964
 d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.
Gisborne8.738.969.6337.5035.9536.8537.4035.4036.22
Palmerston North6.206.456.3830.4630.3529.3333.2730.42x30.35
Eastbourne14.9815.1315.0634.0034.2134.6930.6231.5932.98
Christchurch6.546.587.7032.5432.6935.4541.3042.0344.00
Timaru7.087.137.3335.6734.7633.4548.1747.3245.58
Invercargill5.495.485.5223.5724.0725.8739.4139.2539.76
 Totals6.886.927.8032.0932.1534.2339.9740.29x41.78

Systems Comprising Combined Trolley-bus and Motor-bus Services-New Plymouth has operated a service of this type since disposing of electric trams in July 1954, Dunedin since the cessation of electric trams in March 1957, and Auckland since December 1956.

Route Milage-Lengths of routes in use at 31 March 1964 are given below.

ServiceTrolley-bus RoutesMotor-bus Routes
 mchmch
Auckland704714723
New Plymouth329209
Dunedin25204235

The following tables set out details of the operations of these authorities during the last four years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of VehiclesSeating CapacityNumber of Miles RunTotal Passengers CarriedPassengers per Mile Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor Buses
Auckland
19611332355,72710,2323,686,3744,475,09651,774,9496.34
19621332355,72710,2323,525,4254,398,05451,006,4136.44
19631332355,72710,2323,413,7034,448,38249,531,4856.30
19641332355,72710,2323,390,3094,523,60448,860,8506.17
New Plymouth
196141716868183,936445,2903,333,3126.30
196241716868184,378454,3503,229,7906.00
196341816873482,454460,6903,227,8505.94
196441816873482,260455,3393,018,0405.61
Dunedin
196175393,0001,3651,374,673748,74717,341,9548.17
196275393,0001,3651,399,573693,90615,983,9357.64
196368392,7201,3651,292,478792,98014,184,3926.80
196468452,7201,6201,268,563813,67212,853,7336.17
Totals
19612122918,89512,2785,144,9835,669,13372,450,2156.70
19622122918,89512,2785,009,3765,546,31070,220,1386.65
19632052928,61512,3314,788,6355,702.05266,943,7276.38
19642052988,61512,5864,741,1325,792,61564,732,6236.15
Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Mile RunExpenditureExpenditure per Mile Run
Passenger FaresTotal (Including "Other")Operating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (Including "Other")
 ££d.d.£££d.
Auckland
19611,670,3421,694,7377.7449.841,411,807336,5291.748.33651.41
19621,653,8661,676,7607.7850.791,409,650350,2041,759,85453.31
19631,618,0441,643,0477.8450.161,425,487375,5511,801,03854.98
19641,614,9311,639,8557.9349.731,442,781349,4291,792,21054.35
New Plymouth
196167,66069,2944.8731.4269,9878,13678,12335.43
196268,61970,3525.1031.3472,4958,13680,63135.92
196368,46770,0975.0930.9774,5038,15582,65836.52
196466.72768,5495.3130.6073,0348,05481,08836.20
Dunedin
1961383,661393,6325.3144.49375,460108,980484,44054.75
1962406.396416,17161047.71391,585111,539503,12457.68
1963409,700419,9986.9348.33392,742115,399508,14158.48
1964417,489428,8437.8049.43404,573123,996528,56960.92
Totals
19612,121,6632,157,6637.0347.891,857,254453,6452,310,89951.29
19622,128,8812,163,2837.2849.191,873,730469,8792,343,60953.29
19632,096,2112,133,1427.5248.80x1,892,732499,1052,391,83754.72
19642,099,1472,137,2477.7848.701,920,388481,4792,401,86754.72

Systems Comprising Combined Electric Tramways, Trolley-bus and Motor-bus Services-Wellington had the last electric tramway in New Zealand, and also has the only cable tram service which runs from the centre of the city to Kelburn. Electric tramways reached the peak of milage of track in use in 1929 when 170 miles of line were operated by the various local authorities. A steady decline in the milage of track in use took place until 1950 when 158 miles of line were used. From that year onwards the change has been more rapid. At the same time there has been a steady expansion in the milage of the trolley-bus routes and a more rapid growth of motor-bus routes.

In Wellington there were at 31 March 1964, 9 miles 59 chains of tram route, 25 miles 40 chains of trolley bus route, and 58 miles 76 chains of motor-bus route being operated.

The following is a summary of the operations of this service. Details cover the combined tramway, trolley-bus and motor-bus service in Wellington.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1961196219631964
Passengers carried-No.36,095,02635,504,67435,007,50834,895,031
Passengers per mile run -No.8.278.117.897.68
Passenger fares-£973,856974,613978,546978,748
Average fare per passenger -d.6.486.596.716.73
Total revenue- -£997,522997,9291,001,2221,003,547
Revenue per mile run -d.54.8654.7154.1353.02
Total expenditure-£1,128,4731,156,5181,206,6711,253,105
Expenditure per mile run -d.62.0663.4065.2466.21
Number of vehicles
Tramcars- -No.66646457
Trolley buses-No.81818187
Motor buses-No.112112111155
Seating capacity
Tramcars- -No.1,9221,8521,8521,887
Trolley buses-No.3,4023,4023,4023,654
Motor buses-No.4,3054,3054,2636,030
Miles run
Tramcars- -No.1,137,0051,039,015976,668400,998
Trolley buses-No.1,442,3901,472,4661,446,4921,501,810
Motor buses-No.1,784,6451,866,2982,015,8192,639,439

The following is a summary of the operations of all local authority transport undertakings.

Item1961196219631964
Passengers carried- No.137,462,118134,805,724130,989,239126,957,915
Miles run—No.21,453,26721,309,01321,330,13721,443,646
Average passengers per mile run-No.6.416.336.145.92
Passenger fares- £3,910,6383,936,6513,912,6093,966,185
Average fare per passenger-d.6.837.017.177.50
Revenue—£3,989,0944,013,7773,991,6884,049,053
Revenue per mile run-d.44.6345.2144.9145.32
Expenditure—£4,459,8924,561,9774,673,037x4,763,451
Expenditure per mile run-d.49.8951.3852.58A:53.31

11 D-CIVIL AVIATION

DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION-Aviation developed early in New Zealand. Richard William Pearse, of the Waitohi Valley near Timaru, designed and built a successful heavier-than-air machine which flew at least as early as 31 March 1904, thus almost forestalling the Wright Brothers. There were numerous other important New Zealand pioneers. In the 1920s aviation activities spread, notably through the aero-club movement. Commercial air services also came into being and at the outbreak of war in 1939 there was already a considerable network of regular air services within New Zealand in addition to widespread charter, air taxi, and aerial work activity. Regular air services overseas did not begin before the Second World War, in spite of a number of gallant pioneer flights.

New Zealand today ranks among the leading three nations of the world in terms of use of air transport per head of population. A further significant increase in international air traffic, with some resultant effect on domestic air traffic, can be expected following the completion of the new International Airport at Mangere near Auckland late in 1965, and the introduction of large jet aircraft on services to Christchurch and Auckland in that year.

New Zealand's international airline, Air New Zealand (TEAL), operates in partnership with QANTAS and BOAC across the Tasman Sea and 162,399 passengers were carried to and from Australia in the year ended 31 March 1964. In the same period a further 46,817 passengers were carried between New Zealand and the South Pacific island groups. Passengers carried on domestic services in the year totalled 873,250. An air freight service operates across Cook Strait and under charter, while aerial topdressing resulted in some 747,000 tons of fertiliser and lime being distributed on pasture land to stimulate farm production. There are over 100 licensed aerodromes throughout the country, the majority unsealed with few amenities. However, key airports are rapidly being brought up to turbo-prop and jet aircraft standards. In addition there are approximately 10,000 unlicensed grass strips used mainly for agricultural and other aerial work operations.

AIR SERVICE OPERATIONS-Most of the domestic air services are provided by the New Zealand National Airways Corporation which operates a network linking all major centres. The Corporation was established by the New Zealand National Airways Act 1945 and was therein charged with establishing a national air transport system to meet the need for air services within New Zealand. (The Corporation took over the routes of private operators including Union Airways of New Zealand Ltd.) When the Corporation was established the legislation envisaged a monopoly. This monopoly was legally ended by the passage of the Air Services Licensing Act 1951 which established an independent statutory authority to hear applications for the grant of air service licences. Since that date, numerous licences have been granted to privately owned companies, but the Corporation's position has not been significantly affected: in terms of total capacity ton-miles, the operations of all private domestic scheduled operators in 1963-64 represented only 15.3 per cent of the operations of the Corporation.

A list of domestic operators indicating their routes and the scale of their operations is set out later.

New Zealand participates also in international air services through its ownership of Air New Zealand (TEAL). This company, established in 1940 as Tasman Empire Airways Ltd., was originally jointly owned by Australia, Britain, and New Zealand. At its incorporation the subscribed capital was contributed by the United Kingdom Government (through BOAC), 38 per cent; by the Commonwealth of Australia (through QANTAS), 23 per cent; and by Union Airways of New Zealand Ltd. (wholly owned by the Union Steam Ship Co.), 39 per cent. By 1947 the Minister of Finance in New Zealand had acquired the shareholding of Union Airways, and from 1 March 1949 the shareholding was held in the following proportions: BOAC, 20 per cent; QANTAS, 30 per cent; New Zealand Government, 50 per cent. BOAC sold its interest to the Commonwealth of Australia in 1955.

By 1960 it had become clear that the monopoly of the Tasman air traffic formerly reserved to TEAL could not be much longer maintained in New Zealand's interests and this fact, together with the spread of jet aircraft throughout the world, led to planning for the company to extend its services to the U.S.A. and elsewhere, for which purpose it would require large jet aircraft. In these new circumstances the Australian and New Zealand Governments agreed that New Zealand should purchase the Australian shareholding, and thus become the sole owner of the company. In March 1961 an agreement to this effect was concluded and at the same time a bilateral air services agreement was negotiated between Australia and New Zealand whereby each country granted to the airline of the other rights to and beyond its territory. Subsequently, the New Zealand Government negotiated traffic rights for TEAL in Honolulu, Los Angeles, Hong Kong, and Malaysia in addition to the company's traditional rights in Fiji and the rights already obtained in Australia and American Samoa. A fleet of three Douglas DC8 series 50 aircraft was ordered for delivery in the latter half of 1965 in order that routes to the U.S.A. and South-East Asia could be opened.

The company's name was changed, by Government decision, to Air New Zealand as from 1 April 1965, but TEAL was retained as a brand name.

Other regular international air services are provided by BOAC, QANTAS, Canadian Pacific Airlines, and Pan American World Airways.

LEGISLATION-The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act, superseding the Civil Aviation Act 1948, established a new Department of Civil Aviation (the Civil Aviation Administration had formerly formed part of the Air Department concerned also with military aviation). The principal functions of the new Department are stated to be: (a) To promote and encourage the orderly and economic development of civil aviation: (b) To exercise such functions as may be necessary to ensure the safe operation of aircraft: (c) To initiate and carry out surveys into any aspect of civil aviation: (d) To provide for the investigation of accidents in which aircraft are involved: (e) To advise the Minister and Government Departments on all matters affecting civil aviation: (f) To provide a national meteorological service: (g) To carry out such functions and duties as may be conferred on it by this or any other enactment or as the Minister may from time to time direct.

The Act provides comprehensive powers for the Minister in relation to aerodromes and other matters and provides for regulations to be made governing the conduct of civil aviation within New Zealand. The Department is headed by the Secretary for Civil Aviation. The Director of Operations and Technical Services in the Department has statutory powers of his own in regulatory matters. The Department embraces also the Meteorological Services and the Chief Inspector of Accidents.

Under the Air Services Licensing Act 1951 all air services must comply with an air service licence issued by the independent statutory Air Services Licensing Authority. "Air service" means an air transport service or an air topdressing service, whether regular or casual, in respect of any journey beginning and ending in New Zealand; and includes any such service in which the aircraft used leaves and returns to the same aerodrome without any intermediate stop.

The International Air Services Licensing Act 1947 provides that no systematic public air transport service shall be operated between New Zealand and another country except in accordance with a licence issued by the Minister of Civil Aviation. (Non-scheduled or charter services are made subject to the Minister's approval by the Civil Aviation Act 1964.)

The Carriage by Air Act 1940 adopted the Warsaw Convention governing the liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers and consignors of goods (and other persons) in respect of international carriage. The Carriage by Air Act 1962 enables ratification of the Hague Protocol which has as its principal effect an increase in the limit of liability for the death of a passenger from £3,000 to £6,000 approximately. Owing to international complications, New Zealand has not yet ratified the Hague Protocol.

The Local Authorities (Aviation Encouragement) Act 1929 empowered certain local authorities to establish, maintain, and contribute towards development of aerodromes throughout New Zealand.

AIR NAVIGATIONAL SERVICES AND FACILITIES-The Department of Civil Aviation is the responsible authority for the provision of all facilities for air navigation in New Zealand and its island territories, and by delegation the facilities required for flying operations in Western Samoa and to a lesser degree in Fiji.

Air navigational facilities include a variety of electronic aids such as non-directional medium-frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency beacons (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids to navigation including visual glide slope indicators (VASI), high and low intensity approach, runway and taxiway lights, aerodrome identification beacons, obstruction lights, hazard beacons, runway markings, cloud height measuring devices, wind strength and direction indicators, etc. A Telecommunications Division designs, installs, and maintains the electronic equipment.

To assist the safe, orderly, and expeditious use of the air navigation system the Department provides a comprehensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic control units, communications services, crash-fire services, a search and rescue and ground safety organisations. Units of the ground services organisation are located at the majority of aerodromes served by regular scheduled air transport services in New Zealand and Pacific island territories, operating from control towers and associated departmental buildings. In addition, control centres and communications centres are established at Auckland and Fiji for the conduct of international operations and at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin to provide services to en-route aircraft throughout the entire country. A search and rescue service is provided from rescue coordination centres established by the Department whose responsibility it is to organise and coordinate the effort and resources of military and civil agencies in the planning and direction of search and rescue operations for any type of action, whether air, land, or sea.

The Department maintains a flight supervision and standards service and conducts examinations and issues licences for all categories of aircrew and ground personnel. Specially equipped aircraft and qualified aircrew are continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service prepares and publishes the New Zealand Aeronautical Information Publication and Notices to Airmen and, in collaboration with Lands and Survey Department, produces aeronautical maps and charts, etc.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport where regular courses are conducted in air traffic control, meteorology, radio engineering, and communications.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE-The net Government expenditure on civil aviation in New Zealand and its island territories in 1963-64 was £3,747,330, compared with £3,629,566 in 1962-63.

New Zealand is the administering authority for the South Pacific Air Transport Council, which established and maintains the International Airport at Nandi, Fiji. The major member Governments are United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.

AIR SERVICES LICENSING-Licensing of air services in New Zealand is vested in the Air Services Licensing Authority which was constituted by the Air Services Licensing Act of 1951. This Authority consists of one chairman and three members appointed by the Crown, and its principal functions are to hear and determine applications for the granting, renewal, or transfer of air service licences. An air service (including aerial topdressing) may not be commenced or carried on without a licence granted under the Act except that any aero club affiliated to the Royal New Zealand Aero Club (Inc.) may carry club members in club-owned or hired aircraft without such a licence.

NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION-Most of the internal scheduled services are operated by the Corporation. The Corporation operates daily services to and from the following destinations: Kaitaia, Kaikohe, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, Hamilton, Whakatane, Rotorua, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Napier-Hastings, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Blenheim, Nelson, Westport, Hokitika, Christchurch, Timaru, Dunedin, Invercargill.

Statistics of operations of the National Airways Corporation for the two latest years are shown in the following table.

Item1962-631963-64Increase or Decrease
   per cent
Route milage -3,4593,459-
Milage flown
(a) Revenue -8,204,0628,484,851+3.42
(b) Non-revenue including training191,300199,590+4.33
Revenue passengers carried
Schedule778,520821,016+5.46
Charter9,31515,135+62.48
Passenger-miles created (000)
Schedule285,263302,596+6.08
Charter3,8348,755+128.35
Revenue passenger-miles (000)
Schedule201,020216,082+7.49
Charter2,5265,812+130.08
Average passenger journey (miles)258263+1.93
Freight, excess, mail (lb) (000)
Schedule31,28330,483-2.56
Charter5,6585,952+5.18
Excess baggage ton-miles191,627206,404+7.71
Freight ton miles (000)
Schedule3,8273,830+0.08
Charter412428+4.00
Mail ton-miles -394,792421,636+6.80
Total revenue load factor68.0667.44...
Revenue passenger load factor70.4771.41...

Operating expenditure in 1963-64 totalled £5,941,200 (including depreciation on equipment) as compared with £5,605,388 in 1962-63 and £5,401,980 in 1961-62.

An operating profit of £282,140 for the year 1963-64 was recorded but, after adding interest on investments and deducting interest on capital loans, this was reduced to £9,661. The corresponding figure for 1962-63 was £136,320 net loss.

Notwithstanding the Air Services Licensing Act 1951, the Corporation is still charged by the National Airways Act 1945 "to satisfy the need for air services within New Zealand". The Corporation has therefore sought constantly to improve the standard and scope of its service whilst keeping fares at a low level. The Corporation has not therefore sought high profits. The expansion achieved during recent years is indicated by the increase in revenue passenger miles on scheduled services from 185 million in 1960-61 to 216 million in 1963-64.

FLYING OPERATIONS: Domestic Scheduled Services-Scheduled air transport operations over specific routes were first commenced in New Zealand in December 1934, on the route Inch-bonnie-Hokitika-Franz Josef Glacier, on the West Coast of the South Island. Subsequent extensions of services up to the outbreak of war in September 1939 had covered almost the whole of New Zealand. During 1946 and 1947 the New Zealand National Airways Corporation absorbed all then existing scheduled commercial services, and by adding to the fleet of aircraft was able to commence new services.

In February 1953 a scheduled service between Christchurch and Oamaru via Ashburton and Timaru was commenced by South Island Airways Ltd., followed by a Christchurch to Nelson service during 1954. In April 1956 these services were taken over by a new company, Trans Island Airways Ltd. The Christchurch-Oamaru service ceased in June 1957 and the Christchurch-Nelson service ceased in March 1959. Bay of Plenty Airways Ltd. came into existence in July 1958, taking over the non-scheduled operations of Tauranga Air Services Ltd. Their Wellington service commenced in September 1959. The company ceased operations in November 1961.

In December 1960 a new company, South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand Ltd., commenced timetable operations with two modified DC 3 aircraft, serving smaller centres not previously having a regular air service. This airline has added a further three modified DC 3 aircraft and fully scheduled operations are being undertaken largely consistent with the company's initial service to smaller centres, but also offering competition on some routes previously operated only by the National Airways Corporation.

At 30 November 1964 domestic scheduled services excluding NAC were being operated on the following routes.

Terminating Points of RoutesIntermediate StopsRoute MilesScheduled Frequency
West Coast Airways Ltd.
Hokitika-HaastFranz Josef, Fox, as required1265 return flights weekly
Straits Air Freight Express Ltd.
Wellington-Nelson (freight)Nil96Daily as required.
Wellington-Blenheim (freight)Nil72
Mt. Cook and Southern Lakes Tourist Co. Ltd.
Christchurch-InvercargillMt. Cook, Queenstown, Te Anau3783 return flights weekly
Christchurch-DunedinMt. Cook, Queenstown, and also Cromwell on demand3373 return flights weekly
Christchurch-QueenstownMt. Cook -2428 flights weekly, 4 north and 4 south
South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand Ltd.
Auckland-ChristchurchHamilton, New Plymouth, Nelson5106 flights weekly, 3 flights north and 3 flights south weekly
Auckland-ChristchurchRotorua, Masterton, Wellington5656 flights weekly, 3 flights north weekly and 3 flights south weekly
Christchurch-InvercargillTimaru, Oamaru, Alexandra, Gore3246 flights weekly, 3 flights north weekly and 3 flights south weekly

At 31 March 1964 the aircraft used in the operation of services on the above routes and including NAC were:

Bristol 1705
DH 89 Dominie3
Douglas DC 319
Cessna 1801
Douglas DC 3 (freighter)6
Fokker Friendship7
Vickers Viscount 8074
 Total45

The following table gives the summarised results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services during the last 11 years. Statistics for the New Zealand Railways Freight Service, operated by Straits Air Freight Express Ltd. since 1 April 1951, are excluded and the timetable operations of South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchHours FlownMiles Flown (000)PassengersFreight lb (000)*Mail lb (000)Passenger-miles (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Mail Ton-miles (000)

* Includes excess baggage.

†Includes excess baggage ton-miles.

195444,0475,504369,40810,4911,74089,9571,366174
195546,9465,831387,36515,5951,02493,8901,977184
195649,5726,276428,49419,0701,157104,4022,397219
195753,0166,815476,77919,0171,229118,6592,419250
195854,3097,107513,69420,8541,757130,2662,811277
195955,3567,481556,54521,3291,808146,3922,990279
196054,7767,614650,81222,4921,993169,9363,165313
196160,7968,539744,02530,0052,225189,5944,077355
196267,2559,602841,78330,7892,319214,1054,360375
196359,0228,914822,02329,0282,464211.8464,114397
196462,1809,327873,24628,1282,552228,2094,176423

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service-The New Zealand Railways Air Freight Service was commenced officially in February 1947 following a number of special inter-island freight flights which had been carried out by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Railways Department to meet a shipping emergency. The service was conducted by the RNZAF, operating Dakota aircraft, until June 1947, when the service was handed over to the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, which continued to operate with Dakotas.

In 1950 the Railways Department decided to allow private enterprise the opportunity of tendering for the contract to run the service, and the successful tenderer was Straits Air Freight Express Ltd., which took over on 1 April 1951. The service is at present being maintained by five Bristol Freighter aircraft on a daily basis, the number of trips varying according to the amount of cargo offering.

Traffic statistics for this freight service for the last 11 years are as follows. The drop from the peak figures of 1961-62 can be attributed in part to the operation of the rail-road ferry G.m.v. Aramoana across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton from August 1962.

Year Ended 31 MarchTrips FlownHours FlownMiles FlownFreight lb (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Passengers
19543,9371,954293,89240,4981,360598
19554,8852,487364,07650,1451,668858
19565,4112,683398,54753,9141,780986
19576,1073,033453,91254,3641,7971,308
19587,4153,826554,68867,8572,2401,660
19598,5634,365642,66676,2802,5271,437
19609,5094,465628,11387,6122,5661,225
196111,8534,864635,078112,7712,6931,231
196213,7395,534765,022122,3603,0411,557
196312,3815,050660,924110,6252,650927
196410,5884,265560,13087,6562,067809

Non-scheduled Air Services-During March 1963, 16 companies and 25 aero clubs were providing timetable, charter, taxi, scenic, and joyriding services. The RNZAF, using Sunderland flying boats, flew 12 flights to the Chatham Islands during the year. The following is a traffic summary of these services for the years ended 31 March 1963 and 31 March 1964.

 1962-631963-64
Commercial CompaniesAero ClubsTotalCommercial CompaniesAero ClubsTotal
Number of flights23,9066,57430,48025,5637,75633,319
Hours flown12,5514,89717,44813,4315,67419,105
Miles flown1,322,729515,0791,837,8081,298,973422,2151,721,188
Passengers carried69,57611,96881,54481,64713,12594,772
Freight carried (tons)3,001193,0203,747623,809

Aerial Work Operations-The Royal New Zealand Air Force undertook extensive trials in the dropping of fertiliser from the air in 1948 at the request of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, which was interested in aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion. The RNZAF experiments were successful and as a result the interest of the farming community was aroused and private firms began operating commercially in 1949.

Progress of agricultural aviation in this country was demonstrated at an International Agricultural Aviation Show held at Palmerston North in November 1956. This was the first show of its kind in the world and some 200 aircraft demonstrated the aerial farming techniques developed in New Zealand. The industry has developed rapidly and is now an established feature of the national economy. More than half the fertiliser sown in the country is applied from the air, and in the year ended 31 March 1964, 746,795 tons of fertiliser were distributed in this way. Aerial application of insecticides and weedkillers has also developed rapidly, but during the last year in particular, restrictions in the use of insecticides has resulted in a decrease. Other aerial work includes photography, seed sowing, and dropping of rabbit and opossum poisons, supplies, and fencing materials.

In June 1960 Civil Aviation Administration introduced the Chemical Rating, a technical qualification which is now mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals except fertilisers. Many agricultural chemicals are highly toxic and the Chemical Rating ensures that pilots are familiar with their properties and the correct application techniques.

A summary of aerial work operations for the year ended 31 March 1964 follows.

Topdressing
Hours flown83,228
Fertiliser distributed (tons)746,795
Seed sown with fertiliser (tons)440
Area treated (acres)6,588,998
Seed sowing
Hours flown1,408
Seed sown (tons)1,294
Area treated (acres)217,142
Rabbit poisoning
Hours flown3,553
Bait distributed (tons)6,273
Fencing materials
Hours flown271
Materials dropped (tons)1,293
Spraying
Hours flown3,995
Weedkiller and insecticide distributed (gallons)2,116,730
Aerial photography and survey
Hours flown792
Supply dropping
Hours flown482
Materials dropped (tons)481
Miscellaneous
Hours flown1,376
Materials dropped (tons)1,409
Number of aerial-work operators60
Number of aerial-work aircraft owned238

INTERNATONAL SERVICES: Air New Zealand (TEAL)-Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. was incorporated in New Zealand on 26 April 1940, following a formal inter-governmental agreement on air traffic rights across the Tasman Sea of 10 April the same year. The company's first operation commenced between Auckland and Sydney on 30 April 1940 with the flying boat Aotearoa.

In June 1950 the company took over the Auckland-Suva service from New Zealand National Airways Corporation. The Wellington-Sydney service was inaugurated on 3 October 1950 and the Christchurch-Melbourne service on 28 June 1951. With the withdrawal of flying boats from the Tasman routes, the Wellington-Sydney service was temporarily discontinued in June 1954 and a new service from Christchurch to Sydney using Douglas DC6 aircraft was commenced in the following month. The same type of aircraft were also employed on the Auckland-Fiji route as from June 1954. The first Lockheed Electra turboprop aircraft was brought into use on the trans-Tasman service in December 1959, and by March 1960 all TEAL services between Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji were being operated by the company's fleet of three Electras.

The Coral Route to Tahiti via Suva and Aitutaki was inaugurated in December 1951. In October 1952 Apia in Western Samoa was added to the route, and in August 1953 a service to Tonga was inaugurated. This Suva-Tonga service was discontinued in June 1957. TEAL changed from flying boats to land planes on its Coral Route services late in 1960; DC6s were used initially, but in March 1961 they were replaced by Lockheed Electras. The service was originally direct from Nandi in Fiji to Faa'a Airport at Papeete, Tahiti; an intermediate stop at Pago Pago, Eastern Samoa, was added in September 1961.

Air New Zealand's international operations by three turboprop Electra aircraft on the trans-Tasman service include links to and from Auckland and Wellington with Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane; and Christchurch to and from Melbourne and Sydney. These services are operated in conjunction with those of QANTAS and BOAC, whose services extend to the Far East and to Europe via Hong Kong, Middle East, and U.S.A. In addition to the trans-Tasman services TEAL provides a weekly air service between Auckland and Norfolk Island, which connects with a QANTAS service to Sydney; and a similar service from Auckland to Noumea (New Caledonia), which in turn connects with the Union de Transports Aeriens (UTA) round the world service operating on the Sydney-Noumea-Nandi-Tahiti route; and also a daily service from Auckland to Fiji.

In September 1963 TEAL signed a contract with the Douglas Aircraft Co. of California to purchase three Series 52 DC8s. These jet aircraft will replace the turboprops and come into service late in 1965 when Auckland's new international airport at Mangere is opened.

Additional services to or through New Zealand include a service from Auckland to Nandi and Samoa with Pan American (PAWA) who operate a twice-weekly extension through Tahiti and Honolulu to the United States and beyond, and Canadian Pacific (CPAL) which operates through Auckland on a fortnightly service via Fiji to Vancouver. Air New Zealand maintains linking Services with regional South Pacific operators; Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL) operating between Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tonga, and Nandi-and the Fiji Airways Ltd. operating services between Fiji, Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Tarawa, and the New Hebrides.

Total Traffic Statistics for Overseas Airlines-Total traffic figures for overseas airlines operating to and from New Zealand for the year ended 31 March 1964, showing passenger movements, freight and mail separately, are given in the following tables.

PASSENGER MOVEMENTS
RoutesEntering New ZealandLeaving New ZealandTotal
1962-631963-641962-631963-641962-631963-64
 Trans-Tasman
Auckland-Sydney25,64632,40324,26429,58849,91061,991
Auckland-Melbourne4,9806,0305,4666,24910,44612,279
Auckland-Brisbane2,4863,1792,7663,4015,2526,580
Wellington-Sydney17,44320,24617,21319,50934,65639,755
Wellington-Melbourne-1,486-1,361-2,847
Wellington-Brisbane-905-871-1,776
Christchurch-Sydney9,52012,29810,24412,95119,76425,249
Christchurch-Melbourne4,6345,2735,3346,6499,96811,922
  Totals64,70981,82065,28780,579129,996162,399
Auckland-Nandi18,32823,82014,96418,87233,29242,692
Auckland-Norfolk1,4901,9161,5211,9223,0113,838
Auckland-Noumea1,8161,9591,8792,0333,6953,992
Coral Route----5,6496,295
  Grand totals86,343109,51583,651103,406175,643219,216
FREIGHT (KILOGRAMS)
RoutesEntering New ZealandLeaving New ZealandTotal
1962-631963-641962-631963-641962-631963-64
 Trans-Tasman
Auckland-Sydney283,800364,938165,822250,482449,622615,420
Auckland-Melbourne62,842111,069141,15591,041203,997202,110
Auckland-Brisbane5,89013,68313,97518,19819,86531,881
Wellington-Sydney298,599363,00371,225123,129369,824486,132
Wellington-Melbourne-10,308-5,372-15,680
Wellington-Brisbane-1,577-2,713-4,290
Christchurch-Sydney88,78991,60839,85888,837128,647180,445
Christchurch-Melbourne32,61172,71315,58340,59948,194113,312
  Totals772,531 11,028,899447,618620,3711,220,1491,649,270
Auckland-Nandi172,477170,48190,038153,281262,515323,762
Auckland-Norfolk6,6016,48124,72934,42831,33040,909
Auckland-Noumea6,5625,93329,23723,63235,79929,565
Coral Route----24,35445,905
  Grand totals957,8711,211,794591,622831,7121,574,1472,089,411

N.B.-Excess baggage not included in: PAWA CPAL

MAIL (KILOGRAMS)
RoutesEntering New ZealandLeaving New ZealandTotal
1962-631963-641962-631963-641962-631963-64
 Trans-Tasman      
Auckland-Sydney255,459294,387100,903111,038356,362405,425
Auckland-Melbourne13,65613,7284,7526,40418,40520,132
Auckland-Brisbane1,3051,0613174381,6221,499
Wellington-Sydney65,06468,80775,66386,732140,727155,539
Wellington-Melbourne-1,535-1,055-2,590
Wellington-Brisbane 839---839
Christchurch-Sydney23,43825,06226,14330,13949,58155,201
Christchurch-Melbourne3,4604,2313,4633,5406,9237,771
  Totals362,382409,650211,241239,346573,623648,996
Auckland-Nandi104,953115,00155,25359,834160,206174,891
Auckland-Norfolk319438524538843976
Auckland-Noumea1,7281,1229689492,6962,071
Coral Route----10,3929,882
  Grand totals469,382526,211267,986300,667747,760836,816

AERO CLUBS-Practical interest in aviation was greatly stimulated by the first trans-Tasman flight of Kingsford-Smith and Ulm in 1928, and to this flight the aero-club movement largely owes its inception. The steady progress made by the movement was in a great measure due to the scheme initiated by the Government of subsidising a limited number of light aeroplane clubs.

On 1 April 1955 a revised scheme of financial assistance to aero clubs was put into operation. This scheme was reviewed in 1957, in 1960 and again in 1961, the subsidy to aero clubs being gradually reduced. In March 1962 the Government ceased granting financial assistance. In the 33 years during which subsidies or other forms of financial assistance were provided, the aero club movement benefited to the extent of some £500,000.

The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs for the last five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchClubs OperatingMembershipAircraft in UseHours FlownAb Initio Pupils Under Training
AssociateFlyingDualSolo
* Includes two special pilot training organisations.
1960363,5184,10710611,49127,713844
1961373,6134,39711713,55634,7941,010
1962373,4094,63611818,24744,8741,027
1963393,1895,14712717,98639,5571,113
1964*403,5244,88412718,11139,9021,356

LICENCES-A summary of licences and certificates current at 31 March in the latest two years is given below.

Type of LicenceAt 31 March
19631964
Flight Crew (ICAO) Type-
Pilot licences
Student Pilot -1,5991,741
Private Pilot -1,7551,676
Commercial Pilot615629
Airline Transport Pilot206204
Pilot Licence Ratings
Instructor -227234
Instrument -321319
Compass -1317
Chemical -175178
Towing -120148
Navigator Licences
Flight Navigator4952
Licences to Operate Radio Equipment in Aircraft
Flight Radio Operator54
Flight Radio Telephone Operator Rating...1,598
Flight Engineer Licences
Flight Engineer2525
Other Licences, Certificates, etc.
Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences364380
Aircraft
Certificates of Registration735769
Aerodromes
Public Licences -4044
Private5843
Authorised Places24
Government Civil2826
Air Service Certificates4846

Chapter 12. Section 12 COMMUNICATIONS

12 A-POST OFFICE

INTRODUCTORY-Post Office history in New Zealand began in 1831 when the Postmaster-General for New South Wales commissioned a resident of Kororareka in the Bay of Islands to make up and receive mails.

With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes.

By 1858 seventy-three post offices had been opened to provide communications services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent Department of State. The Post Office had previously operated under the control of the Customs Department.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate Department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines, the opening of morse telegraph offices, and the laying and maintaining of lines of communication under Cook Strait to connect the telegraph lines of the North and South Islands. This Act vested the control of communication by electric telegraph in the new Department.

During 1881 the first New Zealand telephone exchanges were opened at Christchurch and Auckland. An amendment to the Electric Telegraph Act of 1875 had been passed in September 1880 extending the power of the Government, through the Telegraph Department, to control all electric communication by telephone and making it unlawful for any but the approved authority to establish telephone lines without express permission.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated at the beginning of 1881. The Postmaster-General became Minister of Telegraphs, and the Post and Telegraph Department was created to replace the two previous authorities. Under the Post Office Act 1959, which came into operation on 1 January 1960, the name of the Department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

Through its control of electric communications the Post Office has extended its functions to include communications by radio. In addition to administering New Zealand's radio regulations the Post Office transmitting and receiving stations bring New Zealand into the world radio communications network. The international telephone service was inaugurated with the Australian radio link in 1930 and since then New Zealand has extended the service to most countries in the world. A development in radio communication brought a radio-photograph service with Australia and the United Kingdom in 1947.

POSTAL BUSINESS-At 31 March 1963 there were 1,441 post offices in New Zealand. In addition, there were 149 offices at which telephone business only was transacted.

The following table shows the numbers of articles posted in the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters, Lettercards, and PostcardsAccounts, Circulars, Newspapers, Packets, etc.ParcelsTotal Articles Posted
million
1960210.3246.67.4464.3
1961224.1262.87.8494.8
1962229.1270.17.9507.2
1963239.9278.97.2526.0
1964257.8268.47.7533.9

Compared with the year ended 31 March 1963, letters, lettercards, and postcards posted during the year ended 31 March 1964 showed an increase of 17.9 million (7.8 per cent); and parcels, an increase of ½ million (6.9 per cent). Postings of accounts, circulars, etc., decreased by 10.5 million (3.8 per cent) during the year.

The average numbers of letters, etc., posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1964 were: letters, lettercards, and postcards, 101.8, accounts, circulars, newspapers, packets, etc., 105.5, parcels, 3.0.

During the 1963-64 year, 811,894 lb of letters and 222,834 parcels were posted by inland air mails, and 351,382 lb of letters, 153,251 lb of newspapers and packets, etc., and 120,319 lb of parcels were posted by overseas air mail.

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY-The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural-mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. The growth of this scheme can be gauged from the following figures: 1921, 8,700; 1940, 32,382; 1955, 63,859; and in March 1964, 74,814 boxholders.

AIR MAILS: Inland-On 16 March 1936 the first regular air-mail services linking up larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin, and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the air-mail facilities were correspondingly expanded. The present network extends from Kaitaia to Invercargill.

The rate of postage for inland air-mail correspondence is 5d. for the first half-ounce and 2d. each additional half-ounce. For parcels up to 28 lb the rates range from 3s. 9d. to 16s.

The numbers of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand during the latest 11 years are shown hereunder.

Year Ended 31 MarchLettersParcels
(000)
195414,590151,222
195518,981168,521
195620,677167,486
195722,357161,599
195824,596184,185
195924,592185,100
196026,542197,827
196127,980225,049
196227,565226,417
196329,663225,454
196432,476222,834

Overseas: Trans-Tasman Air Services-The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights from New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand-United Kingdom Air Service-This service is now operating daily via Sydney to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally two to three days.

Trans-Pacific Services-The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Air lines now operate a daily service to San Francisco, and there is also a service between Auckland and Vancouver.

Pacific Island Services-Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand operated air services to Norfolk Island, Fiji, New Caledonia, and American Samoa (Pago Pago). Local air services provide connections from Pago Pago to Apia, and from Nandi (Fiji) to Nukualofa (Tonga), Apia (Western Samoa), the Cook Islands, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands.

OVERSEAS PARCEL POST-Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest five years are contained in the following table.

YearOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  lb£ lb
1960410,4563,694,100492,388160,7971,447,200
1961440,2433,962,187726,857181,3471,632,123
1962464,6284,181,652710,740192,9431,736,487
1963510,0074,590,063664,430195,0801,233,920
1964534,3324,808,988765,508213,5971,384,628

NEWSPAPERS-In March 1964 there were 358 publications on the Post Office Register of Newspapers. Of these 41 are published daily, 11 being morning papers and 30 evening papers. Two appear five times per week, 9 three times per week, 17 twice per week, 74 weekly, 33 fortnightly, 181 monthly, and one at irregular intervals; many of these are magazines rather than newspapers as popularly understood.

MONEY ORDER AND POSTAL NOTE SERVICES-Details of these services are now given.

Money Orders -New Zealand has reciprocal money-order agreements with all British Commonwealth countries and also with the United States of America, the Republic of Ireland, South Africa, and Tonga. Money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in any other country with which the United Kingdom has exchanges of money orders.

For payment within New Zealand the maximum amount for a single order is £100, but there is no limit to the amount which may be remitted. The commission is computed on each individual order. Commission on inland money orders is 7d. for the first £10 and 3d. for each additional £5 or part thereof. A money order may be transmitted by telegraph for the additional telegraph charge of 2s.

For money orders issued for payment overseas there is a limit for most countries of £40 for a single order. There are two special rates of commission, one rate applying to Australia (and countries advised through Australia), Fiji, Norfolk Island, and Tonga, and the other rate to all other countries.

During 1963, 1,796,807 money orders were issued in New Zealand for a total of £27,234,495, and of that total 68,108 orders of a value of £460,604 were issued for payment overseas. Money orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1963 numbered 25,781 and totalled in value £151,790.

Postal Notes-Postal notes in 40 denominations ranging from Is. to £1 and for £2 are issued in New Zealand for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands. The commission payable is as follows: Is. to 2s. 6d., 2d.; 3s. to 7s. 6d., 3d.; 8s. to 15s., 4d.; 15s. 6d. to £1, 5d.; and for £2, 6d.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are, therefore, a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1964, 2,634,011 postal notes valued at £1,597,516 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders-These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold in this country are 6d., Is., Is. 6d., 2s., 2s. 6d., 3s., 5s., 10s., 15s., and 20s. The poundage payable ranges from 2d. to 6d. For all remittances in excess of 5s. per day a permit is required.

As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, particularly the United Kingdom.

During the year ended 31 March 1964 the Post Office sold 2,292,973 British postal orders valued at £613,921, and paid 124,694 orders valued at £143,019.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK-Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE SERVICES-Up to 31 March 1964 a total sum of £95,098,661 had been expended on telecommunication construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1963-64 was £8,241,940.

Details of telegraph and telephone services for each of the last five financial years are now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Paid Telegrams and Toll Messages Forwarded During the YearRevenueTotal Value of Business
Telegraph and TollTelephone Exchange
 million£££
196055.56,951,0969,780,10916,731,205
196160.07,635,43610,320,26017,955,696
196263.68,374,88310,386,58318,761,466
196366.29,207,38311,426,87020,634,253
196468.99,973,38812,625,04922,598,437

The number of telegrams forwarded annually is about 8.0 million, while the number of toll communications exceeds 61 million.

The charge for ordinary telegrams on weekdays is Is. 3d. for six words or less, and Id. for each additional word. The charge for letter-telegrams, which are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment, is a flat rate of Is. 9d. for 22 words, and Id. for each additional two words. On Sundays and departmental holidays the rate for ordinary telegrams is 2s. for six words or less, and l½d. for each additional word, the total charge being taken to the next penny where necessary. An additional charge of Is. is made for an urgent telegram, irrespective of the number of words contained in the message.

There is an additional charge of 3d. on each telegram lodged by telephone or by telex.

A greetings telegram service was introduced on 1 June 1960. For an additional charge of 1s., telegrams are delivered on decorative stationery. In the first year 240,000 such telegrams were sent. During the year ended 31 March 1964,367,000 greetings telegrams were sent.

The delivery of telegrams, especially in the larger cities, continues to have its problems because of the difficulties in the recruitment of staff for this work. To meet these difficulties the telephoning of telegrams was resorted to some years ago. The system provides also for the phoning in of telegrams for dispatch. Approximately 60 per cent of telegrams are now handled by telephone.

Machine-printing telegraphs operating at 45 words per minute were introduced on 5 December 1921. In 1929 a teleprinter circuit, working at a speed of 66 words per minute, commenced operation, and at 31 March 1964 there were 163 offices with teleprinter circuits.

The first voice-frequency telegraph system-of three high-speed channels between Wellington and Christchurch-was installed in 1938. Since then a network embracing all the larger provincial towns has been developed.

A leased teleprinter service for business organisations was begun in 1951. At 31 March 1964 there were 99 organisations leasing 54,722 miles of telegraph circuit. Annual revenue from this source was £321,000.

Until 1950 daily newspapers received their outside news over the public telegraph system but in that year their national organisation leased an extensive teleprinter network so that the news could be transmitted direct from Wellington into the various newspaper offices. Newspapers participating in this arrangement number 36.

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE-At 31 March 1964 there were 540 exchanges in New Zealand serving a total of 901,955 telephones. Of these exchanges 269 were manually operated, serving 195,121 telephones, or 22 per cent of the total, and 271 were automatic, serving 706,834 telephones, or 78 per cent of the total.

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service (the figures are as at 31 March of each year shown).

Item195619571958195919601961196219631964
* Represents separate instruments connected to main telephone system.
Exchanges411440459478493501511529540
Subscribers' main stations386,732409,740434,804459,869491,773532,560571,917602,285632,986
Service stations3,7133,8583,9484,0734,2814,4754,6534,8464,906
Toll stations1,6051,5671,5311,5071,4901,4671,4811,4511,439
Public call stations2,5452,6752,8032,9123,0583,2313,4513,6213,774
Extension stations136,658147,872159,646170,777183,399201,145218,866237,223257,761
Private telephone lines3,2482,6272,4922,2042,0201,9191,5071,1461,089
Telephone station totals*534,501568,339605,224641,342686,021744,797801,875850,572901,955
Main stations installed during year41,01140,15243,74445,36653,60365,91868,68365,96970,819
Number of waiting applicants33,86235,33034,50132,08728,71127,15219,10819,49918,694

The total number of telephone stations shows an increase of 367,454, or 69 per cent, during the period covered by the table, the net gain for each of the last five years being 44,679, 58,776, 57,078, 48,697, and 51,383 respectively. The increase in subscribers' main stations during the period covered by the table amounted to 246,254, or approximately 64 per cent, while extension stations show an increase of 121,103, or 89 per cent.

The "party" line system of telephone service is used mainly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March 1964 the number of "party" lines was 53,227, serving a total of 173,139 stations.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1963), compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fourth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (43.05), Sweden (40.28), Canada (33.73), New Zealand (33.58), and Switzerland (32.90).

The first public call stations (coin-in-the-slot) telephones were installed at Wellington in August 1910, and 3,774 such instruments were in use throughout New Zealand at 31 March 1964. Of these, 3,055 take penny, sixpenny, and shilling coins and are used for making both local and toll calls and sending telegrams, while 719 take pennies only and are used for local calls.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, etc., of the telephone exchanges up to 31 March 1964 was £82,220,096.

The following table shows the classification of telephone exchanges and the annual rental rates for different classes of connection as from 1 October 1964.

Class of ExchangeClass of ConnectionAnnual Rate Within Base-rate Area
BusinessResidential
  £ S. d.£ s. d.
Class I Automatic exchanges with more than 10,000 subscribers.Individual35 0 017 0 0
 2-party25 0 015 0 0
(Typical exchanges are Auckland, Christchurch,3-party 22 0 0145 0
Dunedin, Hamilton, Invercargill, Palmerston North,4-party19 10 013 10 0
and Wellington)5-party17 0 012 0 0
 6-10 party16 0 010 15 0
Class II Automatic exchanges with 3,001-10,000 payingIndividual31 0 017 0 0
subscribers.2-party23 15 015 0 0
(Typical exchanges are Blenheim, Gisborne, Levin,3-party21 0 014 5 0
Napier, and Timaru)4-party18 5 013 10 0
 5-party15 10 012 0 0
 6-10 party14 10 010 15 0
Class III Automatic exchanges with 201-3,000 payingIndividual27 0 016 0 0
subscribers.2-party21 0 014 0 0
(Typical exchanges are Alexandra, Marton, Dannevirke,3-party20 0 013 10 0
Westport.)4-party17 10 012 15 0
Manual exchanges with over 3,000 paying sub-5-party15 0 011 5 0
scribers.6-10 party14 0 010 5 0
(Typical exchanges are Rotorua, Feilding, Henderson).
Class IV Other exchanges affording continuous service.Individual24 0 015 0 0
(Typical exchanges are Hokitika, Paekakariki,2-party19 0 013 0 0
Picton. and Queenstown)3-party17 0 012 10 0
 4-party16 0 011 15 0
 5-party13 10 010 10 0
 6-10 party12 10 09 10 0
Class V Exchanges observing restricted hours of service.Individual21 0 012 10 0
(Typical exchanges are Kawhia, Kumara, Mangaweka,2-party16 0 010 10 0
and Tikitiki)3-party15 0 010 0 0
 4-party14 10 09 5 0
 5-party12 10 08 10 0
 6-10 party12 0 08 0 0

For stations located outside the boundary of the base-rate area of an exchange a milage rate is added to the general base-rate-area rental, depending on the distance by line measurement from the base-rate boundary to the respective subscriber's station.

TOLL SERVICE-At first, toll communication between towns was made over lines not in use for telegraph purposes. In 1900, construction of exclusive telephone circuits commenced, the first circuits of any length being provided between Dunedin-Invercargill, Auckland-Hamilton and Wellington-Masterton. The North and South Islands were first linked by a telegraph cable in 1866 and later by a telephone cable in 1926.

Calls handled by toll operators are increasing at 3 million annually and extensions to the existing toll circuit network are being made by the provision of coaxial cable and microwave radio systems.

Toll rates for distances up to 30 miles range from 5d. to 1s. 0½d. for each three minutes. They are the same day and night. For distances over 30 miles, the rates range from 1s. 7d. to a maximum of 8s. for three minutes' conversation. These rates are increased by approximately one-third of the relative initial rate for each minute exceeding three. Between 6 p.m. and 8 a.m. on weekdays, and between midnight and 6 a.m. on Sundays and departmental holidays, the rates for calls over 40 miles are reduced and vary from Is. 9d. to 6s. 1d. for three minutes' conversation, with a proportionate increase for each additional minute. Urgent calls are charged at double the rate for an ordinary call.

In addition to station-to-station calls other types of calls accepted are person-to-person, transferred charge, collect, fixed time, and contract. Credit-cards are available at a cost of 10s. each. These entitle the holder to have the charges for toll calls and telegrams debited to a telephone at a distant exchange.

TELEX SERVICE: Telex-the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service-is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers only commenced in New Zealand on 31 August 1960 with 16 subscribers. Servce was then available with 23 countries overseas.

Automatic telex service was introduced in New Zealand on 13 May 1964 with 150 subscribers. This service absorbed the previous international connections and all New Zealand Telex subscribers may now communicate with each other as well as with overseas telex subscribers. International service is now available with 65 countries.

The annual rental is £160 for a standard machine and £215 for a teleprinter equipped with a tape reperforator and transmitter. For inland calls the charge is 3d. for each 10 seconds of time used. International calls are charged for a minimum of 3 minutes. The rate varies according to the country called.

OVERSEAS CABLE SERVICES-Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, this cable being duplicated in 1890. Subsequent developments were the opening in 1902 of the Pacific cable between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island, with a connection linking Norfolk Island to Brisbane; the laying of a cable direct between Auckland and Sydney in 1912; shifting of terminals from Wakapuaka to Wellington in 1917; laying a cable direct between Auckland and Suva in 1923, and duplicating the Suva-Canada cable in 1927. In 1929 a merger of British cable and wireless companies resulted in the overseas cable services being brought under the control of one authority (the private company of Cable and Wireless Ltd., with headquarters in London), following which one cable between Wellington and Sydney was abandoned, part of it being lifted for reuse, and the route of the other was altered to terminate at Auckland instead of Wellington. Following upon a conference of representatives of Commonwealth Governments (including New Zealand) held in London in 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets of Cable and Wireless Ltd. in New Zealand, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America, and Britain. This cable system links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, greatly decreasing its dependence on the less reliable radio circuits; next year it will be supplemented by the South-East Asia Communications Cable which will extend the system from Australia to New Guinea, Malaysia, and Hong Kong.

RADIO COMMUNICATION: Government Stations-The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911.

An event of major importance in the development of New Zealand's external telecommunication services was the opening of the Himatangi radio transmitting station in November 1953 thus providing for direct New Zealand-United Kingdom radiotelephone and radiotelegraph circuits. The receiving station complementary to the Himatangi transmitting station is Makara Radio.

The principal stations under the control of the New Zealand Government are at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Rarotonga and Niue in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations are established at certain lighthouses on the New Zealand coast and also on a number of adjacent islands. Marine radio beacons are operated at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Moko Hinau Island, East Cape, Portland Island, Stephens Island, Baring Head, Cape Campbell, The Brothers, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga Radio through small feeder stations. Small stations in the Tokelau Islands communicate with Apia Radio. Niue communicates with Apia Radio, Rarotonga Radio, and Wellington Radio.

By means of the radio stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the last three stations mentioned having direct communication with New Zealand. Direct communication is also available with Chatham Islands, Papeete (Tahiti), Nukualofa (Tonga), Noumea (New Caledonia), London, Sydney, and San Francisco.

Facilities exist for the dispatch of radiotelegrams to vessels at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia.

Other Cable and Radio Services-Telephone communication by cable and radio is now available to 99 countries, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

The use of mobile radiotelephone services continues to grow. Post Office very-high-frequency service available from 34 base stations meets the mobile communication requirements of 1,121 subscribers operating 7,291 mobile units. A miscellany of private and government owner-operated stations provide mobile radiotelephone service through 1,716 base stations for a further 4,494 mobile units. Radiotelephone services continue to provide essential service for isolated communities which cannot reasonably be reached by landline-e.g., isolated settlers, alpine huts, etc. There is also a free radio-medical service for ships at sea and for lighthouses on the New Zealand coast for use in emergency cases.

Private Stations-Private radio stations are governed by the New Zealand Radio Regulations 1953.

Ordinary radio-receiving licences and television-receiving licences authorise reception from broadcasting stations, and may be obtained at any Post Office Savings Bank on payment of the prescribed fee. Further reference to these licences will be found in Section 12B, Radio and Television Broadcasting.

Licences for amateur stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued only to holders of amateur operators' certificates.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS-The receipts and payments of the Post Office for the latest two financial years are now shown.

Receipts1962-631963-64
* Net figure-i.e. receipts less payments.
 ££
Postages7,608,5718,063,494
Money-order and postal-note commission115,681113,173
Private box and bag rents and rural-delivery fees157,300169,262
Miscellaneous receipts3,865,3094,245,924
Telegrams -1,107,1011,128,439
Tolls8,100,2808,844,949
Telephone-exchange rentals11,426,87012,625,049
Overseas telecommunications501,097*710,981*
    Totals32,882,20935,901,271
Payments1962-631963-64
 ££
Salaries, wages, and allowances -18,931,23919,535,220
Overtime2,742,1492,461,223
Conveyance of mails-
Overseas -741,5841,163,110
Inland1,360,5861,537,252
Maintenance and renewal of telecommunications system783,564817,219
Motor services, workshops, tools and plant1,522,3421,507,979
Post Office buildings749,952755,175
Miscellaneous -1,985,6942,354,883
Interest on capital liability3,825,6564,122,494
Sick-benefit Fund43,52850,198
Government Superannuation Fund subsidy479,572515,571
 33,165,86634,820,324
Less transfers to vote-Telecommunications Development2,383,4932,270,779
    Totals30,782,37332,549,545

Receipts and payments for the latest 11 years are shown by the following figures:

Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPayments
 ££
195415,991,90815,578,311
195517,995,30816,252,648
195619,071,22217,228,465
195720,545,53019,253,577
195822,740,77721,422,077
195923,370,20621,663,683
196025,221,38823,469,980
196127,162,79225,647,811
196230,370,85327,648,497
196332,882,20930,782,373
196435,901,27132,549,545

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS-Because it has numerous small offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government Departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various Departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts-For the following Departments: Agriculture (inspection fees, etc.), Education (child-welfare receipts and examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, including social security income tax under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (special milage tax on motor vehicles), Public Trust Office, State Advances Corporation (State rents loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation and National Provident Fund receipts).

Payments-Departments of Social Security (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Education (boarding-out orders), Labour (subsidised wage payments and military training medical examination payments), Maori Affairs (Maori trust payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government Superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other Departments), Ministry of Works, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine Department and the Civil Aviation Department on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as Registrars of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, also as Registrars of Electors.

Other activities, not strictly departmental, include the receipt of motor vehicles insurance (third-party risks) premiums under the Transport Act 1949, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting revenue for such outside bodies as the New Zealand Poultry Board, the New Zealand Trade Certification Board, the Armed Forces Canteen Council, and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

STAFF-The large volume and varied nature of the business of the Post Office entails the employment of a large staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. The staff at 31 March 1964 was as follows: Permanent, 22,796, temporary, 3,752 (a number of whom work part-time), non-classified, 458, total, 27,006. In addition there were 730 country postmasters and telephonists who acted as such in conjunction with other pursuits. There were also 29 officers of the Railways Department who acted as postmasters.

VEHICLES-The Post Office fleet consists of 3,078 vehicles-1,614 trucks, 622 vans, 809 cars, and 33 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 377 vehicles are used for hire to other Departments, 2,062 for engineering construction work, and 639 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 24 million miles in the year ended 31 March 1964.

12 B-RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

INTRODUCTION-Before 1924 interest in radio broadcasting was confined mainly to that small section of the public engaged in the experimental transmission and reception of radio signals. As early as 1921 a system of "provisional permits" was adopted by the Post Office (then the Post and Telegraph Department) by which approved persons were permitted to erect and operate radio transmitting or receiving stations. In January 1923 regulations were gazetted which, on the approval of the District Radio Inspector and the Post Office, provided for the issue of operating licences to applicants furnishing a testimonial of personal character from a reputable citizen and paying the prescribed annual licence fee (5s. in the case of an amateur receiving station). So attractive were the prospects for experiment and entertainment in this field that there were 2,830 licensed amateur receiving stations by 31 March 1924.

By contrast the number of private low-powered broadcasting stations erected and operated was much lower, the development of this type of station being retarded chiefly through lack of funds. To ease the plight of broadcasting station operators and at the same time ensure reasonable performance standards, regulations taking effect from 1 April 1925 were gazetted increasing the annual receiving licence fee to £1 10s. and providing, amongst other things, for subsidy payments to broadcasting stations. These regulations also empowered the Minister of Telegraphs to contract with others to provide a broadcasting service in terms of a station in each of the four main centres. Details of the power and duration of transmission of these stations, a minimum of 12 hours weekly, excluding Sunday, and provision of a silent night each week, were also set out in the regulations.

Radio-broadcasting Company-The initial development of broadcasting on a Dominion-wide basis was confirmed by the agreement of the Radio-broadcasting Company of New Zealand on 1 August 1925 to establish and maintain an efficient broadcasting service for a definite period. The company purchased existing stations in the four main centres and began operation of its new stations at Auckland and Christchurch in August-September 1926. Stations at Wellington and Dunedin followed soon after. By the end of 1931 the number of receiving licences in the country had risen to about 70,000.

New Zealand Broadcasting Board-With the expiry of the Radio-broadcasting Company's contract in January 1932, control of the broadcasting service, under the Broadcasting Act 1931, was vested in the New Zealand Broadcasting Board. Existing plant was purchased from the company for the sum of £58,646, this sum being advanced by way of a loan from the Post Office.

One of the first actions of the Broadcasting Board was the setting up of a Commission to investigate broadcast coverage. As a result, the location of the four main station transmitters was changed and their power increased to improve reception throughout the country.

New Zealand Broadcasting Service-The Broadcasting Act 1936 abolished the New Zealand Broadcasting Board and vested control of the newly constituted National Broadcasting Service in a Minister of the Crown. Administration of the service was placed in the hands of a Director of Broadcasting, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Permanent officers previously employed by the board became officers of the Public Service from 1 July 1936.

By the 1936 Act the Minister of Broadcasting was empowered also to establish and operate commercial radio stations broadcasting advertising matter. The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1937 provided for the establishment of a National Commercial Broadcasting Service which existed separately until it was abolished under section 4 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1943. On 26 August 1943 the two services were combined under the Director of Broadcasting.

The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1960 provided for the establishment of a television service to be operated by the Minister in Charge of Broadcasting in association with the existing broadcasting service.

NEW ZEALAND BROADCASTING CORPORATION-The Broadcasting Corporation Act 1961 repealed all previous legislation and established a Corporation of three members empowered from 1 April 1962 to take over and operate the existing service. Apart from this the Act provides that the Corporation may, after considering the services already available in any locality, call for applications and make recommendations to the Minister of Broadcasting on the granting of warrants for the establishment and operation of private broadcasting and television stations. The Corporation will exercise a continuing function of supervising and controlling programmes broadcast by any stations so licensed.

RADIO-There are in New Zealand 43 medium-wave broadcasting stations and two short-wave transmitters of Radio New Zealand, the latter having 19 assigned frequencies. One of the medium-wave stations (4XD) is privately owned and operates with the assistance of a subsidy from the Broadcasting Account. Of those remaining, 25 stations-shown with an asterisk in the following list-broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays or on Christmas Day, Good Friday, or Anzac Day. Station 2YA maintains a daily 24-hour service apart from a shut-down once a week between the hours of 11.20 p.m. Sunday and 5 a.m. Monday.

A complete list of medium-wave stations follows.

MEDIUM-WAVE STATIONS
Call Sign and LocalityRadiated PowerFrequencyNormal Hours of Transmission per Week

* Broadcasts advertising material.

†Operates when 2YA broadcasts the proceedings of the House of Representatives.

 kilowattskilocyclesh min
1XA, Kaitaia*2.001,440116 30
1XE, Kaikohe*2001,220116 30
1XN, Whangarei*2.00970116 30
1YA, Auckland20.00760121 20
1YC, Auckland10.0088042 0
1ZB, Auckland*10.001,070126 0
1YD, Auckland*2.001,25090 0
1ZD, Tauranga*10.001,000113 0
1XH, Hamilton*2.001,310123 30
1YW, Hamilton2.001,140121 20
1YZ, Rotorua10.00800108 30
1ZC, Rotorua*2.501,350113 0
1ZA, Taupo*2.001,500113 0
2ZG, Gisborne*2.001,060116 30
2YW, Gisborne2.001,18030 0
2XP, New Plymouth*2.001,370116 30
2YZ, Napier5.00860108 30
2ZC, Napier*2.001,280123 30
2XA, Wanganui*2.001,200116 30
2ZA, Palmerston North*2.00940123 30
2XB, Masterton*2.00840100 0
2YA, Wellington100.00570162 20
2YC, Wellington60.0066042 0
2YX, Wellington2.001,400
2ZB, Wellington*20.00980126 0
2YD, Wellington*2.001,13083 0
2ZE, Blenheim*1.001,54019 30
2XN, Nelson*2.001,340116 30
3YW, Westport2.001,460114 30
3YZ, Greymouth10.00920114 30
3ZA, Greymouth*2.0075021 0
3YA, Christchurch20.00690121 20
3YC, Christchurch10.0096042 0
3ZB, Christchurch*10.001,100126 0
3YD, Christchurch*2.0063083 0
3XC, Timaru*2.001,160116 30
4YX, Alexandra2.00640122 0
4YA, Dunedin20.00780121 20
4YC, Dunedin10.0090042 0
4ZB, Dunedin*10.001,040126 0
4XD, Dunedin0.251,43014 0
4YZ, Invercargill5.00720114 20
4ZA, Invercargill*10.00820123 30

Of the two short-wave transmitters employed by Radio New Zealand, each has a power of 7.50 kilowatts, and frequencies used are in the 6, 9, 11, and 15 megacycle bands. Frequencies are adjusted throughout the day as well as seasonally to give best reception in the target areas, 15.28, and 11.78 megacycles being commonly used for daily transmissions of the home service programme, and the additional one of 6.08 megacycles being employed for transmissions to Australia and Antarctica. Broadcasting hours amount to approximately 15½ hours daily to the Pacific islands and 12½ hours daily to Australia.

Coverage of Medium-wave Service-The basic function of medium-wave stations in the programme coverage of New Zealand is as follows:

  1. Stations 1YA, 2YA, 3YA, 4YA, 1YZ, 2YZ, 3YZ, 4YZ, 1YW, 2YW, and 3YW broadcast the national (non-advertising) programme to listeners throughout the country.

  2. Stations 1YC, 2YC, 3YC, 4YC, and 2YX provide alternative non-advertising programmes to those of the national programme stations in (a) but with slightly less extensive coverage.

  3. Stations 1ZB, 2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB, 1XH, 2ZC, 1ZA, 2ZA, 2ZE, 3ZA, 4ZA, 1YD, 2YD, 3YD, 1ZD, 1ZC, and 2XB present advertising programmes mainly of a light character, coverage being comparable with stations listed in (a).

  4. Stations 1XN, 2ZG, 2XP, 2XA, 2XN, and 3XC serve the immediate locality of the centres in which they operate and present advertising and non-advertising programmes during specified hours. Within their coverage range these stations give alternative programmes to those provided by stations listed in (a), (b), and (c).

  5. Stations 1XA, 1XE, 1YW, 2YW, 3YW, and 4YX are satellite stations rebroadcasting for local reception the programmes of more distant stations with which they are linked.

Coverage of Short-wave Service-Radio New Zealand broadcasts to the Pacific islands a daily home-service programme from 5 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 6 p.m. to 8.45 p.m. on two frequencies. Its transmission to Australia comprises a daily home-service programme from 8 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 9 p.m. to 11.45 p.m. on two frequencies. In addition to its large radio audience throughout the Pacific, Radio New Zealand has listeners as far distant as the United Kingdom, Sweden, France, the United States, and Japan. Radio New Zealand programmes illustrate many different aspects of life in this country.

National Programmes-Programmes from national non-commercial stations include, as well as all types of music, plays, short stories, serials, sports commentaries and results, talks, documentaries, women's programmes, children's educational and entertainment programmes, news and devotional programmes.

All proceedings of the House of Representatives are broadcast from Station 2YA. During broadcasts of Parliament the scheduled programmes of Station 2YA are broadcast by Station 2YC, and those of Station 2YC transmitted by Station 2YX.

Time signals from the New Zealand Time Service are broadcast every day from Station 2YA or 2YC. The signals take the form of a series of six "dots" at intervals of one second, the last "dot" denoting the exact minute. Fuller details of this time service may be obtained from the article published in Section 40 (Miscellaneous) of this Yearbook.

Commercial Programmes-Commercial stations broadcast music, serials, variety and quiz programmes, sports commentaries and results, children's and women's programmes, news and other spoken programmes.

A brief historical outline of the commercial stations is given in the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

TELEVISION-The relatively high cost of establishing television in New Zealand was the main reason for the delay in providing this service. Few countries of such a small population are so isolated and beyond the reach of the stimuli and assistance which arise from telecasts in a neighbouring country, with opportunities for sharing programmes, relays, and so on. In addition, the hilly terrain in some parts of the country presents difficulties in the attainment of a comprehensive coverage.

However, in August 1958 the Postmaster-General and the Minister of Broadcasting jointly announced that, on a recommendation of the Inter-departmental Committee on Television (established in 1949) and with the advice of the New Zealand Radio and Television Manufacturers Federation, it had been decided to establish the 625 line system as the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made on such matters as the likely coverage of TV transmitters, the determination of suitable transmitter sites, the provision of a TV coverage plan, and the relative suitability of different operating frequencies. Channel 2 Auckland, which was originally opened in 1959 as an experimental television station, began its regular programme service on 1 June 1960 with a weekly two-hour transmission. By November 1960 the hours of telecasting had increased to two and a half each evening, Monday to Friday. On 1 January 1961 telecasting on seven nights a week began.

Television stations commenced transmissions in Christchurch on 1 June 1961, Wellington on 1 July 1961, and in Dunedin on 31 July 1962.

Television Programmes-Film purchased overseas makes up a substantial portion of TV programmes. Nevertheless all stations are active in the exploitation of New Zealand news and talent as much as possible. An analysis of TV programmes for a week in August 1964 showed that of the total hours then telecast 22 per cent were devoted to news, talks, and information programmes (including religion), 8 per cent to variety, 19 per cent to drama, 16 per cent to comedy, 9 per cent to adventure and westerns, 12 per cent to mystery and crime, 9 per cent to children's programmes, and 5 per cent to sports. From the beginning of 1963 the pattern of programme interest has been markedly affected by the use of three mobile outside broadcast units.

Extensions to coverage-The Corporation is currently surveying for transmitter sites to extend TV coverage to other densely populated areas of New Zealand. These additional transmitters will relay existing stations.

As a temporary measure, the Corporation has laid down a policy whereby it will license low-power translators to serve fringe-area localities until permanent high-power regional transmitters are operating. The arrangement is that the Corporation takes out the transmitting licence and comes to an agreement with a non-profit society of local interested persons to provide the translator equipment and to maintain it.

Details of television broadcasting stations in operation at the four main centres are as follows.

TELEVISION STATIONS
Call Sign and Location of StudioRadiated PowerFrequencyNormal Hours of Transmission per Week
VisionSoundVisionSound
 kilowattsmegacycleshr min
AK TV 2, Auckland10.02.055.2560.7550 0
WN TV 1, Wellington10.02.045.2550.7550 0
CH TV 3, Christchurch10.02.062.2567.7550 0
DN TV 2, Dunedin1.00.2555.2560.7550 0

The hours of telecasting are from 5.00 p.m. to 11.00 p.m. each evening from Monday to Thursday, from 5.00 p.m. to midnight on Friday, from 2.00 p.m. to midnight on Saturday, and from 2.00 p.m. to 11.00 p.m. on Sunday. Advertising content is included on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday evenings and from 8.30 p.m. to 11.00 p.m. on Wednesday, all other programmes being non-commercial.

ORCHESTRAS: Symphony Orchestra-Formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra, this is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished soloists from other countries and choral groups appear regularly with the Orchestra, and free concerts for school children are an established part of its tour programme.

Concert Orchestra-A concert orchestra was formed in 1962 to support national and local musical organisations and to provide orchestral music for the smaller communities outside the touring schedule of the Symphony Orchestra. It had an establishment of 25 players, but has been disbanded.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER-Programmes and advance information for all radio and television stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The Listener also publishes interviews, talks and discussions, fiction, poetry and criticism. It gives much attention to the arts and to the broader aspects of life in New Zealand.

Financial Statistics-The following tables show the financial results of the principal activities of the New Zealand Broadcasting Service for three financial years, and the first year of operation of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

Item1960-611961-621962-631963-64

NOTE-Minus sign (−) indicates an excess of expenditure over revenue.

* Includes television (£12,256 in 1960-61, £54,133 in 1961-62, £45,562 in 1962-63, £94,848 in 1963-64).

Non-commercial Activities    
National radio££££
Expenditure on programmes213,730231,478215,359231,083
General administrative and running expenses647,879673,401645,797636,619
Post Office charges for licence fee collection115,819124,00070,10186,694
Depreciation -119,372121,332185,218250,129
 1,096,8001,150,2111,116,4751,204,525
Less recovery from commercial radio for provision of technical facilities and services*138,944*179,738*117,425*179,335
Net expenditure957,856970,473999,0501,025,190
Revenue -954,9531,000,837958,319922,761
Balance of revenue over expenditure-2,90330,364-40,731-102,429
National television
Expenditure on programmes14,90686,492131,160151,837
General administrative and running expenses29,728126,322269,124359,383
Post Office charges for licence fee collection1,1506,43710,35520,485
Provision of technical facilities and services6,12827,06622,78147,424
Net expenditure51,912246,317433,420579,129
Revenue32,489155,845525,5361,099,004
Balance of revenue over expenditure-19,423-90,47292,116519,875
Total surplus non-commercial activities-22,326-60,10851,385417,446
Commercial Activities
Commercial radio
Expenditure on programmes147,784185,191202,398263,897
General administrative and running expenses1,036,2821,120,7561,372,4801,418,518
Provision of technical facilities and services126,688125,60571,86384,487
Net expenditure -1,310,7541,431,5521,646,7411,766,902
Revenue -1,767,0181,997,4332,139,3782,150,579
Net surplus before tax456,264565,881492,637383,677
Commercial television
Expenditure on programmes14,90582,786131,364190,346
General administrative and running expenses30,878213,995385,631576,245
Provision of technical facilities and services6,12827,06722,78147,424
Net expenditure -51,911323,848539,776814,015
Revenue919394,275521,710948,804
Net surplus before tax or deficit-50,99270,427-18,066134,789
New Zealand Listener££££
Printing, publishing, and distribution costs75,48599,457108,147122,125
General administrative and running expenses40,52451,99852,56555,866
Net expenditure -116,009151,455160,712177,991
Revenue118,664143,656144,393162,421
Net surplus before tax2,655-7,799-16,319-15,570
Total net surplus before tax407,927628,509458,252502,896
Provision for taxation205,493313,814228,574250,780
Net surplus after tax202,434314,695229,678252,116
Orchestra and concert activities
Net expenditure -144,474169,019226,975264,216
Less concert proceeds37,50652,42160,64969,527
Balance of expenditure106,968116,598166,326194,689
Summary
Non-commercial activities surplus-22,326-60,10851,385417,446
Commercial activities surplus202,434314,695229,678252,116
 180,108254,587281,063669,562
Less concert activities106,968116,598166,326194,689
Net surplus -73,140137,989114,737474,873

In the table for national radio the amount recovered from commercial activities on account of provision of technical services provides for Head Office engineering overhead and services, allowance for depreciation on assets in use commercially, and share of the costs of interference suppression and frequency measurement. From 1962-63 this charge relates only to use of assets.

There are two principal sources of revenue, radio and television-licence fees and radio and television advertising. While licence fee revenue is credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, a common fund is in fact operated, all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. However, the commercial surplus is subject to taxation without set-off from any deficit arising from the non-commercial activities, and the Symphony Orchestra and concert presentation.

Revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest four financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1960-611961-621962-631963-64
 ££££
Radio-licence fees886,915950,220912,778906,893
TV-licence fees32,489155,845523,1691,089,388
Radio advertising1,643,3911,875,1702,026,7072,053,423
TV advertising-393,758513,476933,873
 Totals2,562,7953,374,9933,976,1304,983,577

Licence Statistics-The licence fee for a receiving station is £1 10s. a year.

A licence issued for a radio receiving station situated in a family residence is sufficient in respect of all radio receivers in that residence other than those owned and used by subtenants or lodgers occupying part of the premises in the residence.

Free licences are issued to blind persons and institutions for the blind, as well as to public hospitals and orphan and other charitable institutions where radio or television receivers are used for the benefit of patients or inmates. Free licence privileges are also extended to the operation of radio or television sets in schools for educational broadcast purposes. The total number of free licences issued for each of the last five years, at 31 March, was: 1960, 2,992; 1961, 3,134; 1962,3,188; 1963, 3,288; and 1964, 3,294.

A penalty is attached to the operating of unlicensed radio or television apparatus. Requirements with respect to licences are set out in the Radio Regulations 1953.

The following table shows the increase in radio licences.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonCanterburyOtagoNew Zealand TotalLicences per Hundred of Population
1954178,499171,93887,01864,301501,75624.18
1955183,812173,83687,75363,542508,94323.88
1956188,775176,13687,94564,296517,15223.76
1957191,138175,63888,17764,825519,77823.40
1958206,755184,85390,27967,420549,30724.14
1959215,242189,16393,68269,077567,16424.38
1960219,918193,19793,94470,344577,40324.36
1961224,491193,62597,49271,437587,04524.32
1962224,739202,701101,67372,428601,54124.28
1963227,745207,348102,03673,601610,73024.11
1964227,166204,394104,91476,259612,73323.73

A summary of radio licences in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1964 follows.

DistrictReceiving LicencesRadio DealersPrivate ExperimentalOtherTotal Licences
AmateurResearch
Auckland227,1661,2411,2199870229,794
Wellington204,3941,1691,2237667206,929
Canterbury104,9144795761835106,022
Otago76,259427304232877,041
 Totals612,7333,3163,322215200619,786

A summary of television licences in force in New Zealand follows. The licence fee is £6 10s. a year.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinOther CentresTotal Licensed Sets in New ZealandNumber of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences
19614,808............4,808211
196214,3024,0414,784421223,343842
196340,92115,04815,3743,6496,84781,8395,976
196468,05228,40126,5529,87734,862167,74413,558
1965100,07843,14942,46019,194109,039313,92033,257

12 C-NEWSPAPERS, LIBRARIES, CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS-There are eight daily newspapers in the four main metropolitan areas with a total circulation of 730,000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are 33 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 289,000. Non-daily newspapers have a circulation of 910,000.

When circulation figures for daily newspapers are related to population figures, it is found that New Zealand has 398 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. The latest comparative figures for other countries include United Kingdom, 514; Australia, 358; Canada, 231; United States, 326; U.S.S.R., 172; Sweden, 462; Norway, 377; Denmark, 353; and France, 252. (Source: UN Compendium of Social Statistics: 1963.)

Statistics compiled from various sources disclose that from 1840 to 1940 altogether 468 newspapers (of all categories) were established in New Zealand. The acceleration of motor transport had a speedy and decisive effect on the small-town press. Many local papers which, by publishing once, twice, or three times a week, had been serving adequately the needs of a district and backblocks were unable to survive when the city papers were able to reach remote settlements within a few hours of publication, offering to country dwellers such superior attractions as daily publication, full services of New Zealand and world news, sporting news, and attractive magazine features. Under the steady pressure of competition, mergers were effected in a number of provincial towns to reduce the quota of papers, generally to a single daily.

The circulation of all periodicals is not known, but for 117 periodicals (not including two national weeklies classified as newspapers) the circulation is 1,704,000. (These statistics are compiled from information gathered by the Association of New Zealand Advertisers.)

The total number of magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals published (but not necessarily all sold) in 1962-63 was 18,678,000.

Advertising-The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table, along with the selling value of the newspapers and periodicals at the factory door.

Type of PublicationAdvertising RevenueSelling Value
1961-621962-631961-621962-63
 ££££
Newspapers, daily10,097,7669,963,9512,807,5592,917,829
Newspapers other than daily748,327791,8331,018,9801,078,353
Magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals307,907366,702372,727399,426

LIBRARIES-New Zealand is fairly well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a well developed system of inter-library cooperation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of interlibrary loans.

National Library-In its decision to establish a National Library the Government has stressed its intention to safeguard the integrity or character of services of the three institutions-the General Assembly Library, the Alexander Turnbull Library, and the National Library Service-which were involved in that decision. The questions of the integration of the three State libraries, with appropriate safeguards, of providing a building worthy of the purpose it is to fulfil, and of the administrative pattern to be followed are being studied.

National Library Service-The establishment of a National Library Service by the Minister of Education in 1945 followed a recommendation by the New Zealand Library Association. The National Library Service has four divisions-the Country Library Service, the School Library Service, the National Library Centre, and the Library School.

Country Library Service-The Country Library Service, founded in 1938 under the control of the Minister of Education, has been extended through district offices in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15,000, loans are made from book vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the four main centres, receive assistance under certain conditions. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of £3 for 50 changed three times a year to form their own small local libraries. Eight specially equipped vans, each carrying 1,600-2,000 books, including novels and books on many subjects, travel over the whole territory. Visits are arranged to allow libraries of boroughs and county groups to make their own exchanges every four months. In between visits, books are sent by post from the headquarters and district offices to libraries requesting them. Hampers of books are sent to isolated groups of readers who cannot be reached by van.

Librarians are encouraged to visit the offices of the Country Library Service to see the range of books available and to discuss problems of administration. On visits of book vans, field librarians help to keep librarians in touch with developments in service. During times of reorganisation, assistance in staffing is given. In this way local authorities are helped and encouraged to meet the minimum standards for public libraries participating in the Country Library Service.

Free public libraries which extend their service to general hospitals in their area receive special collections of books for the use of patients. A library service is given to lighthouses, and a service to Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, and New Zealand Forest Service camps has been given since 1949. Tuberculosis patients in sanatoria and in tuberculosis wards of general hospitals are served from a special collection of books built up to meet their particular needs. Psychiatric hospitals receive collections of books which are exchanged regularly. Prisons and borstal institutions receive books and change them on the four-monthly visits of the travelling book vans.

The number of libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1964 was as follows: free libraries, 133; subscription libraries, 929; groups, 25; Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, and New Zealand Forest Service camps, 62; tuberculosis sanatoria, 4; psychiatric hospitals, 14; hospitals, 29; prisons and borstal institutions, 17.

School Library Service-The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development, and arranging for their distribution and circulation to schools. It thus supplements the library resources of individual schools from its large pool stocks of books.

Services at present available can be broadly defined as: (i) general exchanges of books; (ii) an information and request service; (iii) assistance to schools in organising their books for use; and (iv) the provision of book lists.

By constant scanning of the output of printed material, by long-term buying plans, and by the regular publication of book lists, the service has set standards of book selection and coverage, and brings to the notice of those concerned the worth-while books appropriate for their purpose.

National Library Centre-The National Library Centre's main functions, developed in conjunction with the Book Resources Committee of the New Zealand Library Association, are concerned with the national system of interlibrary loan and various associated bibliographical projects. The National Union Catalogue, now containing over half a million entries, is a record of the whereabouts in New Zealand libraries of the country's holdings of non-fiction. Work on the retrospective completion of the union catalogue, apart from current maintenance, is still continuing. The Union List of Serials available also in published form, is a similar record of the serials, including periodicals, held in the major libraries in the country. The Centre maintains a retrospective and current National Bibliography of all New Zealand publications and a central cataloguing procedure for current publications. The headquarters collection of the service, maintained by the Centre as a national lending collection, now amounts to about 196,000 volumes. The Centre in conjunction with the New Zealand Library Association endeavours to ensure the availability in the country of at least one copy of all books of consequence in the English language. In the case of expensive sets there are ways of ensuring in marginal cases that only one is acquired and alternatively attempts are made to obtain one set or copy of out of print material necessary for research. The Centre acts also as the purchasing agent for Government Departments operating within the Public Account.

Library School-The New Zealand Library School offers a professional course to those holding university degrees or with equivalent education leading respectively to the diploma or the certificate of the New Zealand Library School. The course lasts from March to December. The possession of either qualification, followed by three years' satisfactory work in libraries, entitles a librarian to apply for the Associateship of the New Zealand Library Association. The school was established in 1946, and 338 students had been given professional training by the end of 1964. Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of teachers' training colleges. Since 1952, Part Two of the New Zealand Library Association's General Training Course has been carried out by a five weeks' course at the school. Facilities for training are offered to students sponsored by UNESCO and by countries participating in the Colombo Plan.

Beginning in 1960, the New Zealand Library School has published numbers in its Bibliographical Series and Studies in Library Administration.

Census of Libraries, 1964-The quinquennial census of libraries was taken for the year ended 31 March 1964. The census covered a total of 413 libraries comprising three national libraries, 33 libraries in universities (including the libraries of other institutions of higher education), 163 special libraries, and 214 public libraries. Corresponding figures for the 1959 Census of Libraries, with the same coverage, were 286, 3, 21, 98, and 164 respectively.

There is no comprehensive national library in New Zealand, but the three libraries listed as national libraries-the General Assembly Library, the Alexander Turnbull Library, and the National Library Service-perform most of the functions of a national library.

The libraries in universities (including other institutions of higher education) comprised the libraries of the six universities with nine libraries in close association, the libraries of eight teachers' training colleges, the library of the university college of agriculture, the libraries of five theological colleges, and four institutions of higher technical education, making a total of 33, or 12 more than five years earlier.

The special libraries were, for the purpose of this census, divided into (a) libraries of learned societies, etc., and of commercial interests and (b) libraries of Government Departments. There were 39 libraries in the former category and 124 in the latter, being increases of 17 and 48 since 1959. Coverage in the former category may not be complete.

Public libraries (those controlled or largely supported by a local authority and including branch libraries) showed an increase of 50 over the 1959 census-214 as against 164.

In the period 1959 to 1964 public library membership increased by 28 per cent and book circulation by 27 per cent. Book stocks rose by 30 per cent, so that slightly less use was made of the books available. Since 1959 circulation per member has dropped at most libraries, except the very largest. Television, which has been introduced since 1960, has probably been one of the factors involved. There are 4.60 books to every member in the public libraries; on average those books circulate 6.32 times annually and members take out 29.06 public library books a year. Junior readers read four times as much fiction as non-fiction while adults read three times as much.

The following are summarised tables of the results of the 1964 census. Full details containing the census data have been published in a separate report prepared by the Department of Statistics.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES-BOOK STOCK AND CIRCULATION
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesBook Stock at 31 March 1964Circulation During Year
BooksSerialsPamphletsTotalItems Lent Outside the Library*Items Lent to Other Libraries*Items Borrowed From Other Libraries*
* Items include books, serials, and pamphlets.
National libraries32,905,65639,70921,6462,967,0112,135,175144,8026,397
Libraries in universities, etc.331,007,523162,68518,3721,188,580538,2347,74712,806
Special libraries-
Learned societies and commercial interests39148,22688,53124,035260,79235,0701,8653,699
Government Departments and associated organisations124447,916386,99149,730884,637292,99212,92027,172
 Totals, special libraries163596,142475,52273,7651,145,429328,06214,78530,871
  Grand totals1994,509,321677,916113,7835,301,0203,001,471167,33450,074
PUBLIC LIBRARIES-BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1964
Public Libraries in Areas With a Population ofNumber of Libraries*Own StockFor Reference only (Included in Own Stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJuniorTotal
pay Collectionfree fictionfree Non fictionfictionNon fictionAdultJunior
* Number of library systems which operate 214 libraries (including 62 branches as separate entities).
50,000 and over6229,765292,519698,591175,75968,5791,465,21351,3495,32012,805
20,000 to 49,99914162,40166,325213,54292,06936,834571,17126,68413,8506,180
10,000 to 19,999924,34229,28850,39127,88811,655143,5641,58013,5776,058
5,000 to 9,99930109,20163,25064,88843,77914,123295,2413,27122,31610,290
3,000 to 4,9992978,74546,53528,53419,3916,168179,3731,46515,7878,396
Under 3,00064133,10347,24828,85122,8424,715236,7591,08726,6918,558
  Totals152737,557545,1651,084,797381,728142,0742,891,32185,43697,54152,287
PUBLIC LIBRARIES-BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE
Public Libraries in Areas With a Population ofNumber of Libraries*Own StockCountry Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed From other Libraries
Pay collectionFree fictionFree Non fictionPeriodicals
* See footnote to table above.
50,000 and over61,922,7671,856,4921,554,362429,9461,631,7427,395,30931,326134,2842,7568,139
20,000 to 49,999141,775,195844,686693,716180,2161,318,2244,812,03765,56832,2492768,952
10,000 to 19,9999362,754362,052256,59572,399268,4351,322,23552,58027,5878974,610
5,000 to 9,99930990,185452,422332,50861,733535,0812,371,929149,960100,30630415,460
3,000 to 4,99929558,897264,554154,05620,625204,5461,204,678102,66556,8431,0078,164
Under 3,00064676,969183,111107,57317,657190,0601,175,370159,65361,8731,2237,478
 Totals1526,286,7673,963,3173,100,810782,5764,148,08818,281,558561,752413,1426,46352,803
NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES-FINANCE FOR YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1964
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesReceiptsExpenditure
Grants from Controlling AuthorityOther ReceiptsTotal ReceiptsSalaries and WagesBooks and PeriodicalOther Library MaterialOther Operating ExpensesCapital ExpensesValue by gift and ExchangeTotal Expenditure
 ££££££££££ 
National libraries3494,9647,866502,830256,217171,9691,76095,872...8,785534,603
Libraries in Universities, etc.33211,80629,100240,906187,292154,1152,09628,604442,3398,837823,283
Special libraries-
Learned societies and commercial interests3933,46112,53545,99625,27321,0075227,7722501,68356,507
Government Departments and associated organisations12492,73559,357152,092143,71086,7422,30620,312...56,177309,247
Totals special libraries163126,19671,892198,088168,983107,7492,82828,08425057,860365,754
  Grand totals199832,966108,858941,824612,492433,8336,684152,560442,58975,4821,723,640
PUBLIC LIBRARIES-FINANCE FOR YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1964
Libraries in Areas With a Population of-Number of Libraries*Amount Levied for Library PurposesReceiptsExpenditure
Grants from Controlling AuthorityOther ReceiptsTotal ReceiptsSalaries and WagesBooks and PeriodicalsOther Operating ExpensesTotal Operating ExpensesSpecial Works and Capital ExpenditureTotal Expenditure
* Number of library systems which operate 214 libraries (i.e., including 62 branches as separate entities).
  ££££££££££
50,000 and over6384,628411,409105,145516,554245,665118,732112,898477,29528,214505,509
20,000 to 49,99914116,243124,08067,872191,952103,66053,48931,426188,5758,594197,169
10,000 to 19,999943,91643,12215,27958,40128,21317,2079,50754,9272,12957,056
5,000 to 9,9993055,89565,04531,46096,50546,64627,11013,54587,3017,57694,877
3,000 to 4,9992920,61628,41320,79349.20624,48917,3466,85948,69452349,217
Under 3,0006412,88322,03125,21547,24621,09817,9396,59345.6301,68947,319
  Totals152634,181694,100265,764959,864469,771251,823180,828902,42248,725951,147

International Statistics on Libraries-The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearType of DataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecial
New Zealand2.61964Libraries333163
   Volumes (000)2,9671,1891,145
Australia11.01963Libraries110552
   Volumes (000)7302,990..
Canada18.21961Libraries134372
   Volumes (000)2506,9936,000
South Africa14.41958Libraries2....
   Volumes (000)655....
United Kingdom51.91958Libraries36321,177
   Volumes (000)9,00021,53314,850
United States of America180.71960Libraries11,9405,000
   Volumes (000)12,075176,000..
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes
* Estimated.
    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand2.619641522,89162918,282
Australia11.019633205,000*....
Canada18.2196187515,3962,43160,604
South Africa14.419583684,93353714,783
United Kingdom53.3196256277,20014,470460,504
United States of America180.719607,800200,000..550,000

CINEMAS-Statistics relating to cinemas are normally collected every alternate year. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion-picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item "Rent" under "Theatre expenditure" does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings from 1938-39 (the first year these statistics were collected) to the latest collection.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsAverage Admission Price*Admissions Per Head of Mean
* Including amusement tax.
Population
  (000)£££d.No.
1938-3957629,8091,893,61746,8381,846,77915.218.5
1939-4057431,1712,009,66253,7831,955,87915.519.1
1940-4157231,4922,107,44358,1462,049,29716.119.3
1941-4254831,2182,133,52369,7992,063,72416.419.1
1942-4352334,0342,421,05887,6092,333,44917.120.8
1943-4452538,2572,803,086121,1692,681,91717.623.4
1944-4555135,5202,588,111110,2412,477,87017.521.3
1945-4656836,9662,817,646131,1992,686,44718.321.6
1947-4857034,0782,634,730123,0342,511,69618.618.9
1949-5060036,3532,789,696135,6842,654,01218.419.3
1951-5258936,3423,131,550205,4672,926,08320.718.6
1953-5458237,3683,679,540300,4443,379,09623.618.1
1956-5757837,5964,482,651369,9584,112,69328.617.1
1958-5954738,2084,850,483425,4344,425,04930.516.6
1960-6154540,6325,395,899476,2304,919,66931.917.0
1962-6349137,5845,067,672439,7794,627,89332.415.0

The survey for the year ended 31 March 1963 revealed that there were only 491 theatres, compared with 545 in 1961, at the time of the preceding survey.

Cinema attendances in New Zealand during the year 1962-63 were 3 million fewer than when the previous survey was made in 1960-61. Total paid admissions in the North Island dropped from 29.7 million to 27.4 million, while in the South Island attendances fell from 10.9 million to 10.2 million. The average number of admissions per head of mean population fell from 17 in 1960-61 to 15 in the latest survey.

The following statistics for the last three collections cover the operations of all classes of cinemas-viz, (a) those operating six days per week; (b) those operating on odd days per week; (c) circuit, or itinerant operators.

Item1958-591960-611962-63
Cinemas
Screening six days per week206217204
Screening odd days per week298294254
Circuit433433
   Totals547545491
Cinemas according to seating accommodation
Other than circuits
Under 200 -899270
200 and under 500206206170
500 and under 1,000170179184
1,000 and under 1,500282525
Over 1,500 -1199
Circuit cinemas -433433
   Totals547545491
Seating accommodation (all cinemas) 1958-591960-611962-63
Seats, under 2s. (excluding amusement tax)No.63,86757,13556,970
Seats, 2s. and under 3s. (excluding amusement tax)No.144,656147,866132,711
Seats, 3s. and under 4s. (excluding amusement tax)No.34,1953S,48438,842
Seats, 4s. and over (excluding amusement tax)No.14,96516,72217,838
   TotalsNo.257,683257,207246,361
Item1958-591960-611962-63
Number of paid admissionsNo.(000)38,20840,63237,584
Average admission charge (including amusement tax)d.30.531.932.4
Admissions per head of mean populationNo.16.617.015.0
Number of performances for yearNo.155,273162,006155,546
Average attendance per performanceNo.246251242
Average seating capacity per hallNo.471472502
Average number of screenings per week
Cinemas
Screening six days per weekNo.11.011.311.5
Screening odd days per weekNo.2.22.22.4
CircuitNo.1.31.01.3
Persons engaged
Full time -Males -No.550547595
Females -No.444441475
Part time-Males -No.1,0831,1071,012
Females -No.1,5241,6511,522
   TotalsNo.3,6013,7463,604
Item1958-591960-611962-63
* Includes drawings of working proprietors.
Revenue£(000)
Admission receipts (including amusement tax)4,8505,3965,068
Screen advertising135150212
Other receipts -119112154
   Totals5,1045,6585,434
Expenditure   
Salaries and wages*1,0811,2011,166
Film hire1,3191,4501,383
Advertising324344359
Amusement tax -425476440
Rent361368384
Repairs and maintenance180222165
Depreciation -161162133
Other expenses -517688833
   Totals4,3684,9104,862

Classification by Statistical Areas-The following two tables show some of the principal statistics of cinemas for 1962-63 by statistical areas. It will be noticed that admissions in North Island districts are higher per person than in the South Island, with the notable exception of Westland. In total, attendances in the North Island represented 15.5 visits a year to the cinema for every member of the population as against 13.4 visits in the South Island. The popularity of the cinema is most pronounced on the West Coast. Admissions per person in the Westland statistical area were 20.4, far exceeding those of other districts, and approximately 36 per cent higher than the average attendance for New Zealand.

Statistical AreaPopulation 1 April 1963Number of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per head of PopulationGross Admission Takings
* Based on mean population in this case.
   No. of Seats(000)d.No.£(000)
Northland88,9003712,1231,12427.812.6130
Central Auckland551,5468651,8377,92936.814.41,217
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty370,1008236,7275,74429.215.5698
East Coast47,100115,18283327.917.797
Hawke's Bay120,2002611,0791,99930.016.6250
Taranaki102,4002311,5151,65228.416.1195
Wellington494,9007347,1138,15132.216.51,092
Marlborough28,80072,84340431.214.053
Nelson65,500187,28694628.414.4112
Westland24,800145,70050529.620.462
Canterbury359,8735927,7484,59735.012.8670
Otago181,3003318,3042,31934.112.8329
Southland98,000228,9041,38228.114.1162
  Totals2,533,419491246,36137,58432.415.0*5,068
Statistical AreaAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Net Admission TakingsNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 £(000)£(000)£(000)Per CentNo.No.No.
Northland101203025.36,788166327
Central Auckland1021,11434330.733,481237603
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty5364516425.423,923240448
East Coast8892831.53,178262471
Hawke's Bay222287633.57,892253426
Taranaki171785128.46,974237501
Wellington9999430230.431,905255645
Marlborough5481021.82,010201406
Nelson101023231.24,173227405
Westland6571628.02,695187407
Canterbury6360719131.518,425250470
Otago322989331.49,063256555
Southland141484631.35,039274405
  Totals4404,6281,38329.9155,546242502

Classification by Urban Areas-Statistics have been prepared for the principal urban areas for the latest year and are shown in the next table. The Hutt urban area has been included with Wellington for the purposes of these statistics.

This table shows that admissions per head of population are nearly 13 per cent higher in Wellington and Auckland than the two South Island urban areas of Christchurch and Dunedin. On the other hand, average admission charges are higher in the South Island, as is the average attendance per performance.

Seating accommodation of cinemas as a proportion of population shows Wellington to have one cinema seat for each 102 persons. Auckland and Dunedin come next equal with one seat for every 11.0 persons, while Christchurch is relatively low with only one seat for every 15.1 persons. Dunedin has the largest average attendance per performance and then follow Christchurch, Wellington, and Auckland.

Urban AreasPopulation 1 April 1963Number of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAdmissions per SeatAverage Admissions ChargeAdmissions Per Head of PopulationGross Admission Takings
 (000)No.No. of Seats(000)No.d.No.£(000)
Auckland4825643,7387,42817037.415.41,157
Wellington (including Hutt)2613625.5164,63418234.817.8672
Christchurch2332215,3663,24021137.213.9502
Dunedin107119,7791,63016737.915.2257
            Totals1,08312594,39916,93317936.715.62,589
Urban AreasAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as Proportion of Net Admission TakingsNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceProportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 £(000)£(000)£(000)Per CentNo.No.No.Per Cent
Auckland981,05932530.729,65025190927.6
Wellington (including Hutt)6261018330.117,83426088929.2
Christchurch4945314932.811,32928688132.5
Dunedin252337532.25,5612931.05427.8
            Totals2342.35473231.164,37426391128.9

Classification of Cinemas-The following table shows the classification of cinemas according to number of screening days per week and of circuit operators.

ScreeningNumber of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeGross Admission Takings
* Twelve circuits.
 No.No. of Seats(000)No.d.£(000)
Six days per week204162,54632,91620233.34,568
Odd days per week25478,2164,3965625.8472
Circuit33*5,5992714824.327
  Totals491246,36137,58415332.45,068
ScreeningAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Net Admission Takings
 £(000)£(000)£(000)Per Cent
Six days per week4054,1631,24429.9
Odd days per week3343913230.0
Circuit225728.9
  Totals4404,6281,38329.9
ScreeningPersons EngagedNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceProportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.Per Cent
Six days per week4654155281,179121,84427086531.2
Odd days per week1225746633631,45214037437.4
Circuit831872,25012123651.1
 Totals5954751,0121,522155,54624275731.9

Cinema Attendance in Principal Countries-The table below shows the number of admissions per head in the years quoted in a number of selected countries. These figures are taken from the United Nations Statistical Yearbook.

CountryYearNumber of Admissions
Total (Million)Per Head
Australia196021021.0
Austria19629112.7
Belgium1962828.9
Bulgaria196111814.8
Canada19601186.6
Czechoslovakia196215210.9
Denmark1960449.6
France19613447.5
Germany, East196023813.8
Germany, West19624538.0
Hong Kong19627421.7
Hungary196113513.5
Ireland, Republic of19613813.5
Israel1961-624218.5
Italy196174415.1
Japan19626627.0
New Zealand1962-633815.0
Norway1961349.4
Russia (U.S.S.R.)19613,84917.7
Spain196137012.2
Sweden1961506.6
Switzerland1962458.0
United Kingdom19614608.7
United States of America19612,16511.8
Yugoslavia19621216.4

Chapter 13. Section 13 PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY

Table of Contents

PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY INDEXES-Growth rates in a national economy constitute the most important single class of economic indicator. Growth is the result of many factors but attention has been focussed in recent years on labour productivity, that is, the relation between output and labour input.

As a basis for improved measures of productivity, the Department of Statistics instituted in 1962 a new volume of production index. The new index, known as the Index of Production, measures the output of all goods and services produced by the economy. Its complete coverage and concept of net output bring it into line with the approach to national income and sector accounts. The former indexes for the value and volume of production, which were compiled by the Department for over 30 years and were printed on pages 0 and 411 of the 1963 issue of the Yearbook, are now obsolete and are not being continued Not only does the new index produce a more comprehensive volume of production measure, but it also provides the basis for a prod activity index known as the Index of Productivity. The two indexes not only provide measures of the country's economic growth, but they also give the Court of Arbitration a measure of productivity for its wage claim deliberations. The Court is now specifically required to have regard to productivity when considering an application for a general wage order.

The advantages of the Index of Production covering the whole productive process are obvious. For one thing services of all kinds are of major importance in present day economic life and obviously must be adequately covered by indexes representative of the whole production structure of the economy. The weighting of the index is still based upon the pattern derived for the 1954-55 Inter-Industry Study, and the weights for each indicator are derived from the net output and depreciation represented by that indicator in 1954-55. The divisions for the sector indexes are based upon the industrial division of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification which, in turn, is based upon an industrial classification recommended by the United Nations and which is being universally adopted by other countries. The proportionate weighting is now as follows:

 Weight per cent
Farming20.7
Forestry and logging0.8
Fisheries, etc.0.3
Mining and quarrying -1.0
Manufacturing21.6
Building and construction -8.2
Electric power and gas -1.6
Services45.8
 100.0

For the 1962-63 compilation, some methodological improvements have been made for the Farming, Forestry and Logging, Fisheries, etc., Building and Construction, and Services groups, necessitating small revisions to the previously published series.

Production Index-The following are the figures for the new index equated to Base 1954-55 = 1000.

YearIndex
1954-551000
1955-561036
1956-571056
1957-581113
1958-591146
1959-601194
1960-611267
1961-621313
1962-631351

Over the eight years studied the index increased by 35.1 per cent, an average rate of approximately 3.8 per cent each year. The year 1955-56 gave an increase almost the same as the average, but in 1956-57 the increase was only 1.9 per cent, a result caused mainly by a slight fall in the Building and Construction group and a relatively small increase in the Manufacturing group. The following year 1957-58, the main index rose by 5.4 per cent, with the heavily weighted Manufacturing, Farming, and Services groups all contributing substantially. The latter half of the year 1958-59 was a period of restraint, and particularly affected was the Services group (mainly wholesale and retail trade) which recorded a small rise only. After allowing for off-setting solid increases in the Farming and Manufacturing groups, the overall index rise was recorded as 3.0 per cent in 1958-59.

There was a year of recovery in 1959-60 with an average rise of 4.2 per cent. This was followed in 1960-61 by the biggest rise in the period covered, when sharp increases in the Manufacturing and Services groups were the main reason for the 6.1 per cent rise in the overall index. In 1961-62, the increase of 3.6 per cent was not far short of the average for the period, but for the latest year 1962-63, the increase at 2.9 per cent is considerably below the average. A decline in the Building and Construction group and a smaller than average increase in the Services group are mainly responsible. The following table shows the group indexes.

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION: MAJOR GROUP INDEXES
Industrial Group1954-551955-561956-571957-581958-591959-601960-611961-621962-63
Farming100010191047111411681194124012651325
Forestry and logging100010751075110211661284131513341295
Fisheries, etc.100010441056109611031153119511431206
Mining and quarrying100011131188117612421289140913391290
Manufacturing100010481065113912031244136614361501
Power and gas100010911138129012811435152516541832
Building and construction100010501049110311321255131713661327
All services100010321052109611051147121112551283
 Total All Groups100010361056111311461194126713131351

The table shows the steady progress in the output of farming, the best years being 1957-58, 1958-59, and 1962-63. During the eight years covered it showed a rise of 32.5 per cent, which was not far below the rise for all groups.

The other primary industry groups all increased their output but at a lower level than the average. The Power and Gas group recorded the largest increase over the period viz, 83.2 per cent.

The Manufacturing group showed the second largest increase, with a rise of 50.1 per cent during the period, considerably above the average. Despite the fall in the 1962-63 year, the Building and Construction group, with a 32.7 per cent rise, still showed a gain over the eight years not far short of the overall average for the full period.

The most heavily weighted group, Services, recorded an increase of 28.3 per cent, which was below the average of 35.1 per cent. Industries in this group may be said to be of two kinds, those for supplying the needs of persons in their private capacity directly, and those which service industries of all kinds. The volume index for these service industries covers many activities such as wholesale and retail trade, transport and communication, finance, education, and personal services.

Productivity Index-The productivity index shows changes in volume of output per person engaged in the labour force and is obtained by dividing the volume of production index by an index of employment. The index of employment is an index of the total labour force for the year, including working proprietors but excluding armed forces and unemployed.

Production YearIndex of ProductionIndex of EmploymentIndex of Productivity
1954-55100010001000
1955-56103610201016
1956-57105610381017
1957-58111310591051
1958-59114610821059
1959-60119410931092
1960-61126711181133
1961-62131311431149
1962-63135111611164

Comparing the index of production with the index of employment shows how the average output per person engaged varied over the eight years under review. It can be seen that the productivity index is more sensitive to changes in economic tempo than is the index of production. In 1956-57 there was virtually no increase in productivity, but in 1957-58 there was a gain of 3.3 per cent. Then 1958-59 was another year of low productivity gain, while the succeeding year gave an increase slightly less than that of 1957-58, and the gain in 1960-61 was of 3.8 per cent. In 1961-62 the increase was 1.4 per cent, and the latest year, 1962-63, shows an increase of 1.3 per cent. Over the period covered productivity has increased by 16.4 per cent, which represents an average annual rate of increase of 1.9 per cent.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT IN CONSTANT PRICES-The index of production, covering national output in its entirety, and allowing for the input of goods and services by individual producing units, provides material with which the gross domestic product in constant prices is obtained. With only minor modification, particularly the inclusion of the service of defence, it can be converted into an index of real gross domestic product. The results from 1954-55 to 1962-63 are as follows:

YearIndex of ProductionIndex of Real Gross Domestic Product
1954-5510001000
1955-5610361035
1956-5710561054
1957-5811131111
1958-5911461143
1959-6011941191
1960-6112671263
1961-6213131308
1962-6313511345

An examination of these two indexes, shows that the major influences on their movements are identical.

Gross domestic product in current prices can be obtained from gross national product by allowing for net income accruing to overseas residents. Both have been obtained by the Department of Statistics in its annual compilation of the national income and expenditure. The figures from 1954-55 to 1962-63 are as follows:

YearGross National ProductGross Domestic Product
 £(m)£(m)
1954-55930939
1955-56983992
1956-571,0311,041
1957-581,0921,102
1958-591,1351,149
1959-601,2171,229
1960-611,311x1,331x
1961-621,357x1,374x
1962-631,453x1,478x

The index of real gross domestic product can then be used to derive gross domestic product in constant prices and, by allowing for the share of output accruing overseas, real gross national product can also be obtained. This is done in the following tables where both the gross domestic product and the gross national product are expressed in 1954-55 prices.

YearIndex of Real Gross Domestic ProductGross Domestic Product at 1954-55 PricesGross National Product at 1954-55 Prices
  £(m)£(m)
1954-551000939930
1955-561035972963
1956-571054990980
1957-5811111,0431,034
1958-5911431,0731,060
1959-6011911,1181,107
1960-6112631,1861,168
1961-6213081,2281,213
1962-6313451,263l,242x

There are two advantages in compiling these two important national income aggregates in constant prices. In the first place the elimination of price movements from them, as from any other national income data, does give a better idea of changes in their real value from year to year; second, expressing a volume of production index in value terms, in this instance constant values, does enable it to be compared with other economically significant statistics expressed in similar values. This gives a further dimension to the statistics that an index number alone does not possess, and thereby adds to their usefulness as economic statistics.

Gross domestic product is the value of all goods and services produced by the economy during the year. The total value of goods and services available for internal use either for personal consumption, Government use, capital formation or stock accumulation can be obtained by deducting from the total gross domestic product at current prices, that portion which is exported, and adding the value of goods and services imported. In the following table exports and imports of goods and services are also derived from the figures for national income and expenditure.

YearGross Domestic ProductExports of Goods and Services xImports of Goods and ServicesValue of Goods and Services Available x
£(m)
1954-55939253278964
1955-569922833011,010
1956-571,0412972981,042
1957-581,1022963291,135
1958-591,1492882891,150
1959-601,2293352741,168
1960-611,331x3153411,357
1961-621,374x3173431,400
1962-631,478x3343251,469

Just as gross domestic product and gross national product corrected for price changes are better indicators of the volume of production and the level of economic growth, so also if the goods and services available for internal use are expressed in constant prices, a better idea of the volume of goods and services available, and the economic welfare of the country can be obtained. Therefore, in the following table, corrections are made to eliminate price changes from the value of imports and exports, so that the value of goods and services available, in 1954-55 prices, can be obtained from gross domestic product also in 1954-55 prices.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954-55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 Prices xImports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 PricesGoods and Services Available for Use at 1954-55 Prices x
£(m)
1954-55939253278964
1955-56972284291979
1956-57990296281975
1957-581,0432983061,051
1958-591,0733312751,017
1959-601,1183402651,043
1960-611,1863293251,182
1961-621,228353328x1,203
1962-631,263363318x1,218

Although a comparison of the gross domestic product with the value of goods available gives some indication as to whether or not the country is living within its means, the omission of certain balance of payments data, notably transactions in investment income and unilateral transfers, does limit its value. On the other hand, if exports and imports are corrected for price changes and compared with the gross domestic product in constant prices, this provides a useful measure of welfare in the volume of goods and services available for internal use. It can be seen from the preceding table that, although the volume of exports has increased considerably, the volume of imports has not increased to such an extent. This is due in part to the fact that over the years the prices of imports have been rising at a faster rate than the prices of exports. Indeed, the price level of exports has fallen since 1954-55, but import prices have risen. In order to assess the loss caused by this deterioration in the terms of trade, the following table shows gross domestic product at constant prices corrected for the terms of trade. From gross domestic product at constant prices there is deducted that portion which is exported and added back the amount of imports that can be exchanged for these exports. By comparing the gross domestic product at 1954-55 prices with the corrected figure it is seen that there has been a steady loss in purchasing power of the gross domestic product over the years the worst years being a loss of £62 million in 1958-59, a loss of £56 million in 1961-62, and a loss of £40 million in the latest year.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954-55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 Prices xExports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of Trade xEffective Gross Domestic Product
£(m)
1954-55939253253939
1955-56972284276964
1956-57990296282976
1957-581,0432982741,019
1958-591,0733312691,011
1959-601,1183403191,097
1960-611,1863292961,153
1961-621,2283532971,172
1962-631,2633633231,223

By making this correction to the gross domestic product at 1954-55 prices, a much better picture can be obtained of the purchasing power, both here and abroad, of the income it represents.

The final table uses figures shown in previous tables. It is intended to be a summary of the previous paragraphs and to enable the significant aggregates to be compared one with another.

YearGross Domestic Product at Current PricesGross Domestic Product at 1954-55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 Prices xExports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of Trade xImports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 PricesEffective Gross Domestic ProductGoods and Services Available for Use at 1954-55 Prices x
£(m)
1954-55939939253253278939964
1955-56992972284276291964979
1956-571,041990296282281976975
1957-581,1021,0432982743061,0191,051
1958-591,1491,0733312692751,0111,017
1959-601,2291,1183403192651,0971,043
1960-611,331x1,1863292963251,1531,182
1961-621,374x1,228353297328x1,1721,203
1962-631,478x1,263363323328x1,2231,218

Gross Domestic Product at Current Prices is the total value of goods and services produced by the national economy in any particular year.

Gross Domestic Product at 1954-55 Prices is the gross domestic product from which price changes since the base year have been eliminated to enable its real value in terms of goods and services to be evaluated.

Exports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 Prices is that portion of the gross domestic product at constant prices which is exported.

Exports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of Trade-This is the value of imports at base year prices (i.e., 1954-55) that can be obtained in exchange for the year's exports.

Imports of Goods and Services at 1954-55 Prices-This is the value of goods and services at base year prices that were actually imported during the year.

Effective Gross Domestic Product-This is the gross domestic product at 1954-55 prices to which a correction has been made to allow for the purchasing power in overseas markets of that portion which is exported. The correction is the same as that used to adjust exports of goods and services for changes in the terms of trade.

Goods and Services Available for Use at 1954-55 Prices is obtained by deducting exports of goods and services from the gross domestic product at 1954-55 prices and adding imports of goods and services at 1954-55 prices.

While all these figures cannot be regarded as exact measures, they reveal certain trends in the national economy. Thus while it can be said that production and productivity have grown steadily over the last eight years, deterioration in export prices and hence in the terms of trade has reduced the benefits of increased production. It also shows why New Zealand is so dependent on her overseas trade to maintain her standard of living and economic development.

Chapter 14. Section 14 FARMING

14 A-GENERAL

SOILS AND LAND USE-Soil is the product of its environment-of the rock waste which is the parent material, of the climate under which it weathers, of the kind of topography upon which it is situated, of the vegetation under which it develops, and of the length of time during which it has been developing. In New Zealand, the wide variety of conditions under which the many kinds of rock are transformed into soil results in a complex pattern. Yet it is a complexity showing regularities and relationships that enable the soils to be grouped and classified. The conditions that control soil formation tend also to govern the kind of land use. Thus a close relationship between soils and land use arises in two ways-from characteristics inherent in the soils themselves and from environmental factors such as the climate and topography. Maps showing the pattern of soils and of land use are published in A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand (1959). Soils are shown in two divisions: (a) zonal soils, and (b) intrazonal and azonal soils; and descriptions of the location, properties, and productive capacities of the different soil types in New Zealand are now given.

Zonal Soils-If the soils formed from unusual parent materials, e.g., volcanic ash, and those occupying special sites, such as steep slopes and swampy hollows, are set aside, a simple pattern of zonal soils is revealed. It consists of the brown-grey earths of the semi-arid areas where the rainfall is less than about 20 inches a year; the yellow-grey earths of subhumid areas where the rainfall is approximately 20-40 inches a year; the northern, central and southern, and high-country yellow-brown earths respectively of the humid regions where the rainfall is well distributed and is greater than approximately 40 inches a year; and the podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols where an acid litter of decomposing vegetation and high rainfall result in excessive leaching. Zonal soils comprise 18 million of the country's 66 million acres.

The brown-grey earths (1½ m; ½ m acres*) occupy the dry inter-montane basins of Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains where rainfall is insufficient for plant requirements for most of the year. They are generally rich in plant nutrients and are weakly acid to alkaline, in places with salty patches. Many of them are stony. Their chief need is more water but irrigation must be practised with care to avoid waterlogging or spreading salts. They produce fine wool and store sheep and, where irrigated, fat lambs; lucerne is grown and, in favoured spots, stone fruits and brassica and other seed crops.

The yellow-grey earths (2½ m; ¾ m acres) are the seasonally dry soils of southern Otago, Canterbury, Wairarapa, Hawke's Bay, and Manawatu, where rainfall is inadequate for plant growth for a third to half of the year. They are moderately to weakly acid, and the older soils have a thick hard silt-pan in the subsoil. Fat-lamb farming is the principal use with mixed arable farming on the drier soils and some dairying on the moister soils. Stony soils related to the yellow-grey earths (l½ m acres) cover much of Canterbury Plains; they are used for sheep farming including fat lambs; with irrigation, they carry over four ewes per acre and grow cereal and pasture seed crops.

The rainfall of the yellow-brown earths is usually adequate for plant growth for most of the year. The high-country yellow-brown earths (½ m; 1 m acres) of the cold upland basins east of the Southern Alps are developed under tussock at high elevations. They have yellow friable subsoils and are moderately acid and strongly leached. Where oversown with clovers they respond to molybdenised superphosphate and sulphur. They are used mostly for wool production and some store sheep. The southern and central yellow-brown earths (2 m; 4½ m acres) of the cool and mild districts like Southland and Wellington were formed under forest and have nutty subsoils. When sown to pasture with lime and superphosphate (in places molybdenised), they are used for dairying and fat lambs on the rolling land, and for wool production, store stock, and some fat lambs on the more hilly slopes. Cattle are also run to help control pasture growth and prevent its reversion to scrub and fern. The associated podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (140,000; 200,000 acres) are best developed in Southland. They are formed under rimu-kamahi forest and are very strongly leached with grey acid structureless topsoils and with iron pans in the subsoils in places. They are being brought into pasture for sheep and cattle grazing. Waterlogged counterparts of these soils, the gley podzols or "pakihi soils" ( ¾ m; 100,000 acres) occur in Westland where the rainfall is 100 inches or so per year. They have structureless subsoils and their chief problem is one of drainage to remove the excess water. They are difficult to utilise once the forest has been removed. The northern yellow-brown earths (½ m; ¾ m acres), formed under mixed forest in the warm moist climate of North Auckland, are mostly heavy clays. The more fertile soils are moderately acid but support good pastures when top-dressed with lime and phosphate, in places molybdenised; the rolling land is used for dairying and fat lambs, the hills for sheep and cattle grazing. The less fertile soils support fair pastures when top-dressed with lime and superphosphate; on the easier land many dairy- and fat-lamb farms are situated, but pastures on the hill country are less easy to maintain.

*Where two areas are given in parentheses after particular types of soil they refer to easy and hilly land respectively, and are usually expressed in millions of acres.

The northern podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (1/2 m; 300,000 acres) have thin grey structureless topsoils overlying a grey siliceous horizon, and are strongly acid and very low in plant nutrients. Where formed under kauri they are known as "gumlands". In places, especially where the soils are sandy, farming should be approached with caution because subsoil pans of humus and iron impede drainage; otherwise with fertilisers the soils can be made to support good dairy pastures.

Intrazonal and Azonal Soils - The intrazonal soils include the soils from less-common parent materials and those influenced by high ground water; and the azonal soils are youthful owing to recent renewal by sedimentation, volcanic eruptions, or erosion.

Rendzina and other lime-rich soils, mostly from limestones, occur both in subhumid areas (100,000 acres) such as near Oamaru, in North Canterbury, and in Hawke's Bay, and in the humid areas (1/4 m acres) particularly North Auckland. They are fertile, with deep, dark granular topsoils. In the drier areas, they are used for intensive arable farming and sheep farming and, near Oamaru, for poultry farming; in the humid areas, for dairying and fat lambs.

The yellow-brown sands (3/4 m acres), from coastal sand drifts of various ages, occur on sandhills which dry out excessively in summer and on sand plains where ground water approaches the surface in winter. The drier soils are used for grazing; the soils with moister subsoils, after fertilising with phosphate and potash, are used for sheep farming and dairying. Where the subsoils are loose, blowing is a problem.

The yellow-brown pumice soils (2 m; 2 m acres) of central North Island are formed mostly of two volcanic ash showers that fell 800 and 1,700 years ago. Their topsoils are mostly sands or sandy loams, and the subsoils pumice sands and gravels. Because the cattle and sheep became bush sick these areas were difficult to farm for many years and large areas were planted in exotic forests. However, the ailment is now overcome by topdressing with cobaltised superphosphate and, except where droughty, the soils can be converted into good farmland. In addition to phosphate they need consolidation and, after continued use, potash topdressing. The yellow-brown loams (4 m acres) are derived mostly from fine-textured ashes erupted by volcanoes in central North Island and by Mount Egmont and occur around the margin of the younger pumice soils. They are very friable loamy soils, respond well to superphosphate topdressing, and give slight to good responses to lime; potash responses are expected to increase with continued use. The soils are used mainly for dairying and fat-lamb production. The red and brown loams and brown granular clays (1 1/4 m acres) are formed from basalts and andesites and are rich in iron and aluminium. They are friable soils with strong structure and a marked power to fix phosphates. The younger, more fertile soils (1/2 m; 1/4 m acres) respond to superphosphate and lime, those from basalt also respond to potash; they are used for dairying, fat-lamb production, and sheep grazing, and in places for market gardens and orchards. The older soils have lower natural fertility and include the strongly acid granular soils and the moderately acid ironstone soils; they carry fair pastures when topdressed with lime, phosphate, and potash and, on the acid soils, with molybdenised superphosphate.

The organic soils (1/2 m acres) are peaty and occur mostly in the Auckland district. Where mellow and fertile they can be farmed satisfactorily, but the peats of acid bogs require special treatment. They gley soils (3/4 m acres) are formed under the influence of groundwater which causes the formation of grey subsoils commonly mottled with rust colours. They, too, occur mostly in the Auckland district, and when drained are used for dairying and fat-lamb production.

Recent soils from alluvium (1 1/2 m acres) are formed from flood sediments on river flats. For the most part they are fertile, deep loams, but some are gravelly with excessive drainage. They are used mainly for fat lambs and dairying; also, in drier areas, for cereals, pasture and vegetable seed crops, pulse crops for canning, pip and stone fruits, small fruits, and tobacco.

Recent soils from volcanic ash (1 3/4 m acres) occur mostly around the active volcanoes of Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu, and also around Mount Tarawera. Where they cover the pumice soils their cobalt content offsets the deficiency in the pumice.

Steepland soils occupy about half the area of New Zealand, being most extensive on the axial ranges, and in north-west Nelson and east Taranaki. Although showing characters related to the zone where they occur they are for the most part shallow and their subsoils vary widely in fertility according to the underlying rock. They are relatively unstable and are periodically renewed by erosion. When the plant cover is disturbed by man the erosion is accelerated and the results affect not only the hillsides but also the rivers and river flats. Areas occupied by these soils are: steepland brown-grey earths, 1/2 m acres; steepland yellow-grey earths, 1/2 m acres; high-country steepland yellow-brown earths, 4 1/2 m acres; other steepland yellow-brown earths, 14 m acres (including 2 m with high natural fertility); and podzolised steepland soils, 6 3/4 m acres. The podzolised steepland soils are largely in forest, and occur mainly in western Nelson, Westland, and western Southland, at altitudes from 5,000 ft in the north to 3,000 ft in the south. Above these levels there are 2 3/4 m acres of poor wet soils largely in subalpine scrub and tussock, and grading up to the alpine barrens (3 3/4 m acres) at elevations where vegetation is sparse or absent and much bare rock and ice are present.

New Approach to Land Use - The rapid increase in knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to land use. In the early thirties the use of land was still guided by the art of judging its capabilities from external appearances and a general knowledge of farming and local conditions. This method had its successes but in places failed badly, for example, in parts of the country, pastures could not be maintained and farm land was abandoned. The need for solving such problems led to the improvement in ways of recognising and mapping the soils so that their properties and uses could be determined. Today, land use is guided for the most part by the capabilities of the soil type as revealed by investigation. The reliability of predictions made in this way has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of "problem" land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency. It reflects the modern swing from farming as a traditional art to farming as an up-to-date science.

NATURE OF FARMING - The natural tussock grassland, which occurs mainly on the hilly and mountainous country to the east of the Main Divide of the South Island, is used for extensive pastoral farming, where the main product is wool and in some instances store sheep, while on the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are additional products. The third type of grassland, that sown after ploughing, is found on the flat and gently undulating country of both Islands and is used mainly for the production of meat and dairy produce. Here farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime and trace elements. However, with the advent of mechanisation, and, more particularly, the use of aircraft for topdressing hill pastures, considerable areas of surface-sown grassland have been topdressed in recent years. This treatment of country otherwise inaccessible to normal topdressing methods, coupled with oversowing of grass, is resulting in considerable improvement to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

The North Island - Many parts of the North Island have proved very suitable for dairying because of the temperate climate, a fairly high rainfall well distributed over the year, and land reasonably flat and of average to good quality. Approximately 89 per cent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, Central Auckland, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington Statistical Areas. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as one cow per acre, and annual production as high as 200 to 350 lb of butterfat per acre. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is associated with dairying, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty. Sheep farming is carried on throughout the Island, but it is most concentrated in Rangitikei-Manawatu and on the eastern section from the Wairarapa, through Hawke's Bay, to the hill country north of Gisborne.

The South Island - Sheep farming is practised in practically all parts of the Island east of the Southern Alps. The tussock grasslands, particularly on the higher parts, carry about one sheep to 10 acres, whereas improved pastures heavily topdressed carry six or more sheep to the acre. On the easier hill country, in addition to returns from wool, a considerable portion of the revenue comes from the sale of store sheep, which are purchased by the farmers on the plains and undulating country for fattening and for flock-replacement purposes.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 91 per cent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley acreage is in these districts. On the majority of the cereal-producing farms sheep and lambs are also fattened. Considerable areas (approximately three-quarters of the New Zealand acreage) of rape, kale, turnips, and swedes are grown for summer and winter supplementary feed.

Dairying is very localised and is concentrated near the cities to cater for whole-milk requirements. Districts where herds are run for dairy-factory supply are the plains areas of Southland; parts of Nelson and Westland; and Banks Peninsula, in Canterbury. Less than 10 per cent of the dairy cows are in the South Island, and approximately one-sixth of the beef cattle.

CLASSIFICATION OF HOLDINGS BY PRINCIPAL FARMING ENTERPRISES - The collection of farm production statistics in 1960 was carried out as New Zealand's part of the World Census of Agriculture. Detailed information has been published separately in the report on the New Zealand Census of Agriculture, 1959-60.

For purposes of fuller analysis of the New Zealand results than is customarily given in Statistical Area (previously Land District) tables, counties with some affinity as to farming types, etc., have been regrouped to form what have been designated "Regional Areas", and certain tables given in Sections 14B and 14C of this volume are set out on this basis. The following sets out in detail the content of these regional areas.

Regional AreaCounties Included (as at 1960)
Northland-Mangonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangarei, Hobson, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata.
South Auckland-Manukau, Franklin, Raglan.
Waikato and Hauraki
Lowlands-Waikato, Waipa, Otorohanga, Hauraki Plains, Piako, Matamata.
Cape ColvilleGreat Barrier, Coromandel, Thames, Ohinemuri.
Central PlateauTauranga, Rotorua, Taupo, Whakatane.
Westland UplandsWaitomo, Taumarunui, Clifton, Waimarino.
TaranakiTaranaki, Inglewood, Egmont, Stratford, Eltham, Waimate West, Hawera.
East CapeOpotiki, Matakaoa, Waiapu, Uawa, Waikohu, Cook.
Hawke's BaWairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Patangata.
RangitikeiPatea, Waitotara, Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina.
ManawatuDannevirke, Woodville, Oroua, Manawatu, Kairanga, Horowhenua, Pahiatua.
WairarapaEketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Wairarapa South, Akitio.
FeatherstonHutt, Makara, Featherston.
NelsonWaimea, Golden Bay, Buller, Murchison, Inangahua.
MarlboroughSounds, Marlborough, Awatere, Kaikoura.
WestlandGrey, Westland.
North CanterburyAmuri, Cheviot, Waipara.
FoothillsAshley, Oxford, Tawera, Selwyn.
Canterbury PlainsKowai, Rangiora, Eyre, Malvern, Paparua, Springs, Ellesmere.
ChristchurchWaimairi, Heathcote, Halswell.
Banks PeninsulaMount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa.
MackenzieMackenzie.
South CanterburyAshburton, Geraldine, Levels, Waimate, Waitaki.
OtagoWaihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka.
Central OtagoManiatoto, Vincent, Lake.
SouthernBruce, Clutha, Southland, Wallace.
RemainderChatham Islands, Stewart Island.

Figures for 1959-60 as to the number of holdings of various principal types of farming enterprises in the several regional areas (each Island separately) are here presented. ("Principally" means 75 per cent or more; "predominant" means 50-74 per cent; "mixed" means approximately equal; "general mixed" covers three or more types with none predominant.)

Regional AreaPrincipally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep PredominantCropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (including Horticulture, Timber, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
Northland5,3971,371492382911658111589811,55710,604
South Auckland2,3571,081127167604912143643172414,492
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands5,9621,382128374107117531742322728,657
Cape Colville58915727692025---21541681,130
Central Plateau2,12666854228621031422463804764,161
Western Uplands3421,5562813086821542401012222,608
Taranaki3,2096662216660986-3451041024,481
East Cape5391,06856842646665836922012702,542
Hawke's Bay2572,045474652551198537593582053,365
Rangitikei5542,0173991987999173946533,123
Manawatu1,9201,733621371171217013835150754,441
Wairarapa3611,010374393449351040141,642
Featherston275454833231228-167378991
Totals, North Island23,88815,2081,0931,9818419864911841066893,0373,73352,237
Marlborough2027241047181417021623989561,452
Nelson6255486412959708750341485071672,488
Westland21422713765916--1980116874
North Canterbury155074298188132923193820
Foothills45331691611103920196012641
Canterbury Plains47848318353921362145196217256522,302
Christchurch12148144238962618830459
Banks Peninsula75259722241610226164443
Mackenzie-225  1-693109217345
South Canterbury3321,8731947102361,335175415271383595,047
Otago2301,07823212523988727278741,892
Central Otago16663851126251015162731,032
Southern1744,35129311418191777814662571646,760
Remainder-85-211----641136
Totals, South Island2,52711,4023396997344123,2694488068752,32285824,691
Totals, New Zealand26,41526,6101,4322,6801,5751,3983,7606329121,5645,3594,59176,928

The average area of holdings where the main types of farming were principally carried out were: dairy, 147 acres; sheep, 1,141 acres; beef, 1,033 acres. The most common size groups were: dairy, 75-99 acres; sheep, 250-399 acres; beef, 250-399 acres.

EMPLOYMENT ON FARMS - In 1961 a total of 121,641 persons were employed in agriculture and livestock production. Of this total, which is derived from the 1961 Census of Population, 39,101 were engaged in sheep farming, 41,749 in dairy farming, 20,622 in mixed farming, 3,610 in market gardening, 2,300 in farm contracting, and 3,627 in fruitgrowing. At the time of the previous census in 1956 a total of 125,692 persons were employed in agriculture and livestock production. There was little change in the number employed in sheep farming (39,627 in 1956 and 39,101 in 1961), but the number engaged in dairy farming declined from 47,307 to 41,749.

Of the 39,101 persons engaged in 1961 in sheep farming 10,396 were employers, and 9,324 were farming on their own account. Comparable figures in 1956 were 11,284 employers and 9,421 farming on own account. In dairy farming the number of employers declined from 10,969 in 1956 to 9,126 in 1961, while the number farming on their own account declined from 20,965 to 13,749.

Wage and salary earners in the sheep farming industry numbered 18,515 in 1956 and 19,000 in 1961. In the dairy farming industry they numbered 14,445 in 1956 and 18,209 in 1961, an increase in wage and salary earners partly offsetting the decline in the number of persons farming on their own account in this industry.

The following table is based on occupations recorded at the 1961 Census. The number of persons engaged in farming occupations does not coincide exactly with the number employed in the farming industry. A number of persons engaged in farming occupations would be employed in other industries, and on the other hand, a number of persons in non-farming occupations would be employed in the farming industry. For example, gardeners are included under farm occupations, but a number are employed in gardens attached to factories, and so will be included in the labour force of manufacturing industries. Examples of people in non-farming occupations who may be employed in the farming industry are accountants, cooks, and pilots of topdressing planes. However, with these minor qualifications, the table does give a broad picture of the occupations of those engaged in the farming industry at the Population Census of 1961.

Major Groups and Selected OccupationsMalesFemalesTotal
n.o.d. - not otherwise defined.
Farmers and farm managers-Dairy farmer23,6141,11124,725
Sheep farmer, station owner, run holder22,04263822,680
Farmer in mixed farming13,07245413,526
Farmer or settler, n.o.d.61443657
Farm manager, foreman, or overseer5538561
Market gardener1,8791672,046
Orchardist, fruitgrower1,344571,401
Poultry farmer9842301,214
Nurseryman57885663
Cattle farmer, grazier35421375
Sharemilker4,5143554,869
Wheat or other grain grower, agricultural farmer34910359
Other1,426921,518
Totals71,3233,27174,594
Other farm occupations
Farm labourer, n.o.d.23,2281,30324,531
Landgirl...1,0401,040
Relative assisting on farm371213584
Orchard hand, n.o.d.8541801,034
Shepherd, musterer3,941323,973
Shearer2,07192,080
Milker2578631,120
Fencer1,40821,410
Tractor driver1,40721,409
Farm contractor, n.o.d.7386744
Gardener, jobbing or n.o.d.2,0431012,144
Poultry farm worker23697333
Market garden hand1,0355371,572
Other4,6531,6386,291
Totals42,2426,02348,265
Totals, all farm occupations113,5659,294122,859

GROSS FARMING INCOME - Gross farming income is the value of the output of the farming sector. A general revision of this statistical series was made in 1963 and the succeeding three tables give the revised form. The three divisions that were in force for many years - (a) Agricultural (b) Pastoral, (c) Dairying, poultry and bees - have been replaced by a classification comprising seven groups more closely identified with particular products. Statistics of quantitative farm production and prices received by farmers constitute the basic data used in the computation of estimates of aggregate receipts from sales of farm produce. Such charges as sales commissions and producer boards' levies, forming part of the value of the finished products but not of returns to the farmers, are excluded. The figures do not purport to show the aggregate net income from farming after all expenses of farm operations have been met. They are intended to afford an indication of the return available to farmers as a whole to meet current expenses of farm operation, interest payments, other costs, and to provide an income for themselves and their employees.

Except in the cases indicated in the next paragraph, no attempt has been made to exclude from the scope of the compilations that portion of marketable farm produce which may be consumed on the farm. Similarly, that portion of farm produce which is sold to other farmers as material for further farm production is in general included. For example, the value of production of grass seeds is included under the heading "Grain and field crops", although - except for exports - almost the whole of this crop is used for the sowing or renewal of pasture lands. An exception, however, occurs in the case of inter-farm sales of livestock, whether the animals are purchased for breeding or fattening, as no data are available on which to base an estimate of the aggregate annual value of such sales. With this exception, the totals shown for all farm produce thus represent the total income (including receipts from sales to other farmers), plus certain allowances for farm produce used on the farm. On the other hand, products of kitchen gardens and of other activities more intimately associated with the home than with the farm do not come within the ambit of this inquiry.

Production of green-fodder crops, turnips, and mangolds is not included. The view taken is that production of these crops is a normal and essential part of farm routine to be regarded more in the nature of a farm cost than as production of a salable commodity. Consequently, the unknown - but, it is believed, very small - proportion sold of the total production of this class of farm produce is omitted from the totals shown. It is arbitrarily assumed that 20 per cent both of grasses and clovers cut for hay, and of oats cut for chaff or hay, come within the scope of this inquiry, the remainder being omitted for reasons similar to those advanced in the case of green fodder, etc.

The division into seven groups - Grain and field crops; Horticulture, poultry and bees; Wool; Mutton and lamb; Beef; Dairying; and Pigs - has been made entirely on the nature of the produce. The principal items included in grain and field crops are cereals, peas, potatoes, onions, hay sold commercially, and grass seeds. The second group covers the produce of commercial gardens, vineyards, orchards, hop and tobacco gardens, together with honey and eggs. For both these groups transport charges from farm to market, and commission on sales are, as far as possible, excluded.

For the wool group only the production of shorn wool is counted. It is valued at the average prices realised at sales or wartime appraisals during each season, the aggregate arrived at representing the value of wool produced in each season at the average sale or appraisal prices ruling during that season. These prices are, of course, based on wool sold during that season which may not include all wool shorn during that season, and most certainly includes carryovers from previous seasons. Deductions are made to cover the cost of the transport of wool to sales, the Wool Board levy, broker's commissions and other charges for receiving into store, cataloguing, etc., and for such services as binning, reclassing, and skirting when performed by brokers.

Slipe wool is not included in the wool group but under the heading for mutton and lamb as it is associated with the sales of sheep for the production of meat. The mutton group includes the value of lambs and sheep slaughtered as well as account of changes in the number of sheep on the farms at the end of each season. The val animals is assessed on the basis of live values at freezing works, but deductions are mad cost of transport from farms and for commission. The killing year is based upon a year ended 30 June.

The beef group comprises the value of all cattle slaughtered for meat except bobby calves. Vealer calves are included as are culls from dairy herds. The value for the group is completed by allowing for changes in the number of beef cattle on the farms at the end of the season.

The largest single item in the dairying group is the payout to suppliers during the season by factories producing butter, cheese, and dried milk, etc. The basis of valuation is at the farm gate, estimated allowance for the cost of milk transport to cheese factories being deducted. The estimate of the value of raw milk for human consumption at farm-gate prices is included, as well as the value of bobby calves slaughtered. Account is taken of the valuation of the number of dairy cattle.

The final group consists of all pigs slaughtered valued at farm-gate returns, with an allowance made for changes in the number of pigs.

The following table shows the figures of gross farming income for the past 16 production seasons as well as for the pre-war year 1938-39. The second part of this table gives the relative contributions of each of the seven groups in each year in the form of percentages of the total of all farm production.

YearGross Farming Income
Grain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsTotal
* Provisional.
£(million)
1938-394.76.39.312.26.628.32.4698
1948-4911.313.629.127.77.054.73.3146.7
1949-5011.614.946.934.39.062.93.5183.1
1950-5112.515.0113.665.712.168.24.2291.3
1951-5211.319.554.438.813.576.14.7218.3
1952-5311.920.364.046.822.390.05.9261.2
1953-5416.219.471.252.418.189.35.7272.3
1954-5515.920.775.856.022.484.55.6280.9
1955-5616.120.871.555.818.488.56.2277.3
1956-5714.822.591.562.020.989.65.7307.0
1957-5814.822.668.958.931.593.85.9296.4
1958-5915.921.865.253.033.786.46.1282.1
1959-6019.623.584.749.634.093.76.6311.7
1960-6121.125.279.154.627.592.37.1306.9
1961-6221.127.9x76.946.329.887.97.5297.4x
1962-63x21.728.590.253.934.488.78.0325.4
1963-64*22.330.7115.165.235.896.48.8374.3
Percentages of Total Income
1938-397913179413100
1948-498920195372100
1949-506826195342100
1950-514539234231100
1951-525925186352100
1952-535825189342100
1953-546726197332100
1954-556727208302100
1955-566826207322100
1956-575730207292100
1957-5858232011322100
1958-5968231912312100
1959-6068271611302100
1960-617826189302100
1961-6279x2616x1030x3x100
1962-63x79281711272100
1963-64*68311710262100

The following diagram shows the comparative rates of growth for the farming groups.

Index numbers have also been compiled showing the movements in volume of farm production both in total and for the same component groups as previously defined. For the compilation of these index numbers computations have been made for each season showing what the aggregate annual values would have been had 1938-39 prices been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production; for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The coverage of the pastoral production groups includes allowances for changes in the numbers of livestock on farms.

In the following tables index numbers of value and volume on the base: 1938-39 (= 100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year changes.

YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce
INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE
1938-39100100100100100100100100
1948-49240216313227106193138210
1949-50247237504281136222146262
1950-512662381222539183241175417
1951-52240310585318205269196313
1952-53253322688384338318246374
1953-54345308766430274316238390
1954-55338329815459339299233402
1955-56343330769457279313258397
1956-57315357984508317317238440
YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce
* Provisional.
INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE
1957-58315359741483477331246425
1958-59338346701434511305254404
1959-60417373911407515331275447
1960-61449400851448417326296440
1961-62449443x827380452311313426x
1962-63x462452970442521313333466
1963-64*4744871238534542341367536
INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME
1938-39100100100100100100100100
1948-4913715211012210111474118
1949-5012915711612911112275124
1950-5113814811713311912585127
1951-5212415512413112412577127
1952-5311715412713014313688133
1953-5413216013014312712985133
1954-5512116014014515512790136
1955-5610816914315215013187139
1956-5713516815415015113178141
1957-5813016615616917614186151
1958-59134169169186176140105157
1959-6016317217618918113792159
1960-6117917618319917214392166
1961-62163200x18420919614096169x
1962-63x195225197211208144110178
1963-64*195246194217199149117183

From the 1948-49 season through to the 1956-57 season the value series showed a much faster growth rate than the volume series, a result of a general upward movement in prices.

From 1956-57 to 1962-63 prices were more stable and in some cases showed a decline and, in consequence, the index of total value of farm produce remained relatively stable, even though the volume index showed a consistent upward movement.

In the latest year, 1963-64, considerably higher prices for wool, meat, and dairy products sold overseas, have resulted in a 15 per cent rise in the value index compared with a 2.8 per cent increase in the volume index.

The table clearly shows the effects of fluctuations in the price of wool from year to year.

Over the 25-year period, the average annual compound rate of increase in the volume series has been 2.4 per cent. For the latest five years the compound rate of increase has been 3.1 per cent.

FARM PRODUCTION: EXPORTS AND NEW ZEALAND CONSUMPTION - Estimates of the relative importance of exports and of consumption within New Zealand in the disposal of farm produce have been compiled by utilising the statistics of gross farming income in conjunction with statistics of trade in farm products.

In the paragraphs covering the statistics of gross farming income it is explained that these estimates were framed on the basis of "on the farm" values in order that they might indicate the gross receipts by the farmer, after making provision for transport charges and other expenses incurred in the marketing of produce.

In compiling the statistics of the relative importance of the New Zealand market and of export markets for farm products the value of exports has been assessed at the "farm" value of the commodities concerned, and not at the f.o.b. declared value for export. This adjustment has been made in order to ensure that both sets of statistics from which the comparison is made are on the same value basis. It will be realised, then, that the figures given in this statement indicate the proportions of total gross returns to farmers arising from farm products exported and from consumption of such products within New Zealand.

The figures of the return to farmers in respect of New Zealand consumption of farm produce have been obtained by deducting exports from total production. In these compilations exports of dairy products have been converted to a butterfat equivalent, the returns to farmers being computed on the basis of butterfat payout; while the slaughterings represented by exports of meat products have been taken as the basis on which to estimate farmers' receipts from exports of meat. In certain instances where statistics of stocks are available adjustment has been made for the carryover from one season to another. It has been assumed that stocks of wool, frozen meat, and butter and cheese carried over are held for export, and that other stocks are subsequently consumed within New Zealand.

Any lack of correspondence between the statistics of production and of trade will affect the accuracy of these estimates. Statistics of production relate to the production year for each commodity, or group of commodities, coming within the scope of this investigation. As the production years do not cover identical 12-monthly periods, the aggregate of production of farm produce includes statistics for a number of yearly periods ending in different months. Exports during any one year do not consist entirely of commodities produced within the same 12-monthly period to which the export statistics relate. The value of changes in number of livestock on farms is, on account of the complexities otherwise involved, wholly applied to the New Zealand consumption figure. The effect of these various factors is, however, minimised by taking averages for five seasons.

The following table shows in quinquennial periods, except for the latest period covering three years, the proportions of gross farming income arising from exports of farm produce and from consumption of such produce within New Zealand.

Gross Farming Income1936-37 to 1940-411941-42 to 1945-461946-47 to 1950-511951-52 to 1955-561956-57 to 1960-611961-62 to 1963-64
All farm produceper cent
From exports—676771706867
From New Zealand consumption 333329303233
Totals100100100100100100

DAIRY PRODUCTION - NOTE—The figures from (and including) 1961-62 onwards are for the year ended 31 May; those for the earlier years are for the year ended 30 June.

The total butterfat production "at the pail" during the 1963-64 dairy season is estimated to have amounted to 590.1 million lb, an increase of 23.5 million lb, or 4.0 per cent, above the 1962-63 figure of 566.6 million lb.

The quantity of butterfat processed by dairy factories in 1963-64 is estimated at 521.8 million lb, compared with 496.1 million lb processed by factories during 1962-63.

Variations over the last 10 years in total butterfat production, including estimates for butterfat in milk and cream sold for human consumption, used and lost on farms, etc., are shown hereunder. The table also give the number of dairy cows recorded as in milk, and estimates of the average butterfat production per cow "at the pail", which are derived by the New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board from data concerning tested herds.

YearTotal ButterfatDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per CowYearTotal ButterfatDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow
* Relates to holdings of 10 acres and over, whereas figures for earlier years relate to holdings of one acre and over.
 Million lb(000)lb Million lb(000)lb
1954-555071,9952561959-605471,887*288
1955-56530..2691960-615571,929*287
1956-575241,9982661961-625551,968*280
1957-585581,9672851962-635681,997*282
1958-595571,9312931963-645902,011*295

The next table shows the estimated production and utilisation of butterfat during each of the last five seasons. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board.)

Utilisation1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64

* Includes small quantities of creamery fat used in whey buttermaking.

†Including residual fat in skim-milk from home separation.

million lb
Creamery buttermaking*384.3387.4383.2395.0x421.7
Cheesemaking83.989.090.987.9x83.9
Whole-milk products8.18.37.910.212.3
Totals476.3484.7482.0493.1x517.9
Residual fat in skim-milk products2.42.62.63.0x3.9
Total processed by dairy factories478.7487.3484.6496.151.8
Consumed as milk, cream, or ice cream48.349.750.350.8x48.6
Farm butter0.20.20.20.20.2
Fed to stock14.114.114.213.9x13.7
Wastage5.45.55.55.65.8
Total production "at pail"546.7556.8554.8566.6x590.1

Changes in the usage of butterfat in dairy factories over recent years are indicated by the percentages in the following table.

UsagePercentage of Total Butterfat
1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
Butterfat received into factories from farms and used for
Buttermaking80.779.979.580.1x81.4
Cheesemaking17.618.418.917.8x16.2
Whole milk products1.71.71.62.12.4
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Total butterfat processed in 1963-64 was a record, but fat used for cheese production decreased from 87.9 million lb in 1962-63 to 83.9 million lb, that is, by 4.0 million lb, or 4.6 per cent. However, 13.5 million lb of fat was deliberately diverted from cheese to butter factories so, without diversion, cheese production would have expanded considerably. Conversely, without diversion, fat entering butter production would not have been so large. The 1963-64 butter and cheese production, then, has to be considered in terms of the impact of diversion if "normal" expansion is to be assessed.

Creamery butter production during 1963-64 amounted to 228,706 tons, being an increase of 14,700 tons, or 6.9 per cent on the previous season's total of 214,006 tons. Whey butter manufacture amounted to 2,836 tons, a decrease of 205 tons, or 6.7 per cent, from the previous year's total of 3,041 tons. Cheese manufacture totalled 95,090 tons, a decrease of 3,353 tons, or 3.4 per cent, from the previous season's total of 98,443 tons.

Of the other dairy products, skim milk powder rose by 12,051 tons, or 23.7 per cent, to 62,843 tons. Production of other products increased, buttermilk powder by 2,016 tons to 19,892 tons (an increase of 11.3 per cent), while casein production for 1963-64 at 41,426 tons was 5,622 tons more than the previous record figure of 35,804 tons in 1962-63. The output of condensed and powdered whole milk for 1963-64 was 15,608 tons, 1,198 tons (8.3 per cent) higher than for 1962-63.

Production by dairy factories during the last five seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
tons (000)
Creamery butter207.9210.2207.5214.0228.7
Whey butter3.13.33.23.02.8
Cheese93.399.1100.698.495.1
Condensed and powdered whole milk16.516.714.914.415.6
Skim-milk powder49.242.941.850.862.8
Buttermilk powder15.917.117.417.919.9
Casein24.530.635.435.8x41.4

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

The Dairy Production and Marketing Board has its functions defined in the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961. Marketing functions are discussed in section 19. It is the Board's concern to promote the orderly development of the dairy, bobby calf, and pig industries with a view to improving the quality of the stock and expanding production. Quality improvement involves testing stock for production, the development of artificial breeding, and research and experimental work. The organisation of orderly marketing of vells and bobby calves, pigs, and dairy stock is one of the functions of the Board.

The Board's production and administration section is financed by a levy on dairy produce. It shares with the Government the management and finance of the Dairy Research Institute, and, with the Government, the New Zealand Meat Producers Board, and the New Zealand Wool Board, the control of the Veterinary Services Council.

The Board is also represented on the Dairy Products Prices Authority, the Dairy Industry Loans Council, the Meat Producers Board, the Pig Producers Council, the Bobby Calf Pools Central Executive, the Dairy Factory Managers Registration Board, and on a committee which examines improvements in manufacture.

The Dairy Industry Act 1952 with its amendments, regulates the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture, under proper sanitary conditions, of dairy produce - i.e., milk, cream, butter, cheese, and any other product of milk or cream - intended for sale for human consumption within New Zealand or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises, or of the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection therewith, may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the inspector, and until so remedied their use in the production of dairy produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorised to condemn any dairy produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy produce is prohibited.

Dairy produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking.

The Cooperative Dairy Companies Act 1949 provides for the registration of cooperative dairy companies.

MEAT PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL - Meat production for the seasons ended September 1962, 1963, and 1964 shows the total weight of meat to be 821,200, 827,700, and 852,100 tons respectively. The following table shows in summary form production and disposal of meat for the years 1958-59 to 1962-63. Figures are shown at bone-in weights.

Product and Use1958-591959-601960-611961-621962-63
tons(thousand)
Production
Beef211.3212.8212.0252.6266.2
Veal22.823.424.529.226.9
Mutton168.4169.3168.4175.6165.8
Lamb255.3271.7281.1289.2289.5
Pig meat
Porker19.517.515.315.517.7
Baconer18.919.921.421.621.7
Chopper2.82.72.32.52.6
Edible offal32.335.532.735.237.4
Total production731.3752.8757.7821.2827.7
Disposal
Exports and ships' stores485.5491.9495.1542.8531.7
For canning7.711.39.210.19.2
Local consumption238.1249.6253.4268.3286.8
Total production731.3752.8757.7821.2827.7

Meat consumed in New Zealand during 1962-63 represented approximately 35 per cent of total production. The total consumption per head at 250.2 lb, was an increase of 5.6 lb per head on the previous year. The figures in the next table give actual consumption during the years ended 30 September, by classes of meat.

ProductLocal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Population
1960-611961-621962-631960-611961-621962-63
tons(000)lb
Beef97.0108.1117.190.097.9103.7
Veal7.19.08.56.68.27.5
Mutton84.886.588.178.778.378.0
Lamb15.519.819.814.417.917.6
Pig meat-
Porker12.813.314.911.912.113.2
Baconer20.520.620.219.018.717.9
Chopper2.12.52.52.02.32.2
Edible offal10.010.411.29.39.410.0
Grand totals249.8270.2282.5231.9244.6250.2

Details of sources of supply for local consumption in 1962-63 are given in the following table. Figures for meat export works include those for a few bacon works. In the case of registered abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses, edible offal has been estimated at 4 per cent of total carcass weight excluding pig meats.

ProductRegistered AbattoirsMeat Export WorksRural SlaughterhousesFarmsTotal
tons
Beef70,34239,7935,7721,218117,125
Veal5,1243,1201101658,519
Mutton36,94027,1333,42020,62688,119
Lamb6,09211,5221902,01519,819
Pig meat-
Porker9,3374,64848146914,935
Baconer2,45417,792- 20,246
Chopper5331,87282-2,487
Edible offal4,7896,069379-11,237
Totals135,611111,94910,43424,493282,487

The following table shows the numbers of the different classes of livestock slaughtered for food during each of the last 11 September years. The figures are for total killings - i.e., they include export works, abattoirs, rural slaughterhouses, and an allowance for killings on farms.

LIVESTOCK SLAUGHTERINGS
Year Ended 30 SeptemberSheepLambsCattleCalvesPigs
Carcasses (000)
19545,46713,3247801,330760
19555,73313,9929001,435778
19565,88614,8071,0001,406816
19575,30114,3391,0471,407751
19585,08115,8831,1061,314768
19597,45918,3559621,222883
19607,35619,2839561,234863
19617,28919,8469951,299839
19628,00221,5181,2241,413850
19637,22021,3081,2821,412921
19647,90122,1571,2861,3921,002

Meat intended for export from New Zealand is slaughtered at meat export slaughterhouses, of which 37 are at present operating. They are licensed annually under the provisions of the Meat Act 1964 and regulations thereunder, which also authorise officers of the Department of Agriculture to inspect all meat whether for export or for local consumption.

The supervision of grading of meat for export is one of the responsibilities of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board. Grading at each freezing works is carried out, after slaughtering and dressing, by graders employed by the concern operating the freezing works. Supervising graders of the Meat Producers Board are allotted to each group of works to ensure uniformity of grading.

To supply meat for the larger urban centres there are at present 43 abattoirs operating, the larger ones being organised on the same lines as meat export works, and the supply is augmented by meat drawn from export works. At rural slaughterhouses meat is killed for consumption in small country towns and rural districts. Many farmers, particularly on sheep farms, kill their own meat.

To regulate and control the marketing of bobby calves, Bobby Calf Committees were established in 1938 and are now governed by the Bobby Calf Marketing Regulations 1955 under the control of the Dairy Production and Marketing Board.

WOOL PRODUCTION - Although fourth in order in actual size of flocks, New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. New Zealand specialises in the production and export of crossbred wool. With the exception of a small annual consumption by local mills the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported. The quantity on a greasy basis used by local manufacturers in the post-war period until 1957-58 ranged between 10,900,000 lb and 13,800,000 lb.

Figures for local consumption in recent years are as follows. (Source: New Zealand Wool Commission).

Year Ended 30 JuneQuantity Used (Greasy Basis)Year Ended 30 JuneQuantity Used (Greasy Basis)
lb (000)lb (000)
195914,500196220,400
196015,800196318,200
196117,100196413,800

The following table shows for the last 11 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per pound of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per lb of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price per Pound (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 lb (m)d.£(m)
195442650.2589.2
195545549.6794.2
195646246.1988.9
195749154.76112.0
195849641.1685.1
195954036.0781.2
196057744.65107.3
196158840.3498.8
196258739.1895.8
196362042.84110.7
196461755.07141.5

On account of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

An analysis of wool sold at New Zealand auctions, according to quality groups, is given in the following table. (Source: New Zealand Wool Commission.)

Quality Group1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
BalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total Sales
60-64's and up15,2731.311,3800.914,0441.115,1531.213,4101.0
60's11,2600.910,0180.87,4590.68,9150.710,2570.8
58-60's, 58's, and 56-58's95,2707.878,2716.390,7997.289,3076.887,0636.7
50-56's and 56's123,83110.2109,1688.7120,8729.6123,0339.4123,3629.5
52's55,6594.646,8063.750,5294.054,0864.155,2394.2
50's155,34212.7149,19611.9149,77911.8136,86510.5128,73610.0
48-50's176,42514.5150,25512.0123,8809.8137,32110.5125,6229.7
46-50's and 48's387,32231.8448,91635.9464,65736.8439,90033.6405,40531.3
46-48's143,60211.8165,79813.3171,36213.6202,06915.4217,27116.8
46's and lower54,8104.579,1666.370,1125.5102,7897.8128,93010.0
Totals1,218,794100.01,248,974100.01,263,493100.01,309,438100.01,295,295100.0

The Wool Industry Act 1944 provided for the establishment of the New Zealand Wool Board, replacing the New Zealand Wool Council established under the Wool Industry Promotion Act 1936. The Board's principal concern is the promotion of the wool industry, particularly in regard to markets, scientific and industrial research in relation to wool and sheep with a view to improvement in quality and quantity, and the discovery of new or improved methods of utilisation. Specific matters in relation to which the Board may be called upon to exercise certain functions are the production, handling, pooling, appraising, storage, distribution, marketing, and disposal of wool. The Board is empowered to act in combination or association with other bodies established outside New Zealand functioning on similar lines, such as the International Wool Secretariat and the Wool Bureau, and with the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and the New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board. It is also represented on the Wool Commission established by the Wool Commission Act 1951. To provide funds for the Board to carry out its functions the Wool Industry Act authorises a levy on all wool produced in New Zealand, the rate of the levy to be fixed each season by the Board. Under the Wool Commission Act, payment of this levy is at present suspended, the expenses of the Board and of the Commission being met, partly from a charge imposed by regulation under that Act on all wool exported or used in New Zealand, and partly from accumulated funds of the Commission. The charge to the wool owner was 7s. 6d. per bale for the 1963-64 season but, following the decision of the Wool Board to find additional funds for the new wool promotion and research programme of the International Wool Secretariat, the charge from 1 July 1964 became 0.84d. per pound on shorn greasy and slipe wool (roughly 1 3s. 6d. per standard bale). An amendment to the Wool Commission Act 1951 was considered necessary and the Commission's subsidy payment to the Wool Board is limited to 0.54d. per pound of wool during the period 1 July 1964 to 30 June 1969, this amount being equivalent to roughly 15s. per standard bale.

In December 1960 there was set up the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand supported by the Wool Board and the Government (through the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). The main object of the organisation is to promote and conduct research into the properties of wool, but it may also study problems of handling, storage, transport, marketing, and related matters.

References to the activities of the Wool Commission set up under the Wool Commission Act 1951 are to be found in Section 21.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE - The Department of Agriculture has existed as a separate Department since 1892 and has been instrumental in building up farm production. The principal functions of the Department, as set out in the Department of Agriculture Act 1953, are (a) to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; (b) to promote and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture, the Department of Agriculture provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Divisional Directors of Animal Health, Meat, Dairy, Farm Advisory, Research, Horticulture, and Administration. While the service is primarily educative, the Department administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health - The Animal Health Division is responsible for the control of infectious diseases of livestock, and vaccination and testing are carried out to prevent and eradicate certain serious stock diseases. Special attention is given to herds supplying milk for human consumption. Livestock husbandry forms an essential part of the extension service provided by this Division. All stock exported and imported is examined by the Division's veterinarians. Instruction is given in poultry keeping. The Division is concerned with the control of noxious weeds and, with the Rabbit Destruction Council through district rabbit boards, in the eradication of rabbits.

The Port Agriculture Inspection Service was established in 1960 to take over both plant and animal quarantine work. Officers of this service handle all aspects of agricultural import work at major ports and airports.

Meat - One of the functions of the Meat Division is the inspection of all stock intended for slaughter in meat export works and abattoirs and of the meat produced therein. Standards of hygiene are checked in all premises in which meat is processed.

Dairy Produce - Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, milk powder, and casein is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy produce is inspected and graded before shipment and a close supervision is exercised over butter and cheese at all stages of manufacture. Dairy farm premises are inspected, and the Division is responsible for the registration of town milk supply premises. It also provides technical advice on market milk treatment. The Division has laboratories at Auckland, New Plymouth, and Wallaceville which provide a comprehensive examination of dairy products as a background to its control of dairy produce quality. The Division is responsible for the registration and licensing of dairy factories, approval of their design, general suitability, and economic justification.

Horticulture - The Horticulture Division provides an advisory service to fruitgrowers, market gardeners, nurserymen, flower growers, and beekeepers. Its officers inspect market gardens, nurseries, and apiaries for disease, and grade pip fruit for export and home consumption. At Te Kauwhata Experimental Station investigations are carried out into grape and wine production. In 1961 a horticultural laboratory was established in Levin, the objects being to create a diagnostic section for plant pests and diseases detected at ports of entry or on post-quarantine material.

Advisory Services - The Farm Advisory Division is concerned with advisory work in soil management, crop and pasture production, and farm management. A field staff of farm advisory officers acts as a link between the research stations and the farmers and also carries out cooperative field trials and demonstrations on farmers' properties. The Division is concerned with seed certification and crops, field experimental work, pastures, soil conservation, farm management and economics, rural sociology and home economics, and farm engineering and machinery. Soil testing and assistance with farm drainage work are both undertaken on a fee-paying basis. The Division controls the following stations: Seed Testing Station, Palmerston North; Experimental Area, Marton; Phormium plantation, Moutoa; Flock House Farm of Instruction, Bulls and a number of soil-conservation demonstration farms and areas.

Greater emphasis is now being given by advisory officers to the consideration of the whole farm as a business unit and to close cooperation, for example, with accountants, lending institutions, and stock and station agents, in order to help the farmer to improve the profitability of his enterprise.

Research - In 1963 the Director of Ruakura Animal Research Station was given additional responsibilities as Director, Agricultural Research, and all research stations of the Department were brought under his control as a Division, with headquarters at Ruakura and Assistant Directors of Animal Research and Soils Research and a Superintendent, Field Research, all stationed at Ruakura.

Work at Ruakura has been concerned to a large extent with animal nutrition under conditions of grassland farming, and Wallaceville with disease and diagnostic work. Additional diagnostic stations are now established at Ruakura and at Taieri, near Dunedin. Associated with Ruakura are the hill country research station at Whatawhata, near Hamilton, and the substation at Manutuke, near Gisborne.

Publications - Until May 1965 the Department's Editorial Section was responsible for the production each month of the Journal of Agriculture but from the June 1965 issue publication has been undertaken by a firm of printers as a commercial proposition with editorial assistance from the Department. A large number of bulletins on special subjects will, however, continue to be produced.

Marketing and Trade - The Department is also concerned with many of the issues relating to the marketing of primary products, both overseas and within New Zealand, as well as with general economic problems affecting farming industries as a whole.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH - The Department devotes a large part of its activities to the promotion of agricultural research relating to most phases of agriculture.

The Soil Bureau has already made a survey of New Zealand soils which provides basic information on their most suitable use for agricultural and other purposes. It also undertakes research on the relationship of soil to problems of agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and also building foundations and engineering.

The Crop Research Division is concerned with producing new and improved varieties of field and vegetable crops suited for local conditions. Special attention is given to the breeding of new varieties which are disease resistant.

The Hop and Tobacco Research Stations, both of which are subsidised by the industry, investigate problems relating to the growing of these two crops, while the Fruit Research Division performs a similar function for the whole fruit industry.

The work of the Grasslands Division is directed towards improving the productivity of our pastures by breeding improved varieties of grasses and clovers and investigating the factors affecting their growth.

Closely associated with the Grasslands Division are the Plant Chemistry and Plant Physiology Divisions. The Plant Chemistry Division undertakes research on plant nutrition and metabolism with special reference to the relationship between pasture quality and animal nutrition and health. It has developed an effective means of controlling bloat by using emulsified oils. The recently established Plant Physiology Division is studying the physiology of plant growth and reproduction with a view to determining the relative importance of the various factors which control these processes.

Farmers, fruitgrowers, and gardeners are assisted by the Plant Diseases Division, which investigates all types of plant diseases, with the object of bringing them under control. The Entomology Division studies New Zealand insects with special reference to those, such as grass grub, which attack agricultural crops. The Animal Ecology Division investigates the ecology of introduced mammals, such as the rabbit, with the object of discovering more effective methods of control.

The Wheat Research Institute, which like the Tobacco and Hop Research Stations is subsidised by industry, aims at improving the milling and baking qualities of the wheats produced in this country. A moisture-testing service helps farmers to determine when wheat crops are ready for harvesting.

The work of the Botany Division and the Applied Mathematics Division has only an indirect bearing on agriculture. The Botany Division's function is to study all plant life in New Zealand, and in doing so it provides basic information of use to other divisions of the Department. The Applied Mathematics Division assists other divisions by advising on the design of experiments so that these yield the maximum information, and on the interpretation of results obtained.

Closely associated with the Department are a number of research associations and institutes which undertake research work of importance to agriculture. The Fertilizer Manufacturers' Research Association concerns itself with problems relating to the production, distribution, and use of fertilisers, the Wool Industries' Research Institute studies all aspects of wool manufacture, while the wool research organisation undertakes research on wool, with particular reference to its physical, chemical, and biological properties, and also on its handling, storage, transport, and marketing for export. The Meat Research Institute studies problems affecting the meat industry, while the Dairy Research Institute investigates the production of milk in relation to feeding, breeding, and management of dairy animals and the manufacture of dairy products. It also investigates the building, design, and efficiency of dairy machinery.

The Value of Agricultural Research - The value of research to agriculture, which is not easy to assess in monetary terms, is reflected in the development of improved and higher yielding varieties of plants, in their more effective handling, and in the control of pests and diseases.

A soil survey of the whole of New Zealand has been completed, and the problems of mineral deficiency diseases such as bush sickness and dopiness have been solved. Tobacco research has resulted in the area of this crop being more than doubled and the yield per acre trebled. At current prices the increased yield is worth more than £1 million to the growers and tobacco growing has become one of the most prosperous of rural industries. The Hop Research Station has developed two new hop varieties of excellent quality and high yield, and with effective resistance to the serious disease, root rot.

Effective control has been secured over a wide range of plant diseases. Ball smut and loose smut of cereals have almost disappeared, dry rot of brassicas has materially lessened, and blast of stone fruit has been controlled. A method of controlling yellow dwarf virus in wheat has been developed which involves spraying the crop with insecticides to destroy the aphids which transmit the disease. A system of certifying spray materials effective against a wide range of diseases of horticultural and garden crops has been devised. A most effective culture to promote lucerne growth has been found and maintained.

Numerous serious insect pests have been brought under control, and the diamond-back moth, white butterfly, and codling moth are not the menace they formerly were; DDT has been used effectively against grass grub, subterranean grass caterpillar, and ryegrass stem weevil. Damage to pasture by grass grub, conservatively estimated at £10 million a year, can be controlled if the proper routine is followed in the use of the insecticide. Biological methods of control of this insect are being investigated to supplement the chemical method and overcome the resistance problem which has arisen in some areas.

The work of the Grasslands and Crop Research Divisions has resulted in the development and expansion of a profitable farmseeds industry. Research into the breeding of new strains of pasture plants, and into the utilisation and management of pastures, has done much to enable New Zealand to lead the world in grassland farming, and raise its per-acre yield of meat and dairy produce. At a cost of £6,000, the Grasslands Division developed short rotation ryegrass which is now worth £150,000 a year in seed alone. Research leading to successful pasture establishment on pumice soils of the central North Island has greatly increased production in this area. Rape and turnip seed, hitherto imported from overseas, are now produced locally, as the result of breeding and selection work done by the Crop Research Division, which, in addition, has improved the quality of oats, barley, lupins, carrots, and lucerne.

Of particular interest are two new high-yielding varieties of potato - Tahi and Rua - developed by the Division to withstand wind, drought, and competition from weeds, and a new high-yielding, good quality variety of pea - Onward - which is also resistant to wilt.

In collaboration with the Wheat Research Institute this Division has bred several new varieties of wheat specially suited for local conditions. Aotea, released in 1957, has shown an increase in yield of more than 20 per cent over Cross 7, an improved variety developed 20 years previously. This increased yield has been worth more than £1 million in overseas exchange. A further significant development has been the combining of high yield and high quality in one variety - Hilgendorf (1961) - which although released only in 1961, comprised almost 30 per cent of the wheat harvested in the 1963-64 season.

The Institute has devised methods of utilising sprouted wheat and of controlling the vitamin B content of flour.

Corky pit of apples and other deficiency diseases of fruit have been overcome, and investigations in transport have vastly improved the quality of fruit arriving in the United Kingdom.

EXPENDITURE ON RESEARCH - It has been estimated that in 1963 an amount of £2,057,000 was spent on agricultural and fisheries research and that 91.1 per cent of this expenditure was by Government Departments (mainly the Departments of Agriculture and Scientific and Industrial Research), 5.2 per cent by universities, and 3.7 per cent by other organisations. The relation of research in agriculture to that in other fields is shown in the following table. (Source: Scientific Research in New Zealand: Expenditure and Manpower 1953-62, D.S.I.R. 1964.)

DepartmentScientific Research Expenditure: Year Ended 31 March
1954195819621963
* A large proportion of this is spent on agricultural research.
£(000)
Agriculture476690906940
Civil Aviation (Meteorological Office)312407456508
Forest Service58101216241
Health34438384
Internal Affairs (Wildlife)8131425
Marine (Fisheries)24434148
Navy (Underwater) 145170153
Scientific and Industrial Research*9631,3641,9312,075
Works26517676
Totals, all Departments1,9012,8563,8934,151
Percentages
Agriculture25.024.123.222.7
Civil Aviation (Meteorological Office)16.414.311.712.2
Forest Service3.13.55.65.8
Health1.81.52.12.0
Internal Affairs (Wildlife)0.40.40.40.6
Marine (Fisheries)1.31.51.11.2
Navy (Underwater)-5.14.43.7
Scientific and Industrial Research*50.647.849.550.0
Works1.41.82.01.8
Totals, all Departments100.0100.0100.0100.0

Of the total expenditure it was estimated that in 1963 there was 45.1 per cent spent on agriculture and fisheries research, 7.1 per cent on forestry research, 18.4 per cent on industrial research and 29.4 per cent on research under other categories. Salaries accounted for 55 per cent of the total expenditure of £4,151,000.

PASTURE GRASSES - Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend right on to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in cooperation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilisers, etc. The results are made available per medium of the Journal of Agriculture and such allied publications, as well as by special pamphlets which are distributed without charge. The farmer is thus enabled to avail himself of, and profit by, highly specialised knowledge and experience. In addition, a constant endeavour is being made not only to improve existing strains by such measures as seed certification and the provision of pedigree seed, but also to evolve new strains. At the beginning of the year 1964 there were 19,767,473 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 1,335,768 acres cut for seed, hay, or silage during the season).

The following table shows the respective areas under artificially sown grasses, tussock, and other naturally established native grasses. The figures for tussock and other native grasses have been included under "balance of land" in the table showing the condition of occupied land in Section 10A.

YearArtificially Sown Pasture Grasses and LucerneTussock and Other Naturally Established Native GrassesTotal Area Under Grass
Cut for Seed, Hay, or SilageNot Cut for Seed, Hay, or Silage
* Includes 183,873 acres also sown with crops.
acres
1958-591,201,62016,833,87113,186,26131,221,752
1959-601,142,87217,406,91513,035,54931,585,336
1960-611,206,43817,810,656....
1961-621,160,01018,087,564x....
1962-631,387,29918,129,203....
1963-641,335,76818,431,705*....

TOPDRESSING (PASTURE LANDS) - An important characteristic of grassland farming is the use of an annual or semi-annual topdressing of artificial fertilisers. The chief fertiliser is superphosphate, which is manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials. Agricultural lime, produced locally, is also used in considerable quantities.

Topdressing in New Zealand is carried out mainly on sheep- and cattle-grazing areas, including, of course, dairy farms; the North Island, which contains 87 per cent of the total cattle, accounted in 1963-64 for 72 per cent of the area topdressed.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest five years.

YearGrassland Area Topdressed
With Artificial Fertiliser OnlyWith Lime OnlyWith Both Artificial Fertiliser and LimeTotal Grassland Topdressed
acres
1959-607,140,228421,9081,335,1718,897,307
1960-618,208,571356,2991,249,2029,814,072
1961-628,530,121332,351x1,132,3159,994,787x
1962-638,637,506318,779985,8019,942,086
1963-649,750,559382,8921,257,70011,391,151

The productive capacity of fertiliser manufacturing plants has been increased in recent years with the establishment of three new works.

The activities of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in the treatment of experimental plots from the various aspects of soil and crop requirements, and the subsequent data published thereon, have been an important factor in conveying to the farmer the many advantages to be derived from the scientific treatment of pastures.

While topdressing in the past was practically confined to sown grasses on the flat and gently undulating country, the application of fertilisers to the surface-sown hill-country pastures in increasing quantities from aircraft has followed from the development of commercial aerial topdressing operations since 1949. Further information in this connection is contained in Section 11D.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC. - For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry from public funds. In addition, agricultural and pastoral education is assisted financially by grants to the agricultural colleges.

Subsidies reached their peak during the war and immediate post-war years, details of which are available in earlier issues of the Yearbook. In more recent years there has been a considerable curtailment of this type of assistance to farmers.

The following table shows the payments during the latest three years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1961-621962-631963-64
 £££
Carriage of lime40,16340,57241,991
Stock Act: compensation and expenses337,583605,550448,457
Compensation for loss of production, ex gratia payments for hardship from compulsory tuberculosis test85,39293,54144,378
Meat Act: compensation13,73211,02311,296
Subsidies to rabbit boards595,457628,011685,984
Grants to rabbit boards126,500154,025685,984
Cow-testing organisations29,58329,58329,277
Destruction of kea10992167
Veterinary Services Council50,00050,00041,750
Nassella Tussock Act: subsidies to boards67,94071,72071,720
Noxious Weeds Act: subsidies to county councils and road boards43,57143,89347,532
Compensation for scrapie disease1,214--
Emergency expenditure to assist primary producers4,75052,0332,313
Comment on some of the more important items is necessary to explain their origin and significance.

Lime Subsidy - Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed, and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. Farmers meet full transport costs and are entitled to claim a refund from the Department of Agriculture, at the same rates as applied up to 30 November 1959.

Rabbit Boards - In the post-war years a determined effort has been made to rid the country o rabbits which were lowering the carrying capacity of farmland and causing a loss of production running into many million pounds in value annually. Rabbit-infested areas were brought under rabbit board control. In 1948 there were 47 boards in the South Island and 61 in the North Island covering 18 million acres. By 1964 there were 132 South Island and 48 North Island boards covering 43 1/2 million acres. Rabbit board rates paid by some 40,000 farms are subsidised by the Government, which also makes grants to rabbit boards. Good progress has been made towards the eradication of the rabbit and this goal is now in sight in many areas. Rabbit boards may undertake opossum and wallaby control.

Other Items - Most of the remaining subsidies represent attempts to deal with specific problems of disease and pest control which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups. Under this heading come such items as compensation for diseased stock under the Meat Act and the Stock Act, and destruction of kea, etc. Subsidies of this nature are mostly charges against the vote of the Department of Agriculture. They are not recoverable except in the case of compensation paid for diseased stock under the Stock Act, where a partial recovery is obtained by the sale of by-products from condemned stock in certain cases.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE - An Agricultural Development Conference was held in 1963 and 1964. It was called as a result of the feeling in both producer and official circles that agricultural expansion should proceed at a more rapid rate and that a thorough examination should be made of the economic factors impeding such expansion. The first session of the conference in October 1963 approved the establishment of seven working parties to report to it on a number of such factors - farm finance, taxation, scale of farming, manpower, land valuation, noxious animals and weeds, and farm costs. The conference also endorsed the setting up of a Targets Committee to report on the increases in livestock numbers required to ensure that export income will expand at the pace required to maintain economic growth. The Targets Committee's report in 1964 stated that by 1972-73 livestock numbers would have to rise to 111 million ewe equivalents compared with 80 million in 1962-63. This would require an increase in stock numbers of 3.5 per cent a year, an increase in pastoral production of 3.8 per cent a year, and an increase in pastoral exports of 4.1 per cent a year. These calculations assumed the continuance of 1962-63 export prices, and made allowance for the growth of other exports (mainly forest products), the expansion of import replacement industries, and also the expansion of invisible payments.

The targets were endorsed by the conference which also made a number of recommendations to the Government based on the conclusions of the eight working parties. These, in the main, did not recommend any sweeping administrative changes, but suggested a number of measures designed to improve incentives and encourage development. Stress was also laid on the need to expand advisory services to enable farmers to improve their efficiency.

FARM MACHINERY - The results of a full census of farm machinery taken in 1950 have been published in earlier volumes of the Yearbook.

The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where a comparison is available for the years 1947, 1950, 1952, 1957, 1960, and 1961. The figures for 1960 onwards relate to holdings of 10 acres and over, whereas figures for earlier years relate to holdings of 1 acre and over.

Type of Machine194719501952195719601961

* This item covers only those machines actually used for threshing wheat or oats during the year specified.

†Estimates, in 1953, 52,495; 1954, 55,623; 1955, 62,137; 1958, 73,499; 1959, 75,291.

‡Stationary shearing machine plants only.

§Electric motors of over one-quarter horsepower only.

Milking machines32,59636,36837,56338,76436,721..
Cream separators48,19454,421....30,608..
Shearing machines      
Plants14,56418,79120,81026,59228,922‡29,902
Stands33,90740,53644,472..61,637..
Agricultural tractors21,15634,91845,73471,45678,41580,817
Rotary hoes and garden tractors1,6463,0934,380......
Electric motors82,721110,683123,439139,080122,758§..
Internal-combustion engines23,10929,92629,052......
Threshing machines*1,6411,9001,965......
Header harvesters..3,1213,130..4,746..

The figures show a continuation of the trend towards more intensive mechanisation of farm work that has been in evidence over a considerable period.

Milking Machines - Information concerning milking machines on farms was first collected in 1919, in which year there were 7,577 plants recorded. Since that year the use of milking machines has expanded rapidly. Of the 1,905,534 cows in milk on 31 January 1952, 1,799,375, or 94 per cent, were on holdings employing milking machines. In 1951 the corresponding percentage was 94 and in 1942, 87. At the end of January 1960 there were 36,721 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 183,329 sets of cups. There were also 30,608 cream separators used.

Agricultural Tractors - During the period from 1946 to 1964 the number of agricultural tractors employed on farms rose from 18,940 to 86,427. These figures do not include rotary hoes or garden tractors.

The classes of tractors on farm holdings of 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries are given in the following table.

As at 31 January 1964
 NumberPercentage of Total
Diesel oil
Crawler6,4787.49
Wheel25,38929.38
Total, diesel oil31,86736.87
Petrol or kerosine
Crawler6,7087.76
Wheel47,85255.37
Total, petrol or kerosine54,56063.13
Total, tractors86.427100.00

Header Harvesters - There has been a rapid expansion in the use of header harvesters since their introduction to New Zealand in 1930. The number of header harvesters on holdings of 10 acres or over outside borough boundaries as at 31 January 1960 was 4,746.

14 B-CROPS

GENERAL-Crops grown in New Zealand are in general able to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc., though a substantial proportion of wheat requirements is imported.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities with a favourable climate. In addition to meeting local demand, there is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Home gardens supply a considerable proportion of family requirements of vegetables, but there is a substantial area planted in market gardens, both inside and outside borough boundaries, to meet the needs of a growing population. Potato production is normally adequate but has occasionally to be supplemented by imports. The production of onions has been largely sufficient for local requirements of recent years.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. The supply of supplementary fodders is adequate both in quantity and in quality, so that New Zealand imports stock food to a very minor extent only.

Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seeds, which are now grown almost entirely in New Zealand. There is a small import of certain classes of seeds, but this is almost negligible in relation to requirements; on the other hand, an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds has been developed.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION - Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplying in 1963-64, 57 per cent of New Zealand's wheat yield, 40 per cent of the oats threshed, and 68 per cent of the barley yield. Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland-Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Wellington, Canterbury alone producing 67 per cent of the total yield. In the season 1963-64, 71 per cent of the area closed off for production of grass seed was in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury statistical area also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington statistical area, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland. The Pukekohe district also provides that city with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington city draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both cities with these vegetables. Further large areas are utilised for these purposes in the Hastings district of Hawke's Bay, which is also the largest contributor of canned or processed vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near the cities, and on the rich soils near Christchurch over 1,000 acres are devoted to this purpose; also to the immediate south of Oamaru and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin there are other areas aggregating more than 1,000 acres. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are famed for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance in central Auckland and Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The areas devoted to each of the principal crops in the 1962-63 season and the percentage distributions for each crop by statistical areas and North and South Island are given in the following table.

CropTotal AreaNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonNorth Island
acrespercentage of crop area
For threshing
Wheat225,748----1.3-4.45.7
Oats20,877---0.10.5-3.23.8
Barley87,432--0.20.84.00.412.017.4
Maize7,8982.50.19.084.83.3-0.299.9
Peas (not canning)29,824---0.31.9-15.617.8
Oats
For chaff, hay or silage14,7841.01.53.51.11.63.510.522.7
Fed off, cut green, abandoned, etc.28,9390.40.21.30.22.00.75.710.5
Root crops
Potatoes22,4091.014.54.41.15.21.119.546.8
Swedes187,5630.40.313.50.71.42.05.724.0
Turnips202,9531.11.68.40.93.51.56.923.9
Turnips and rape mixed36,4070.70.21.10.42.00.23.88.4
Vegetable crops for processing4,6970.12.01.431.154.9-1.390.8
Peas for vining (including canning and quick freeze)11,398--0.58.357.7-1.367.8
Green fodder
Rape115,282-0.11.00.25.00.13.610.0
Chou moellier, kale135,7940.31.29.80.313.84.127.456.9
Grasses, clover and lucerne for seed265,5200.10.30.40.44.5-2.98.6
Grasses and clovers for hay and silage962,1425.87.538.80.63.711.59.076.9
Lucerne for hay or silage159,6370.30.26.50.32.70.62.312.9
Commercial orchards16,7383.715.35.62.522.20.10.950.3
Market gardens13,7792.126.66.61.913.60.718.570.0
CropTotal AreaMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandSouth Island
For threshingacrespercentage of crop area
Wheat225,7482.30.2-64.615.112.194.3
Oats20,8772.20.3-55.114.524.196.2
Barley87,4323.02.1-71.25.70.682.6
Maize7,898---0.1--0.1
Peas (not canning)29,82413.80.2-63.52.72.082.2
Oats
For chaff, bay or silage14,7842.32.70.830.818.622.177.3
Fed off, cut green, abandoned, etc.28,9396.53.20.354.719.05.889.5
Root crops
Potatoes22,4091.12.7-38.66.93.953.2
Swedes187,5630.51.11.616.720.036.176.0
Turnips202,9531.72.01.143.216.611.576.1
Turnips and rape mixed36,4072.00.41.428.621.138.191.6
Vegetable crops for processing4,6971.43.1-1.82.40.59.2
Peas for vining (including canning and quick freeze)11,3985.614.6-12.0--32.2
Green fodder
Rape115,2822.70.5-48.026.412.490.0
Chou moellier, kale135,7940.81.00.113.211.616.443.1
Grasses, clover and lucerne for seed265,5204.60.6-66.99.79.691.4
Grasses and clovers for hay and silage962,1421.21.80.79.64.45.423.1
Lucerne for bay or silage159,6374.81.00.150.324.46.587.1
Commercial orchards16,7383.123.7-5.017.80.149.7
Market gardens13,7791.08.3-9.610.90.230.0

A detailed analysis of arable cropping farms in 1959-60 was undertaken as part of the World Census of Agriculture. The following table compiled from the results of this analysis shows the distribution of crops by regional areas. The dominance of the South Island, with 76 per cent of the crop area is clearly shown.

Regional Area*Type of Farm
Principally (75% or More) Dairy FarmingPrincipally (75% or More) Sheep FarmingPrincipally (75% or More) Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy Predominant (50%-75%)Sheep and Dairy with Sheep Predominant (50%-75%)Mixed Dairy and Sheep (Approximately Equal)Sheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant (50%-75%)
* For details of counties included see page 393.
North Islandacres in crops
Northland5,8102,096454520932737
South Auckland6,5025,62748591167209189
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands20,50311,1212502,23075561134
Cape Colville1,269349111735236-
Central Plateau6,9625,1195931,01450545482
Western Uplands1,20114,574146436505415314
Taranaki8,6472,631875520740717
East Cape1,4965,408159214462171,356
Hawke's Bay1,33235,8633902952832763,647
Rangitikei2,37421,4721766416695713,116
Manawatu12,69317,7275701,4881,1831,0742,647
Wairarapa2,55914,928456443112552,480
Featherston2,4516,05647390368691,470
North Island totals73,799142,9712,8979,3915,1444,86715,359
South Island       
Marlborough1,62112,280923561111668,802
Nelson2,4785,3741318577597062,044
Westland1,2421,79446959791147-
North Canterbury30221,885125631314515,088
Foothills27223,150192106531879,774
Canterbury Plains5,59527,7787846593722529,026
Christchurch852288131007159243
Banks Peninsula171283-209219282
Mackenzie-10,955----6,054
South Canterbury3,51793,580356903,766509131,440
Otago2,60435,304343203842616,179
Central Otago14023,0402157140383,328
Southern2,100164,5761145,51312,0033,22352,094
Remainder-54-----
South Island totals20,894420,3411,0189,24119,2565,785264,354
New Zealand totals94,693563,3123,91518,63224,40010,652279,713
Regional Area*Type of Farm
Cropping and Sheep with Cropping Predominant (50%-75%)Mixed Sheep and Cropping (Approximately Equal)General Mixed Farming (Three or More Types) None PredominantOther (Including Horticulture, Timber, etc.)Idle and UnusedType Group Totals
* For details of counties included see page 393.
North Islandacres in crops
Northland4-219300289,804
South Auckland2602162332,851-16,893
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands1812544382-36,460
Cape Colville  393-1,932
Central Plateau8-3352,8541217,938
Western Uplands31613197-17,856
Taranaki 1244150-13,067
East Cape1,6471,2361,2941,4051814,496
Hawke's Bay2,4278321,1742,021348,543
Rangitikei4223872233-30,054
Manawatu473299568835539,562
Wairarapa13140246882-22,305
Featherston 586567-11,041
North Island totals5,0413,3006,03611,08066279,951
 South Island      
Marlborough9733,654878298-29,231        
Nelson9287642,7212,936-19,698        
--Westland6116-4,417        
North Canterbury1,0682,0141,4319-42,323        
Foothills8831,7547982662237,988        
Canterbury Plains10,72917,2629,8513,89012105,848        
Christchurch2691793781,461223,971        
Banks Peninsula1581284-1,049        
Mackenzie3041,40683315-19,567        
South Canterbury14,64338,19716,1263,09411305,608        
Otago205269725531146,817        
Central Otago549616364263-28,556        
Southern5938262,472725-244,239        
Remainder-----54        
South Island totals31,30266,95336,64613,50868889,366        
New Zealand totals36,34370,25342,68224,5881341,169,317        

STATISTICS - Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the Report on Statistics of Farm Production issued annually by the Department of Statistics. It should be noted that, unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in this subsection for years up to and including 1958-59 relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. Commencing with the year 1959-60 a change was made in the coverage so that it included only holdings of 10 acres and over situated outside borough boundaries.

BUSHEL WEIGHTS - For statistical and other purposes it is at times necessary to convert bushel units to a weight basis. For New Zealand produce and fruit, conversion is effected by using the following weights per bushel for the commodities mentioned.

ProduceWeight of BushelFruitWeight of Bushel
 lb lb
Wheat60Apples40
Oats40Pears38
Barley50Quinces40
Maize56Peaches42
Peas60Nectarines42
Ryecorn56Apricots42
Beans65Plums42
Grass seed20Cherries42
  Oranges42-43
  Lemons (uncured)42

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION - A general summary of the areas under cultivation during each of the last 11 years is given in the following table. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside borough boundaries up to the year 1958-59. From 1959-60 the coverage was changed to holdings of 10 acres and upwards outside borough boundaries. (The effect of this change on comparability is not great. In 1956-57 although some 13 per cent of holdings outside boroughs were 1 and under 10 acres, in nearly all items the percentage in this group was less than 1 per cent. Exceptions were market gardens, orchards, nurseries, and potato and onion cropping.)

YearPasture Land*Field CropsPlantationsOrchardsLying FallowOther Cultivated LandTotal Cultivated Land

* Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or silage, and crops sown together with grasses, which have been included in field drops.

†Includes market gardens and nurseries (previously in "Other Cultivated Land"), and from 1960-61 excludes domestic orchards.

‡Areas in residences, private grounds, gardens and domestic orchards are excluded.

acres
1953-5416,573,0042,060,678967,66621,246144,328111,98619,878,908
1954-5516,557,8192,141,623962,59221,998161,201116,13619,961,369
1955-56..............
1956-5716,346,7492,427,189915,13219,944163,60497,01719,969,635
1957-5816,561,6882,296,429906,21920,518173,378100,08620,058,318
1958-5916,614,0712,344,175921,86420,292138,05499,12320,137,579
1959-6017,200,6362,312,189944,06530,675126,02288,89420,702,481
1960-6117,616,6362,426,387938,35032,768138,757..21,152,898
1961-6217,885,6302,378,997991,09520,666142,913..21,419,301
1962-6317,950,968x2,594,2571,024,35331,948123,133..21,724,659x
1963-6418,247,8322,561,1941,041,47631,881111,882..21,994,265

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS - The following table shows the areas under each of the principal field crops for the years stated.

Crop1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64

* Including turnips and rape mixed.

†Rape, kale, and chou moellier only.

‡Includes linseed, mangolds, and tobacco.

§Includes crops sown together with grasses, 183,873 acres and areas used for second crops, 10,903 acres.

acres
Wheat166,317191,172191,486230,491207,860
Oats80,56393,44281,98764,60073,075
Barley73,06179,28189,77997,429103,961
Maize14,66914,03014,69815,75317,709
Peas for threshing28,37028,31428,03029,82429,971
Linen flax699526651681x501
Potatoes21,41022,33422,50622,40925,045
Turnips and swedes*436,738448,489459,754426,923459,620
Onions- -1,2751,5441,4341,8802,376
Vegetable crops for processing10,92411,57516,35716,09517,444
Green fodder297,317287,992268,617251,076246,315
Grasses, clovers, and lucerne for seed133,516212,106146,126265,520187,612
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage870,098835,857867,602962,142988,882
Lucerne for hay or silage139,258158,475146,282159,637159,274
Other crops37,97441,25043,68849,99752,452
 Totals2,312,1892,426,3872,378,9972,594,4572,572,097§

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops for grain or fodder. A considerable portion of the area under cereal crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff, hay, or silage, or is fed off. In regard to peas it should be noted that additional areas of this crop for domestic consumption in the form of green peas are included under market gardens and crops for processing.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS - Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per acre of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas
* Estimated.
Areas for Threshing
 acresacresacresacresacres
1953-54113,81320,52968,4794,06230,889
1954-55103,98931,16441,6743,15429,506
1955-5668,47942,16849,195..25,239
1956-5765,74356,49659,7765,48624,759
1957-5883,93629,98165,8816,34631,876
1958-59132,91334,01153,6206,61226,080
1959-60163,15833,52462,4978,33828,370
1960-61186,78843,46265,5926,56028,314
1961-62186,28834,68277,1167,34428,030
1962-63225,74820,87787,4327,89829,824
1963-64x203,96026,57393,9809,64929,971
1964-65*184,00031,00085,0009,000 
Total Yields
 bushelsbushelsbushelsbushelsbushels
1953-544,783,227945,3863,335,399259,248953,749
1954-554,113,4441,602,0581,991,875201,913885,432
1955-562,658,4281,947,4042,031,526..634,846
1956-572,950,2732,888,3102,854,592313,486845,644
1957-583,727,1171,460,1493,552,229302,6181,046,847
1958-596,038,8221,575,7552,661,090378,908829,852
1959-608,700,1991,825,1043,136,837702,668923,810
1960-619,309,1182,349,3513,415,661403,710930,736
1961-627,835,4081,886,0603,560,550544,695762,961
1962-639,156,2961,028,2004,201,650608,9221,000,502
1963-64x10,067,5131,547,6395,775,795744,1461,099,978
1964-65*9,016,0001,829,0004,505,000  
Yields per Acre
 bushelsbushelsbushelsbushelsbushels
1953-5442.0346.0548.7163.8230.88
1954-5539.5651.4147.8064.0230.01
1955-5638.8246.1841.30..25.15
1956-5744.8851.1247.7557.1434.16
1957-5844.4048.7053.9247.6932.84
1958-5945.4346.3349.6357.3131.82
1959-6053.3254.4450.1984.2732.56
1960-6149.8454.0652.0761.5432.87
1961-6242.0654.3846.1774.1727.22
1962-6340.5649.2548.0577.1033.55
1963-64x49.3658.2461.4677.1236.70
1964-65*49.0059.0053.00  

WHEAT - With a view to reducing imports of wheat, the Wheat Research Institute and the Crop Research Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research have been endeavouring to encourage the growing in New Zealand of better-quality varieties suitable for modern mechanised bakeries. Tests of flour from commercial crops have confirmed the outstanding baking quality of Hilgendorf wheat released in 1947. In an endeavour to encourage the growing of this variety, and so help to bring about an improvement in flour and bread quality, a premium of 1s. per bushel was payable to farmers on all crops of Hilgendorf wheat handled by the Wheat Committee. The premium was further increased to 2s. per bushel from the 1957-58 season, which produced a temporary increase in the proportion of Hilgendorf grown. A higher producing variety known as Hilgendorf (1961) has now replaced the original variety.

Wheat production dropped away between 1955 and 1958. With an immediate target of 150,000 acres the Government increased the price of wheat grown in the South Island by 2s. a bushel and in the North Island by 6d. a bushel from the 1958-59 season. Current prices are 13s. 6d. a bushel in the South Island and 15s. 6d. in the North Island. The introduction of these prices was an attempt to reduce the steadily increasing wheat imports which over the three years ended 1958 averaged 10,080,000 bushels annually.

As a result of the increase in the overall price of wheat, combined with the release of the high yielding varieties Arawa and Aotea, and also to other economic factors, the acreage threshed has increased from 83,936 acres in 1957-58 to 225,748 acres in 1962-63. For 1963-64 203,960 acres were threshed, and it is estimated that 184,000 acres were threshed in the 1964-65 season. However, the increased yield in 1963-64 has offset the reduced acreage threshed.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat during the last 31 seasons, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Wheat Committee - Control of the importation of wheat and flour and of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Committee. The operations of this Committee, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, and bakers, with the Minister of Industries and Commerce as Chairman, and his nominee from the Department of Industries and Commerce as Deputy Chairman, are governed by the Board of Trade (Wheat and Flour) Regulations.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Committee through the agency of the grain merchants acting as brokers for the Committee. The Committee is responsible for the importation of any wheat and flour and the distribution of imported poultry wheat in the North Island; in the South Island poultry wheat is not controlled. Its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat and the sale of flour to merchants, bakers, pastrycooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand approximates 16 million bushels - some 10 1/2 million bushels being required for flour and cereal foods, and the balance for poultry food and seed. Over the five seasons ending with 1963-64 the annual local production of wheat has averaged 9,013,707 bushels, while imports over the five years ended 1964 averaged 6,394,000 bushels annually.

Varieties of Wheat - The choice of wheat varieties for sowing is influenced by their suitability to local conditions of climate, soil type, etc. Wheat growers receive valuable guidance regarding suitable varieties as the result of research work and field trials undertaken by the Crop Research Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Wheat Research Institute, and the Department of Agriculture. The survey of varieties of wheat grown for threshing is now carried out each year. The 1964 survey which related to wheat sown in 1963 and harvested in 1964 showed the following results.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of wheat threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 203,960 acres which produced 10,067,513 bushels.
Aotea60,7953,133,46538.3051.54
Arawa43,9932,077,93925.4047.23
Hilgendorf36,9101,505,13818.4040.78
Cross 718,2581,078,35613.1859.06
Gamenya2,504150,4111.8460.07
Mengavi2,112119,9141.4656.78
Other varieties2,574116,3571.4245.20
 Totals167,1468,181,580100.0048.95

OATS - The area under oats declined steadily after the Second World War, the greatest decrease being in oats for chaff, hay, and silage. This decline resulted largely from the replacement of horses by tractors.

Varieties of Oats Threshed - A survey covering the season 1963-64 gave the following results:

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of oats threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 26,573 acres which produced 1,547,639 bushels.
Onward12,368828,77774.7267.01
Grey Winter2,21774,3676.7033.54
Algerian1,86567,6486.1036.27
Black1,19655,6045.0146.49
Dun67523,9112.1635.42
Other white93558,9275.3163.02
 Totals19,2561,109,234100.0057.60

More than half a million bushels of oats are milled each year to produce some 2,600 tons of rolled oats, and 3,100 tons of oatmeal and proprietary oaten foods.

BARLEY - Production of barley has increased in recent years and is sufficient to meet domestic demand. In the 10 seasons 1954-55 to 1963-64 the average area of barley sown was 73,000 acres of which 63,000 were harvested for grain, most of the remainder being used for green feed. In the 1962-63 season there were 4,201,650 bushels of barley threshed and 5,775,795 bushels in the 1963.64 season. During 1963-64 1,540,596 bushels were used for malting and 711,958 bushels for stock food.

Varieties grown in the 1963-64 season were as set out below.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of barley threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 93,980 acres.
Research27,8441,600,20336.4457.47
Kenia23,8961,465,64733.3761.33
Carlsberg18,7111,279,97129.1568.41
Other varieties1,07345,8951.0442.77
 Totals71,5244,391,716100.0061.40

PEAS - The area of peas for threshing has fallen considerably since the peak of 50,000 acres averaged over the three seasons 1946-47 to 1948-49, the average area for the five years 1958-59 to 1962-63 being 28,124 acres. There have been fluctuations in the export figures for this commodity. In 1949 nearly 850,000 bushels were exported, whereas by 1953 the amount had fallen to approximately 370,000 bushels. Over the five years 1960 to 1964 exports averaged 382,601 bushels annually.

Varieties of peas grown in the 1962-63 season were as under.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production
* Area of peas threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 29,971 acres which produced 1,099,978 bushels.
Garden varieties11,772459,49053.2739.03
Field varieties
Blue Boiling1,40440,4154.6828.79
Maple7,521258,58729.9834.38
White2,757104,13312.0737.77
 Totals23,454862,625100.0036.78

The foregoing figures exclude green peas grown for market or processing (e.g., canning and quick freezing). There has been an increasing use of quick-frozen peas since they were introduced to the New Zealand market a few years ago, and apart from a large local consumption of these and canned peas New Zealand also exports large quantities of both commodities. A peak quantity of 9,685,000 lb of canned peas was exported in 1956, the bulk of which went to the United Kingdom. There has since been a decline in the exports of this commodity, the figures for the last five years being: 1960, 2,287,000 lb; 1961, 775,241 lb; 1962, 134,973 lb; 1963, 1,547,568 lb; and 1964, 717,348 lb. Also 27,961 cwt of frozen peas were exported in 1960, 30,459 cwt in 1961, 14,535 cwt in 1962, 29,104 cwt in 1963, and 82,422 cwt in 1964.

POTATOES - The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of seven members, three of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, three nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Federation (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal functions of the Board are to ensure that adequate supplies of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the Board may impose a levy not exceeding 30s. per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the Board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

The Board undertakes to compensate contract growers for any declared unsold number one grade contract produce held by growers at the end of the season. For the 1964-65 season the rate involved varies according to varieties from £11 to £14 per ton in the South Island and £13 to £16 per ton in the North Island. These rates are the same as for the previous season.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest five years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Acre
* From 1959-60 figures are not strictly comparable with earlier years due to a change in coverage from 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries.
 acrestonstons
1959-60*21,410156,8077.32
1960-6122,334190,4388.53
1961-6222,506191,2448.50
1962-6322,409181,4258.10
1963-6425,045200,7868.02

The estimated area for 1964-65 was 25,000 acres.

ONIONS - Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest five years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Acre
* From 1959-60 figures are not strictly comparable with earlier years due to a change in coverage from 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries.
 acrestonstons
1959-60*1,27515,24211.95
1960-611,54418,12511.74
1961-621,43413,7459.59
1962-631,88021,00311.17
1963-642,37631,20113.13

In earlier years the production of onions was rarely sufficient to supply domestic requirements. As onions are a semiperishable commodity it was found convenient to export in the flush of the New Zealand season, and to obtain supplies from overseas later in the year. However, a considerable improvement has been effected in the keeping qualities of the varieties grown, and insignificant quantities of onions have been imported into New Zealand for some years. In the year ended 30 June 1964 exports amounted to 8,114 tons.

LINSEED - The area under this crop has fluctuated considerably over a long period. The highest level of 24,437 acres was reached in 1951-52. Reduced world prices, among other factors, led to a sharp contraction in the area planted in the 1953-54 season, only 2,822 acres being sown. This area gave a yield of 29,022 cwt of seed at an average of 10.28 cwt per acre. There was a partial recovery in the 1954-55 season, when 7,741 acres were harvested for a total yield of 77,588 cwt. Because of falling overseas prices the sole processing plant for linseed oil at Dunedin closed down at the end of 1954, but reopened again in 1957 in order to conserve overseas funds. In the processing of linseed, the linseed oil is extracted while the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock feeding. A small quantity of unprocessed linseed is also used for this purpose.

Varieties of linseed grown in the 1963-64 season were as follows:

VarietyAreaYieldAverage Yield per Acre
WeightPercentage of Total Production
* This is the total area surveyed. The total area of linseed grown in the 1963-64 season is not available.
 acrescwtper centcwt
Redwood12,280149,10085.4812.14
Rocket2,14221,76012.4710.16
Others2953,5682.0512.09
 Totals14,717174,428100.0011.85

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS - Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In mid winter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses part of its nutritive value. During these periods it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or silage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures for the latest six years of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops.

YearGrasses and Clovers, Including Lucerne for Hay or SilageCereal CropsRape, Kale, and Chou MoellierSwedes, Turnips, Turnips and RapeTotal Area of Fodder Crops*
* Excludes small areas of other minor fodder crops.
acres
1958-591,028,18277,743288,311444,2101,838,446
1959-601,009,35667,093297,317436,7381,810,504
1960-61994,33275,523287,992448,4891,806,336
1961-621,013,88472,520268,617459,7541,814,775
1962-631,121,77966,318x251,076426,9231,866,096
1963-641,148,15668,443246,315459,6201,922,534

In 1963-64 grasses and clovers cut for hay or silage totalled 988,882 acres and lucerne 159,274 acres. Oats was the only cereal crop utilised in any quantity for this purpose. Oats also was the principal cereal crop fed off to stock. The area of oats cut for chaff, hay, or silage or fed off amounted to 46,502 acres. The principal green-fodder crops apart from oats are rape (111,715 acres) and chou moellier including kale (134,600 acres). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in New Zealand, the total area sown in these crops in 1963-64 being 459,620 acres (including 36,875 acres of turnips and rape mixed).

SEED CERTIFICATION - The Department of Agriculture has a seed certification scheme covering such crops as potatoes, wheat, perennial ryegrass, Italian ryegrass, short rotation (H1) ryegrass, cocksfoot, timothy, browntop, Phalaris tuberosa, white clover, cowgrass (broad red clover), Montgomery red clover, subterranean clover, oats, barley, ryecorn, sweet blue lupins, onions, chou moellier, rape, kale, turnip, and swede seeds. Selected strains are multiplied under the Department's certification scheme through the stages of certified "Pedigree" seed and certified "Mother" seed to certified "Standard" or "Permanent Pasture" seed. These seeds are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED - Of the total area of grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for seed during 1963-64, 88 per cent was provided by the statistical areas of Canterbury, Otago, and Southland.

The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, distinguishing the principal varieties, during each of the latest five years for which figures are available, are given in the table following. (Figures are not available for 1959-60.)

Crop1958-591960-611961-621962-631963-64
Ryegrass    acres
Perennial40,65167,53135,35591,39754,116
Italian6,6358,2864,9908,8307,851
Short rotation (H1)17,53222,94116,30121,51812,838
Cocksfoot10,82611,89811,52813,5739,583
Chewings fescue3,6933,7752,8442,6831,311
Crested dogstail6,6316,4346,1118,2805,893
Red clover (including cowgrass)19,28120,07114,89217,95712,487
White clover44,06150,93739,73283,83171,476
Lucerne7,96810,0916,8699,5355,586
Other grasses and clovers16,16010,1427,5047,9166,471
   Totals173,438212,106146,126265,520187,612

Quantities (in dressed weights) of grass and clover seeds treated by machine dressing plants for the latest three years are given below.

Type of SeedUnitQuantity (Year Ended 31 October)
196219631964
Ryegrass    
Perennialbush837,5681,854,1861,356,245
Short rotation (H1)bush345,029434,040321,491
Italian (including W. Wolths)bush103,306184,814179,456
Cocksfootlb1,808,5243,349,5302,026,922
Chewings fescuelb347,695347,379285,869
Crested dogstaillb1,321,5631,571,1852,257,987
Browntoplb201,025315,562163,563
Timothylb728,232558,356302,226
White cloverlb4,894,1609,466,1439,923,911
Suckling cloverlb137,372265,496209,190
Suckling white mixturelb289,408545,064835,250
Cowgrass (including broad red clover)lb1,071,1931,188,757822,771
Montgomery red cloverlb1,238,8311,607,907798,660
Lucernelb461,927664,200456,622
Other grasses and cloverslb184,723295,471230,136

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of this issue.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS - The acreages for market gardens, plantations, etc., for the latest seven years are given below. Forest Service plantations are covered by these figures. It should be noted that the statistics relate only to holdings of 1 acre or more outside boroughs up to and including 1958-59 and holdings of 10 acres and over outside boroughs from 1959-60. In the case of market gardens, nurseries, and private gardens the 1959-60 to 1961-62 figures are not comparable with earlier years for this reason. In 1956-57 the area of market gardens in the 1 and under 10 acre group represented 19 per cent of the total acreage; in the case of nurseries the percentage was 21 per cent and for private gardens 5 per cent. Plantations were scarcely affected, being well under 1 per cent. Figures include berry-fruit gardens. The table has been compiled from farm production statistics.

YearMarket Gardens*NurseriesPrivate Gardens, etc.Plantations

* Excluding crops for processing.

†Separate figure not available; market gardens, nurseries, and orchards, 30,675 acres.

acres
1957-5813,5652,90983,612906,219
1958-5913,3282,98482,811921,864
1959-6088,894944,065
1960-6111,5401,354..942,427
1961-6213,2701,317..991,095
1962-6313,7791,431..1,024,353
1963-6412,9911,758..1,041,476

Commercial Gardens - The Vegetables Levy Act 1957 provides for the collection of a levy from vegetable growers in respect of the sale of certain vegetables in order to provide funds for the benefit generally of vegetable growers. All vegetables except potatoes are covered by the Act. The Department of Agriculture estimates that approximately 2,700 growers were gardening a total area of approximately 45,000 acres in 1964. Included in this figure are approximately 19,000 acres used exclusively for growing process crops.

Commercial berry-fruit gardens are surveyed every five years by the Department of Agriculture, the last such survey being in 1960. The areas then being grown were raspberries, 498 acres; strawberries, 300 acres; black currants, 51 acres; gooseberries, 48 acres; boysenberries, 25 acres; and loganberries, 13 acres. The production of berry fruits in the 1962-63 season were raspberries, 965 tons; strawberries, 1,565 tons; black currants, 68 tons; gooseberries, 71 tons; boysenberries, 71 tons; and loganberries, 48 tons. The greatest concentration of gardens is in Canterbury, near Christchurch, and at Waimate, with a combined total of 281 acres. Raspberries account for most of the 188 acres in the Nelson Province. The mixed-berry gardens of the Wairarapa total 112 acres. In the vicinity of Auckland city some 79 acres of strawberries are grown. Other major centres of berry-fruit growing are Central Otago, 68 acres; Manawatu, 57 acres; and Hawke's Bay, 59 acres. Gooseberries are little grown commercially except in the Wairarapa (39 acres). These estimates include those grown in boroughs. The only berry fruit for which there is an organised marketing scheme is the raspberry, for which local marketing committees have been established in Nelson (since 1940) and in Canterbury and Otago (since 1950), while a Central Council of Raspberry Growers was created by the Raspberry Marketing Regulations 1950 to coordinate marketing by the three district committees.

Nurseries - Since 1939, owners or occupiers of nurseries raising for sale certain specific trees, shrubs, and plants have been required to register their nurseries before being permitted to sell trees or plants. The number of nurseries so registered at 31 December 1962 totalled 526 and these covered 1,688 acres.

Home Garden Production - Home garden production, on which a question was asked for the first time at the 1956 Census, is dealt with in the next table. This question was not asked again in the 1961 Census.

Proportion of RequirementsPotatoes GrownOther Vegetables Grown
Number of HouseholdsPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumber of HouseholdsPer Cent of Total Specified
All48,0848.7345,4988.27
Three-quarter24,2934.4154,3959.88
One-half46,2518.4069,90112.70
One-quarter56,86610.3356,60410.29
Under one-quarter101,28818.40107,32919.50
Nil273,81149.73216,63039.36
Not specified12,459-12,695-
 Totals563,052100.00563,052100.00

Of the specified cases 49.73 per cent of householders did not grow potatoes and 39.36 per cent did not grow other types of vegetables.

Of the total households where a return was made 62 per cent kept a garden and 38 per cent had no garden. Where only 37 per cent of dwellings with one occupant returned "yes", this rose sharply to 59 per cent of households with two occupants. The proportions answering "yes" to this question increased continuously from two to six occupants, and declined from seven occupants onwards.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY - Because of New Zealand's geographic position the climate is varied and favours the production of a wide variety of fruits. Apples and pears are the main fruits, the principal growing areas being Nelson and Hawke's Bay. Peach and plum orchards are distributed over Nelson, Hawke's Bay, Central Otago, and near Auckland. Central Otago, with its hot summers and severe winters, produces the greater part of the English plums, apricots, and cherries. The coastal strip from North Auckland, through the Bay of Plenty, to Gisborne is sufficiently mild for the production of citrus and other subtropical fruits such as passionfruit, tree tomatoes, and Chinese gooseberries.

The area in commercial holdings of 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries returned as under fruit trees was given as 17,132 acres at 31 January 1964.

The Orchard Levy Act 1953 provides for the levying in each year by the New Zealand Fruit-growers' Federation of an amount not exceeding £2 10s. on occupiers of orchards containing no fewer than 120 fruit trees. This levy (at present £2 10s.) is used as required in assisting and developing the organisation of producers in the industry.

During 1963 the Department of Agriculture made the third comprehensive field survey of fruit trees in commercial orchards. This survey covered all orchards with 100 or more deciduous fruit trees, over 50 citrus trees, or over half an acre in berry fruits, grapes, subtropical fruits, and mixed orchards of half an acre and over. The Horticulture Division of the Department of Agriculture has supplied the following numbers of fruit trees of principal kinds in commercial orchards based on 1963 survey figures: apple, 1,208,000; pear, 174,000; quince, 3,400; peach, 336,000; nectarine, 34,000; apricot, 129,000; plum, 97,000; cherry, 18,200; lemon, 33,400; orange, 66,400; grapefruit, 38,000; mandarin, 27,000; tangelo, 4,400.

The 1963 survey showed that nearly all kinds of fruit trees had increased since the second survey of 1958. There were 121,000 more apple trees and 30,000 more pear trees, but 10,600 fewer grapefruit trees, 8,000 fewer lemon trees, and 3,000 fewer quince trees.

A survey by the Department of Agriculture in 1960 of all vineyards containing at least half an acre of vines covered 161 vineyards. The total area in grapes was estimated at 958 acres, comprising 863 acres in wine grapes, 72 acres in outdoor table grapes, and 23 acres devoted to grape-juice production. Vineyards were mainly in Auckland (425 acres), Hawke's Bay (387 acres), Waikato (63 acres), Gisborne (45 acres), Northland (21 acres), Thames (10 acres), Bay of Plenty (3 acres), and South Island (4 acres). In 1963 there were 165 licensed winemakers who produced 1,320,500 gallons of grape wine, 3,650 gallons of grape-juice beverage, 21,509 gallons of fruit wine, and 14,250 gallons of cider. Grape-wine production consisted of 220,000 gallons of unfortified table wines, i.e., under 25 per cent proof spirit, and 1,100,500 gallons of fortified wines, over 30 per cent proof spirit. The estimated area in glasshouse vineries in 1963 was 409,150 square feet. The main centres of grape growing were: Auckland, 204,300 square feet; Canterbury, 51,500 square feet; Manawatu, 51,500 square feet; and Oamaru, 40,700 square feet. Approximately 103,950 square feet of glasshouse vineries have been adapted for early market and 215,200 square feet for late market. In 1963 grapes used for winemaking were estimated at 4,750 tons. There were 100 tons of outdoor table grapes and 185 tons of glasshouse grapes marketed for dessert purposes.

Apples and Pears- A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Board appears in Section 21.

Quantities of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Board in the last five seasons are given below. These figures exclude direct sales from fruitgrowers to the public.

SeasonApplesPearsTotal
bushel cases
19591,525,400447,6001,973,000
19601,461,100356,6001,817,700
19611,680,000478,3002,158,300
19621,899,500x444,400x2,343,900x
19631,776,700357,1002,133,800
19641,985,500411,6002,397,100

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board and exported to the United Kingdom and elsewhere during the 1963-64 season, together with the total estimated production of each variety. Factories are given authority to purchase fruit for processing direct from the growers.

VarietyMarketed in New Zealand by the Apple and Pear BoardExported to United KingdomExported to Other CountriesEstimated Total Production*
* Estimated by Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture.
bushel cases
Apples    
Sturmer Pippin289,100386,684195,305..
Delicious380,400121,745125,973..
Jonathan138,500236,681119,360..
Grannie Smith277,700 82,414212,475.. 
Cox's Orange Pippin87,600153,052608..
Ballarat Seedling73,30072,4955,170..
Golden Delicious168,70074,31866,384..
Gravenstein160,400-271..
Dougherty62,60064.50215,202..
Others347,200136,73064,344..
 Totals, apples1,985,5001,328,621805,0925,385,200
Pears-
William's Bon Chretien91,30027,579-..
Winter Cole127,40060,01113,725..
Winter Nelis87,50010,75417,380..
Others105,40040,17724,257..
 Totals, pears411,600138,52155,362887,100

Stone Fruits- The 1963 survey by the Department of Agriculture revealed that nearly half of the total of 340,000 peach trees were in Hawke's Bay, and that, of the balance, some 76,000 peach trees were in the Auckland district.

Production and disposal of stone fruits for the year ended 31 May 1964 were estimated as follows.

FruitDisposalTotal Production
MarketCanningJam and Pulping
bushels
Peaches511,850262,6006,600781,050
Nectarines57,5001,60030059,400
Apricots165,55057,20016,500239,250
Plums
European21,4501,9508,40031,800
Japanese151,1003,8509,500164,450
Cherries20,70050-20,750

Citrus and Subtropical Fruits- Estimated quantities of citrus fruits marketed in New Zealand by the Citrus Marketing Authority, together with direct sales to the public by citrus growers are given in the following table.

YearGrapefruitLemons*Sweet OrangesMandarins and Other Citrus Fruits
* Figures for lemons relate to packed 3/4 bushel cases.
bushels
1958130,50089,00014,8003,400
1959138,900119,20013,9004,500
1960150,700128,90018,1005,700
1961153,200x120,700x18,400x7,800x
1962204,850x149,500x28,750x10,350x
1963178,750117,00025,75010,500

Reference to the Citrus Marketing Authority is to be found in Section 21.

Estimated production figures for other subtropical fruits for 1963 are: tree tomatoes, 1,150 tons; passionfruit, 90 tons; Chinese gooseberries, 441 tons. Feijoas are not an important crop in New Zealand and annual estimates of the production of these fruits have been discontinued. The estimate , for 1958 for the crop was 39 tons.

HOPS-Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea county. Production per acre usually ranges between 1,200 and 1,500 lb. In the 1964 season 2,207 bales were packed, which was 45 bales less than the previous season. The total crop produced in the 1964 season was 662,315 lb, as against 663,848 lb in 1963. Exports were 15,4071b in 1963 and 30,6441b in 1964. Increased use of the new hop-picking machines resulted in 70 per cent of the crop being picked by this method in 1964.

A Hop Marketing Committee of six members (one Government and five producer) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing either locally or overseas of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO- Commercial tobacco growing is combined to those to whom licences are issued by the Tobacco Board established under the Tobacco Growing Industry Act 1935 to control the industry. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 4,691,590 lb of raw tobacco leaf was imported for the year ended 30 December 1963, with a value of £1,399,957.

With the following particulars relating to tobacco production, it should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres or over situated outside borough boundaries. (Source: New Zealand Tobacco Board.)

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea PlantedProduction*Estimated Value of Crop*
* Includes research and experimental crops.
  acreslb£(000)
1958-594373,5345,606,9511,157
1959-604683,7507,075,5771,537
1960-615494,1516,777,4001,467
1961-626134,6999,327,3812,058
1962-637295,3578,947,7891,972
1963-647635,8789,380,7522,064

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 95.83 per cent and air-dried leaf for 4.17 per cent of the 1963-64 crop.

PHORMIUM TENAX- Certain areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered by natural stands of Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax), once used by the Maoris for many purposes and one of the earliest of this country's exports. Only a small proportion of the natural area is millable but this, together with an estimated planted area of about 3,000 acres, produces some 5,000 tons of fibre and tow. The industry provides at least one-third of the local requirements of woolpacks while large supplies of rope were produced during the war. Prior to the war the export trade diminished on account of competition from Manila hemp and Mexican sisal, and has been discontinued in recent years.

LINEN FLAX- Under the stimulus of wartime shortages linen-flax areas in New Zealand, which commenced with 403 acres in 1939-40, grew to a peak of 21,067 acres in 1942-43, but by 1953-54 only 1,886 acres were being grown. In 1955 the Linen Flax Corporation decided to concentrate operations in the Geraldine district and much smaller acreages have since been grown.

Areas for the last five seasons are: 1959-60, 669 acres; 1960-61, 526 acres; 1961-62, 651 acres; 1962-63, 681 acres; and 1963-64, 501 acres. The 1963 harvest yielded 1,513 tons of straw.

Production from the single factory still operated by the Linen Flax Corporation has been as follows:

Product19591960196119621963
tons
Straw processed1,5261,4811,2571,3731,351
Scutched fibre156168143158158
Seed169151112175156
Tow5434554435
Linmeal1051027111093

There is a strong demand for all linen fibre produced in New Zealand from a local manufacturer of twine who uses this kind of fibre in the making of twine for closing bags and bales and for rolling meat, and for other purposes which require a twine made from a strong durable fibre.

14 C-LIVESTOCK

GENERAL- New Zealand has more than 20 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry one cow to the acre, while as many as 10 sheep per acre can be grazed throughout the year on the best sheep farms.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761,700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9,700,000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure. Merinos have become restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country and crossbreds and long woolled British breeds at lower levels. There were nearly 10 million breeding ewes in 1901.

In 1861 there were 193,000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1,138,000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb farming respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island. The most popular breed of beef cattle is now the Aberdeen Angus, which has gradually gained ground over the last 30 years, with Herefords and Shorthorns next in number.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300,000 dairy cows by 1897, 185,000 of them in the North Island and 115,000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than ten times as many dairy cows as the South Island. At first the Shorthorn was the popular breed, but since 1920 the Jersey has emerged as the predominant breed of dairy cattle.

In the following table, dairy cows in milk, total cattle, sows, and total pigs are as at 31 January; sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season ending in the year stated; breeding ewes and total sheep are as at 30 June, while the coverage is of holdings of 10 acres and over situated outside borough boundaries.

Livestock1961196219631964
* Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.
Cattle (including dairy cows)6,445,7896,597,9136,690,9646,696,205
Dairy cows in milk1,928,7881,968,0941,997,2532,010,868
Total dairy cattle3,111,4803,135,5513,133,0573,128,437
Beef cattle3,334,3093,462,3623,557,9073,567,768
Sheep (including lambs)*48,462,31048,987,99250,190,28451,291,898
Breeding ewes*33,591,98333,944,79034,988,96835,701,953
Lambs tailed during season31,990,72233,588,73533,695,85934,751,815
Lambs shorn during season11,649,58212,016,75912,458,11413,038,884
Sheep shorn during season44,590,29844,860,47645,697,88446,508,396
Pigs (total)655,432685,541766,025771,450
Breeding sows83,97984,49997,03995,179

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island, which has 87 per cent of the total cattle and 92 per cent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that over half the milking cows of New Zealand are in the area comprised of the statistical areas of Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland-Bay of Plenty. Taranaki and Wellington are practically equally important as regards the number of cows in milk; between them they account for nearly one-quarter of the total.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows two years old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland-Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with two-fifths of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by East Coast and Northland in that order. These five districts together departure 76 per cent of breeding cows reserved for production of beef cattle.

Pig farming is largely an adjunct of dairy farming, and consequently the distribution closely follows that of dairy cattle. Thus Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland-Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 59 per cent of the pig population and Wellington for 11 per cent. Taranaki, however, which is mainly a cheese producing district, has 15.0 per cent of New Zealand's milking cows, but only 12.3 per cent of the pigs, while Nelson, Westland, and Canterbury, which together have only 5.0 per cent of the cows in milk, have 10.6 per cent of the pig population.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland-Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay, in that order, these six districts accounting for 84 per cent of the total sheep population in 1963.

Statistical AreaDairy Cows, and Heifers Two Years Old and Over (in Milk)Beef Breeding Cows, Two Years Old and OverTotal CattleBreeding SowsTotal PigsSheep Shorn*Lambs Shorn*Lambs Tailed*
* Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed during 1963-64, remaining particulars for stock at 31 January 1964.
per cent
Northland13.08.210.216.315.92.83.62.5
Central Auckland9.12.65.811.011.52.22.62.1
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty42.521.731.633.131 .913.919.913.5
East Coast0.612.15.91.11.14.26.93.3
Hawke's Bay2.115.79.42.01.911.416.811.1
Taranaki15.13.08.910.812.33.04.12.9
Wellington9.417.914.711.610.716.024.414.8
 North Island91 .881.286.585.985.353.578.350.2
Marlborough0.61.71.21.61.72.51.52.1
Nelson1.61.11.43.03.71.21.01.0
Westland0.81.21.01.21.50.30.30.4
Canterbury2.75.94.35.65.417.17.918.4
Otago1.14.92.91.51.312.44.412.1
Southland1.44.02.71.21.113.06.615.8
 South Island8.218.813.514.114.746.521.749.8

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the Report on Statistics of Farm Production. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper H. 23, which is a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP- Over the decade from 30 June 1954 to 30 June 1964 the total number of sheep increased by 34.9 per cent. At 30 June 1964 the number of breeding ewes was 35,701,953 and the total number of sheep 51,291,898. These totals were 2.0 and 2.2 per cent greater respectively than those of the previous year.

The following table shows the number of sheep shorn during the 1959-60 season in regional areas classified according to the special farm types used in the 1959-60 World Census of Agriculture. ("Principal" is used where the activity is 75 per cent or more of the farming enterprise, "predominant" where it is 50-74 per cent, "mixed" where two activities are approximately equal, and "general mixed" where there are three or more types with none predominant.)

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSeep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Diary and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Pre dominant
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Sheep Shorn
Northland88.3401,158,21783,15098,59164,64681,2152,893
South Auckland24,5281,176,70413,13640,82533,70224,38110,021
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands78,1111,656,49618,544119,78090,13560,5601,775
Cape Colville16,939116,8033,32318,52014,03111,207 
Central Plateau52,277681,73430,20159,25238,27447,0878,930
Western Uplands15,9351,900,11414,07630,26755,76544,04312,635
Taranaki54,011627,2332,47542,96138,84043,8073,226
East Cape18,9761,848,23625,62614,67812,73526,28133,938
Hawke's Bay10,6443,838,30441,14010,94944,31375,846116,616
Rangitikei18,6963,121,48114,36029,83867,48431,003123,088
Manawatu34,4171,880,3536,11240,09876,92256,82379,613
Wairarapa9,9571,565,86564519,76523,32713,70662,862
Featherston8,641685,1708,57212,61720,0517,12948,673
Marlborough8,148923,5891,52110,2298,7096,190161,980
Nelson13,158327,9683,05528,36129,54323,88636,737
Westland5,91679,87516,81511,4062,6855,916..
North Canterbury3,022936,5276505116,1162,351218,708
Foothills1,103565,100252,1759,9622,567105,691
Canterbury Plains6,840450,6617995,32018,3507,026277,021
Christchurch1,12326,8995051,5821,2339952,512
Banks Peninsula2,877223,6413655,05317,8484,1386,004
Mackenzie-484,700--2,485-96,776
South Canterbury9,8412,496,0311,0545,83179,1109,1371,505,808
Otago3,8131,324,7735475,06412,7038,405115,586
Central Otago4781,289,6374,2181,1738,36295174,674
Southern7,5685,275,5252,08684,291346,83967,4541,099,744
Remainder-114,164-231,500290-
   Totals495,35934,775,800293,000699,1601,125,670662,3944,205,511
Regional Area*Cropping and sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Sheep Shorn
Northland-2259,0087,2861171,643,485
South Auckland1,5102,82014,6163,498231,345,764
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands26033037,3474,046142,067,398
Cape Colville--5,6285,809-192,260
Central Plateau493624,041191,202-1,333,083
Western Uplands1,59534021,2471,329-2,097,346
Taranaki-1,09424,0279,622-847,296
East Cape4,3819,39161,79630,928-2,086,966
Hawke's Bay9,8009,98343,04820,200204,220,863
Rangitikei1002,86423,6541,411303,434,009
Manawatu4,8073,56732,2735,811-1,709,870
Wairarapa2553,7299,440319-1,709,870
Featherston--1971,6264792,680
Marlborough6,92629,65510,0151,390-1,168,352
Nelson10,8379,65230,81711,3545525,373
Westland--1,169481-124,263
North Canterbury7,06320,15317,70373-1,212,877
Foothills5,14212,56510,000151-714,481
Canterbury Plains40,532113,60953,6371,597-975,392
Christchurch1,0861,1002,067430-39,532
Banks Peninsula1,420572998485-263,401
Mackenzie2,19913,00411,04660-610,270
South Canterbury69,103279,564158,8057,244-4,621,528
Otago1,1603,1118,11911,82811,400,915
Central Otago2,1366,7315,0837,472-1,400,915
Southern3,9819,71044,8428,51236,950,555
Remainder---250-116,227
   Totals174,342533,602710,623334,41421744,010,092

The same classification is also used in the table which follows showing the number of lambs tailed during the 1959-60 season in regional areas.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
Lambs Tailed
Northland44,971714,48730,12561,98634,77550,9741,560
South Auckland15,443822,8635,45331,17324,43617,4186,805
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands50,9181,342,26711,70198,44569,59046,2031,136
Cape Colville9,28760,9211,34411,0758,5287,976-
Central Plateau32,135494,42616,83643,43629,38632,3035,790
Western Uplands9,8131,138,7906,38921,28537,88527,6927,006
Taranaki34,537455,0131,62435,25832,89735,6053,033
East Cape9,851982,20014,8517,6026,16315,22017,924
Hawke's Bay6,1282,580,79419,8126,66828,10936,14490,224
Rangitikei11,5262,081,5227,15921,79751,96624,60895,637
Manawatu22,1681,430,7943,49730,65163,32343,21674,637
Wairarapa4,093985,73172214,15616,87510,20043,209
Featherston4,979436,8395,0138,62713,7054,22330,682
Marlborough3,510471,6072506,1654,6684,282105,467
Nelson7,714182,3211,95817,44515,07013,07824,367
Westland5,14062,99114,5969,9561,7995,337-
North Canterbury2,318591,3352503925,4491,888179,455
Foothills820362,556-2,0077,8442,41092,411
Canterbury Plains5,389386,8039306,09318,4566,246273,360
Christchurch70021,6943861,6809941,0762,453
Banks Peninsula2,452175,9553775,34716,1823,8005,958
Mackenzie 247,751--925-68,060
South Canterbury5,4411,760,9145195,46871,7467,3411,372,425
Otago2,575873,9044474,0669,7437,41289,716
Central Otago309694,8921,3479767,20831052,560
Southern7,0774,428,67738487,490326,59168,094933,093
Remainder 36,415-21550--
Totals299,29423,824,462145.970539.265904,863473,0563,576,968
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Lambs Tailed
Northland  34,5082,52420975,930
South Auckland4091,8258,6802,41529936,949
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands-29029,2813,242-1,653,173
Cape Colville--4,1003,574-106,805
Central Plateau241414,95387,300-756,603
Western Uplands1,14123012,195971-1,263,397
Taranaki-76615,9984,609-619,340
East Cape1,3983,57431,52915,23261,105,550
Hawke's Bay4,7715,79823,30813,585-2,815,614
Rangitikei1101,77118,738869-2,315,703
Manawatu2,0971,33822,9591,821-1,697,501
Wairarapa1622,6857,277205-1,085,315
Featherston--27216-504,311
Marlborough5,76223,4557,25744-632,467
Nelson6,5307,43619,8106,6975302,431
Westland--1,068415-101,302
North Canterbury6,77518,59916,025133-822,619
Foothills3,64012,6987,673145-492,204
Canterbury Plains40,371121,52855,874385-915,435
Christchurch9851,4511,827275-33,521
Bank Peninsula1,5004861,231259-213,547
Mackenzie1,9659,3487,80255-335,906
South Canterbury67,186266,189140,0696,072-3,703,370
Otago9281,9307,5257,916-1,006,162
Central Otago1,2225,0303,9245,342-773,120
Southern4,0567,94142,1655,706-5,911,274
Remainder-----36,986
Total151,032494,382536,903170,2806031,116,535

In the following table total sheep distribution is shown by Islands, the figures including sheep in boroughs.

YearNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal Sheep at 30 June
NumberPer Cent of TotalNumberPer Cent of TotalNumber
* The change from Land Districts to Statistical Areas in 1961 resulted in the transfer of Chatham Islands from North Island to South Island area from that date.
196026,264,19755.7220,869,36044.2847,133,557
1961*26,499,36554.6821,962,94545.3248,462,310
196226,513,32654.1222,474,66645.8848,987,992
196327,011,90353.8223,178,38146.1850,190,284
196427,782,12654.1623,509,77245.8451,291,898

A similar table showing breeding ewe distribution by Islands is now given.

YearNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal Breeding Ewes at 30 June
NumberPer Cent of TotalNumberPer Cent of TotalNumber
* See note to previous table.
196017,703,74054.2514,929,04445.7532,632,784
1961*18,016,58353.6315,575,40046.3733,591,983
196217,991,83653.0015,952,95447.0033,944,790
196318,437,09552.6916,551,87347.3134,988,968
196418,941,76053.0616,760,19346.9435,701,953

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding ewes, dry ewes, and ram, wether, and ewe hoggets in New Zealand for the latest eight years, together with a broad classification into stud and other groups for the years 1952, 1957, and 1962. Figures are at 30 June. The statistics of breeds of sheep are collected at five-yearly intervals.

YearRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe
* Change in classification.
Totals
1957770,7392,261,99428,899,470430,539234,2962,786,0056,998,96542,382,008
1958805,4612,600,58030,875,704445,850269,3793,092,9487,936,00846,025,930
1959836,5612,438,09931,816,093494,574278,1322,880,2178,132,54646,876,222
1960860,4612,324,06432,632,784508,518270,4592,545,0477,992,22447,133,557
1961882,0522,179,33733,591,983521,800268,7882,724,4418,293,90948,462,310
1962899,7192,281,25433,944,790549,057266,9472,724,9198,321,30648,987,992
1963902,2062,256,91834,988,968516,763262,8502,721,2878,541,29250,190,284
1964906,6762,351,50935,701,953468,166268,4022,662,7198,932,47351,291,898
Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
195212,828-331,1805,937118,675-129,810598,430
195717,045-440,6625,503153,037-167,532783,779
196224,636-507,5496,851182,784-195,779917,599
Sheep of a Distinctive Bread but Not Entered in Flock Book
1952*587,5452,393,10517,804,304356,55442,4071,997,0314,482,90027,663,846
1957720,3301,969,95424,698,756352,03672,1642,336,0206,095,52336,244,783
1962833,9532,012,33029,034,965449,51075,2072,288,6747,279,97541,974,614
Crossbred Sheep
1952*31,713586,0514,827,85688,2436,320592,906988,9057,121,994
195733,364292,0403,760,05273,0009,095449,985735,9105,353,446
196241,130268,9244,402,27692,6968,956436,245845,5526,095,779

The 1962 classification of breeds shows that of the 48,987,992 sheep in New Zealand 35,936,339 (73.36 per cent) were Romneys and 6,095,779 (12.44 per cent) were crossbreds. The remainder were composed principally of Corriedale 2,457,976, half-bred 2,217,396, Southdown 955,956, and Merino 916,782.

There has been a steady increase in the average flock size over the last four years which follows a period of three years when there was little change. A classification by size of flock for the last five years is now given.

Size of Flocks19601961196219631964
1- 994,7534,8214,6054,8165,214
100-1993,0792,9762,9132,7412,744
200- 4996,6026,4896,2136,0675,849
500-9998,9658,7498,5008,0927,806
1,000-1,4997,5557,6647,8317,8157,911
1,500-1,9994,4574,6894,7464,9115,105
2,000- 2,4992,2522,3652,3982,5722,701
2,500- 4,9992,9733,0883,2083,3593,507
5,000- 7,499429463474528530
7,500- 19,999140152141151162
10,000-19,999116115121125122
20,000 and over1925232120
 Total flocks41,34041,59641,17341,19841,671
Average flock size1,1401,1651,1901,2181,231

CATTLE- Numbers of cattle by categories are now listed.

Dairy stock -
Cows and heifers, two years old and over-19631964
Cows in milk during season1,997,2532,010,868
Heifers not yet in milk61,28353,985
Cows not in milk during season, but intended to be used again for dairying17,79821,249
Heifers-
One and under two years old483,837470,671
Under one year old483,544476,087
Bulls and bull calves intended for dairy breeding89,34295,577
   Totals, dairy stock3,133,0573,128,437
Beef stock-
Breeding cows and heifers, two years old and over1,339,9191,341,409
Cows, two years old and over, not used for breeding68,37575,701
Heifers-
One and under two years old385,956375,651
Under one year old547,705471,617
Steers and bulls of all ages1,215,952x1,303,390
   Totals, beef stock3,557,9073,567,768
  Totals, cattle6,690,9646,696,205

The following table shows the number of holdings with dairy cows in milk, grouped according to size of herd in milk, for the three last intervals for which such information is available. The figures relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

YearHoldingsTotal Holdings With 10 or more Cows in Milk
With 10-19 CowsWith 20-29 CowsWith 30-39 CowsWith 40-49 CowsWith 50-59 CowsWith 60-69 CowsWith 70-79 CowsWith 80-89 CowsWith 90-99 CowsWith 100 and Over
19524,3684,5365,5275,2454,4383,6652,5121,7261,1052,53235,654
19573,4773,5634,5494,8354,5894,3053,0712,0231,3513,09434,857
19602,5792,8023,6654,2154,1993,9862,9152,1481,2893,35331,151

The following table shows the number of cows in milk in regional areas at 31 January 1960 classified according to the special farm types used in the 1959-60 World Census of Agriculture.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Diary with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Cows in Milk
Northland270,1262,21555021,6413,2557,6212
South Auckland126,7632,3051808,3741,6962,09115
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands450,3062,74925527,0895,3206,867147
Cape Colville34,508269294,1476941,450-
Central Plateau146,5031,51216116,1712,8975,09690
Western Uplands18,0362,503155,3322,6522,87414
Taranaki222,1901,635811,4551,8054,95639
East Cape26,2612,236333,6507101,64457
Hawke's Bay10,5043,402371,7971,2621,53887
Rangitikei30,3063,995914,6112,2182,888217
Manawatu107,3133,378848,4623,4105,41772
Wairarapa20,6101,685124,1401,1731,38571
Featherston16,432941142,57684559231
Marlborough8,122886101,573241448237
Nelson22,376655114,9651,1581,83078
Westland10,293107693,075191582-
North Canterbury19487225893158390
Foothills8997217309235192194
Canterbury Plains15,19669523974594471687
Christchurch4,518921256301453
Banks Peninsula2,671411582567942725
Mackenzie-422--1-116
South Canterbury9,2402,77061,0491,1215992,693
Otago8,2311,27115692352506155
Central Otago3711,108518213258115
Southern5,8155,538510,3855,9495,1411,300
Remainder-101-83--
   Totals1,567,78444,4741,628143,79638,71654,9766,835
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther(Including Horticulture Timbers,etc)Idle and UnusedTotal
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Cows in Milk
Northland2-4,31349084310,299
South Auckland33-1,0421994142,702
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands--1,773125-494,631
Cape Colville--497100441,698
Central Plateau1-1,7353395174,510
Western Uplands2-697104232,231
Taranaki--9051503243,146
East Cape38301,1961032135,979
Hawke's Bay2259463881019,269
Rangitikei-340817-44,754
Manawatu431,04632-129,221
Wairarapa--32522-29,423
Featherston-511813-21,513
Marlborough22583038-11,908
Nelson61301,639500133,304
Westland-46112114,395
North Canterbury20541622-2,005
Foothills11421945512,860
Canterbury Plains1633162,737102121,959
Christchurch2211423-5,186
Banks Peninsula--1025-5,150
Mackenzie212533-609
South Canterbury1977842,231207-20,897
Otago210203122-11,559
Central Otago716914852,138
Southern1013921135135,213
Remainder----1113
   Totals5991,48723,2293,0041441,886,672

The same classification is also used in the table which follows showing the total number of dairy cattle in regional areas at 31 January 1960.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Dairy Cattle
Northland424,6787,1452,14835,9155,86912,8673
South Auckland189,4556,56672713,4363,1483,58562
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands663,83619,2171,52445,27610,49212,141315
Cape Colville53,887778397,1681,4902,447-
Central Plateau229,8765,53729226,8036,0338,931148
Western Uplands27,6376,260209,5035,2295,22323
Taranaki328,46911,7526818,9544,4229,132179
East Cape40,5663,924975,8751,2552,708104
Hawke's Bay15,8995,637502,9212,0522,497159
Rangitikei46,1528,5811457,3004,1684,997450
Manawatu162,2298,63425613,2955,8808,987268
Wairarapa30,4692,989226,5192,0772,285118
Featherston24,7702,223183,9071,45998283
Marlborough12,1611,467222,472366700455
Nelson33,4171,145437,5761,9112,712147
Westland15,8681841054,840291943-
North Canterbury2871,440386165265814
Foothills1,4771,3129488410333396
Canterbury Plains22,7131,247551,4991,0468041,372
Christchurch6,036226383515923738
Banks Peninsula4,12991581,3411,29581764
Mackenzie-725--4-244
South Canterbury13,6214,99981,5631,9269215,088
Otago11,5242,411371,053606764294
Central Otago5211,84414247237137197
Southern8,11110,8391015,3499,6967,7062,543
Remainder-216-106--
   Totals2,367,288118,2135,858233,74771,61093,12113,564
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Dairy Cattle
Northland2-8,3223,162262500,373
South Auckland109102,6972,4268222,229
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands12225,2434,55122762,651
Cape Colville--1,061598566,973
Central Plateau1-4,9919078283,627
Western Uplands11-1,550236355,695
Taranaki-62,9111,8335377,731
East Cape71581,9752124156,886
Hawke's Bay311067791301730,278
Rangitikei-685557172,730
Manawatu9131,63452420201,749
Wairarapa13366487-45,246
Featherston-10014490-33,776
Marlborough4211161715-18,428
Nelson93452,600762550,456
Westland-919341122,475
North Canterbury331042715 3,473
Foothills18773647754,966
Canterbury Plains3436354,698203134,616
Christchurch552225487,279
Banks Peninsula3-20616-8,794
Mackenzie5241163-1,121
South Canterbury3711,4703,946392-34,305
Otago321334270-17,317
Central Otago13271337083,448
Southern12191,404228355,920
Remainder----2234
   Totals1,2002,87147,93016,9494252,972,776

The following table shows the number of beef breeding cows in regional areas at 31 January 1960 classified according to the special farm types used in the 1959-60 World Census of Agriculture.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
* For list of counties Included see page 393.
Beef Cattle
Northland4,73158,64120,4852,3481,8092,039259
South Auckland34241,2751,511257484268198
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands1,03542,1822,1718181,46140065
Cape Colville4824,049532181328353-
Central Plateau1,28731,4872,518522896684397
Western Uplands2879,9911,6413631,1461,516328
Taranaki44815,625160258125153
East Cape390114,4783,8861314661,129751
Hawke's Bay157124,0463,370351,1663,9031,232
Rangitikei10869,6401,3691652281161,399
Manawatu33136,8701,535101602388707
Wairarapa6855,89218442338391,217
Featherston4720,6251,60588327478
Marlborough6211,0373,0171110135853
Nelson2247,422701207227256282
Westland1883,6114,4852589085-
North Canterbury-13,777--404404
Foothills-3,2624-12-256
Canterbury Plains231,41189-39240
Christchurch434738---15
Banks Peninsula-3,64713431014-
Mackenzie-4,692----501
South Canterbury1015,4761108207353,169
Otago610,0535213847-510
Central Otago-6,779430-40-141
Southern1638,349649181,018942,897
Remainder-1,616--63-
   Totals9,987816,28051,1455,53911,71111,90216,302
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
* For list of counties Included see page 393.
Beef Breeding Cows
Northland--5,5547801196,657
South Auckland2810864126-45,363
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands--1,565285-49,982
Cape Colville--20050-6,175
Central Plateau--1,19517,502-56,488
Western Uplands-1292815-85,968
Taranaki-70897419-18,974
East Cape2443,8332,3948127,512
Hawke's Bay53261,9871,363-137,318
Rangitikei-8396--73-429
Manawatu189736183-41,480
Wairarapa--251--58,031
Featherston--6--22,879
Marlborough-10271-15,154
Nelson684436937-9,837
Westland--1284368,894
North Canterbury-4154--14,383
Foothills63272--3,815
Canterbury Plains70522198-2,124
Christchurch-1219--435
Banks Peninsula--9--3,898
Mackenzie-96245--5,534
South Canterbury1828090414-20,231
Otago--1127-11,213
Central Otago28-1588-7,584
Southern11125590343,401
Remainder---1-1,626
   Totals27269121,18223,34628968,385

The same classification is also used in the table which follows showing the total number of beef cattle in regional areas at 31 January 1960.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Beef Cattle
Northland26,869157,79561,2068,1736,7966,588472
South Auckland3,660112,67610,5951,0902,1011,036613
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands11,306151,53817,1455,1185,2232,455119
Cape Colville3,01612,2283,5529671,2981,296-
Central Plateau5,81088,93911,3142,5712,4282,375928
Western Uplands454231,7945,5921,4583,7514,420729
Taranaki3,82047,1701,2003432,4851,80821
East Cape1,339300,89110,5976541,2783,1212,847
Hawke's Bay1,006369,30213,5413173,20911,3725,539
Rangitikei873275,1806,5319592,4796856,720
Manawatu2,441132,0428,6438762,2862,5673,231
Wairarapa489147,8936724999362133,513
Featherston52258,3974,38279508713,110
Marlborough51230,6769,8221572931232,619
Nelson2,39221,6163,7171,3421,0181,043941
Westland1,69911,20415,2541,585280375-
North Canterbury3835,42928111129632,262
Foothills239,6101144610415997
Canterbury Plains6554,62390420136661,486
Christchurch871,44166844110121
Banks Peninsula35114,67635718372518389
Mackenzie-11,459----1,393
South Canterbury41846,1308121661,01616312,885
Otago21229,1851,621108119702,046
Central Otago3220,3921,277711531405
Southern304113,4951,9287805,26367510,696
Remainder-4,530-1208-
   Totals68,3282,440,311191,92527,51444,03740,83263,782
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
* For list of counties included see page 393.
Beef Cattle
Northland--15,5652,40842285,914
South Auckland86192,2851,1303135,294
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands-15,9439852199,835
Cape Colville--1,2162,051325,627
Central Plateau--3,74646,7672164,880
Western Uplands63303,063139-251,493
Taranaki-1752,7891,349-61,160
East Cape1504889,5356,24820337,168
Hawke's Bay1612275,6843,7291414,088
Rangitikei-631,591163-295,244
Manawatu611132,8677944155,925
Wairarapa-192914-155,159
Featherston--722-67,098
Marlborough7110643445-44,858
Nelson1962421,595469-34,571
Westland-26401427631,257
North Canterbury1088667--38,978
Foothills54329014-11,900
Canterbury Plains2324001,39641-9,959
Christchurch11339251-2,559
Banks Peninsula28-3799-17,180
Mackenzie-266607--13,725
South Canterbury2191,6284,286192-67,915
Otago17451,313149-34,885
Central Otago32732384222,707
Southern124561,3175795135,222
Remainder---114,561
   Totals1,5154,04668,93167,850913,019,162

For dairy stock the Jersey breed, with 78.6 per cent of all dairy stock in 1962, is predominant, while the main beef stock breeds are Aberdeen Angus (74.5 per cent), Hereford (16.3 per cent), and Shorthorn (5.4 per cent).

PIGS-The 1964 figure of 771,450 pigs showed an increase of 0.7 per cent compared with the 1963 figure and a decrease of 3.7 per cent compared with the peak figure of 800,802 in 1936.

At 31 JanuaryBreedings Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
* Gilts 6 months old but under 12 months intended for breeding numbered 34,466.
195992,970598,598691,568
196087,824572,437660,261
196183,979571,453655,432
196284,499601,042*685,541
196397,039668,986766,025
196495,179676,271771,450

Particulars as to pig breeds collected in 1950 showed that the principal distinctive breeds were Berkshire (6.6 per cent) and Tamworth (5.5 per cent), but over 80 per cent of the pigs in New Zealand were classified as crossbreds.

HORSES- Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,000 was recorded, there has been a steady decline in the number of horses in New Zealand. The greater part of the decrease has occurred in horses of the heavy type and has been accompanied by a marked increase in the use of mechanical traction for farm work, the number of agricultural tractors on farms in 1952 being 46,000 as compared with 14,000 in 1942. By 1959 the number of heavy-type horses had fallen to 28,500, while tractors had increased to 75,300. Hacks and light working horses have decreased to a much lesser extent over the period. No annual information has been collected since 1960 owing to the decline in numbers.

DOGS- The count of dogs registered during the year ended 31 December 1963 showed that there were 215,599 dogs registered in counties, 50,863 in boroughs, 646 in town districts, and 460 in road districts. Unregistered dogs and those up to six months old are not included in these figures.

POULTRY-The following table shows the numbers recorded at the censuses 1921-61. All references to fowls, ducks, etc., are intended to cover both male and female birds.

CensusNumber of Households Keeping Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or TurkeysTotal Number of Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or TurkeysFowlsDucksGeeseTurkeys
* Excluding Maori flocks.
April 1921*145,9933,991,0093,491,567379,98846,23473,220
April 1926*158,8563,781,1453,308,384352,03043,87976,852
March 1936166,3544,019,0763,488,516377,79166,66786,102
September 1945159,3334,470,3664,070,683319,91841,90337,862
April 1951180,7234,199,5903,829,481260,65958,47450,976
April 1956192,7364,485,5714,160,424210,71860,93853,491
April 1961163,4764,525,3974,183,563202,24573,45766,132

The comparability of the foregoing figures is affected by two important considerations, the first being that the figures from 1951 onwards include only birds aged four months or over, while the 1945 figures cover birds of all ages. At earlier censuses the question was for the number of birds - no reference being made to age. The second factor is that tie census of 1945 was taken in the spring, whereas the other censuses were taken in the autumn.

Poultry farming is regarded as a definite branch of the farming industry. Those keeping poultry may be classified under three groups, namely - commercial poultry farmers, sideline poultry producers, and household poultry keepers. As might be anticipated, the last-named group is by far the largest. Taking only fowls into consideration, 148,116, or 92.5 per cent, of the flocks comprised less than 25 birds.

Sideline poultry producers are those with flocks of over 100 birds but fewer than 1,000. These flocks are usually kept by people as a sideline to augment their incomes received from other daily employment. In 1961 there were 773 flocks of over 1,000 birds forming the basic commercial units of the poultry industry. Of these, 506 ranged from 1,000 to 1,999, 178 from 2,000 to 2,999, 54 from 3,000 to 3,999, and 35 exceeded 4,000. The vast majority of household poultry keepers and sideline producers depend upon commercial poultry farms for annual replacement stock. Again the commercial and sideline groups sell their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns. Egg production has been steadily increasing, sales through licensed distributors rising from 20,418,919 dozen in 1960-61 to 22,790,010 dozen in 1961-62, and 25,755,333 dozen in 1962-63. It is estimated that approximately 40 to 45 per cent of the total egg production passes through these channels.

Poultry farming is confined largely to egg production, but units are now established for the production of table poultry, and attention paid to the production of "broilers" or 3 to 3 1/2 lb live weight chicken. Until recently, table poultry was almost entirely a by-product of commercial egg production.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, the largest numbers being concentrated around Auckland, Christchurch, and Oamaru. Duck-egg farming is carried on only to a limited extent and is centred mainly around Auckland. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Until about 1950, White Leghorns were almost the only breed used for commercial egg production but crossbred birds are now by far the most popular birds for egg production. The pure breeds mated to produce these crossbreds are White Leghorns, Australorps, and Rhode Island Reds.

Khaki Campbell and Runner ducks are mainly used for egg production, while Khaki Campbell, Muscovy, and some Pekin ducks are marketed as table birds. There is little organised turkey production.

There is a definite trend towards specialisation among commercial producers in the poultry industry. Whereas it has been common practice in the past for many commercial producers to carry out breeding, egg production, and the sale of young growing pullets, there is at present a move towards specialising in any one of these aspects of poultry farming. Thus, many commercial egg producers no longer attempt to breed replacement stock but buy day-old pullets each year to replenish their flocks. Recently serious consideration has been given by the larger specialist poultry breeders to modern breeding methods based upon present-day knowledge of poultry genetics. A group of poultry breeders are at present employing the services of a consultant geneticist to evaluate the results obtained with their breeding flock and to advise on poultry-breeding procedure. Finally, a limited number of commercial poultry producers are specialising in rearing day-old chicks for sale as perching pullets to householders and sideline producers. These specialist pullet rearers normally carry no birds for egg production or breeding.

Poultry Control-The Poultry Act 1924 and the Poultry Amendment Act 1961 provide for the control of poultry diseases and the sanitary conditions under which incubators are operated and where eggs for human consumption are held on poultry farms. Provision can also be made under these Acts to control the grading, packing, and handling of table poultry for consumption in New Zealand and the killing, processing, and packing of table poultry for export. Every owner of poultry is required to report to the nearest office of the Department of Agriculture any outbreak or suspected outbreak of disease in a flock and to comply with the directions of an inspector (usually a poultry instructor or veterinarian) for the control of the outbreak. It is an offence to offer diseased poultry for sale.

In order to provide finance for the organisation and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in 1933 and a poultry board constituted of two Government and four producer members. The Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry run, which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than 25 head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. The fee payable annually is 2s. 6d. if the flock is in excess of 24 but does not exceed 100 head. For each additional hundred (or part thereof) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this Yearbook.

BEES- The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are particularly favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey for the local and export markets.

Production for the year ended 31 May 1964 was estimated at 5,465 tons of honey and 191,275 lb of commercial beeswax, approximately 544 tons of honey and 19,040 lb of beeswax less than the previous season.

Over the past five seasons the annual export of honey has averaged 1,781,540 lb. There is wide variation in the production of honey due to climatic changes from season to season. As only surpluses are exported this causes variations in the quantity exported each year.

Exports of honey for the latest five years ended 31 December are given below.

 QuantityValue
Year1b£
1960944,96454,003
19611,611,994100,655
19622,107,200114,534
19632,416,530142,049
19641,827,012125,966

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that at 31 May 1963 there were 4,701 beekeepers with a total of 13,071 apiaries and 183,875 established hives. Fifty-eight per cent of hives and 57 per cent of apiaries were in the North Island. Following is a summary of these registrations showing beekeepers in groups according to the number of hives kept.

Group1-5 Hives6-29 Hives30-250 Hives251 Hives and OverTotal
Beekeepers3,2438783562244,701
Apiaries3,9131,1961,8356,12713,071
Hives established6,87710,14430,132136,722183,875

Under the Apiaries Act 1927 stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register all apiaries of one or more hives, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used, box hives being prohibited.

The introduction of bees, and used appliances for the keeping of bees, into New Zealand, and the harvesting of their products, is prohibited save with the prior consent of the Minister of Agriculture. The consent of the Minister in regard to used appliances is restricted to such appliances as are necessary to serve as containers for bees so introduced.

In view of the greatly increased amount of crop spraying for weed and pest control it has been necessary to bring down regulations prohibiting the application to cruciferous and leguminous field crops of sprays and dusts that are toxic to bees at any time during the period between 1 September in any year and 31 March in the following year when the crop is in flower, except with a permit issued by the Department of Agriculture.

Reference to the activities of the Honey Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this issue.

Chapter 15. Section 15 FORESTRY

Table of Contents

GENERAL- New Zealand has a climate extremely favourable to forest growth, and extensive forests have been a valuable asset to the country and its people since the earliest days of settlement. The first white settlers found a land covered by dense forest over perhaps two-thirds of its area, that is to say over most of the country with au elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 ft and with rainfall of more than 40 to 45 in. a year.

In the early days of settlement the demand for timber was met by exploitation of the kauri forests of the far north. These forests were almost completely destroyed by logging and subsequent burning of the cut-over areas. Wide areas of podocarp-broadleaf forest in both islands were cleared, often without extraction of timber, to make way for farms. There was little interest in conservation, and land-clearing operations extended well beyond the limits now considered desirable in the public interest. Towards the end of the century the need to conserve the forests of the high mountain watersheds was recognised. National parks and scenic and "climatic" reserves amounting to about 2 million acres, in all constituting 3.1 per cent of the land area of New Zealand, had been set aside as "permanent forest" by the early 1900s. These reserves have been extended since that date.

All readily accessible native forests have now been cleared, and forested land is reduced to about a quarter of the total land area. Nevertheless, this portion represents a very large area as the following table of land categories shows.

Type of LandArea, in AcresPercentage of Total Land Area
Forested land15,350,00023.1
Non-forested land50,149,00075.6
Minor islands205,0000.3
Water area687,0001.0
 Total land area (including water surfaces)66,391,000100.0

The best use of the 15,350,000 acres of forested land will be decided, within the framework of national forest policy, by the location, tenure, and economic value of its component parts.

The administrative agency in national forest policy is the New Zealand Forest Service which was created in 1920.

A national exotic forest survey has revealed that there are now over 1 million acres of exotic forest capable of supplying merchantable produce. Forests of 50 acres and more (the major areas) amount for almost nine-tenths of this total. Nearly two-thirds of the major areas are concentrated in the Bay of Plenty-Taupo region. Ownership of the major areas is divided between the Forest Service with 59 per cent, commercial plantations with 32 per cent, local authorities 5 per cent, and private individuals 2 per cent. Over half of the major areas were planted between 1926 and 1935. Two-thirds of the major areas are planted in radiata pine, the next highest species being ponderosa pine with 10 per cent. Radiata pine grows very quickly in New Zealand conditions, and seedlings reach 130 ft in 30 years.

FOREST RESOURCES: Forest Produce Supplies- The salient features of the supply situation are:

  1. Of the remaining indigenous forest some 1,800,000 acres contain timber merchantable by today's standards. It has been estimated that the amount is 3,000 million cubic feet, representing 19,300 million board feet of sawn timber. In addition, there are about 1,100,000 acres of exotic forests, of which some 1,000,000 acres are classed as productive. The indigenous forests are still, despite the greatly increased use of exotic timber, being depleted at the rate of some 30,000 acres a year to provide some 300,000,000 board feet of timber annually.

  2. The indigenous forests, from which 20 years ago 86 per cent of rough-sawn timber supplies were obtained, at present supply approximately 41 per cent. In 20 years' time they are expected to provide about 14 per cent. In the distant future the amount of produce obtained from them will depend upon the successful introduction of management practices.

  3. It can be expected that a high proportion of the exotic forests will be worked on a sustained-yield basis. Besides supplying 59 per cent of the rough-sawn timber cut at present, they yield in addition 56 million cubic feet of pulp logs, veneer logs, and smallwood.

  4. Imports of timber have varied from 30 to 60 million board feet during the past 10 years. They are composed of special-purpose timbers - large-dimension Oregon pine for structural use, joinery timbers, and Australian hardwood poles and sleepers.

  5. While supplies of produce from indigenous forests will decrease in the future, the area in exotic forests and the produce from them will increase. Timbers from exotic species could also in time largely replace imported timber and, provided the increase in forest area is sufficient, will provide a substantial amount of produce for export.

The exports of forest produce have risen in value from less than £1 million in 1953 to almost £11 million in 1963. The growth of the export trade in forest products in the last decade has been closely associated with the rapid rise of the pulp and paper industry. Over three-quarter of the value of these exports in 1963 was in newsprint and pulp. In fact, these two items account for nearly half the value of all exports to Australia.

Local production of fibreboard, paperboard, newsprint, and wrapping and tissue paper has led to a significant reduction in imports. The total value of output of the pulp and paper industry reached £23 million in 1962-63. Over the last decade total production of pulp (the basic commodity) has risen at an average annual rate of over 17 per cent. Production rose from 73,000 tons in 1954-55 to nearly 370,000 tons in 1963-64. During the same period total wood consumption in the pulp and paper industry (which includes the sawmills of integrated plants) increased from 10 million cubic feet to 68 million cubic feet. (Total sawn-timber production from forests was 666 million board feet in 1963-64 to meet building and other needs in the country. Additional products include plywood, veneer, fencing posts, and sleepers.)

Classification of Forests- More than three-quarters of the New Zealand forest area is in unmerchantable forest. This is mainly Crown-owned, indigenous forest, and, because it covers much of the remoter mountainous and high-rainfall country, its primary function is that of soil protection and water regulation. Nevertheless, it includes considerable areas of potentially productive forest land which could, in the distant future, be placed under production management. Such management would always be subordinate to the protective functions of this class of forest.

"Merchantable" forests are more diverse in tenure and composition than the unmerchantable forests because they include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, of which nearly half are owned privately or by local authorities. Fully merchantable indigenous forests have receded well in advance of close settlement, and the largest areas are now on Crown lands and Maori lands in regions (especially on the West Coast of the South Island) little suited to other forms of land use. The distribution of merchantable exotic forests has been influenced mainly by the availability of cheap, undeveloped land in the period (1900 to 1935) when most of these forests were established. Hence there is a preponderance of exotic forest (State owned and private) on the volcanic plateau of the North Island.

The distribution by area of forested land in 1964 is shown by the following table.

Class of Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
acres (thousand)
Accessible and/or merchantable forests -
State forests1,5705402,110
Unoccupied Crown land180-180
Freehold and leasehold land4505501,000
Maori land290-290
Reserves180-180
   Totals2,6701,0903,760
Inaccessible and/or unmerchantable forests -
State forests5,290-5,290
Unoccupied Crown land1,400-1,400
Freehold and leasehold land1,6001001,700
Maori land800-800
Reserves2,400-2,400
   Total11,49010011,590
  Totals, all forested land14,1601,19015,350

Botanical Composition of Forests- The indigenous forests of New Zealand may be grouped very broadly into two main formations, mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern-beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech (Nothofagus).

In general terms, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. Their upper altitudinal limit becomes gradually lower from north to south. The beech forests are the forests of the south, of the high mountains and of the drier lowlands. But the beech species are absent from many localities, e.g., Stewart Island and Mt. Egmont, where their presence might be expected. There are also extensive areas, especially in the north-west and south-west of the South Island, and on the mountain ranges of the North Island, where the two types mingle to form forests of very varied composition.

Most of the mixed forest has been cut over for timber and cleared for farming purposes, whereas the southern-beech forest, because of the difficult topography and the poor soils on which it most frequently grows, is largely intact. The following description gives in more detail the distribution and the present state of the main forest communities.

Kauri forest (mixed temperate evergreen forest in which kauri is the dominant species) once occupied much of the area north of a line joining Port Waikato to Tauranga, but, except for limited reservations and small pockets, it has disappeared. The main secondary tree species are taraire and tawa. Mixed podocarp forest (the principal podocarp is rimu; the important secondary ones, totara, matai, and miro) was found at all latitudes in the three main islands. The heaviest commercial stands were on flat or near-flat sites; in steeper country timber trees thinned out and secondary species became more plentiful. The remaining forest of this type consists of pockets which will be worked for a few decades to come, some large areas on steep country, such as the Urewera, which can be classed mainly as protection forest, and fairly extensive forests in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island which contain most of the remaining indigenous-softwood supplies. The main species of broad-leaved trees in these forests are kamahi, tawa, and rata. Kahikatea forest occupied low-lying swampy river silts, but this has almost disappeared to make way for farming.

Bog forests, whose dominant trees are smaller podocarps of the silver-pine group, occupy limited areas mainly in the central North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island. They have largely been cut over, at least once, for posts and sleepers.

Although most southern-beech forests can be classified as protection forests, there remain large areas in more accessible regions which have been cut over and are regenerating, or which have not yet been cut over and will be reserved for sustained-yield management. Where southern-beech forest is present in the more accessible areas of the North Island and northern Marlborough-Nelson, the species are hard beech (Nothofagus truncata) and black beech (N. solandri). Red beech (N. fused) abounds in the less accessible upper areas, where it is usually accompanied by the silver beech (N. menziesii), the main tree at high altitudes. In dry places mountain beech (N. solandri var. cliffortioides) replaces silver. On eastern slopes of the Southern Alps there was once a belt of mountain-beech forest, but all except pockets of this has been burnt. On the western side of the Alps, beech forest is absent from the Taramakau River southwards for 100 miles. In western Otago and western Southland silver beech is the main forest tree, with fair areas of mountain beech and small pockets of red beech. At the lower elevations silver beech is extensively milled and much of the forest has disappeared.

Important forest trees at high elevations, not already mentioned, are kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii) and thin-bark totara (Podocarpus hallii).

In the undisturbed indigenous vegetation there were limited transition areas between tussock grassland and forest proper that carried manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides), and sometimes bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum). With the destruction of much tussock grassland and forest, these belts have extended, and manuka has even occupied extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from any original manuka stands. These stands are important because they are often a stage in succession back to mature forest. Manuka is also a very useful fuel.

Much land now classified as forest consists of a second growth of broad-leaved shrubs and trees which have come in after milling operations or on abandoned farm land.

Exotic plantations over 50 acres in extent now total some 900,000 acres, besides which there is a large total acreage of smaller farm woodlots and shelter belts. These areas of exotic species already provide nearly three-quarters of the total wood production, and before many more years have passed must supply most of it. In some poorly forested districts shelter belts now provide a large part of the local timber supply.

Most of the larger exotic plantations are in the central North Island region. They were established with radiata pine (Pinus radiata) between the years 1925 and 1935. Other plantations are scattered throughout the country, although there are still some timber-short districts with few plantations, notably Taranaki, Poverty Bay and the east coast, and South Canterbury.

NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION: Forest Authority- The Forests Act, 1949 prescribes that the New Zealand Forest Service has, under the direction of the Minister of Forests, exclusive responsibility in carrying out all matters of forest policy affecting State forest land and has exclusive control and management of:

  1. All State forest land, whether for the production of timber or other forest produce, or for the protection of the land with a view to water conservation or soil stabilisation, or for ensuring the balanced use of the land, or for scientific purposes, or for recreational or amenity purposes not prejudicial to forestry;

  2. The establishment, culture, and maintenance of forests on State forest land, and the harvesting, utilisation, transport, sale, or other disposal of forest produce from State forest land;

  3. The granting of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities under the Act;

  4. The enforcement of the conditions of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities granted under the Act or any enactment repealed;

  5. The collection and recovery of all purchase moneys, rents, fees, royalties, charges, and revenues of the Service; and

  6. Generally the exercise of all powers, authorities, and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister or the Forest Service by the Act.

Central control of the Forest Service is exercised by the Director-General of Forests from the head office in Wellington. A conservator of forests, who is the local representative of the Director-General, controls each of the seven conservancies into which New Zealand is divided. Forest rangers, responsible to the conservators, have charge of districts, which are subdivisions of the conservancies. Each district contains one or more managed forests.

The Minister of Forests also administers the Waitangi Endowment under powers set out in the Waitangi Endowment Act 1932-33 and some Crown and Maori areas under section 64 of the Forests Act.

Regulations- The Forests Act 1949 authorises the appointment by regulation of committees to advise the Minister of Forests on specified matters. Regulations issued under this authority are the Timber Production Advisory Committee Regulations 1949, the Sirex Advisory Committee Regulations 1950, the Forest and Fire Publicity Committee Regulations 1952, and the Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee Regulations 1952.

Other regulations in force are the Sawmill Registration Regulations 1952, the Timber Regulations 1948, the Forest Service Fees and Charges Regulations 1953, and the Forest Produce Import and Export Regulations 1956.

FOREST MANAGEMENT: Objectives- In the field of production forestry, as distinct from protection forestry, the management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards two ends:

  1. To protect, conserve, and, if possible, perpetuate the remaining indigenous forests of the country.

  2. To create an exotic estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce, and to provide an exportable surplus.

Indigenous Production Forests- Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve regulation and restriction of the permissible annual cut, protection against fire, a careful watch for trespass and the prosecution of offenders caught, rigid insistence on close utilisation, both of forests and forest products, and finally block sales of carefully measured and appraised standing timber. The Forest Service formulates working plans for all major State forests and through them regulates, both by individual forests and by districts, the amount of timber that may be cut annually.

At the same time the possibility of ultimately regenerating podocarp forests and bringing them into a productive state is far from being overlooked. Research into the ecology of the natural forest associations and into the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species is being pursued. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate, which means that clear felling, or any condition that allows exposure and desiccation, must be avoided.

Parallel to the policy of rationing the cut is that of making long-term log and timber sales. This has the effect of giving stability to sawmilling industries and to the communities dependent upon them. In one or two places further stability is being sought by the practice of interplanting logged areas with exotic species (mainly Douglas fir and western red cedar), combined where possible with the planting of adjacent areas of open country. By this means a sustained yield, part exotic and part indigenous, can be achieved, and the sawmilling industries and communities can look forward to a life in perpetuity.

The kauri forests, now only remnants of the vast forests from which timber was first felled in quantity in New Zealand, are owned principally by the State. The remaining kauri stands show promise of being amenable to sound forestry management. Bleeding for gum, which damaged many trees in the past, is forbidden. The annual cut is strictly rationed. Wherever kauri is felled a portion of the growing stock in young vigorous trees is left as a reserve. Young pole stands are silviculturally treated to free them from competition and improve growth. Natural regeneration is assisted and encouraged, and planting extends the species on to lands which have not held kauri for generations. A small but regular cut of this valuable species is assured, and forests for the future are being established and cultivated.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests of New Zealand on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both the major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to grow on a medium-length rotation (100-130 years); and both show their optimum development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. There are many large areas of virgin forest still intact, and, in the case of red beech, extensive stands of pole forest which have originated as a result of fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer, whose browsing may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

Exotic-forest Management- The establishment of State exotic forests dates from 1896 when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, and proceeded at a slow rate until 1922, by which time 47,000 acres had been established. The formation of the New Zealand Forest Service as a separate Department of State in the early twenties coincided approximately with an afforestation boom, and in the period 1923-36 no less than 376,000 acres were planted. Since then plantings have been on a modest scale, but in pursuance of the policy of doubling the exotic forest estate by the end of the century, the rate of planting is now being increased (from 12,000 acres in 1961 to a target of 20,000 acres in 1965).

In the earlier years the areas selected for planting were often chosen with little consideration for the suitability of the site for tree growing or for the proximity of the forests to existing and future markets. As a result there have been some partial or complete failures, and the geographical distribution of the forests leaves much to be desired. These faults are now being corrected by the establishment of new forests in timber-hungry districts and by the careful selection of areas where the climate, soil, and topography are all favourable to tree growth.

The original plantations contained a great variety of species, most of the common timber trees of Europe being represented as well as many from America and Australia, particularly eucalypts and North American conifers. In general, accept locally and on very good sites, the European hardwoods such as ash, oak, and sycamore were failures; and of the multitude of eucalypts tried, only a few proved suited to New Zealand conditions. The standard European softwood, Scots pine, was a complete failure, as were many of the American pines, firs, and spruces. Norway spruce promised well for some years, but was finally wiped out by insect attack. Austrian pine was planted extensively in the earlier years and developed into very poor stands; much later, similar results were obtained, from extensive plantings of the scopulorum variety of ponderosa pine, and even worse results from the wide-scale and indiscriminate attempts to establish Californian redwood.

Radiata pine has the ability to grow rapidly on a wide range of sites and to produce fine stands of timber. It became, and still is, the major exotic conifer of New Zealand. Other major species, planted according to site, are Douglas fir, Corsican pine, and ponderosa pine. Of recent years the southern pines - loblolly, slash, and long-leaf pines - have found a place in the more northerly forests. Minor species planted on a restricted scale are lodgepole, strobus, and patula pines, larch, Japanese cedar, Lawson cypress, macrocarpa, and western red cedar.

The estimated species distribution in State and private plantations of major areas* at 31 March 1962 was:

SpeciesAcres (000)Percentage
Radiata pine56265
Ponderosa pine809
Corsican pine647
Douglas fir627
Others and mixtures10112
  Totals869100

In spite of failures New Zealand now has a large and valuable exotic-forest estate which is providing more than one-half of the annual sawn-wood requirements and, in addition, is supporting a large and growing pulp and paper industry. Qualitatively the forests leave much to be desired. Their various shortcomings, due largely to past mistakes, now present problems which will tax the ingenuity of the forestry profession to the utmost. Specifically, management of the State exotic forests is rendered difficult and complex by reason of:

  1. The Bad Age-class Distribution: Sixty-five per cent of the total radiata pine area was planted in one 10-year period. In the absence of tending this will result in a corresponding peak in production of mature timber, leading to utilisation difficulties. The position is much the with the other major species.

  2. The High Proportion of Radiata Pine: Some 60 per cent of the total area is in radiata pine, but the proportion in some individual forests and in some districts is much higher. A greater diversity of species would enable a wider range of forest products to be supplied and would lessen "he risk of insect or fungal attack on an epidemic scale.

  3. The Considerable Areas of Low Productivity: The maximum value from the soil is not being obtained in areas which are occupied by poor species such as P. ponderosa var. scopulorum, Austrian pine, some races of lodgepole pine, eucalypts, etc. Their replacement by more valuable species must be undertaken.

  4. The Low Stocking of Many Areas: Two causes are responsible - the practice during the boom afforestation period of planting at a wide initial spacing, and the failure during the same period to plant up gaps in the original establishment. The resultant trees are often open grown and branchy, and are producing firewood and pulping material rather than sawlogs.

  5. (e)Lack of Tending: Large areas formed before the Second World War have received little treatment since planting. Low pruning has been carried out over several thousand acres, but thinning has been badly neglected. As a result, the final-crop trees of many forests are failing to produce the quantity and the quality of wood they are capable of.

*Major area: 50 acres and over held by one owner.

For these reasons management activities in State exotic forests are directed towards getting a better distribution of age classes in the next rotation, which entails felling some stands before they are mature and leaving others to be carried on to over-maturity, towards converting areas of low productivity to well stocked stands of more valuable species, and above all towards catching up with arrears of thinning. At the same time all these activities must be integrated with utilisation projects so that the demand for forest products can be met and forest industries can have continuity of supply; and they must be so planned as to fit into long-term schemes for sustained-yield operation. Working plans, which when approved have ministerial authority, are prepared for all exotic forests, with the object of coordinating all these operations for a term of five to 10 years. They also embody long-term plans of 20 to 30 years or even longer.

Large-scale clear felling in State exotic forests began in 1939 and has been confined almost entirely to radiata pine. Natural regeneration has frequently followed logging, and second-rotation crops have been established.

Production from State exotic forests is now over 50,000,000 cubic feet annually and is increasing rapidly. Sawlogs account for the greater part of this yield, but many other types of forest produce are included, notably pulpwood. posts, poles, mining timber, fencing materials, and firewood. This diversity of produce permits the utilisation of trees of widely varying dimensions, a very necessary condition in operations designed to improve the quality of maturing timber stands.

Protection-forest Management- The vegetation of the mountainous areas - forest, scrub, and sub-alpine grassland - is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand; for many of the rivers that bring water to low-lying farm lands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the steep, mountainous back country. These mountains receive frequent heavy falls of rain and are mostly formed of rocks that erode easily when exposed to heavy rain and low temperatures. It is only the blanket of montane vegetation that, by absorbing much of the rainfall and by stabilising unconsolidated rocky slopes, prevents the low-lying districts surrounding the lower courses of the rivers from being frequently subjected to disastrous flash floods, and the river channels from becoming choked with the products of erosion. Hence this vegetation of the mountain regions is called "protection forest", a term that also includes the protective scrub, grass, and other vegetation that exists above the timber line.

The Forest Service controls some six million acres of protection-forest land, and the main function of the Protection Forestry Section is to manage the mountain lands in the national interest by maintaining the protective vegetation in good condition. The greatest threat to this vegetation is from the large numbers of browsing animals that were introduced many years ago, and which in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate have multiplied excessively. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is the control of these noxious animals. Protection-forestry rangers are trained in field biology, in field geology, and in watershed and range management. They make careful observations of the effects of browsing on various plants and from these observations are able to estimate whether or not the animals are increasing or decreasing in number in any area.

The control of noxious animals is a huge task, and catchment areas where animals are troublesome are divided into classes of priority for purposes of control, depending on the condition of the vegetation, the seriousness of erosion, and the economic importance of the catchment.

The Protection Forestry Section works in close association with the Forest Research Institute, which maintains a special branch for the investigation of such features of catchments as the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climates, and rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in and methods of control of animal populations.

Recreation in Forests- As the population increases and as the cleared land becomes more firmly occupied by agricultural interests, so does the call on the recreational resources of the forests become greater. Weekend hunters head for the forest to shoot deer and pigs; fishermen frequent the streams; trampers wander along the many tracks; and alpinists climb through the forest to the heights above. The Forest Service caters for this demand in popular forests by establishing regular patrols, clearing and maintaining tracks, making camping sites and fireplaces, and (with the help of tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts and erecting bridges. Several areas are being developed in this way as forest parks, which, although primarily protection forests, will also provide recreation facilities.

Protection of Forests and Timber: Protection Against Fire- The fire-protection policy of the Forest Service follows from the premise that fire is the greatest single menace to forests and protection vegetation in New Zealand; within a few hours fire can undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance.

The fire risk in New Zealand cannot be measured by comparing the generally adequate and well distributed rainfall experienced in most districts with conditions in countries where droughts are frequent and severe and the summers normally hotter and drier. New Zealand is a mountainous country and the characteristic high winds and strong sunshine will dry out the forest vegetation on exposed situations even in the heavy rainfall areas in a remarkably short time.

Although widespread dangerous fire conditions occur only infrequently there are few seasons during which there are not dry spells or near droughts in some part or other of the country, and very high fire hazards develop.

The peculiar feature of many New Zealand forest species in being extremely exacting in their requirements for regeneration to take place is of special significance. Forest fires in most countries mean the loss of a crop; in New Zealand a severely burnt forest usually means a destroyed forest Even the beech species, which will regenerate freely under favourable conditions, can only do so after a severe fire under circumstances which are often quite fortuitous in character. Virgin mixed temperate forests admittedly do not burn readily during normal seasons, but where the remaining forests of this type have been logged for commercial species, the debris from the operation can carry a damaging fire.

The consequences of the relatively small fires which occur all over the country every normal season are as serious in the long run as the spectacularly large fires common in some countries. The losses are cumulative because most of our forest species lack the powers to recuperate from fire damage.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the whole of New Zealand, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, and national parks. The organisation has also the responsibility of securing coordination and uniformity in the administration of the Forest and Rural Fires Act by other fire authorities.

An efficient fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the Department has fire-fighting responsibilities, according to the needs of each district. This reaches its highest level of organisation in the larger exotic forests, where standard Forest Service lookout cabins equipped with fire finders, radio, and telephones are located. Trained fire-fighting crews with modem equipment can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial patrols operate during each fire season in the important Rotorua area.

The provision of a fire-hazard prediction and warning service is an essential function of the fire-protection organisation. There is a nation-wide network of "fire-weather" and radio stations, and the fire-hazard situation in any part of the country is known at the head office of the Forest Service in Wellington each day during the fire season (October to April) within an hour of the weather observations being taken, at the stations. This enables appropriate action, such as advice to fire authorities and broadcasting of warnings, to be taken.

The legislative provisions for fire protection are in the Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955 and the Fire Services Act 1949, together with the Forest and Rural Fires Regulations 1956.

Protection Against Noxious Animals- Under the authority of the Noxious Animals Act 1956 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, thar, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause significantly affects the economic welfare or scenic resources of the country. Responsibility for the control of opossums and wallabies on pastoral lands has, by amendment to the Rabbits Act 1955, passed to rabbit boards. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service deals with opossum and wallaby control.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the regeneration of forest trees and of ground-cover vegetation in production as well as in protection forests. The natural forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by such ground-browsing animals as deer and goats, while simultaneously the upper storey is being adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Damage by deer and opossums in commercial exotic forests over the past few years has made it necessary to extend control measures into these forests.

Though hundreds of thousands of noxious animals are destroyed each year and though modern facilities, such as the dropping of supplies by parachute to field parties in remote and mountainous regions, are made use of, the task of control is arduous and dangerous, and overall progress is slow.

An attempt is being made to encourage the sportsman and private hunter to take a more active part in the control of noxious animals. Mass-killing methods more effective than killing with the rifle are necessary and the possibilities of employing these are being investigated. Poisoning on an operational scale is being used against deer in selected areas.

Control of Insects and Fungi- Sound silvicultural practices are the first line of defence, rendering trees less vulnerable to attack.

Biological control over insect pests is exerted by their natural enemies, insect or fungal parasites. Introduced species frequently come into the country without their natural enemies; part of the work of the biologist is to breed and liberate the latter.

Chemical control is an emergency measure to deal with outbreaks. It includes spraying of affected forests from aeroplanes, chemical treatment of nursery soils, and the dipping of timber to prevent attack by bark beetles and fungi.

Observers of the Forest Biology Survey maintain a constant watch on the exotic forests and on woodlots and shelter belts, and it is planned to extend this surveillance to the indigenous forests. The observers send thousands of representative collections of insects and fungi to the Biology Survey laboratory at the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, where the material is identified and studied. Thus any incipient epidemics can be detected in time for effective control measures to be taken; and much information is accumulated which helps to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine- In keeping with current world trends, the Forest Service has developed an efficient quarantine service which covers all timber entering or leaving New Zealand.

In the past, this country has enjoyed comparative freedom from introduced insect pests, but the ever increasing tempo of international trade has multiplied the chances of accidental importation of harmful insects. Timber quarantine as practised in New Zealand embraces all imported timbers (including sawn, hewn, and natural-round produce), ship's dunnage, and imported cases and crates.

Packing timbers are considered the greatest medium for insect entry, and, in order to reduce the risks, a prohibition has recently been placed on the importation of sawn timber and wood packing with bark attached.

The same care is given to export timber, which must be completely free of insect attack before export is permitted.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes- Sand-dune fixation is under the joint control of the Department of Lands and Survey and the New Zealand Forest Service. The objective is twofold: the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land, and the establishment of production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones and on areas that have no agricultural or pastoral potential. Six schemes are in operation - at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Waitarere, and Santoft - the total gross area of which is more than 75,000 acres. About 15,000 acres of trees have been planted. Much of the area permanently fixed with trees will become productive forest in years to come.

RESEARCH- The complexity of the many indigenous-forest and exotic-forest problems requires the maintenance of an organisation to ensure the continuity and coordination of research effort. Since 1947 all forestry and forest-products research (including research on noxious animals) administered by the Forest Service has been undertaken or coordinated by the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. In addition, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the universities, and private industrial organisations undertake research into certain aspects of forestry and forest products.

The scope of research in progress at the Forest Research Institute can be illustrated by reference to the work of its six branches.

Silviculture- (a) Development of national arboreta and herbaria of forest vegetation.

(b) Intensive ecological studies of indigenous and exotic forests, to develop silvicultural systems as a basis for sustained-yield management. Forest-soils investigations with particular reference to long-term changes in pumice soils; and to the effect of fertilisers on soils: the improvement of nursery techniques through weed control and chemical treatment.

(c) Studies of growth and financial yield of the more important exotic conifers, under different thinning and pruning regimes.

(d) Research into methods and species for the rehabilitation of logged indigenous forests.

Forest Management- (a) The compilation of volume tables for standing forests and logs; yield tables for exotic species; the investigation of assessment techniques.

(b) The maintenance of permanent sample plots in commercial forests.

(c) The conduct of a national survey of exotic forests to make possible sound management of the present resource and realistic planning for the future.

Forest Pathology- Studies of all factors affecting the health of forest trees and the maintenance of the forest-biology survey to provide an early-warning system of insect and fungal epidemics.

Forest Tree Improvement- Research on the origin and quality of seeds; provenance and species trials; selection and breeding of improved strains of trees; and the establishment of seed orchards.

Protection Forestry- (a) Through the Forest and Range Experiment Stations at Rangiora and Napier, the branch conducts research into the present condition of, and trends in, protection forests and the mountain-range country associated with them (subalpine scrub, alpine grasslands, etc.).

(b) Aspects of forest/animal interaction are studied to form a basis for the control of noxious animals. Animal populations and control measures are investigated in conjunction with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Department of Agriculture.

Forest Products- Research into the properties of indigenous and exotic timbers that have a bearing on their utilisation. Studies of wood use, seasoning, and preservation help to answer the immediate problems of industry, and basic studies of strength properties find application in timber engineering design data. Wood extractives are determined in conjunction with studies of pulping and paper-making. Other properties such as structure, density, and shrinkage are used to compare the performance of different timbers, and the effects of provenance and silvicultural treatment on wood quality are also examined.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY- The Forest Service recruits rangers and professional officers as technical trainees at the age of 16 to 20 years. Ranger trainees work for one year in the forests, after which they attend a ranger school for two years. Those selected as forester trainees go directly to university, on a full-time study bursary, to obtain a B.Sc. degree, which leads to post-graduate study at an overseas forestry school.

To build up a permanent and efficient skilled-labour force, the Forest Service now recruits each year about 80 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a two-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the two woodsman schools at Kaingaroa and Golden Downs, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests. The Forestry Training Centre at Rotorua regularly offers the timber industry courses in timber grading, timber inspection, and other forestry operations. A continuous series of courses is provided for Forest Service staff on all phases of Forest Service activity.

The Government also offers bursaries to help science graduates not in its employ to qualify at recognised overseas forestry schools. Other scholarships for study or for research are available from a private fund.

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Extension Services- The sale by the State of planting stock in bulk lots, coupled with a revival of interest through the activities of farm-forestry associations newly established throughout the country, has resulted in an increase in extension-forestry work.

Forest Taxation- The value of standing trees does not increase any assessment for land tax and local body rates and, since 1949, concessions have been made in connection with income tax. Expenditure incurred in planting, protecting, and maintaining shelter belts and woodlots has since that year been allowed to be charged against income for tax purposes. At the same time income from the intermittent sale of farm trees could, on application to the Commissioner of Taxes, be spread over a period of five years in order to mitigate the effects of the higher graduated tax. In 1960 the timber value of trees growing on a deceased's estate was exempted from death duties. This exemption removes the fear of a crippling burden on the estate and the possibility of the forced sale of a perhaps immature plantation.

Farm Forestry Finance- Prior to the Farm Forestry Act 1962 difficulty was experienced in obtaining finance for forestry purposes. This Act provides for the granting of loans to private owners towards the cost of establishing and tending new plantations and the tending of those already existing. The scheme came into operation in 1963.

Private Forest Estate- The National Exotic Forest Survey has found that forest holdings other than State forest amounted, in 1962, to 545,000 acres in the following ownership categories: other Government departments 17,000 acres; local authorities 44,000 acres; afforestation companies 282,000 acres; and private persons (mostly farmers) 202,000 acres.

Afforestation companies boomed in the 1923-30 period, when huge areas, mostly of radiata pine, were planted. The area cut over is already being regenerated.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES- Over all, at present more money is being spent on the establishment and tending of forests than is obtained in revenue. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry has been met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests, which is financed from national development loans.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.
Source1959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
£(000)
Consolidated Fund expenditure2,9513,2683,3643,6303,770
Less receipts1,4481,6331,5221,4741,610
Required from Consolidated Fund1,5031,6351,8422,1562,160
Public Works Account expenditure1,9803,0662,7152,8793,248
Less receipts1,8442,0512,3092,3172,473
Loan moneys required1361,015406562775
Net finance required from Government funds1,6392,6502,2482,7182,935

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood- By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 60 million cubic feet per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 10 million cubic feet came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total removals of roundwood had gone up to 81 million cubic feet with 29 million cubic feet from the exotic forests.

Today the forest industry comprises some 603 sawmills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, a fibreboard mill, two particle board mills, and five pulp and paper mills. The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries.

ROUNDWOOD PRODUCTION IN MILLION CUBIC FEET (Excluding Firewood)
Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
194851.429.380.7
195158.841.099.8
195655.768.0123.7
195955.683.9139.5
196058.6103.9162.5
196155.1112.8167.9
196254.2118.2172.4
196346.5120.3166.8
196447.0135.1182.1

Sawn-timber Production- By far the most important of the exotic timber species is radiata pine, which accounts for about 93 per cent of the total cut of exotics; larch, eucalypts, Douglas fir, and a few other species are produced on a minor scale. Less than a third of the country's timber requirements now come from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber from 1921 onwards.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
board feet (million)
192129010300718308
1926335734210111353
1931208132219-9230
19362493428310-10293
19412775433111-12343
19462269732319322345
195130119049232436528
195627530558043346626
196128739267832436714
196227837865633437693
196324337361625328643
196424539363825328666

NOTE - Quantities have been rounded to the nearest million board feet. (Board feet are units of 12 in. by 12 in. by 1 in.) In some cases this rounding off results in a total disagreeing slightly with the total individual items shown in the table.

The growth of exotic-timber production compared with the relatively steady production of indigenous timber is shown in the following diagram.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past five years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19601961196219631964
board feet (million)
Rimu and miro232220214190193
Matai3632322824
Totara13131399
Kahikatea2021181617
Tawa1917171314
Beech141213910
Other indigenous54433
 Totals, indigenous339319311268270
Exotic pines334374359354371
Douglas fir1312141518
Eucalypts33322
Other exotic56455
 Totals, exotic355395381375396
Totals (all species)694714692643666

The Pulp and Paper Industry- The New Zealand pulp and paper industry is now equipped for the substantial utilisation of the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are five plants, three of which are integrated with sawmilling. The integrated plants are pulping radiata pine logs from their own or from State exotic forests.

The basic products of the industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of pulp in New Zealand.
Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
ChemicalMechanical
tons
1940-217
1945-15,434
1950-21,438
195543,20429,568
1958118,63690,801
1959131,357103,512
1960140,057102,715
1961152,009109,399
1962154,086121,503
1963168,108135,419
1964181,197188,290

NOTE - Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

All mechanical pulp is used in the manufacture of paper, paperboard, and fibreboard, but there is a deliberate surplus of chemical pulp for export. (See table later on Trade in Pulp and Paper.)

Production figures of pulp products in New Zealand are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther PaperPaper boardFibreboard
tons
1940-6,2536,620-
1945-6,33514,2846,862
1950-7,11114,67613,526
1955-22,49417,77920,591
19569,00028,15420,22521,340
195752,70030,83824,73221,415
195864,70037,99828,28221,000
195975,30043,86432,48423,030
196076,10049,16836,41724,830
196189,30052,79639,16325,533
196291,800x56,49040,54031,560
1963113,700108,84027,250
1964168,000128,02029,229

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following diagram.

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.- This company was formed in 1952 to utilise timber from the Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical encouragement and financial backing were given by the New Zealand Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill came into operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 36 million board feet of sawn timber in one shift, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 200,000 tons of newsprint, 85,000 tons of chemical pulp, and 150,000 tons of mechanical pulp.

In 1959 the Bowater Group obtained an interest in the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., taking over the management and development of the mill and the world sales of all its products.

For details of the history of the Murupara scheme see the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

New Zealand Forest Products Ltd.- This public company is already using over 30,000,000 cubic feet of timber a year from its own 176,000 acres of radiata pine forest. Plant capacity is 60,000 tons of kraft, printing, and writing paper, 108,000 tons of kraft pulp, and 80,000,000 board feet of sawn timber per annum. In addition, the company is equipped to convert 10,000,000 board feet of timber into wooden cases and to produce 50,000,000 square feet of veneer, 37,000 tons of fibreboard, and 25,000,000 multi-wall paper bags. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, and sawmill is located at Kinleith, near Tokoroa, while the fibreboard, multiwall paper bags, and wooden cases are manufactured in Auckland. The company are also joint owners with A.P.M. of Australia in Fibre Products N.Z. Ltd., a firm which makes over 3 million moulded apple trays a year.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., which is now a subsidiary of New Zealand Forest Products, operates two paperboard machines, with an annual production capacity of 50,000 tons. The company manufactures its own mechanical and semi-chemical pulp, and is self-sufficient for more than 90 per cent of its raw materials; it also uses considerable quantities of waste paper.

The company owns its own radiata-pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 23 miles to the mill over its private railway line. An associated company, Whakatane Timber Mills Ltd., has its modem sawmill located near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd., owns a mill making tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau. The mill has a production of between 8 and 9 thousand tons annually. It draws water and steam supplies from the Tasman company.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, has been in operation for more than 80 years. Its three machines produce a wide range of papers from fine tissues to heavy krafts, as well as paper felt, pressings, and manilas for special trade requirements. The mills are being modernised to enable production to be diversified and substantially increased. A mill for making mechanical pulp has been installed; its output supplements purchased supplies of New Zealand made sulphate pulp, imported sulphite pulp, and waste paper. Annual production capacity is 13,000 tons of kraft and other papers.

Plywood and Veneer Manufacture- Six factories are engaged in the manufacture of plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1963, when reduced to a uniform basis of 3 1/4 in. thickness, was 51.4 million square feet. Three other plants produce veneer only. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1962-63 was 188.8 million square feet (1/16 in. basis).

For the most part logs from the indigenous forests form the basis of the plywood and veneer industry, though the peeling of exotic species, particularly radiata pine, shows a good deal of promise and is increasing steadily in importance. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers purchasing State indigenous forest to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Species of logs used and quantities of plywood and veneer produced are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVolume of Logs UsedValue of Logs UsedProduction
RimuKahikateaRadiata PineOtherImportedTotalPlywoodVeneer
cubic feet (thousand)£(000) million square feet
1958989121477160-1,74741338.8..
1959973117511198-1,79946840.0149.7
19601,0551685601001131,99651343.1169.2
19611,0672623951011431,96857148.0176.2
19621,010178728931632,17260749.3x189.3
19631,08216887890352,25360151.4188.8

Production of Round and Split Produce- Considerable quantities of native timbers have been required in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements. Thinnings and small-diameter logs from exotic forests are now making useful contributions towards satisfying those needs, and ensure the operation of preservative-treating plants.

Wood Preservation- The establishment of plants for treatment of sawn timber with water-soluble preservatives has permitted far greater use in buildings of the non-durable grades and species from both indigenous and exotic forests.

In the year ended 31 March 1964 the production per head of preservative-treated sawn timber in New Zealand was 90 board feet. House construction has traditionally been based on the use of heartwood of the indigenous softwoods, this having excellent durability, strength, and stability. Where sapwood of these timbers was used extensively, insect borers have been troublesome. Particular emphasis on the significance of borer attack led to the progressive adoption of preservative treatment of such wood, as its use became more general owing to the depletion of indigenous resources. The further diminution in supply of both heartwood and sapwood indigenous softwoods has in turn stimulated the use of exotic conifers for which preservative treatment against both decay and insect attack is justifiable and technically easy.

Much controversy arose regarding the effectiveness of various preservatives and types of treatment and the extent to which treated timbers should be used in a building. This controversy retarded development in new methods of timber preservation and, in order to resolve the conflicting opinions, the Government in September 1955 issued the Timber Preservation Regulations, under which was set up the Timber Preservation Authority. The main functions of this Authority are to decide what shall be authorised preservative treatments and to establish and administer such inspectorial and advisory service as is necessary to ensure that treatments are in accordance with its authorisations. Eleven organisations, including five Government Departments, are represented on the Authority and the inspection is done on behalf of the Authority by the New Zealand Forest Service. The Authority has recently published a book containing the approved specifications and methods for timber preservation.

Collection of statistics on wood preservation was introduced in 1955 and the following table shows the importance of this industry.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
* Mainly boron.
board feet (thousand)
1954-55536,98461,48468,520
1955-56-7,30781,96789,274
1956-57-8,82983,79292,621
1957-58521,63783,522105,163
1958-59-47,18796,584143,770
1959-603070,889105,837176,756
1960-611294,895120,007214,914
1961-62-93,873127,801221,674
1962-63391,242120,333211,579
1963-6416102,974125,873228,863

In addition to the above, 4,421,000 cubic feet of roundwood, such as poles and fencing materials, was treated by the open-tank method, by diffusion, and by pressure impregnation in 1963-64.

Employment Statistics- The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 October in the years stated. (Source: Labour and Employment Gazette, Department of Labour.)

At 15 OctoberForestryLoggingSawmillingPulp and Paper Industry Other Total

* Included in Other.

NOTES

  1. "Forestry" Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

  2. "Logging" includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

  3. "Pulp and Paper Industry" includes manufacture of pulp and conversion of pulp into paper, paperboard, fibreboard, and paper products (excluding stationery).

  4. "Other" includes plywood and veneer manufacture, timber merchanting, end other wood-using industries.

19461,8071,760*1,86815,04920,484
19502,1332,202*2,22218,07424,631
19552,2072,8426,3283,57313,67928,629
19572,4462,6805,9344,12913,63328,822
19582,5642,7386,2214,52014,12430,167
19592,8862,7026,1394,80314,36930,899
19602,9452,5636,4315,16014,89731,996
19613,0792,5466,3585,31615,35632,655
19623,4472,4216,2105,56215,07932,719
19633,9852,4006,0756,26915,41134,140

OVERSEAS TRADE- Although durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as railway sleepers, large poles, cross-arms, and wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc., increasing use is being made of preservative-treated softwood timber for these and other uses in which structural timbers are subject to severe service conditions. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to Japanese oak for the furniture trade and to small quantities of other species for specialty purposes.

While exports of indigenous timbers in recent years have virtually ceased owing to the conservation of these timbers for home consumption, there is now an established market in Australia for radiata pine. Trade with Japan in pine logs is a recent development.

Tables giving details of the external trade in timber now follow. The value of imports is the current domestic value in the country of origin; the value of exports is free on board at the port of shipment.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Calendar YearSawn TimberSleepersLogs and PolesTotal, All Timber
Australian HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal
* Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
board feet (million)
195810.014.93.15.032.912.14.949.8
19595.513.31.53.623.95.44.233.5
19608.716.61.54.331.17.65.844.5
19619.821.31.15.237.49.87.754.9
19626.017.20.44.828.43.35.236.9
19637.217.10.35.930.52.74.237.4

NOTE - Figures have been adjusted to include items not given in board feet in published statistics.

TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Calendar YearIndigenous TimberRadiata PineOther ExoticsTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs
SawnCases
board feet (million)cubic feet (million)
1957-27.22.10.629.929.9-
19580.433.44.91.339.640.11.1
19590.341.34.54.950.851.05.0
19600.440.63.63.047.247.64.3
19610.226.83.71.532.032.29.2
19620.226.64.21.932.732.99.3
19630.124.03.84.132.032.19.7

NOTE - Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

EXPORTS OF TIMBER: DESTINATION
Calendar YearAustraliaPacific IslandsOther CountriesTotals
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 bd. ft. (million)£(000)bd. ft. (million)£(000)bd. ft. (million)£(000)bd. ft. (million)£(000)
195728.58211.4740.1130.0896
195835.71,0574.424613.713453.71,438
195946.91,4454.122260.2537111.22,204
196044.71,3693.418351.654399.72,095
196128.88493.4181110.41,158142.62,188
196228.68404.3240111.21,254144.12,334
196326.77795.326516.31,266148.32,310

NOTE - Logs are included (volume expressed in board feet, solid volume).

Total production of the pulp and paper industry will almost fully meet New Zealand's requirements, limit imports of these products, and leave a considerable surplus for export of some of the major products such as newsprint and sulphate pulp.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the latest five years.

EXTERNAL TRADE IN PULP AND PAPER
Calendar YearWood PulpFibreboardPaper and Paperboard
NewsprintPaperboardOther PaperTotal

* In 1,000 square feet.

†lncludes all other paper exported, but not manufactures of paper and paperboard; values include items for which no quantities are given. Basis for valuation: Exports-free on board at port of shipment; Imports - c.d.v. in country of origin.

Imports
tons
19598,78855*19,5783,01432,45055,042
196012,054687*31,6093,49827,42362,530
196113,497702*26,7744,42732,60963,810
196214,525127*10,58030,69841,278
196316,95277*8,08232,49740,579
Value £(thousand) 
195932611,1143774,3525,843 
196051181,7064504,0006,156 
196161861,4135494,6786,640 
196260125674,3634,930 
195372134154,2444,659 
Exports 
tons 
195976,8261,952*43,6621,9022,33847,901 
196070,150948*49,4131,8824,05055,345 
196163,601911*46,17515382247,150 
196270,1341,836*41,4931,06742,560 
196363,2082,871*105,932797106,729 
Value £(thousand) 
19592,921322,7161182453,080 
19602,802173,0801233443,547 
19612,516172,703121052,820 
19622,834272,2981282,426 
19632,552395,838935,931 

FOREST TREES AND TIMBERS- Detailed information is contained in publications of the New Zealand Forest Service, including Forest Trees and Timbers of New Zealand (Entrican, Hinds, and Reid); Exotic Forest Trees in New Zealand (Weston); The National Forest Survey of New Zealand, 1955, Vol. 1: The Indigenous Forest Resources of New Zealand (Masters, Holloway, and McKelvey); The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Principal Indigenous Woods of New Zealand (Entrican, Ward, and Reid); New Zealand Building Timbers (Reid); and the annual reports of the Forest Service and Forest Research Institute. New Zealand Forestry gives an overall account of all aspects of forestry in New Zealand from pre-settlement times to the present day.

Chapter 16. Section 16 FISHERIES

Table of Contents

GENERAL- The fishing industry in New Zealand is based on the bottom-dwelling or demersal species offish caught by trawling, Danish seining, lines, and nets. Trawling is by far the most important method, producing approximately 74 per cent of the total catch, line methods 14 per cent, net and other methods 7 per cent, and Danish seine 5 per cent. The efficient motor trawler ranging in size between 50 ft and 60 ft with a crew of two or three men has come to be the type of vessel mainly used by the industry.

In New Zealand the fishing industry consists of a relatively large number of operators. It is widely dispersed around a number of smaller ports as well as the main ports. The industry is built around the handling and selling of fresh fish in the main, as opposed to processing fish. Exports are relatively limited.

Controls governing the fishing industry have been based mainly on conservation which, over the years, has come to mean a steady level of catch of each individual species rather than a full economic utilisation of available resources.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. Tuna species occur both in the inshore and in the oceanic waters around New Zealand but tuna fishery has not been developed in accordance with the probable density of these species. Fishermen are now looking for these fish and catches are rising significantly.

The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow water, and, except for groper and ling, which are fished for by means of deep long lines, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 80 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, hake, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet, and seines are also employed principally for the capture of flat fish and snapper.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Marine Department.

The principal regulations dealing with fisheries are the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950, the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1951, and the Commercial Fishing Regulations 1963. Under the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations are issued a number of modification notices which deal with particular aspects - e.g., permissible length of different classes of fish to be taken - while the various acclimatisation societies' rules are issued under the authority of these regulations. The Oyster Fishing Regulations 1946 and the Whitebait Fishing Regulations 1964 are directly relevant to the fishing industry. Other regulations include the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, the Quinnat Salmon Regulations, 1964, the Fish-pass Regulations 1947, and the Toheroa Regulations 1955.

Fishing Industry Select Committee- A Select Committee of 12 members was set up in December 1961 to inquire into and report upon the fishing industry in New Zealand. This Committee sat during 1962 and many of the recommendations in its report have been implemented. All aspects of the industry were studied and the findings of that Committee should have a far-reaching effect on the future development of the fishing industry in New Zealand. The Government announced in November 1963 that £140,000 was to be spent on fisheries research as a further step in implementing the recommendations of the Select Committee.

Fishing Industry Board- In 1963 there was passed a Fishing Industry Board Act, providing for the establishment of a seven-member board with the principal function of promoting the expansion and development of the fishing industry, marketing and standards of hygiene and packaging, continuity of supply, coordination within the industry cooperation of research, and means of financing development. Members were appointed and met for the first time in April 1964.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES- As at 31 December 1963 there were 1,727 licensed fishing boats. Of these boats 560 earned more than £1,000,152 earned more than £500 but less than £1,000, and 1,015 earned less than £500 during the 12 months ended 31 December 1963.

The estimated total quantity and value of the principal classes of fishery products marketed in the years 1962 and 1963 were as follows.

ProductUnitQuantityValue
1962196319621963
    ££
Wet fishcwt554,654550,9661,772,6281,688,114
Whitebait (West Coast South Island only)cwt7532,01144,276127,631
Oysters (dredged)sacks69,01874,874151,840262,090
Oysters (rock)sacks3,0882,99211,7049,313
Musselssacks34,72425,54026,20523,135
Crayfishcwt90,01889,4491,070,888940,730
Whale oiltons25687515,36044,949
Fish liverslb302,729269,27224,47849,380
 Total value.........3,117,3793,145,342

In the most important group, "wet fish" (i.e., all the ordinary fishes caught by all the methods of fishing), the annual totals were as follows.

YearTotal QuantityTotal Value
 cwt£
1946380,321660,096
1947438,300802,496
1948446,265838,334
1949449,903864,332
1950440,179918,051
1951408,365949,551
1952408,8581,079,099
1953435,4971,200,038
1954414,1221,195,568
1955435,3351,299,494
1956450,8901,356,556
1957498,3021,503,914
1958494,1731,586,300
1959517,9171,543,021
1960542,5061,675,330
1961528,6321,626,930
1962554,6541,772,628
1963550,9661,688,114

Kind or Class of Wet Fish Caught- The following table shows the quantity and value of each kind of "wet fish" caught during 1962 and 1963.

Snapper was again the principal "wet fish" taken in 1963 and exceeded tarakihi by 52,663 cwt. The snapper catch was 4,874 cwt above and tarakihi 11,473 below the 1962 catch. Tarakihi and snapper comprised 50.28 per cent of the total "wet fish" landed in 1963.

Kinds or Class of FishQuantityValue
19621963196219631962196319621963
 cwtper cent£per cent
Snapper159,971164,84528.8429.92432,140450,95024.3826.71
Tarakihi123,655112,18222.2920.36354,710306,08920.0118.13
Gurnard52,92057,1149.5410.3795,11697,5375.375.78
Trevally49,29847,2668.898.5861,09059,8553.453.55
Blue cod26,21727,0834.734.92118,03989,6166.665.31
Hapuku23,08623,5074.164.27154,557157,0908.729.31
Elephant fish22,77421,5864.113.92122,25096,2776.905.70
Sole11,49213,0202.072.3690,854107,3335.126.36
Moki9,27712,8101.672.3322,77331,8441.281.89
Flounder14,81112,5412.672.28144,766131,0048.177.76
Pioke12,94311,2262.332.0443,22036,2072.442.15
Other48,21047,7868.708.65133,113124,3127.57.35
 Totals554,654550,966100.00100.001,772,6281,688,114100.00100.00

Methods of Capture- A table showing the total quantity of "wet fish" caught in 1963 by each of the common methods of fishing is shown below, with the figures for 1962 included for comparison.

Method of FishingQuantityValue
19621963196219631962196319621963
 cwtper cent£per cent
Trawl413,378411,66874.5474.701,177,8211,144,05466.4467.77
Danish seine27,29128,9124.925.2566,41167,7053.754.01
Set and drag nets36,32434,6576.556.29173,681156,1659.799.25
Long and hand lines76,52975,39913.7913.68351,572319,31119.8318.93
Other methods1,1323300.200.083,1438790.190.05
  Totals554,654550,966100.00100.001,772,6281,688,114100.00100.00

The steam trawlers landed a total catch of 15,071 cwt, while motor trawlers landed 396,597 cwt.

Landings at the Ports- Ports where the total landed catch was in excess of 10,000 cwt are shown in the table below.

PortQuantityValue
19621963196219631962196319621963
 cwtPer Cent of Total£Per Cent of Total
Auckland125,283128,21622.5923.27285,063295,39716.0817.48
Gisborne48,99846,9438.838.52112,921107,6136.376.37
Wellington51,97746,6629.378.47175,374164,0179.899.71
Timaru47,48144,0968.568.00211,808178,93811.9510.58
Manukau35,84840,8346.467.4175,50887,4084.265.18
Napier45,80939,8038.267.22124,935107,7637.056.38
Lyttelton23,38926,6234.224.8399,47894,5555.615.60
Tauranga22,46423,55140.54.2755,32357,7443.123.42
Nelson19,18218,7763.463.4155,89051,9043.153.07
Thames15,39415,0182.772.7350,29846,1822.842.73
Bluff14,87214,7482.682.6861,58268,4293.474.05
Chatham Islands11,65413,5952.102.4754,77320,5373.091.21
Port Chalmers12,19311,1932.202.0348,45150,7532.733.00

The total quantity of fish landed at these ports was 470,060 cwt, which was 85.32 per cent of the grand total.

EXPORTS- The total value of fish and shellfish exported during 1963 was £1,475,450.

A table showing the principal classes of fishery products exported during each of the latest three years is set out below.

CommodityUnitQuantityValue
196119621963196119621963
     £££
Mussels, etc.cwt1276362471,6332,6014,297
Fish, frozencwt47,54253,25848,962406,337496,330433,887
Crayfish, frozen including crayfish tailscwt18,77326,80523,987753,6091,140,0501,011,297
Fish, smoked, dried, etc.cwt2833358523,2233,8309,574
Fish and shellfish, cannedlb16,36022,71055,2669,5789,14316,395
  Total values .........1,174,3801,651,9541,475,450

Fish-liver Oil- The quantity of fish livers processed during 1963 was 269,272 lb, 33,457 lb less than in 1962. The total oil produced was 16,952 gallons, a decrease of 204 gallons on the 1962 production. Of the oil produced, 8,127 gallons were exported, compared with 10,103 gallons in 1962.

The total weight of livers processed and the quantity of oil produced in each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearWeight of LiversQuantity of Oil
 TreatedProduced
 lbgallons
1959308,13016,762
1960308,37616,775
1961328,49518,782
1962302,72917,156
1963269,27216,952

OYSTER BEDS- The principal oyster beds around the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland peninsula.

In South Island waters a close season is observed from 1 October to 14 February, and in North Island waters from 1 November to 30 April in each year. The taking of oysters is governed by the Oyster-fishing Regulations 1946, and vessels operating commercially are subject to the Commercial Fishing Regulations 1963. During the 1963 season 74,760 sacks of oysters were dredged from Foveaux Strait, compared with 69,018 in 1962.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but, owing to stripping of the beds, close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock oysters from the North Island beds was undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. In 1958 a change was made in the marketing procedure, and sales to the public through the oyster depot were discontinued. The total supply of oysters is now allocated direct to the trade in an endeavour to achieve wider distribution through the retail fish shops.

Oyster cultivation is being carried out on an experimental basis by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara Harbour. In 1964 an Act was passed to provide for the setting up of oyster farms by private persons as a first step towards establishing a rock-oyster industry.

Rock oysters picked by the State in 1963 totalled 2,992 sacks, compared with 3,088 sacks in 1962.

CRAYFISH- Marine crayfish occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of crayfish is sold in local markets for domestic consumption, part is exported as frozen crayfish tails and whole crays, while a small quantity is canned.

With the development of the export of frozen crayfish tails to the United States of America and the high price received for this product, the increase in the catch of crayfish was phenomenal, reaching a peak of 130,000 cwt in 1956. The catch of crayfish over the latest five years is as follows.

YearQuantityValue
 cwt£
195978,925665,166
196074,737708,775
196179,398847,159
196290,0181,070,888
196389,449940,730

WHALING- The 1962 total catch of 55 whales was the lowest recorded since 1929. The industry had been based on humpback whales, and the fall in population of this species has made it apparent that operations could not continue economically on this basis. In 1963 the International Whaling Commission introduced a complete ban on the killing of humpback whales and the sole remaining New Zealand whaling station, situated in the Cook Strait area, was forced to convert to hunting sperm whales. The total catch for 1963 (April to December inclusive) was 123 whales (nine humpback and 114 sperm). A special season was granted from January to April 1964 during which 77 sperm whales and one fin whale were taken.

SEALS- The taking of seals in New Zealand waters has been on a restricted scale during the last 50 years, these animals being placed on the protected list in 1894. No sealing was then allowed until 1913, when there was an open season, but with certain restrictions. From 1916 a close season was observed until 1922, when the taking of seals was again permitted, but only till 1924, since when a close season has been observed, except for a short restricted open season during 1946.

BIG-GAME FISHING- Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The record black marlin swordfish (976 lb) was caught off the Bay of Islands.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of these fish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than four fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1963 season (from November 1962 to June 1963), big-game fish caught included 18 black marlin, 161 striped marlin, 14 blue marlin, 180 mako ark, and 901 other species. Figures for the 1962 season recorded 8 black marlin, 167 striped marlin, 4 blue marlin, 139 mako shark, and 795 other species.

WHITEBAIT- A fishery that is peculiar to New Zealand with regard both to the product and to the methods of operation is the whitebait fishery, which is carried on from July to November in the tidal reaches of many rivers. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and has, over a period of years, produced an average of approximately 3,000 cwt of whitebait. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. The 1963 season for the West Coast of the South Island showed a total of approximately 2,000 cwt. This was a decided improvement on the very poor 1962 season. Similar good runs were reported from other parts of New Zealand.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES- With the exception of the Rotorua Acclimatisation District in the thermal lakes region and the Southern Lakes District in the South Island, which are under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs, the local administration and management of freshwater fisheries are in the hands of acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence, for which the fee for the season (usually from 1 October to 30 April) is £2 10s., enables the holder to fish for acclimatised fish in any part of New Zealand except the Rotorua Acclimatisation District (which includes the Taupo Trout Fishing District) and the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District. For fishing in the Rotorua area and the Southern lakes District the local licence fees are £2 10s. for all male adults, but in the Taupo area of the Rotorua Acclimatisation District, which is the most popular of all New Zealand angling resorts, the licence fees for each season arc £3 10s. for male adults and £2 for females and males under 17 years, weekly licences are 15s. and 7s. 6d. respectively, and daily licences 5s. in all cases. For all acclimatisation districts there is a reduced scale of licence fees for female and juvenile anglers. Monthly, weekly, and daily licences are also available, while half-season, weekend, and single-river licences are optional in some districts. The open season for Lakes Taupo and Rotorua extends from 1 July to 30 June (a 12-month season).

The open season in many North Island districts has been extended, usually from 1 June to 30 September, to authorise the taking of acclimatised fish during the winter period. All lakes and some rivers are open in the Auckland District, with lakes or rivers being open in the Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, Hawera, Wanganui, and Wellington Acclimatisation Districts.

Chapter 17. Section 17 MINERALS AND MINERAL PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

MINERAL PRODUCTION- In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially as important as metallic ores. Over 90 per cent of the value of the present mineral production is represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock, and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction. Even if present-day production of gold (now at a low level) were as high as the peak in 1866 it would provide, in money terms, not more than one-third of the total value of mineral production.

The increasing complexity of modem industry creates a demand for a wider range of primary and ancillary raw materials. New industries such as aluminium smelting, iron and steel, and glass manufacture create additional demands for clays, dolomite, and magnesite for refractories, limestone for fluxes and so on.

Mineral requirements and values have changed and in 1964 the Government launched a new three-stage five-year programme for mineral research. The first stage involves expansion of projects in progress in regard to oil prospecting, surveying of dolomite deposits, and coal utilisation. The second stage involves national surveys for important minerals, including limestone (for agriculture, and for the cement, steel, carbide, and other industries), aggregate and sand (for roads, glass, steel, and other industries), and bentonite for foundry and steel industries, cosmetics and pharmaceutical preparations. The third part of the programme consists of long-term projects such as ground water supplies and requirements of electro-chemical industries.

The following table shows the production of metals and minerals during 1962 and 1963 from mines and quarries.

Mineral19621963
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 Fuels£ £
Coal2,550,196 tons7,130,2992,742,411 tones8,027,163
Petroleum (crude)139,418 gal10,592139,700 gal10,877
Condensate144,182 gal8,550121,350 gal9,080
Natural gas4,063,400 cu. ft1,1774,573,800 cu. ft1,257
Metals
Gold21,742 oz266,33514,206 oz168,881
Silver416 oz151286 oz105
Copper ore102 tons2,000230 tons4,600
Iron ore1,501 tons9,0933,074 tons15,634
Tungsten ore8 tons2,2805 tons1,425
Non-metallics
 tons tons 
Asbestos40821,24439219,868
Bentonite1,48819,2021,66021,252
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.316,140162,187289,217162,230
Clay for pottery, fillers, etc.7,21922,2137,71345,676
Diatomite1,87425,0301,60325,659
Dimension stone16,01369,83212,48147,733
Dolomite5,74834,9854,38711,759
Limestone for agriculture844,354769,019856,759818,554
Limestone for industry42,02355,79357,98362,555
Limestone and marl, for cement1,093,871314,0451,186,705382,542
Magnesite6354,4677815,522
Perlite (processed value)3879,42356411,107
Pumice32,52221,40416,60615,454
Rock for harbour work398,30799,878279,72015,472
Salt8,90095,00011,000150,000
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate3,978,6682,647,0523,941,2192,991,423
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast14,060,8666,308,44015,612,0546,783,471
Sand for industry62,96930,909200,634125,902
Serpentine140,175181,421134,296164,392
Silica sand62,318117,87663,820126,286
Wollastonite6709105
   Totals...18,439,907...20,325,984

LEGISLATION- Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Bauxite Act 1959, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1926, the Quarries Act 1944, and the Petroleum Act 1937. The administrative agency is the Mines Department.

The Mineral Resources Committee, a sub-committee of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, has recently been reconstructed and its terms of reference include the determination of the direction of mineral investigations in relation to financial resources available and the possibilities of early economic development. The Committee also has a responsibility to encourage coordination between Government and private organisations in the search for and development of minerals of national industrial importance. It has published a report Development of Mineral Resources of New Zealand.

COAL- Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are -

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfield), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Minor coalfields from which coal is being mined, but which cannot be expected to provide an important contribution to coal resources, are-

Sub-bituminous Coal: Nelson (Puponga, Westhaven), Murchison. Lignite: Canterbury (numerous small deposits), Otago, Charleston (Westport).

Coal Utilisation and Research- Coal utilisation and research is guided by two committees. They are:

Coal Mining Research Committee- The Assistant Under-Secretary of Mines, Assistant Secretary of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Chief Inspector of Coal Mines, and a research officer of the School of Mines, University of Otago. This committee is under the aegis of the Mines Department.

Coal Utilisation Committee- Deputy Secretary of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Chairman), Under-Secretary of Mines, Directors of Dominion Laboratory and Auckland Industrial Development Laboratory, Dean of the Canterbury School of Engineering, a representative of the Electricity Department, and representatives of coal wholesalers and retailers, and of the gas industry.

A technical subcommittee comprises officers of the Dominion Laboratory, Auckland Industrial Development Laboratory, Dairy Research Institute, and Mines Department. This committee and subcommittee are under the aegis of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

These committees are equipped to deal with the many problems facing the coal industry and to ensure as far as practicable that the fullest and most efficient use is made of our native fuel and power resources.

Inter-Departmental Committee on Fuel- This committee, which was set up in 1954, continues to do valuable work in ensuring the use of local fuels in Government and other public buildings and institutions where it is reasonable and practicable to do so.

Coal Advisory Services Association (Inc.)- The coal-mine owners and the coal merchants have established and support financially the Coal Advisory Services Association (Inc.). Its main objects are to:

  1. Promote the use of coal and to provide a consumer service for coal users.

  2. Advance the study and understanding of coal utilisation techniques.

  3. Disseminate and publicise information on coal and its efficient use.

This Association's offices are at Wellington and Dunedin.

Fuel Technology Service- The Mines Department has established a fuel technology service in Auckland and Christchurch to advise industrial and domestic consumers in the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources- In recent years the investigation of coal resources has been carried on in three phases: (i) mainly geological and chemical activities; (ii) detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (iii) investigations by deep-core drilling.

A fresh estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand was prepared in 1959 based on information obtained by the Mines Department and the Geological Survey. The classification accepted - "measured," "indicated," and "inferred" - is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and also accepted in the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey issued by the British Commonwealth of Nations Scientific Liaison Offices, London. These terms are simply defined as follows.

  1. "Measured coal" is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established. The computed tonnage and grade are judged to be accurate within limits, and no such limit is judged to differ from the computed tonnage or grade by more than 20 per cent.

  2. "Indicated coal" is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. "Inferred coal" is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples of measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

These clearly and specifically defined terms have de international acceptance. The table below sets out the estimated coal resources of New Zealand.

LocalityMeasuredIndicatedInferred
tons
Bituminous
Buller29,600,00018,800,00015,000,000
Murchison110,000660,0001,300,000
Garvey Creek175,0003,000,0005,000,000
Grey mouth11,000,00015,000,00030,000,000
  40,885,00037,460,00051,300,000
Sub-bituminous
Northland100,000500,0003,000,000
Maramarua19,000,00036,000,00024,000,000
Huntly25,800,00099,170,00072,000,000
Kawhia260,000470,0006,000,000
Mangapehi1,800,0006,0003,300,000
Tatu (including Ohura)3,400,0001,100,00012,000,000
Waitewhena400,000900,00011,000,000
Mokau--60,000,000
Nelson60,000130,0001,000,000
Buller Gorge100,0002,000,0008,000,000
Reefton1,670,0003,940,0008,000,000
Fletcher Creek--3,000,000
Punakaiki--2,000,000
Kaitangata1,920,000500,000500,000
Ohai7,720,0008,400,00090,000,000
Orepuki--1,000,000
  62,230,000153,710,000304,800,000
Lignite
Charleston6,000,0002,000,0008,000,000
Canterbury250,000-20,000,000
North Otago250,000-2,000,000
Central Otago250,000-15,000,000
Green Island250,000-3,000,000
Kaitangata3,300,00020,900,00075,000,000
Pomahaka--60,000,000
Mataura Valley5,400,00020,200,000216,000,000
  15,700,00043,100,000399,000,000
 Totals118,815,000234,270,000755,100,000
   Grand total1,108,185,000 tons 

Coal Consumption- The approximate distribution of coal consumption during each of the latest five years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports (including bunker coal for overseas vessels). Additional information on accumulating stocks of coal have led to a revision of this series.

User19591960196119621963
tons
Railways227,000219,000216,000187,000183,000
Gasworks276,000277,000279,000262,000268,000
Electric generation357,000601,000602,000342,000597,000
Households540,000540,000535,000470,000517,000
Factory industries
Meatworks171,000155,000151,000121,000120,000
Dairy factories301,000288,000290,000292,000306,000
Pulp and paper mills126,000121,000125,000122,000156,000
Cement works161,000158,000172,000186,000210,000
Other factories284,000245,000215,000203,000210,000
Other consumers267,000314,000286,000250,000196,000
Total consumption2,710,0002,918,0002,871,0002,435,0002,763,000

Summary of Operations-The following table summarises coal-mining operations.

YearOutput (tons)Persons Ordinarily EmployedLives Lost by Accidents in or about Mines
SurfaceUndergroundTotalsPer Million Tons ProducedPer Thousand Persons EmployedLives Lost
Prior to 1959143,702,892..........620
19592,809,5941,6172,9224,5391.420.904
19603,012,0431,5372,7644,3010.660.472
19612,924,7251,3562,6884,0440.690.49to
19622,550,1961,3302,5223,8522.401.576
19632,742,4111,2942,3663,6601.481.094
 Totals157,741,861...............638

Underground Mines- The following table gives particulars of the operations of underground mining during the last five years.

Calendar YearOutput (tons)Men Employed UndergroundTons per Man UndergroundMen Employed on SurfaceTons per Man on Pay Roll
19591,921,3762,9226581,102477
19601,892,0302,7646851,070493
19611,813,6912,688675944499
19621,696,6882,522673912494
19631,622,3942,366686930492

There were 95 underground mines in operation in 1963, and of these 21 operated by the State produced 1,084,883 tons of coal. Production from individual State mines is set out in the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C. 2.

Opencast Mines- Production of coal from opencast mines in 1963 amounted to 120,017 tons, which was 266,509 tons more than the production in 1962. The proportion of the total production of coal obtained from opencast mines amounted to 40.8 per cent.

There were 47 opencast mines in operation in 1963, and of these 14 operated by the State produced 410,883 tons. All of these State mines have come into production since the beginning of 1944. Details of production from all opencast mines for the last five years are given in the following table.

YearOutput (tons)Men EmployedTons per Man Employed
1959888,2185151,725
19601,120,0134672,398
19611,111,0344122,697
1962853,5084182,042
19631,120,0173643,077

Derived Products- Low-temperature carbonisation works, using the Lurgi process, established at Rotowaro, 70 miles south of Auckland, in 1931, produced during 1963,12,645 tons of carbonettes, 221,887 gallons of tar and oil, and 1,202 tons of char from 22,813 tons of slack coal, which was part of the output of a group of local mines.

The Sockburn plant, near Christchurch, produced 17,904 gallons of tar and 5,530 tons of coke during 1963.

Mercer Power Station- This station, of 180,000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 700,000 tons of coal per annum. Two-thirds of the coal is provided from the Maramarua opencast coalfield about 7 miles distant from the station, and the remainder from the Huntly coalfield.

State Coal Mines- The Slate purchase of coal mines, which began in 1940, has left only two large private mines in production. During 1963 there were 31 State coal mines in operation.

Financial- Sales of coal, etc., through the medium of the depots totalled 1,419,440 tons (value £6,563,482) for the year ended 31 December 1963. This compares with 1,254,990 tons (value £5,825,121) for the year ended 31 December 1962. The operating loss for the year was £559,846 and with interest of £549,237 on loan capital the total loss was £1,109,083. As interest could not be paid it was remitted under section 15 of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953. Capital expenditure for the year was £325,461. Depreciation was £577,907 and the value of fixed assets was reduced to £4,849,327.

Accidents- The number of compensatable accidents at State coal mines for the year ended 31 December 1963 was 1,516, compared with 1,643 in the previous year.

Coal Mining Districts' Welfare and Research Fund- This fund, into which is paid a levy at the rate of 9d. per ton on coal other than lignite and 7 1/2d. per ton on lignite, is used for coal-miners' relief, provision of amenities, establishment and maintenance of rescue stations, research, and generally for the benefit of the industry.

Information concerning monetary benefits for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis or any other occupational disease or heart disease contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand appears in Section 6A - Social Security.

IRON RESOURCES- New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches - from Westport northwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tons of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tons of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tons in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. An Iron and Steel Industry Act was passed in 1959 and, after investigational work, the Government is initiating the formation of an operating company to develop an iron and steel industry in the South Auckland area. It is envisaged that plant capable of producing about 140,000 tons of steel a year could be in operation by 1968 and that output could be expanded in 10 years to 400,000 tons a year.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry. Production of iron ore in 1963 was 3,074 tons.

URANIUM- In 1955 a lode of uranium-bearing minerals was discovered in the Buller Gorge. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush, the area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and, so far, ore has not been found rich and extensive enough to be worked economically at present price levels.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy.

GOLD- The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now almost confined to one dredge and the re-working of tailings from former battery sites.

The following table gives particulars of the estimated gold content of gold/silver/bullion production for the last three years.

Type of MiningQuantityValue
196119621963196119621963
 OZozOZ£££
Quartz mining336142524,2171,740570
Alluvial mining5013902995,6844,7704,095
Dredge mining27,45721,21013,855343,664259,825164,216
 Totals28,29421,74214,206353,565266,335168,881

SILVER- Most of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz mines of the Hauraki goldfields, where gold and silver were found alloyed. A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredges.

TUNGSTEN- The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, while the scheelite is most erratically distributed in the veins, with the greatest concentration of scheelite situated close to the surface or at shallow depth. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Owing to the price of tungsten ores continuing at a low level, scheelite mining is now on a much reduced scale. Mining is confined to the Glenorchy field in Otago.

COPPER- A deposit of copper ore near Parakao contains azurite and malachite, forms of carbonates of copper, as well as tentorite, an oxide of copper. It is used as an additive to fertilisers. It is estimated that the total production of copper ore over the years to the end of 1963 amounted to 6,736 tons, valued at £130,902.

MANGANESE- Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Of recent years there has been some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore. There has been no production of manganese since 1960.

MERCURY- Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand, but only in a few localities is it found in quantities of economic importance. The most promising deposits of mercury ore in New Zealand are those of the Puhipuhi district.

ANTIMONY- Small quantities of antimony ore have been won from deposits in the South Island, but there has been no production since 1953.

LEAD AND ZINC- An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc has recently been discovered near Te Aroha and preparations are being made for commercial mining.

TIN- Cassiterite in the form of "stream tin" occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent.

PLATINUM- Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

PETROLEUM- Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937 and Petroleum Regulations 1939. Current petroleum prospecting licences number 311 and cover areas totalling 51,340 square miles.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained. Geological and geo-physical work (including seismic surveys) is being conducted by several licence holders in various areas throughout New Zealand and since the current search commenced a few years ago, the following deep wells have been drilled.

Name of Well and LocalityDepth in feetDate CompletedResult
Kapuni No. 1 (Taranaki)13,040October1959Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 2 (Taranaki)13,762January1962Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 3 (Taranaki)12,457June1962Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 4 (Taranaki)12,800October1962Gas/condensate
Mangahewa No. 1 (Taranaki)14,059April1961Gas/condensate
Inglewood No. 1 (Taranaki)16,600June1963Dry
Mangaone No. 1 (Gisborne)5,085May1961Dry
Ruakituri No. 1 (Gisborne)9,005April1962Dry
Puketaha No. 1 (Waikato)1,559October1963Dry
River Road No. 1 (Waikato)2,590December1963Dry
Te Rapa No. 1 (Waikato)5,525February1964Dry
Taramakau No. 1 (Westland)6,985February1964Dry
Arahura No. 1 (Westland)5,678April1964Dry
Santoft No. 1A (Manawatu)7,560April1964Dry
Parakino No. 1 (Wanganui)7,593August1964Dry

Preparations are in train for the drilling of further wells in Taranaki and Southland.

The Kapuni wells drilled on a Taranaki structure named Manaia have proved a gas/condensate field which should maintain a natural gas industry with a life of 35 years, and provide some of the feed-stock for the new oil refinery at Whangarei. Alternative uses of the gas are now being considered, including a gas-powered electricity generation station and the piping of the gas to Auckland and Wellington for household supply.

For many years small quantities of petroleum have been produced at New Plymouth. During 1963 the company operating at New Plymouth produced from four wells 139,700 gallons of crude oil and supplied 4,573,800 cubic feet of natural gas to the New Plymouth gas works. The total production of crude oil to 31 December 1963 is approximately 6,979,600 gallons.

Production for 1963 was 139,700 gallons of crude oil, which, along with 121,350 gallons of condensate from the Kapuni Wells, was refined into the following products.

 Gallons
Motor spirit89,940
Distillate9,420
Power kerosine37,480
Diesel oil42,355
Residual oil71,800
  Total250,995

BENTONITE- Deposits of this mineral occur at Porangahau, in the Hawke's Bay district, and at Mangatu, near Gisborne. A deposit of bentonite at Hororata is being prospected. Bentonite is mainly used in the preparation of foundry moulding-sands and drilling muds, but the mineral has many other uses.

PERLITE- Owing to its extreme lightness and unique thermal insulating properties, perlite has important applications in the building and construction industries. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area.

ASBESTOS- Chrysotile asbestos occurs at several points in the massive serpentines of Nelson and Otago, but the only deposits of importance so far located are those of Upper Takaka in the Nelson district. In 1955 production of asbestos was resumed after a temporary cessation.

KAURI GUM- Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. The quantity exported annually is now less than 100 tons.

PHOSPHATE- The occurrence of phosphate has been reported from many localities in New Zealand, but so far the deposits of Clarendon and Milburn have proved to be the only ones of economic importance and the more favourable sections of the deposits have been exhausted.

SERPENTINE- Serpentine, which in the South Island forms vast rock masses in Nelson and Otago, and which occurs in smaller amounts in the North Island, is of value to the fertiliser industry in the preparation of serpentine superphosphate. Production at first was mainly confined to the smaller occurrences in North Auckland owing to ease of access and transport, but production is now made from much larger deposits at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, in the North Island, and near Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1963, 1,810,521 tons of serpentine had been mined, including 134,296 tons in 1963.

GREENSTONE- The mineral nephrite, the "pounamu" of the Maori, an deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly know as one of the varieties of "greenstone" occurs as rounded segregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. Some of this has been cut and polished in the New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply.

SALT- At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest six years is shown in the following table:

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tons£
19587,650107,100
195920,300275,300
196017,020256,500
19615,01775,000
19628,90095,000
196311,000150,000

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES- New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building stones scattered throughout both Islands. Their distribution is described in the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook

STATE AID TO MINING- State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz,(a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospection and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Geological Survey- Imperative to long-term assessment of New Zealand's mineral resources is an understanding of the country's geology. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1962 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Miners, Works, and other Government Departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems, and do not themselves maintain a geological staff.

The Survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the Survey studies and helps assess the country's mineral deposits and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects such as the construction of hydro electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has in the past done most of its regional geological mapping on a scale of one mile to the inch, about one-third of the country so far being covered by maps on this scale. Most of these maps have been issued in groups with a text describing the geology and mineral resources of the regions concerned. Paleontological bulletins are also issued. To speed the geological mapping of the country, the Survey in 1956 embarked on a programme to map the whole country on a less detailed scale. These new maps (scale of 1:250,000) are known informally as the "Four Mile" series. They each carry about 3,000 words of descriptive text in their margins; there will be 27 of them altogether. In this series 15 have now been issued. One-mile maps and bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency.

Mineral Resources Surveys- A strong Economic Section of the Geological Survey has recently been established. This will allow the continuing regional systematic mineral exploration to be expanded to full-time investigation of potentially valuable deposits coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis; a new minerals map of New Zealand has been prepared. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by Mines Department, prospectors, and others.

Metallic Minerals- In earlier years when gold was of major importance the Survey reported on most of the goldfields, several bulletins being published. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, bauxite, and other metals have also been investigated over the years. Recently the Survey has, in collaboration with the Chemistry Division, been developing the techniques of geochemical prospection with significant results in difficult terrain; chief ores being traced are copper, zinc, and manganese in West Otago and Southland.

Coal- Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, and mapping the coalfields in detail has been one of the Survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in cooperation with Mines Department and with the Dominion Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, where thousands of analyses of New Zealand coals have been made. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, and Ohai coalfields have been published, while those for the Waikato field will be the next to be issued. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, Survey geologists continue to help with a large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision.

Oil- The Government does not undertake oil exploration. Oil companies however draw on Survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial cooperation has usually developed between Survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps are deposited with the Government at the close of operations. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information supplied by the Survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki, which was rewarded by the discovery of and development of a large reservoir of natural gas; of particular importance were the collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores. These greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate.

Other Non-metallic Minerals and Rock Products-As far as is possible with the staff available, the Survey advises Ministry of Works and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in whose utilisation the Survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the Survey includes detailed projects on North-west Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, ceramic clay, feldspar, dolomite, and talc magnesite; North Auckland halloysite clays are also under investigation.

In recent years interest has grown in the possibility of establishing electrochemical industries in this country, and the Geological Survey and Chemistry Division have helped in investigation of limestone and other raw materials for a calcium carbide industry, and of silica deposits suitable for manufacture of silicon, silicon carbide, and ferrosilicon.

Chapter 18. Section 18 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Table of Contents

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT-The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coach-building workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of a tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, Auckland, Wellington, and Canterbury are ahead of Otago.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), the sawmills, and the metal-working, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the volume of output of factories as a whole declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid drop in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing "non-farm" materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934-35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929-30 level.

Industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before — apart from the metal-working and vehicle factories which had improved their position significantly.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

The factories expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply; to make uniforms, weapons, and equipment for the armed forces and to supply New Zealand and allied troops with preserved foodstuffs and many other kinds of provisions and ordnance.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949-50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Industrial production as a whole continued to increase, but this was a time of readjustment and, within this general rising trend, some firms closed down or ceased production of certain lines, others sustained a fall in production or did not expand to the extent they otherwise would have done. As a whole, factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products and, to some extent, by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the food group increased its volume relatively slowly, the leather industry production fell (as a result of competition from imports and synthetics), while footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods also increased slowly, more or less in line with population growth. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. But it was the engineering factories that contributed most (as in past years) to the growth of manufacturing after 1949-50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicles.

The growth in production has been assisted by increases in manpower engaged and capital used. Since the end of the Second World War there has been a considerable amount of factory building and new machinery installed — for new industries as well as for the extension and improvement of existing industries. A measure of the increase in capital employed is that the value of land and buildings, plant, and machinery at the end of the production year for each person engaged was £436 in 1945-46, £633 in 1950-51, rising to £1,149 in 1956-57, £1,220 in 1958-59, £1,375 in 1960-61, £1,496 in 1961-62, and £1,657 in 1962-63.

The greater use of machinery for manufacturing during the last 20 years is illustrated also by the continuing rise in the average horsepower for each person engaged in manufacturing. In 1935-36 the average was 2.86; in 1945-46, 2.97; in 1955-56, 4.42; in 1961-62, 5.14; and in 1962-63, 5.40. This expansion has been helped by the growth in electric power generation and by the greater use of the individual drive technique. In the production year 1962-63 the use of electric motors in factories accounted for 96 per cent of the total rated horsepower for all types of engines employed in factories. The number and horsepower of steam, petrol, oil, and other non-electrical engines has declined absolutely as well as relatively.

Industrial progress has been rapid, but manufacturing in New Zealand is still organised on a relatively small scale. In 1962-63, 61 per cent of the factories employed 10 persons or less, a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of geographical configuration, many factories still supply small local markets. Although these small factories are numerous, they accounted for only 12 per cent of the total value of factory output. There were only 134 factories (1.48 per cent of the total) in 1962-63 where the number of persons engaged exceeded 200, but these factories accounted for 35 per cent of total value of output. Some were engaged in processing goods for export (32 were meat-freezing works).

Manufacturing plays a vital part in employment. In April 1964 about 26 per cent of the total labour force was employed in manufacturing industries. Of these, females comprised 23 per cent of the persons so engaged.

In the latter part of 1957 and in early 1958 the terms of trade changed substantially to New Zealand's disadvantage and a serious depletion of overseas reserves resulted from the effects of heavy importing in 1957 and the fall in price of our main export commodities. To reduce overseas expenditure and arrest this drain on the reserves New Zealand reintroduced comprehensive import controls, which became effective on 1 January 1958. An improvement in the terms of trade in 1959 and 1960 allowed some relaxation in import restrictions, but a further fall in export prices and a higher volume of imports forced the Government to revert in 1961 to stricter import control. In mid-1962 the first of the measures to make the import licensing schedules more flexible in meeting manufacturers' and importers' needs was introduced.

Because of the present and future importance of manufacturing industries in the employment of a rapidly increasing labour force and the necessity for these industries to expand their output of goods and to produce new goods in substitution of imports, imported materials for industry received considerable priority. However, much of the success of the import replacement policy has been achieved by bringing in less-finished goods, crude components, and raw materials, so enabling a greater depth of manufacturing to be realised. It is desirable for manufacturing output to expand in depth as well as in breadth by increasing the New Zealand content of a range of manufactured goods. This involves manufacturing in a number of industries being taken back to more basic stages rather than being, for example, the mere assembly of imported components; making greater use of New Zealand's already available raw materials, such as wool and timber; developing if possible potential raw materials hitherto unexploited, such as ironsands.

The development of manufacturing industries has been rapid in recent years. There have been increases in the volume and range of production of existing industries, and many new and important industrial projects have been undertaken. Despite reduced imports and reduced internal demand in 1958, the volume of production rose by 5.5 per cent between 1957-58 and 1958-59. In addition to significant increases in output by existing industries such as woollen mills, clothing and footwear factories, the pulp and paper industry, rubber factories, and electrical machinery and appliances factories, a number of new industries were established and many new products made. These include the manufacture of steel drums, fork-lift trucks, water jet engines, forage harvesters and other agricultural machinery, launderers' washing machines and tumbler dryers, axminster carpets, wallpapers, kerosine heaters, household electric appliances, motor-vehicle components, soluble coffee, and glucose and dextrose.

In 1959-60 another rise of 3.6 per cent in the volume of production took place and this was followed by a rise of 9.8 per cent in 1960-61, of 5.1 per cent in 1961-62, and 4.5 per cent in 1962-63. Of particular importance in 1961 were the opening of a factory to make most of New Zealand's needs of wire rope and another to roll aluminium sheet and foil. These were followed in 1962 by the opening of the merchant bar mill and factories making wood screws, high-speed twist drills, television tubes, and aluminium cables. Other projects included the manufacture of vinyl tiles, roll-up flooring, various rubber and plastic products, precision formed nuts, narrow fabrics, carpet yarn and dyeing, beer cans, engine bearings, battery separators, stainless steel castings, and expanded production of motor-vehicle tyres, plywood, woollen yarn, bricks and refractories, veterinary and pharmaceutical preparations, leathercloth, motor scooters, electrical switchgear, moquettes, and bicycles.

During 1963, preparations were made to produce pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, air-conditioning equipment, nylon yarns and fibres, rigid PVC pipe, spectacle frames, motor-vehicle coil springs, and a variety of electrical control and switchgear.

In 1964 the pace of industrial growth was continued. In particular significant extensions were undertaken in the floor-covering, dairy products, timber, pulp and paper, fertiliser, and wallpaper industries. Preparations were made for new production in a number of other fields.

RECENT AND PLANNED DEVELOPMENTS-There are plans for a number of basic industries which, when fully established, will greatly affect the pattern of manufacture in New Zealand. These are now set out.

Oil Refinery-In May 1964 New Zealand's first oil refinery began production at Marsden Point, near Whangarei. The refinery, built at a capital cost of £10 million, will meet most of New Zealand's demand for petroleum products and will be capable of operating on a wide range of crude oil or condensate feedstock. Sixty per cent of the ordinary share capital has been subscribed by the five overseas companies engaged in distribution of petroleum products in New Zealand, and the remainder by domestic private shareholders. The processing of over two million tons of finished products will save more than £3 million a year in overseas funds.

Merchant Bar Mill-A mill has been established at Otahuhu to make steel products from steel scrap collected in New Zealand. The mill is now producing about 50,000 tons a year of merchant bar products-engineering rounds, reinforcing rods, angles and flats. The capital investment in the steel mill, in which 300 are employed, is in excess of £4 million.

Aluminium Fabricating Industry-A United Kingdom subsidiary of a major Canadian aluminium-producing company has established an aluminium-fabricating plant in New Zealand to make various aluminium products from imported ingots. Employing about 300 skilled men, the plant has an initial production capacity of 5,000 tons a year of aluminium sheet and foil products. The capital cost is £2 million. The company has installed a 2,500-ton extrusion press at a cost of about £350,000.

Aluminium Smelting-The Government is proceeding with the £30 million development of the hydro-electric power potential of the Manapouri-Te Anau lakes and rivers systems, and has given an undertaking to Comalco Aluminium Ltd. to provide power from this source for the purpose of developing an aluminium smelter in Southland. The vast industrial undertaking planned by Comalco would process alumina imported from the Weipa refining plant in Queensland, for sale on the world market. The capital cost of the smelter, which would provide employment for 6,000 persons, would be upwards of £60 million. The eventual output would be of the order of 250,000 tons of aluminium ingots a year.

Iron and Steel Industry-In October 1960, the Government set up the New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. Ltd. to study the feasibility of an iron and steel industry using New Zealand ironsands as its raw material.

Ironsands prospecting commenced with drilling at Raglan in November 1960 and the company proceeded with investigations into other material resources-such as coal and electricity-and with investigations into the economic aspect of an iron and steel industry. Sample quantities of ironsands were sent to the United States of America, United Kingdom, and Norway for experiment under regular production conditions. The company submitted its report to the Government in December 1962, recommending the early establishment of the industry in the South Auckland area. The report said that New Zealand could produce iron and steel products economically from iron sand.

A provisional board of directors, assisted by special engineering consultants, prepared specific plans for establishment of the industry, which the Government approved in March 1965. The development plan involving £17.5 million capital in the first stage recommends the construction of a steel works with a view to production of steel in 1967 and expansion of output to 189,000 tons in 1970, 299,000 tons in 1973, 437,000 tons in 1980, and 599,000 tons in 1983. It is estimated that net overseas exchange savings could exceed £5 million a year within five years of approval being given to the scheme and this saving would rise progressively with expansion. The initial work force is estimated at 850.

Pulp and Paper-There is increasing production of pulp and paper products. The output of newsprint exceeds 200,000 tons a year. About 70 per cent of the output is being sold overseas, and New Zealand ranks fifth as an exporter of newsprint. Expansion is taking place in production of paper products, building board, packaging materials, and specialised types of coated and laminated papers. Manufacture of wallpaper is also being increased substantially. Capital involved in recent and projected development of paper and allied production exceeds £18 million.

Wire Drawing Mill-Production commenced in 1963 of bright and galvanised wire from imported rod at a new Otahuhu factory. Total capital is of the order of £1 million and will eventually be contributed by both overseas and New Zealand investors. The production capacity of the works is 40,000 tons.

Telephone Cables-A factory making underground and aerial cables and insulated wire for the transmission of signals opened at Christchurch in 1962. Its capital is £850,000.

Wire Rope-The production of steel wire ropes is now undertaken at Auckland. Output meets New Zealand's requirements in the common types of round strand-wire ropes from 1/8 to 1 1/4 inches in diameter. Capital investment is about £600,000.

Nylon Yarns and Fibres-Two companies have established nylon spinning plants at a combined capital cost of £4.5 million. The output of these mills will provide for the full needs of nylon yarns and fibres for the domestic market and should effect a saving of over £2 million a year in overseas funds. The factories are at Auckland and Shannon.

Window Glass-The window glass factory at Whangarei has recommenced production, using the Pittsburgh process, under the joint ownership of two overseas companies. Most of the raw materials used are from domestic sources. The factory, which employs over 200 persons, has sufficient capacity to supply the whole of the New Zealand market for sheet glass and to provide some output for sale overseas. Yearly production is expected to be valued at £750,000.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH FOR INDUSTRY-There is a growing recognition in this country of the importance of scientific research in industry. Even in the more highly industrialised countries, where the larger concerns are able to undertake their own research, some form of assistance to industry from Government research organisations is required. In New Zealand this is even more necessary, and a number of branches of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research carry out research and some service work for industry.

The Chemistry Division, in addition to doing testing work for other Government Departments, undertakes research on natural products and minerals. Typical examples are the pozzolanic materials, pumicite and diatomite, which have proved suitable for replacement of cement in big concrete works such as hydro dams. One of the projects of great value to industry was the design of an automatic gravity-feed stoker which handles non-coking coals much more efficiently than do ordinary underfeed stokers.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory does research and investigational work on physical and engineering problems. One of the laboratory's recent projects of interest to the building industry and particularly to structural engineers has been the development of an analogue computer which will enable an assessment to be made of the forces to which proposed buildings are likely to be subjected by earthquakes. Largely as a result of research carried out with this computer the laboratory is publishing a handbook giving information on the forces and movements to be expected in buildings during large earthquakes. Another project of general interest is the application of automation to the laboratory's own heat-treatment plant. The laboratory is looking into ways and means of applying this principle to other industries as opportunities arise.

In the development of electric power from geothermal steam these two laboratories worked in close collaboration with the Geological Survey and the Geophysics Division in providing the Ministry of Works with basic information required in the construction of the power station at Wairakei. Work by geologists and geophysicists indicated where boreholes should be dug, physicists advised on how to measure and control the pressure of the steam, while chemists showed how to clean the steam and prevent it from rusting the pipes. This station is today providing electric power for both primary and secondary industries in the North Island.

In all the branches of the Department already mentioned assistance to manufacturing industry constitutes only part of the work, but there is one branch, the Auckland Industrial Development Division (AIDD), which was specifically set up to provide a research service for industry. Its present main fields of work are in foundry technology, fuel technology, and industrial measurement; product testing is carried out to assist local industry to manufacture to a standard of quality or performance. It seeks to ensure that science in industry is soundly based and endeavours to secure strong and healthy germination of research ideas. The policy followed is one of assistance and education, with encouragement to industry to obtain its own scientific control, development and research facilities.

RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS-Working in close collaboration with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are a number of cooperative research associations which are financed jointly by the industry concerned and the Government. The idea of cooperative research was introduced in the United Kingdom towards the end of the First World War, and considerable success followed the formation of numerous research associations, which were encouraged and supported financially by the Government in the interests of national welfare. The same need existed in New Zealand during the Second World War. Industries were expanding through the war effort, and in 1944 provision was made for the establishment of industrial research associations on similar lines to those in the United Kingdom. Of the eight associations now operating as autonomous bodies, five are concerned with manufacturing industries.

The Leather and Shoe Research Association undertakes problems on behalf of fellmongers, hide processors, tanners, and footwear manufacturers.

The Pottery and Ceramics Research Association, originally set up in 1945 to assist the development of the whitewares section of the clay industry, was in 1951 extended to cover the whole field of clay industries by including manufacturers of structural clay products such as bricks, roofing tiles, field tiles, and refractories.

The Research Institute of Launderers, Drycleaners, and Dyers was established in 1947 to serve the research and scientific needs of the laundering, drycleaning, and dyeing industries. Its membership includes commercial concerns, hospitals, suppliers of equipment and materials and also firms engaged in the garment and textile trades.

The Wool Industries Research Institute, established in 1937 as a unit of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and incorporated in 1945, serves the wool scouring and woollen milling industries. It is concerned with research relating to all aspects of wool manufacturing from the raw wool to finished cloth.

The Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association undertakes research associated with the analysis, production, and use of fertilisers, and on materials used in their manufacture.

EXPENDITURE ON INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH-It has been estimated that in 1962-63 an amount of £1,763,000 was spent on industrial research with 43.2 per cent being spent by Government Departments, 32.7 per cent by industry, and 21.0 per cent by research associations on which industry and Government are jointly involved. The following gives estimated expenditure over a period of years. (Source: Scientific Research in New Zealand: Expenditure and Manpower 1953-62, D.S.I.R. 1964.)

AgencyYears Ended 31 March
19541958196219631954195819621963
* Mostly by Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.
 £(000)Per Cent
Government Departments*35761675976349.951.444.843.2
Universities212849532.92.32.93.0
Research associations8617134537012.014.320.421.0
Organisations receiving Government and private funds11110.10.10.10.1
Industry25138253957635.131.931.832.7
 Totals7161,1981,6931,763100.0100.0100.0100.0

SCOPE OF STATISTICS-Statistics of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the five-yearly population census; but, commencing with the year 1918-19, the collection became an annual one, the results being published in the Report on the Industrial Production Statistics of New Zealand.

Commencing with the year 1951-52 factories have been classified according to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Apart from transfers within the framework of this series of factory production statistics, the adoption of the New Zealand Standard Classification meant the elimination from the series altogether of three important industries. These related to the logging operations of sawmillers, previously included in sawmilling, and the generation and supply of gas and electricity, accounting at that time for the activities of approximately 10,000 persons. Information on the generation and supply of gas and electricity is still the subject of an annual inquiry, but the results are no longer included in the series on factory production. Separate and detailed statistics for these industries are recorded in Section 20 of this Yearbook.

The statistics of factory production collected annually by the Department of Statistics embrace the activities of factories coming within the Manufacturing Division of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities, which is an adaptation of the United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification. The classification covers registered factories employing at least two persons (including the working proprietor) engaged in the manufacture, repair, or treatment of articles.

Bread bakeries and ready-mixed concrete establishments have each been surveyed as a separate industry for the first time for 1962-63, but they have been excluded from group and national totals to maintain comparability with previous years. A newly established industry-distilling, rectifying and blending of spirits-is included in the 1962-63 survey.

Industrial activities not covered by the survey of the Department of Statistics set out in this section are: cake and pastry kitchens; boot repairers; bespoke tailors; dressmakers, milliners; abattoirs; railway workshops; naval dockyard; all one-man factories.

The exclusion of these activities from the scope of the statistical inquiry, and also of all persons engaged in factories in a purely distributive capacity, reduces the total manufacturing labour force from that quoted by the Department of Labour (238,300-average of October 1962 and April 1963 surveys) to the figure recorded in these statistics for 1962-63-191,515. However, the proportion of factory production covered in this inquiry is much greater than the ratio implied by the above-mentioned totals, as all but the very smallest establishments are included.

The year covered by these statistics is generally the year ending 31 March, but factories are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial year most closely corresponding to this period. In the case of the important semi-primary industries-butter, cheese, and other milk products, and meat freezing and preserving-the years correspond with the production seasons ending in May and September respectively.

GENERAL SUMMARY-The statistics in the following table illustrate the growth of New Zealand's factory production to its present standing. Where figures are not available, leaders have been inserted. Throughout this table the logging industry and gas and electricity supply are excluded.

YearNumber of EstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of OutputAdded ValueValue of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

* For the year 1915-16 and earlier years, figures refer to productive employees only.

†Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.

  No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
1900-013,05938,6512,8117,716..16,4858,7696,546
1905-063,38145,1983,59313,290..21,6108,3209,537
1910-113,42142,1424,35318,738..28,5699,83111,989
1915-163,65744,6735,31729,850..41,92412,07315,799
1918-193,38553,0627,64638,291..53,80615,51519,144
1920-213,89462,97211,75353,009..75,48922,47925,696
1925-264,64370,21214,14951,3037,26278,46827,16532,420
1930-315,04770,62513,88545,3148,44871,72126,40734,496
1933-344,88365,96110,72943,5137,53865,90822,39531,965
1934-355,12672,09511,69448,8358,16373,32024,48532,415
1935-365,39178,70113,09156,8598,66583,76626,90733,175
1936-375,58487,82216,29667,4969,77899,37931,88334,386
1937-385,78093,53418,70371,7509,808106,50234,75236,308
1938-396,00293,63819,92771,1739,316106,60835,43538,597
1939-406,19899,34921,89380,21010,345120,32440,11441,020
1940-416,252104,78424,30693,01311,203137,39944,38642,165
1941-426,225108,27526,81396,48212,047145,60849,12643,752
1942-435,985106,17929,427101,90012,541155,77953,87944,674
1943-446,062109,22131,398107,02713,626164,83757,81045,984
1944-456,340113,53434,197116,47614,556178,58662,11048,765
1945-466,847118,88637,910117,05915,312183,54266,48351,781
1946-477,498124,92541,488131,34817,279205,64974,30155,775
1947-487,822130,50447,940174,84520,077259,18184,33663,316
1948-497,852132,42751,402195,05321,955286,39691,34373,585
1949-507,815133,24556,231215,00924,140317,343102,33477,993
1950-518,113138,43565,005266,88528,867380,200113,31687,617
1951-528,546144,35275,029290,73131,940430,984140,25297,522
1952-538,511143,16478,483318,94935,258463,940144,992109,100
1953-548,377146,48886,621332,82540,263495,213162,389122,269
1954-558,366153,57598,413365,29947,853550,618185,318138,274
1955-568,515158,238107,939384,79456,541585,942201,148168,573
1956-578,488156,752110,948394,98859,902602,041207,053180,123
1957-588,529162,985119,989417,91866,052644,929227,011189,287
1958-598,565168,742128,278418,64770,321659,455240,807205,886
1959-608,550171,973136,176439,08872,841705,617266,529224,227
1960-618,745181,346150,575469,70378,998756,800287,097249,305
1961-628,981187,579161,532488,49086,795806,508318,018280,540
1962-639,034191,515169,927502,88195,141840,622337,741317,360

NOTE-Further figures for the year 1963-64 are given in the Latest Statistical Information Section at the back of this Yearbook.

The volume of output rose by 4.5 per cent in 1962-63, as compared with an increase of 5.1 per cent in 1961-62. A corresponding rise of 4.2 per cent in the total value of output brought the figure to £840.6 million in 1962-63, as compared with £806.5 million in 1961-62. Added value increased by 6.2 per cent, from £318.0 million in 1961-62 to £337.7 million in 1962-63, while manufacturers' surplus rose by 4.3 per cent (from £70.0 million to £72.7 million), as compared with a rise of 21 per cent in 1961-62. The number of persons engaged, including working proprietors, increased by 2.1 per cent (from 187,600 to 191,500) and salaries and wages by 5.2 per cent (from £161.5 million to £169.9 million).

The following table gives the main statistics by statistical areas for the year 1962-63.
Statistical AreaNumber of EstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of OutputAdded Value
TotalPercentage of Total
  No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)per cent
Northland2553,2432,82114,40120,9016,5001.9
Central Auckland2,33260,56552,926138,542240,496101,95430.2
South Auckland-
Bay of Plenty1,11218,98318,23071,677115,40843,73112.9
East Coast1191,9311,6594,6867,6402,9540.9
Hawke's Bay3777,0786,38523,18035,57112,3923.7
Taranaki3666,2905,74727,19937,53410,3343.0
Wellington1,83638,39234,644103,323171,57368,25020.2
Marlborough991,1699692,1193,7441,6240.5
Nelson2052,9472,4605,68510,9845,3001.6
Westland1081,1049101,9993,6041,6060.5
Canterbury1,30630,39126,05963,566112,53648,97014.5
Otago54813,45211,03226,28348,20621,9236.5
Southland3715,9706,08620,22232,42612,2033.6
 Totals9,034191,515169,927502,881840,622337,741100.0

Further analyses by industrial groups of the figures shown in this table will be found in the appropriate contexts in the following pages.

In the next table the statistics for the year 1962-63 are reclassified by employment districts of the Department of Labour, which provide a more comprehensive locality classification of manufacturing strength. The fairest guide to actual volume of production is the last column in the table on "Added Value". This shows Auckland district's dominance in the manufacturing field, its production being more than the total for the South Island. This is the first year in which the Rotorua employment district has moved ahead of the Wellington employment district, the main reason being that added value in the paper and pulp products group in the Rotorua district increased from £10.7 million in 1961-62 to £14.0 million in 1962-63.

Employment DistrictNumber of FactoriesPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of OutputAdded Value
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotalPercentage of Total
  No.No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000) 
Whangarei2552,9812622,69612414,40120,9016,5001.9
Auckland2,33241,93518,63043,2069,720138,542240,496101,95430.2
Hamilton5747,1891,1706,96757236,91951,78714,8684.4
Paeroa1331,4833831,3081819,05911,7972,7380.8
Tauranga1531,5182161,377937,08010,1143,0340.9
Rotorua2626,5476397,51335818,89042,21923,3296.9
Gisborne1161,4274831,4042394,6587,5652,9070.9
Napier1601,8535341,7872747,07611,5264,4511.3
Hastings1683,6407033,67037514,70322,1567,4522.2
New Plymouth3554,6869514,52743824,15233,1549,0022.7
Wanganui2493,0849173,09942011,97218,2176,2451.8
Palmerston North4295,2381,4595,04368921,89832,88810,9903.2
Masterton1491,8414121,7531797,54711,1093,5621.1
Lower Hutt3649,5103,21710,5351,90342,74568,98326,2387.8
Wellington6988,8464,7289,3682,59323,36546,20922,8446.8
Totals, North Island6,397101,77834,704104,25318,158383,007629,121246,11472.9
Blenheim999302398511182,1193,7441,6240.5
Nelson1632,1563911,9291724,9249,4314,5071.3
Greymouth1501,3002041,175942,7605,1582,3980.7
Christchurch1,06118,9217,37518,6283,75951,54094,01642,47712.6
Ashburton761,0262379991163,1485,0401,8920.6
Timaru1692,3664662,3382198,87813,4804,6021.3
Oamaru591,2263101,0501403,2635,9722,7090.8
Dunedin4898,5933,3238,1981,64423,02042,23419,2155.7
Invercargill3715,5514195,87521120,22232,42612,2033.6
 Totals, South Island2,63742,06912,96441,0436,473119,874211,50191,62727.1
 Totals, New Zealand9,034143,84747,668145,29624,631502,881840,622337,741100.0

A further summary of the operations of factories is given below for the three latest years.

Item1960-611961-621962-63
Number of establishments8,7458,9819,034
Persons engaged -No.181,346187,579191,515
Production costs-
Salaries, wages—£(000)150,575161,532169,927
Materials-£(000)469,703488,490502,881
Other expenses—(000)78,99886,79595,141
Totals£(000)699,276736,817767,949
Value of output—(000)756,800806,508840,622
Manufacturers' surplus£(000)57,52469,69172,673
Value added in manufacture-£(000)287,097318,018337,741
Overtime worked by wage earners-hrs.(000)26,27727,77327,674
Volume index for industry: Base 1956-57 (= 1000)128313491410
Premises and plant-
Value at end of year-
Land and buildings—£(000)154,118175,947197,156
Plant and machinery—£(000)95,187104,594120,204
Capital expenditure during year-
Land and buildings—£(000)12,8261£77916,148
Plant and machinery—£(000)21,47624,42233,225

The following table gives a summary of some of the principal production statistics for the year 1962-63 classified by individual industries. Totals for the industrial groups to which these industries belong are also shown.

IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Food Manufacturing Industries  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Meat freezing and preserving3719,12921,503128,20836,149
Ham and bacon curing501,4011,26710,0902,484
Sausage casings81971861,018329
Processed cheese35132494114
Ice cream235374053,0701,569
Butter and cheese2342,9982,98277,2415,757
Milk products other than butter and cheese771,5571,56812,8284,317
Fruit and vegetable preserving352,2021,8149,7744,071
Fish preserving5483122265
Grain milling429247836,3381,920
Biscuits81,1699074,0802,090
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery502,0021,4186,8613,208
Feeds for animals and fowls413883504,071949
Food preparations n.e.i.601,5751,42112,2214,226
Totals67334,17834,668276,51567,248
Beverage Industries
Winemaking44182172968449
Distilling, rectifying, and blending of spirits48779740398
Brewing of ale and stout and malting201,4151,44811,0375,958
Aerated waters and cordials646955772,6401,388
Totals1322,3792,27615,3858,193
Tobacco Manufactures
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes51,1939688,9292,849
Manufacture of Textiles
Woolscouring1944646914,160978
Woollen milling213,6812,7477,7324,129
Other spinning and weaving mills171,8431,6047,2453,622
Hosiery and other knitting mills814,1992,85511,3695,566
Phormium flax15157105353181
Linen flax135296243
Textiles n.e.i.277246443,1481,418
   Totals18111,0858,45444,06815,939
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Manufacture of Footwear, Other Wearing Apparel, and Made-up Textiles  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Leather gloves and apparel1114890301151
Men's and boys' outerwear1373,7792,2846,8232,982
Women's and girls' outerwear2745,1332,9589,2804,491
Underclothing371,3547132,738972
Hats, caps, and millinery591,0115851,689932
Corsetry251,4107712,0521,122
Neckties7191116401227
Shirts and pyjamas411,5599053,1061,353
Wearing apparel n.e.i.1124,5622,6399,6283,992
Fur coats and necklets26164118331189
Footwear (other than rubber)1295,5644,22512,2696,387
Canvas goods405033261,223561
Made-up textiles (other than wearing apparel)626564241,972822
Totals96026,03416,15751,81224,181
Manufactures of Wood and Cork (Except Manufacture of Furniture)
Sawmills4135,8625,53320,62911,195
Planning mills1402,0321,78012,7363,717
Joinery4023,8553,45711,4635,562
Wooden containers405575062,284882
Plywood and veneer97237162,9911,535
Wood products n.e.i.474563871,354720
Totals1,05113,48512,38051,45823,611
Manufacture of Furniture and Fixtures
Furniture4484,3083,94411,8245,915
Mattress manufacture315754812,329963
Venetian blinds192312091,125418
Totals4985,1144,63515,2787,296
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products
Pulp, paper, and paperboard72,8473,75722,95315,785
Cardboard boxes, cartons, and paper bags512,0941,88011,5604,350
Paper products n.e.i.441,4621,1647,2322,744
Totals1026,4036,80241,74522,879
Printing, Publishing, and Allied Inds.
Printing and publishing926,0075,92717,68512,382
Job and general printing3245,4804,83313,7848,366
Service industries for printing trade505985941,231981
   Totals46612,08511,35332,70021,729
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Manufacture of Leather and Leather Products (Except Footwear)  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Tanning116556453,0311,349
Fellmongery71221211,056260
Leather goods759536452,0801,056
Totals931,7301,4126,1672,666
Manufacture of Rubber Products
Motor tyres and tubes39081,2296,0413,375
Rubber goods (other than motor tyres and tubes)251,6761,5495,4753,141
Vulcanising and tyre retreading686215862,5451,443
   Totals963,2053,36414,0617,959
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical Products
Chemical fertilisers121,3291,34912,9374,191
Vegetable and animal oils and fats334434342,3411,058
Ink8173151736438
Soap124754223,3581,731
Paint and varnish258208376,8382,588
Pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics389646684,5701,956
Chemical products n.e.i.761,5791,3718,2873,674
Totals2045,7835,23239,06615,637
Manufacture of Products of Petroleum and Coal     
Petroleum and coal products112062063,120666
Bituminous paving and roofing materials302732692130880
   Totals414794745,2491,545
Manufacture of Non-metallic Mineral Products (Except Products of Petroleum and Coal)
Structural clay products441,0471,0182,5422,274
Pottery, china, and earthenware67045381,133978
Cement68018185,6714,599
Glass and glass products571,3431,2454,5983,026
Concrete products2992,3112,2057,7774,484
Lime823353011,266834
Fibrous plaster784193851,020543
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.146447193,8061,637
   Totals5867,6047,22927,81318,376
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Basic Metal Industries  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Basic metal industries861,1471,2005,5852,360
Manufacture of Metal Products (Except Machinery and Transport Equipment)
Sheet-metal working1744,7614,50116,9808,608
Wire working507467033,2671,442
Nail making6128113988223
Electroplating and metal polishing555165171,116869
Metal products n.e.i.2614,9414,86117,9898,769
   Totals54611,09210,69440,34019,911
Manufacture, Assembly, and Repair of Machinery (Except Electrical Machinery)
Agricultural and pastoral machinery808927864,6191,490
Machinery n.e.i.53110,42610,13831,18217,271
Totals61111,31810,92435,80118,761
Manufacture of Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
Range making61,0449243,1021,603
Radio and television assembly and manufacture332,3241,6609,6893,498
Electrical machinery, appliances n.e.i.1233,2182,75213,1045,877
Totals1626,5865,33525,89510,978
Manufacture of Transport Equipment
Boat building and ship repairing741,1791,1202,4971,527
Motor-vehicle assembly173,2173,40132,2407,757
Motor-body building811,3021,1743,5651,862
Repairs to motor vehicles2,00917,09813,83442,29321,485
Aircraft maintenance and repair281,7841,8304,2262,897
Perambulators12177122374187
Transport equipment n.e.i.269418922,8031,760
   Totals2,24725,69822,37287,99837,474
Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries
Optical, surgical, and dental, etc., equipment28215182464268
Jewellery766795131,453788
Brushes and brooms145283581,430659
Toys and sports goods234553231,033557
Manufacturing industries n.e.i.1533,0402,62210,3745,877
   Totals2944,9173,99814,7558,150
   Grand totals9,034191,515169,927840,622337,741

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES-The increases in the number of factories in the immediate post-war years were the highest recorded annually and compare with the percentage increases recorded after the First World War. Factors which operated after both wars included the re-establishment of businesses closed down during the war period, and the opening of new businesses by returned servicemen. In more recent years the shortage of labour in the principal centres has resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas. The 1962-63 survey covered 9,034 factories, the largest number included in any year.

The following table shows the number of factories in each statistical area.

Statistical AreaNumber of Factories
 1959-601960-611961-621962-63
Northland3,472230248255
Central Auckland2,1952,2912,332
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty1,0181,0871,112
East Coast118118119
Hawke's Bay388397382377
Taranaki354363370366
Wellington1,8021,8151,8431,836
Marlborough909610299
Nelson240227217205
Westland97112107108
Canterbury1,2271,2751,2971,306
Otago543546560548
Southland337353359371
  Totals8,5508,7458,9819,034

An analysis of the 1962-63 totals by industrial groups in the various statistical areas is given in the next table.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Number of Factories 1962-63
Food201178692595108
Beverages54113314817
Tobacco manufactures-2--1-2
Textiles256524249
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods44053282119239
Wood and cork products (except furniture41129223195651165
Furniture and fixtures71664532110110
Paper and paper products-36622-29
Printing, publishing, etc.713341415£1131
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)142132116
Rubber products4221422521
Chemicals and chemical products1671216860
Petroleum and coal products-112-1214
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.3789738432292
Basic metal manufactures1373-1219
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)7230373149112
Machinery (except electrical)1713898122524118
Electrical machinery and appliances1628-4-47
Transport equipment994264034011894403
Miscellaneous products112310-2384
   Totals2552,3321,1121193773661,836
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.
Number of Factories 1962-63
Food12204944835673
Beverages1631281132
Tobacco manufactures------5
Textiles13132177181
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods3721545610960
Wood and cork products (except furniture)19515513260501,051
Furniture and fixtures573852313498
Paper and paper products---1764102
Printing, publishing, etc.365682913466
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)---185493
Rubber products11-165396
Chemicals and chemical products14-27152204
Petroleum and coal products---74-41
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.9195994149586
Basic metal manufactures-1-164286
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)152763416546
Machinery (except electrical)7104933233611
Electrical machinery and appliances---3172162
Transport equipment3563232751411272,247
Miscellaneous products1215413-294
   Totals992051081,3065483719,034

The number of factories and persons engaged are shown together in the following table, classified by industrial groups. Persons engaged include proprietors actively participating in their own businesses but exclude all persons engaged in selling and distribution. Figures for persons engaged refer to the average number over the whole year.

Industry GroupNumber of FactoriesNumber of Persons Engaged
1960-611961-621962-631960-611961-621962-63
Food70468367331,51633,22934,178
Beverages1291351322,1642,2482,379
Tobacco manufactures5551,2051,2251,193
Textiles18818718110,70311,22411,085
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,02499896025,96526,44226,034
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,0981,0771,05113,91113,92713,485
Furniture and fixtures4995084985,1325,1265,114
Paper and paper products1011051025,8645,9666,403
Printing, publishing, etc.43544846611,41411,91612,085
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)9798931,7081,7041,730
Rubber products8797963,0953,2513,205
Chemicals and chemical products2182172045,8385,8165,783
Petroleum and coal products394241422439479
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.5595745867,6507,6967,604
Basic metal manufactures8581861,0681,0731,147
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)4475005469,65910,00511,092
Machinery (except electrical)53057361110,77511,32411,318
Electrical machinery and appliances1501561625,5145,9426,586
Transport equipment2,0672,2202,24723,44324,68125,698
Miscellaneous products2832772944,3004,3454,917
   Totals8,7458,9819,034181,346187,579191,515

Persons engaged are shown in the table below for the year 1962-63 classified into working proprietors, managerial and clerical, professional, and technical staff; and wage earners.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical, Professional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
Food3,4361,12225,6353,98529,0715,10734,178
Beverages4101591,6811292,0912882,379
Tobacco manufactures83604166344996941,193
Textiles7253655,1064,8895,8315,25411,085
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,4981,0614,73318,7426,23119,80326,034
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,83931211,20213213,04144413,485
Furniture and fixtures7491933,7254474,4746405,114
Paper and paper products7602854,0471,3114,8071,5966,403
Printing, publishing, etc.1,5009867,8771,7229,3772,70812,085
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)178648945941,0726581,730
Rubber products4701432,1324602,6026033,205
Chemicals and chemical products1,0684553,1821,0784,2501,5335,783
Petroleum and coal products98233372143544479
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,1442555,8233826,9676377,604
Basic metal manufactures18943902131,091561,147
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,5504408,1699339,7191,37311,092
Machinery (except electrical)1,7894838,80923710,59872011,318
Electrical machinery and appliances6772933,9291,6874,6061,9806,586
Transport equipment4,4241,29619,59438424,0181,68025,698
Miscellaneous products5982482,4691,6023,0671,8504,917
   Totals23,1858,286120,66239,382143,84747,668191,515

Further information is given in the following table on persons engaged in 1962-63. Totals in each industrial group are shown by statistical areas.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Food1,0337,8673,0267992,9802,4504,819
Beverages219182254816367355
Tobacco manufactures121--251-821 
Textiles182,89376122151712,307
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods10111,2701,1101364037445,390
Wood and cork products (except furniture)4061,8494,8081224075101,653
Furniture and fixtures162,4272131322167949
Paper and paper products2,0152,4482747-1,149 
Printing, publishing, etc.1503,6366491414363143,456
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)5895212612183
Rubber products21795106152625657
Chemicals and chemical products52,00527361752481,766
Petroleum and coal products17855-78168 
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.5362,5676133622997902
Basic metal manufactures440230-3256193
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)465,95030191251112,312
Machinery (except electrical)1564,1041,238663764942,036
Electrical machinery and appliances22,258418-132-1,779
Transport equipment7086,0803,1063799057956,137
Miscellaneous products152,335286-35211,360
   Totals3,24360,56518,9831,9317,0786,29038,392
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.
Food302787304,7002,9072,47834,178
Beverages84928283176382,379
Tobacco manufactures------1,193
Textiles42263,0802,2379811,085
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods183771464,9641,4011026,034
Wood and cork products (except furniture)865284951,43758160313,485
Furniture and fixtures18388777280875,114
Paper and paper products---3101752326,403
Printing, publishing, etc.65153741,76397627212,085
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)---367209391,730
Rubber products74-1,50132163,205
Chemicals and chemical products1041-6504911135,783
Petroleum and coal products---4815-479
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.45358291,3934713287,604
Basic metal manufactures-2-2064291,147
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)67781,21779113911,092
Machinery (except electrical)8959681,73253037011,318
Electrical machinery and appliances---1,419558206,586
Transport equipment2857452063,8761,4581,01825,698
Miscellaneous products6176668123-4,917
   Totals1,1692,9471,10430,39113,4525,970191,515

The distribution of the sexes among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males. In the five years prior to the Second World War the proportion of female employees in factories was steady at approximately 25 per cent. After rising rapidly to a peak of 31.5 per cent 1942-43 as a result of additional women being recruited for factory work and men being called for military service, the proportion then fell equally rapidly back to the pre-war figure. In 1962-63 the percentage was 24.9.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent. The male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in great demand mainly on account of the importance of the clothing and textile industries. The majority of females in manufacturing industries are engaged in four classes: food; footwear and other wearing apparel; textiles; and printing, publishing, etc. In 1962-63 these industries accounted for 69 per cent of all females in factories. In two industries only did the number of females exceed the number of males-viz, tobacco manufactures, where there were 139 females to every 100 males, and footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., where there were 318 females per 100 males. The upper table on the previous page shows the average number of males and females engaged according to industry groups for the year 1962-63.

Further information is available in the table below on the extent to which females were engaged in factories in New Zealand for 1962-63. This table gives by statistical areas the number of males per 100 females engaged, and the total persons engaged per 1,000 of population.

Statistical AreaMalesFemalesTotalNumber of Males per 100 FemalesTotal Population at 1 April 1963Total Persons Engaged per 1,000 of Population
Northland2,9812623,2431,13888,90036
Central Auckland41,93518,63060,565225551,546110
South Auckland-
Bay of Plenty16,5772,40618,983689370,10051
East Coast1,4474841,93129947,10041
Hawke's Bay5,7441,3347,078431120,20059
Taranaki5,3199716,290548102,40061
Wellington27,77510,61738,392262494,90078
Marlborough9302391,16938928,80041
Nelson2,5194282,94758965,50045
Westland9371671,10456124,80045
Canterbury22,3138,07830,391276359,87384
Otago9,8193,63313,452270181,30074
Southland5,5514195,9701,32598,00061
  Totals143,84747,668191,5153022,533,41976

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is given at five-yearly intervals from 1934-35 onwards. Figures for the two latest years are added. Since 1951-52 the series no longer includes certain sectors of production previously included-principal omissions being the logging activities of sawmills and the generation and supply of gas and electricity.

YearFactories With Persons Engaged Numbering-Total
10 or Under11-2021-5051-100Over 100
Number of Factories
1934-353,7257644961431425,270
1939-404,2189577722121836,342
1944-454,1391,0468332701976,485
1949-504,9931,4091,1063122078,027
1954-555,3501,4731,0203102138,366
1959-605,2421,6211,1083122678,550
1961-625,4911,6801,1863382868,981
1962-635,5091,6791,2043353079,034
Number of Persons Engaged
1934-3514,90111,32115,3099,71628,11179,358
1939-4017,21214,04823,31614,73739,409108,722
1944-4518,38215,54725,78718,80943,889122,414
1949-5024,48120,60834,38621,30443,530144,309
1954-5527,20621,43231,65021,80851,479153,575
1959-6026,92623,75534,10521,66665,521171,973
1961-6228,05124,52036,86823,56374,577187,579
1962-6328,17524,43337,33423,14278,431191,515

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged by the standards of highly industrialised communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing 10 persons or under accounted for 61 per cent of the total number of factories in 1962-63.

SALARIES AND WAGES-The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime, also amounts drawn in lieu of salary by working proprietors. The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups-executive, clerical, and wage earning), and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below.

YearMalesFemalesBoth Sexes
TotalAverageTotalAverageTotalAverage
 £(000)££(000)££(000)£
1958-59108,77786619,501452128,278760
1959-60116,07690220,100464136,176792
1960-61128,25494522,321490150,575830
1961-62137,47497924,059510161,532861
1962-63145,2961,01024,631517169,927887

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may also be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years.

The amount of salaries and wages paid in each industrial group and in all industries during the latest three years is given hereunder.

Industry GroupSalaries and Wages Paid
1960-611961-621962-63
£(000)
Food30,29632,59234,668
Beverages1,9802,1042,276
Tobacco manufactures869955968
Textiles7,6718,4588,454
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods15,20516,06916,157
Wood and cork products (except furniture)12,07912,32512,380
Furniture and fixtures4,2484,4264,635
Paper and paper products5,5045,8216,802
Printing, publishing, etc.10,05310,79311,353
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,2891,3681,412
Rubber products2,9793,2703,364
Chemicals and chemical products5,0065,2045,232
Petroleum and coal products394423474
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.6,9767,2067,229
Basic metal manufactures1,0181,0831,200
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)8,7779,36710,694
Machinery (except electrical)9,69710,68210,924
Electrical machinery and appliances4,2174,8275,335
Transport equipment19,06921,08922,372
Miscellaneous products3,2473,4683,998
   Totals150,575161,532169,927

In the following table an analysis is made of the 1962-63 totals according to statistical areas in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1962-63
 £(000)
Food1,0277,6463,0787802,9342,6714,961
Beverages158882194516453350
Tobacco manufactures-*--*-*
Textiles*2,28848*135*1,785
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods527,253580682084243,386
Wood and cork products (except furniture)3251,7664,638953704221,472
Furniture and fixtures142,3111831018752880
Paper and paper products-1,7593,284**-1,071
Printing, publishing, etc.1453,4735621293842853,417
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*728*10**141
Rubber products Identifying1892095**24748
Chemicals and chemical products*1,737258*2082361,662
Petroleum and coal products-178*-**174
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.4862,4785893321588890
Basic metal manufactures*42233-**197
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)395,8142918121862,220
Machinery (except electrical)1334,0861,204543464412,049
Electrical machinery and appliances*1,669260-102-1,604
Transport equipment5315,4642,5972946806105,891
Miscellaneous products362,0473111323303541,745
   Totals2,82152,92618,2301,6596,3855,74734,644
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Salaries and Wages Paid 1962-63
 £(000)
Food302649274,9582,6223,01234,668
Beverages*4229263166*2,276
Tobacco manufactures------968
Textiles*12*2,4111,537768,454
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods10134*3,1487725716,158
Wood and cork products (except furniture)744364571,31048852612,380
Furniture and fixtures14336653213784,635
Paper and paper products---2401202676,802
Printing, publishing, etc.66138691,56887923811,353
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)---272208321,412
Rubber products**-1,46333143,364
Chemicals and chemical products*39-542422*5,232
Petroleum and coal products---4615-474
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.39381271,2254603187,229
Basic metal manufactures-*-20845*1,200
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*66*1,14975513210,694
Machinery (except electrical)7051491,60948135010,924
Electrical machinery and appliances---1,144539*5,335
Transport equipment2285681523,3501,18782022,372
Miscellaneous products751193501921663,998
  Totals9692,46091026,05911,0326,086169,927

A further analysis of salaries and wages paid is given in the table below for 1962-63, and shows the amounts paid to working proprietors, managers, clerical, professional, and technical staff, and those paid to other employees, i.e., wage earners. As mentioned earlier, drawings in lieu of salaries are included for proprietors actively engaged in the business. Males and females are distinguished throughout.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical, Professional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1962-63
 £(000)
Food4,46763327,5721,99632,0392,62934,668
Beverages534941,578692,1131632,276
Tobacco manufactures13041420378549418968
Textiles1,0222364,6562,5405,6782,7768,454
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods2,1017394,2709,0466,3729,78516,157
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,2591689,8817312,13924012,380
Furniture and fixtures9791103,3152304,2953404,635
Paper and paper products1,2181894,6867095,9048986,802
Printing, publishing, etc.2,0285787,8169319,8441,50911,353
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)263408053051,0673441,412
Rubber products675802,3862243,0613033,364
Chemicals and chemical products1,4212853,0255014,4477855,232
Petroleum and coal products136133131244925474
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,4591445,4511746,9113187,229
Basic metal manufactures2742489381,168331,200
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,1562657,7555189,91178410,694
Machinery (except electrical)2,4072798,09814010,50541910,924
Electrical machinery and appliances9451783,3828304,3281,0085,335
Transport equipment5,06868916,34726921,41495822,372
Miscellaneous products8471572,2567373,1038953,998
  Totals30,3904,941114,90519,691145,29624,631169,927

The following statement shows the average earnings of males and females for the past 11 years.

YearProprietors Actively EngagedManagers, OverseersAccountants, ClerksChemists, Technicians, etc.Wage-earning EmployeesTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Average Salary or Wage
 ££££££££££££
1952-53628436922568626354....593324621331
1953-54746497995590688388....640344672353
1954-557995431,072655733411....697373730382
1955-568405971,127683794436....741392777402
1956-578915621,179723822457....764404804416
1957-589196211,241744848477....797419839431
1958-599556691,298752880491....821441866452
1959-601,0026521,359793927514....853450902464
1960-611,0456891,424867971537....893475945490
1961-621,0666941,4778851,006557....926496979510
1962-631,1306841,5188751,0375741,2426959525001,010517

MOTIVE POWER-A supply of cheap motive power is a material element in industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The development of the country's electric power resources (as described in Section 20A) has been a major factor in industrial growth, especially as the rates compare very favourably with those in more highly industrialised countries.

The following table shows the number and aggregate horsepower of each class of engine used in factories in the years 1939-40, 1949-50, 1959-60, and the two latest years.

Class of Engine1939-401949-501959-601961-621962-63
* Included in "other".
Electric- No.32,01386,227165,797187,237196,816
 h.p.213,237399,925770,213914,148988,400
Steam- No.1,012*407319288
 h.p.49,769*18,37915,27913,326
Petrol and light oil-No.382*709726714
 h.p.9,546h3*14,27616,82814,360
Heavy oil*265251261
h.p.9,54616,40315,66816,420
Other—No.1661,7291157375
 h.p.4,81356,1883,6113,0002,288
  Totals No.33,57387,956167,293188,606198,154
 h.p.277,365456,113822,882964,9231,034,794

The figures relating to horsepower represent the rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use for driving factory plant. Steam boilers and engines for generating electric power in own works are excluded.

The following table shows the types and rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use in the various industries during 1962-63.

Industry GroupRated Horsepower of Engines in Use
ElectricSteamPetrol and Light OilHeavy OilOtherTotal
Food218,1885,7364831,54552226,004
Beverages15,64118050--15,871
Tobacco manufactures2,117----2,117
Textiles36,6097595--37,373
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods16,6699654541316,886
Wood and cork products (except furniture)134,1475,3136,64010,431969157,500
Furniture and fixtures16,945-4--16,949
Paper and paper products179,27810011412-179,504
Printing, publishing, etc.21,927710682177623,637
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)7,057100292--7,449
Rubber products25,441-74--25,515
Chemicals and chemical products44,90840436633033746,345
Petroleum and coal products5,2539201-45,467
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.86,2865101,3252,11311590,349
Basic metal manufactures6,699-1025-6,734
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)72,4992348398-73,103
Machinery (except electrical)37,061311,441906-39,439
Electrical machinery and appliances12,471-615-12,492
Transport equipment35,286582,693702238,129
Miscellaneous products13,918-13--13,931
  Totals988,40013,32614,36016,4202,2881,034,794

CONSUMPTION OF COAL-During the year 1962-63, 955,000 tons of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production. Comparable figures for the two previous years were: 1961-62, 987,000 tons, and 1960-61, 999,000 tons. It is important to note that the new series of factory production statistics no longer includes the activities of the gas-making industry and electric generation and supply stations. These two industries used 262,000 tons and 342,000 tons of coal respectively in 1962-63.

The following table shows for the year 1962-63 the consumption of coal by industrial groups.

Industry GroupTons of Coal Used
Food449,033
Beverages12,157
Tobacco manufactures195
Textiles45,587
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,590
Wood and cork products (except furniture687
Furniture and fixtures97
Paper and paper products122,206
Printing, publishing, etc.241
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)5,466
Rubber products20,052
Chemicals and chemical products22,343
Petroleum and coal products30,630
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.239,815
Basic metal manufactures177
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,486
Machinery (except electrical)704
Electrical machinery and appliances302
Transport equipment256
Miscellaneous products1,561
  Total954,585

Approximately 85 per cent of the amount of coal used is accounted for in three groups: food, paper and paper products, and non-metallic mineral products n.e.i. Individual industries using more than 10,000 tons of coal in 1962-63 were as follows.

IndustryTons
Milk products other than butter and cheese200,721
Cement185,847
Pulp, paper and paperboard122,158
Meat freezing and preserving121,004
Butter and cheese90,901
Structural clay products39,115
Petroleum and coal products30,404
Woollen milling29,296
Food preparations n.e.i.18,652
Brewing of ale and stout and malting11,299
Rubber goods other than tyres and tubes10,873

MATERIALS-The value of materials used does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry or industrial group and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. An example of the wide differences which may occur in the ratio of cost of materials to value of goods produced will be seen in the food group and the wood and cork products (except furniture) group. The values shown for materials used include the cost of containers and packing but exclude fuel costs.

Totals for the latest year show that the cost of materials used in food manufacture was £209,267,000, and the goods produced were valued at £276,515,000, while the materials used in the manufacture of wood and cork products cost £27,847,000 and finished goods produced were valued at £51,458,000.

The cost of materials used in each industrial group and in all industries for each of the latest three years was as follows.

Industry GroupCost of Materials Used
1960-611961-621962-63
£(000)
Food197,408199,016209,267
Beverages5,8966,5007,193
Tobacco manufactures6,3116,3386,080
Textiles26,95229,69428,130
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods27,14128,51927,632
Wood and cork products (except furniture)27,10928,47127,847
Furniture and fixtures7,4587,4787,982
Paper and paper products15,78216,66418,866
Printing, publishing, etc.10,58210,81810,972
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)3,6293,6963,501
Rubber products6,3596,2506,102
Chemicals and chemical products22,64422,79223,430
Petroleum and coal products2,8633,2293,704
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.9,7109,8949,437
Basic metal manufactures2,7342,8303,225
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)17,41618,93720,429
Machinery (except electrical)19,88620,24417,040
Electrical machinery and appliances11,32212,56414,916
Transport equipment42,76348,48850,524
Miscellaneous products5,7376,0676,605
  Totals469,703488,490502,881

An analysis by statistical areas of the cost of materials used for the year 1962-63 is given below.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Cost of Materials Used 1962-63
 £(000)
Food11,79240,80841,1172,99712,86620,98028,226
Beverages403,303539116484101758
Tobacco manufactures-*--*-*
Textiles*7,413531*2,084*6,283
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods10111,7089911204316575,942
Wood and cork products (except furniture)7284,75010,7563061,0707553,511
Furniture and fixtures184,06822011232621,497
Paper and paper products-6,1177,234**-3,242
Printing, publishing, etc.684,254322802811652,879
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*1,738*5**232
Rubber products451,771190**441,283
Chemicals and chemical products*7,5701,788*1,1401,4857,157
Petroleum and coal products-1,136*-**2,117
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.5973,468875622441161,219
Basic metal manufactures*1,53723-**443
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)8511,79555152061754,450
Machinery (except electrical)1256,7701,366635407103,227
Electrical machinery and appliances*5,621748-213-4,010
Transport equipment75910,7234,05143195191521,660
Miscellaneous products433,9913764892,4381,0355,187
   Totals14,401138,54271,6774,68623,18027,199103,323
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Cost of Materials Used 1962-63
 £(000)
Food1,2072,94251120,85511,55013,415209,267
Beverages*67481,257439*7,193
Tobacco manufactures------6,080
Textiles*13*6,9043,1061,29928,130
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods20961*5,8401,3168427,632
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1009699002,27585087727,847
Furniture and fixtures144161,2694431017,982
Paper and paper products---1,02831164918,866
Printing, publishing, etc.3177221,71790916710,972
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)---6925492513,501
Rubber products**-2,58662276,102
Chemicals and chemical products*181-1,7491,699*23,430
Petroleum and coal products---21457-3,704
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.40411251,3586174069,437
Basic metal manufactures-*-24523*3,225
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*57*1,8051,01926220,429
Machinery (except electrical)10072412,99958544317,040
Electrical machinery and appliances---3,388904*14,916
Transport equipment3597712576,3851,7161,54750,524
Miscellaneous products59211901,0001296946,605
  Totals2,1195,6851,99963,56626,28320,222502,881

A large proportion of the total cost of materials is accounted for by the food group, which includes the semi-primary industries dealing with meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and other milk products. In the latest year, for example, the cost of materials used by this group, £209,267,000, represented 42 per cent of the total cost of materials used by all industries, £502,881,000. For this reason, variations in the prices received for primary produce have a very marked effect on this total.

PRODUCTS-The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory door. It is the selling value at the factory to customers of all goods made or processed during the year after deducting all costs of selling and distribution.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value in recent years constitutes approximately three-fifths of the value of products. Where the products of one industry-for example, sawmilling-are treated again in other industries, such as furniture making, joinery, etc., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of output for each industrial group and for all industries for the last three years available.

Industry GroupValue of Output
1960-611961-621962-63
£(000)
Food250,473264,003276,515
Beverages12,65213,81115,385
Tobacco manufactures8,6668,8528,929
Textiles41,32746,07344,068
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods49,48252,60951,812
Wood and cork products (except furniture)50,28652,53751,458
Furniture and fixtures14,04614,24415,278
Paper and paper products33,99635,72041,745
Printing, publishing, etc.29,67531,46832,700
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)6,0196,1356,167
Rubber products12,94713,60214,061
Chemicals and chemical products36,80137,24139,066
Petroleum and coal products3,9784,5175,249
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.26,45027,35927,813
Basic metal manufactures4,6534,9245,585
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)33,65336,84840,340
Machinery (except electrical)36,04638,24235,801
Electrical machinery and appliances19,35721,73525,895
Transport equipment74,37183,60887,998
Miscellaneous products11,92012,98214,755
   Totals756,800806,508840,622

A similar analysis by statistical areas, but limited to the year 1962-63, is now given.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Value of Output 1962-63
 £(000) 
Food13,57855,56747,4764,37418,24225,79437,550 
Beverages736,3831,2202478872572,182 
Tobacco manufactures* --*-* 
Textiles*12,013614*2,300*9,867 
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods16622,6101,7752197401,30011,071 
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,4147,98420,4615171,7611,4346,043 
Furniture and fixtures387,733497255091332,816 
Paper and paper products-10,76721,452**-5,480 
Printing, publishing, etc.31711,1351,4752861,0516239,087 
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*3,150*16**517 
Rubber products1003,879461**903,016 
Chemicals and chemical products*12,5912,751*1,6932,17812,566 
Petroleum and coal products-1,791*-**2,708 
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.3,0409,0972,3291266962742,944 
Basic metal manufactures*2,44072-**807 
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)17222,3851,099174153269,017 
Machinery (except electrical)36714,0413,4261471,2441,3906,695 
Electrical machinery and appliances*9,2411,202-371-7,239 
Transport equipment1,52619,3408,1338642,0511,94532,855 
Miscellaneous products1098,3469648013,6111,7909,115 
   Totals20,901240,496115,4087,64035,57137,534171,573 
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

Value of Output 1962-63
£(000)
Food1,7674,24356529,73917,89519,724276,515
Beverages*1851302,6141,083*15,385
Tobacco manufactures------8,929
Textiles*32*11,2225,6681,45244,068
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods355105*10,5962,45316051,812
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2251,7211,7734,5641,7041,85851,458
Furniture and fixtures3287142,3758721215,278
Paper and paper products---1,8085541,21641,745
Printing, publishing, etc.1643111314,8742,61163532,700
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)---1,1419353346,167
Rubber products**-6,1121445514,061
Chemicals and chemical products*318-3,1292,730*39,066
Petroleum and coal products---354101-5,249
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.991,978763,8442,0981,21327,813
Basic metal manufactures-*-588102*5,585
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*166*3,8902,31349740,340
Machinery (except electrical)2241601265,5561,4011,02535,801
Electrical machinery and appliances---5,9521,836*25,895
Transport equipment6931,63348812,1513,4802,84087,998
Miscellaneous products185463022,0272911,20614,755
   Totals3,74410,9843,604112,53648,20632,426840,622

ADDED VALUE-As indicated under the heading of "Products", the value of output is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. In many cases by far the larger portion of the value of output represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the output, and is referred to as the "added value".

The tables given herewith show the added value for each industrial group and for all industries for each of the latest three years, with an analysis of the 1962-63 totals according to the statistical areas in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupAdded Value
1960-611961-621962-63
£(000)
Food53,06564,98667,248
Beverages6,7567,3118,193
Tobacco manufactures2,3552,5132,849
Textiles14,37616,37915,939
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods22,34024,09024,181
Wood and cork products (except furniture)23,17724,06523,611
Furniture and fixtures6,5886,7667,296
Paper and paper products18,21519,05622,879
Printing, publishing, etc.19,09320,65021,729
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)2,3912,4392,666
Rubber products6,5887,3527,959
Chemicals and chemical products14,15714,45015,637
Petroleum and coal products1,1151,2881,545
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.16,74017,46418,376
Basic metal manufactures1,9192,0942,360
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)16,23717,91119,911
Machinery (except electrical)16,16017,99818,761
Electrical machinery and appliances8,0359,17110,978
Transport equipment31,60835,12037,474
Miscellaneous products6,1836,9158,150
   Totals287,097318,018337,741
The analysis for 1962-63 by statistical areas now follows.
Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Added Value 1962-63
 £(000)
Food1,78614,7596,3591,3775,3764,8159,324
Beverages323,0796811314041561,423
Tobacco manufactures-*--*-*
Textiles*4,60083*217*3,584
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods6510,902784993096435,129
Wood and cork products (except furniture)6863,2349,7052116916792,532
Furniture and fixtures:203,66627714277711,319
Paper and paper products-4,65014,218**-2,238
Printing, publishing, etc.2496,8811,1532067704586,208
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*1,412*11**285
Rubber products562,108271**461,733
Chemicals and chemical products*5,022963*5536925,409
Petroleum and coal products-655*-**590
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.2,4435,6291,454654521581,725
Basic metal manufactures*90349-**364
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)8710,590549122091514,567
Machinery (except electrical)2437,2712,060847046803,468
Electrical machinery and appliances*3,620454-158-3,229
Transport equipment7678,6174,0834331,0991,03011,195
Miscellaneous products664,3565883121,1737553,928
   Totals6,500101,95443,7312,95412,39210,33468,250
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal

* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Added Value 1962-63
 £(000)
Food5601,300548,8846,3456,30867,248
Beverages*118821,357644*8,193
Tobacco manufactures------2,849
Textiles*19*4,3182,56215415,939
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods14644*4,7561,1387624,181
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1247518732,28985598123,611
Furniture and fixtures184681,1063641117,296
Paper and paper products---78024356722,879
Printing, publishing, etc1322341103,1581,70246821,729
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)---449387832,666
Rubber products**-3,52781287,959
Chemicals and chemical products*136-1,3801,032*15,637
Petroleum and coal products---13945-1,545
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.591,567512,4861,48080718,376
Basic metal manufactures-*-34479*2,360
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*109*2,0851,29423519,911
Machinery (except electrical)12488852,55781758218,761
Electrical machinery and appliances---2,564932*10,978
Transport equipment3348622315,7661,7641,29337,474
Miscellaneous products126241121,0281625128,150
   Totals1,6245,3001,60648,97021,92312,203337,741

A final table on added value for 1962-63 has been compiled which classifies factories into several added value groupings, giving a general picture of size distribution.

Added Value GroupsEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials UsedValue of OutputAdded Value
TotalPer Person Engaged
£NumberNumber£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£
Under 2,5005071,1828151,4762,220743629
2,500- 4,9991,5175,1693,9816,46812,2065,7381,110
5,000- 9,9992,26013,29210,50718,44734,67016,2231,220
10,000- 14,9991,27512,0369,63921,33536,96515,6301,299
15,000- 19,9997509,5337,67516,89429,85612,9621,360
20,000- 49,9991,62434,38328,23289,287139,63150,3441,464
50,000- 99,99957024,03219,76578,003117,60239,5991,648
100,000- 249,99931726,96623,22059,142107,99548,8541,812
250,000- 499,99911921,68019,72052,26894,26141,9921,937
5,00,000- 999,9995518,64018,87359,66498,81039,1462,100
1,000,000-2,499,9993721,10123,08487,077139,56752,4902,488
2,500,000 and over33,5014,41712,82026,84014,0204,005
Totals9,034191,515169,927502,881840,622337,7411,764

The development of factory production in New Zealand is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between cost of materials, added value, and value of output.

EXPENSES OF OPERATION-Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1962-63 amounted to £767,949,000, of which salaries and wages accounted for £169,927,000, cost of materials for £502,881,000, and other expenses for £95,141,000, while value of output totalled £840,622,000.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and cost of materials, by industry groups for the year 1962-63.

Industry GroupCoalElectricityCoke, Gas, Oils, etc.InsuranceInterest on Loans, etc.DepreciationRentRepairs and MaintenanceOtherTotal
£(000)
Food2,0811,7907521,0279144,6135143,7674,84420,302
Beverages7213295102121798473468202,535
Tobacco manufactures216124196,1881079334778 
Textiles2142961022252201,2111539421,3394,701
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods9238461992606997624761,8004,490
Wood and cork products (except furniture)45341436104451,2592181,2962,6817,189
Furniture and fixtures19171321032121681365011,350
Paper and paper products5461,6514983991,0413,2751371,4941,62110,662
Printing, publishing, etc.2219452011991,2212904292,7165,322
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)2437164424904497138513
Rubber products972076310337480533027572,0990
Chemicals and chemical products1142731192342311,2911107521,3814,506
Petroleum and coal products1344124161791263115486.
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,2706004872792631,627881,4651,2567,333
Basic metal manufactures1646033391062769180577
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)73971683104481,3313405511,7875,338
Machinery (except electrical)52531292912917892444821,8894,372
Electrical machinery and appliances3219671281265801242821,2582,708
Transport equipment24361335153731,2337846813,4907,646
Miscellaneous products7146411071105501993036902,154
   Totals4,4617,6323,0245,0025,35721,7344,32314,01229,59595,141

CAPITAL INVESTED AND ASSETS-Information as to the amount of capital invested in manufacturing industries was collected for some years, but the figures obtained were found to be unsatisfactory. The chief factors militating against the collection of reliable information have been the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing.

A more satisfactory indication of the capital investment in a manufacturing industry is obtained from figures of manufacturers' fixed assets. Not only are the figures more reliable than those for capital invested, but they do not suffer from the understatement of capital (from the economic viewpoint) which occurs in those cases where the factory premises, or, in some few cases, even the plant, is not owned by the manufacturer, but is rented. In these cases an estimate of the value of the rented asset has been obtained by capitalising the annual rental shown. Approximations in the figures for fixed assets are also made where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, necessitating an apportionment as between the industries. In most instances, too, fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an overstatement due to insufficient allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, etc., or an understatement owing to appreciated site value, excessive allowance for depreciation, or currency depreciation resulting in the assets being understated in terms of their present earning capacity or replacement cost. It is necessary to bear in mind these limitations to the accuracy of the figures of fixed assets appearing in the following table, which shows the values of these assets for each of the last three years together with an analysis by principal industries for 1962-63. For the year 1962-63 information is also shown by industry groups of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations, together with totals for all industries for the two previous years. These latter amounts cannot be taken as the total capital expended by New Zealand manufacturers during the year, as they do not include capital expenditure of firms not yet in production.

Industry GroupCapital Additions and Alterations During the YearValue at End of Year (Including Estimated Value of Rented Assets)
Land and BuildingsPlant and MachineryTotalLand and BuildingsPlant and MachineryTotal
Totals-£(000)
1960-6112,82621,47634,302154,11895,187249,305
1961-6216,77924,42241,201175,947104,594280,540
1962-63-
Food2,7625,5198,28144,88926,43071,319
Beverages4376921,1295,9234,27010,193
Tobacco manufactures1242363608931,0621,955
Textiles4341,6072,0427,7315,87413,605
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods6166741,29012,9144,49417,408
Wood and cork products (except furniture)5951,4832,07810,6377,67918,316
Furniture and fixtures2792635434,3301,1725,502
Paper and paper products4,06012,91116,97116,19821,28637,483
Printing, publishing, etc.6931,1891,88210,5478,05318,600
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)711021741,3344241,757
Rubber products1645507142,5341,8434,377
Chemicals and chemical products1,1311,1592,29111,3965,54816,945
Petroleum and coal products1376007377099851,694
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.5051,1081,6138,7278,90417,631
Basic metal manufactures831722541,0416551,697
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,0831,4112,49312,5387,48820,027
Machinery (except electrical)6551,0401,6959,2974,18813,485
Electrical machinery and appliances4584939515,3362,0117,347
Transport equipment1,5811,1442,72525,1935,39330,587
Miscellaneous products2808701,1504,9882,4467,434
  Totals, 1962-6316,14833,22549,372197,156120,204317,360

MANUFACTURERS' STOCKS-A quarterly survey of manufacturers' stocks has been conducted by the Department of Statistics since 1957. The survey is carried out on a sample basis, the selection representing approximately 12½ per cent of all the factories covered by the annual census of factory production. The number of establishments included in the sample is approximately 1,100 and their combined stocks as returned in the annual survey for 1959-60, when a revision of the sample was undertaken represented approximately 75 per cent of total manufacturers' stocks.

The following table compares in summary form the results of the quarterly surveys. In presenting the results, the chief seasonal industries — meat processing and dairy products manufacture-have been segregated to assist in the interpretation of movements in stock holdings. The heading "Materials" includes work in progress, fuel, and miscellaneous supplies.

#Total StocksMovement in Stocks at Annual IntervalsPercentage Movement in Stocks at Annual Intervals
Finished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotal
Including Primary Produce Processing Industries£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)per centper centper cent
31 March 196057,23388,132145,365+8,558+1,009+9,567+17.6+1.2+7.1
31 March 196156,17897,284153,463-1,005+9,152+8,098-1.8+10.4+5.6
31 March 196259,85694,501154,357+3,678-2,783+894+6.5-2.9+0.6
31 December 196259,96593,073153,037+1,180-2,171-991+2.0-2.3-0.6
31 March 196360,79695,845156,641+940+1,344+2,284+1.6+1.4+1.5
30 June 196356,90998,317155,225+1,121+5,285+6,405+2.0+5.7+4.3
30 September 196355,485100,411155,896+4,917+6,420+11,337+9.7+6.8+7.8
31 December 196361,97198,393160,364+2,006+5,320+7,327+3.3+5.7+4.7
31 March 196470,438104,053174,492+9,642+8,208+17,851+15.9+8.6+11.4
30 June 196466,353102,880169,233+9,444+4,563+14,008+16.6+4.6+9.2
30 September 196464,101106,090167,191+5,616+5,679+11,295+10.1+5.7+7.0
31 December 196468,149104,781172,930+6,178+6,388+12,566+10.0+6.5+7.8
Excluding Primary Produce Processing Industries
31 March 196028,51381,470109,983+2,755+363+3,117+10.7+0.4+2.9
31 March 196129,71089,923119,634+1,197+8,453+9,651+4.2+10.4+8.8
31 March 196232,10288,653120,754+2,392-1,270+1,120+8.1-1.4+0.9
31 December 196234,54187,173121,714+2,682-1,773+909+8.4-2.0+0.8
31 March 196335,04990,174125,223+2,947+1,521+4,469+9.2+1.7+3.7
30 June 196336,15292,471128,623+2,361+5,334+7,695+7.0+6.1+6.4
30 September 196339,65094,340133,990+4,719+6,434+11,153+13.5+7.3+9.1
31 December 196337,27792,459129,436+2,736+5,286+8,022+7.9+6.1+6.6
31 March 196439,05298,365137,416+4,003+8,191+12,193+11.4+9.1+9.7
30 June 196440,63697,474138,110+4,484+5,003+9,487+12.4+5.4+7.4
30 September 196444,337100,397144,734+4,687+6,057+10,744+11.8+6.4+8.0
31 December 196441,77798,885140,662+4,500+6,426+10,926+12.1+7.0+8.4

More detailed information on stocks is given in the next table showing by industry groups comparative stock figures at the end of December.

Industry GroupStocks at 31 DecemberIncrease or Decrease in Stocks, December 1963 to December 1964
19631964
Finished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotal
Primary Produce Processing Industries£(000)
Meat freezing, ham, bacon, and casings15,0374,69919,73615,2264,72819,954+ 18929 +218
Dairy9,6561,23610,89211,1451,16812,313+ 1,489-68+ 1,421
Totals24,6935,93530,62826,3725,89532,267+ 1,67940+ 1,639
Other food5,7997,11712,9166,2097,43513,644+ 410+ 318+ 728
Beverages2,5041,1233,3272,2761,5013,777+ 72+ 378+ 450
Tobacco manufactures-5,8315,831-5,9975,997-+ 166+ 166
Textiles1,9928,47710,4692,5979,79712,394+ 605+ 1,1320+ 1,925
Clothing3,1215,5468,6663,5276,1509,678+ 406+ 604+ 1,012
Footwear3201,4671,7874241,2941,718+ 104-173-69
Wood manufactures4,6624,2768,9384,7754,4559,230+ 113+ 179+ 292
Furniture and fixtures4062,4492,8554602,4842,944+ 54+ 35+ 89
Paper and products2,1995,8818,0802,7436,3489,091+ 544+ 467+ 1,011
Printing, publishing5144,8145,3285744,9825,556+ 60+ 168+ 228
Leather and products1798381,0172131,0031,215+ 34+ 165+ 198
Rubber products1,4811,8523,3341,6162,0903,706+ 135+ 238+ 372
Chemicals and products5,2556,28211,5375,9096,88512,794+ 634+ 603+ 1,257
Petroleum, coal products4497771,2263838521,23566+ 75+ 9
Non-metallic mineral products2,3773,2365,6132,7683,4606,228+ 391+ 224+ 615
Basic metal products1648481,0121988571,055+ 34+ 9+ 43
Metal products1,6677,1368,8042,0027,6809,682+ 355+ 544+ 878
Machinery1,6467,0188,6641,7677,7819,549+ 121+ 763+ 885
Electrical products1,1144,8595,9721,3475,5226,869+ 233+ 663+ 897
Transport86610,61511,4811,09710,31311,410+ 23130271
Miscellaneous8642,0162,8818911,9972,888+ 2719+ 7
   Totals37,27792,459129,73641,77798,885140,662+ 4,500+ 6,426+ 10,926
Grand totals, all factory industries61,97198,393160,36468,149104,781172,930+ 6,178+ 6,388+ 12,566

ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRY-New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organised on a relatively small scale.

The law in New Zealand restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 25 persons, a private company to not fewer than two or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than seven persons. Cooperation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of primary products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing.

Information as to the character of organisation of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1962-63 is given in the following table.

Character of OrganisationNumber of EstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and wages paidCost of Materials Used or Operated UponValue of Manufactures or ProductsAdded Value
TotalPer Establishment
  Number£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£
Private registered company6,306116,169100,034251,707440,399188,69329,923
Public registered company83461,04057,341160,441287,110126,668151,880
Individual9854,3683,3265,05710,2355,1785,257
Partnership4762,5892,1023,4236,8023,3787,097
Cooperative association3294,6084,53579,94789,7829,83529,894
Local authority and State1042,7412,5892,3066,2953,98938,356
   Totals9,034191,515169,927502,881840,622337,74137,386

As would be expected, the average size of establishments operated by public registered companies is larger than in any other type of industrial organisation, the added value per unit being over five times as high as that for private registered companies. Private companies, however, occupy a very high place, both numerically and in the share they contribute to the total added value created in New Zealand factories (55.9 per cent in 1962-63, as compared with 37.5 per cent in the case of public companies).

Since 1951-52, the first year of the new series, private and public registered companies have increased their combined share of added value from 87.8 per cent to 93.4 per cent. The separate share of public companies increased from 34.7 per cent to 37.5 per cent, and that of private companies from 53.1 per cent to 55.9 per cent. All other types of organisations listed recorded declines in their share of added value over this period.

VALUE AND VOLUME INDICES OF FACTORY PRODUCTION-Below is a table giving index numbers of added value, value of output, and volume of production based on the year 1938-39. This table commences with the year 1928-29 and runs through to 1950-51, at which stage a new series was commenced.

Production YearIndex Numbers of-
Value Added in ManufactureValue of OutputVolume of Production
Base: 1938-39 (=100)
1928-29807971
1929-30837974
1930-31756869
1931-32625860
1932-33605863
1933-34646365
1934-35706974
1935-36777974
1936-37909392
1937-38999997
1938-39100100100
1939-40113113110
1940-41125129114
1941-42137136116
1942-43151145120
1943-44162154125
1944-45173166129
1945-46185171131
1946-47205191140
1947-48233238151
1948-49252263155
1949-50285290164
1950-51311345172

With the reclassification in 1951-52 a new series of index numbers was commenced and these are shown below. It should be realised in comparing the two series of index numbers that the latter excludes the activities of three important industries. These are the logging operations of sawmillers, previously included in the sawmilling industry, and the generation and supply of gas and electricity. However, the effect of the exclusion of these industries entirely from the newer series is not great, as the two series in the overlapping period recorded very similar movements.

Production YearIndex Numbers of-
Value Added in ManufactureValue of OutputVolume of Production
Base: 1956-57 (=1000)
1950-51547632754
1951-52677716806
1952-53700771800
1953-54784823848
1954-55895915941
1955-56971973994
1956-57100010001000
1957-58109610711070
1958-59116310951130
1959-60128711721169
1960-61138712571283
1961-62153613401349
1962-63163113961410

The table which follows sets out, by industry groups, index numbers of value of output, added value, and volume of output for the three latest years. It is not possible to arrive at volume of production index numbers for all the groups, for technical reasons, and consequently some have been omitted, but the total index number for the year is calculated in such a way as to include the groups which cannot be assessed separately.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)
Industry GroupValue of OutputValue Added in ManufactureVolume of Production
1960-611961-621962-631960-611961-621962-631960-611961-621962-63
* Indices not available for the groups, but allowed for in compiling total index.
Food106111181171122715031555118712691292
Beverages122113321484136114731651109111531263
Tobacco manufactures142714581470140815021703143614901524
Textiles136715241457167419081856149417731809
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods125413331313130114031408115811981175
Wood and cork products (except furniture)137814391410133313841358116611741151
Furniture and fixtures135413731473132413601467***
Paper and paper products152316001870152515951915153415871877
Printing, publishing, etc.142215081567143515521633139314101498
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)147215001508158616171768126013061325
Rubber products122512871331131014621583124413371368
Chemicals and chemical products136213781445149315241649127413141391
Petroleum and coal products164918722175148517152057***
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.142814771501139514551531142714391443
Basic metal manufactures137714571652144615781778***
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)161117641931159817631960***
Machinery (except electrical)138114651372145116161685***
Electrical machinery and appliances181020332422177320242423165218472032
Transport equipment123813911464127114121507***
Miscellaneous products201121912490205823022713***
  Totals125713401396138715361631128313491410

OVERTIME-Details of overtime worked in factories by wage-earning employees are summarised in the tables given, which show, by industry groups, the hours worked during the latest three years. The averages given are calculated on the basis of the total number of wage earners engaged irrespective of the number who actually worked overtime.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage Earners (Both Male and Female)
1960-611961-621963-63
Food7,6018,2618,278
Beverages398421441
Tobacco manufactures251309238
Textiles1,2621,3721,313
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods9851,011838
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,9901,7711,744
Furniture and fixtures584589616
Paper and paper products1,0341,1771,306
Printing, publishing, etc.1,1011,1471,122
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)217228185
Rubber products469459443
Chemicals and chemical products838867868
Petroleum and coal products--707472
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,7391,7981,658
Basic metal manufactures210223208
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,9292,0642,336
Machinery (except electrical)1,9002,0661,947
Electrical machinery and appliances687729773
Transport equipment2,5662,6792,703
Miscellaneous products446530585
  Totals26,27727,77327,674

The next table shows, by industry groups, the hours of overtime worked during 1962-63 by males and females separately.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage EarnersAverage Overtime Hours Worked by All Wage Earners
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
 (000)(000)  
Food7,835444306111
Beverages431925771
Tobacco manufactures138100332158
Textiles1,04127220456
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods4154238823
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,740415528
Furniture and fixtures5981816041
Paper and paper products1,18112529295
Printing, publishing, etc.99113112676
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1523317055
Rubber products4123119367
Chemicals and chemical products8036525260
Petroleum and coal products71121233
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,60850276131
Basic metal manufactures207122981
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,23699274107
Machinery (except electrical)1,9242321898
Electrical machinery and appliances65711616769
Transport equipment2,65350135130
Miscellaneous products5166920943
  Totals25,6102,06421252

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS-The following table, by assembling data from previous pages, affords an analysis of production costs in 1962-63, together with the value of output for each industry group and for all industries. In addition, by virtue of the complete details collected annually of the cost structure of goods produced in manufacturing industries, it is possible to give information on the surplus available to manufacturers prior to payment of dividends, taxation, and other appropriations. The only exception occurs in the case of cooperative dairy companies, which do not purchase milk and cream in the way that other manufacturers purchase raw materials. They collect the milk and cream from their shareholders, process it, and pay out to these shareholders the whole of the profits of the sales of the products, less amounts paid to reserves. Manufacturing surplus shown by these companies is therefore confined to the amount of these transfers to reserves and any undistributed profits.

In quite a number of cases, articles produced are transferred at cost to separate selling departments and warehouses, or to retail stores run by the same company or establishment. Where this is apparent, the company concerned is asked to substitute a commercial value for its production. The same procedure holds where a company controls more than one factory, and transfers the products of one to the other for further processing. It must be recognised that estimated values have to be accepted in many transactions of this type.

Industry GroupProduction CostsValue of OutputManufacturing Surplus
Salaries and WagesCost of All Materials UsedOther Expenses of OperationTotal
 £(000) 
Food34,668209,26720,302264,237276,51512,278 
Beverages2,2767,1932,53512,00415,3853,382 
Tobacco manufactures9686,0807787,8258,9291,104 
Textiles8,45428,1304,70141,28544,0682,784 
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods16,15727,6324,49048,27851,8123,534 
Wood and cork products (except furniture)12,38027,8477,18947,41651,4584,042 
Furniture and fixtures4,6357,9821,35013,96615,2781,312 
Paper and paper products6,80218,86610,66236,33041,7455,415 
Printing, publishing, etc.11,35310,9725,32227,64732,7005,054 
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,4123,5015135,4266,167741 
Rubber products3,3646,1022,09911,56614,0612,496 
Chemicals and chemical products5,23223,4304,50633,16739,0665,899 
Petroleum and coal products4743,7044864,6645,249585 
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.7,2299,4377,33323,99927,8133,814 
Basic metal manufactures1,2003,2255775,0035,585583 
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)10,69420,4295,33836,46240,3403,878 
Machinery (except electrical)10,92417,0404,37232,33635,8013,465 
Electrical machinery and appliances5,33514,9162,78823,04025,8952,855 
Transport equipment22,37250,5247,64680,54287,9987,456 
Miscellaneous products3,9986,6052,15412,75714,7551,998 
  Totals169,927502,88195,141767,949840,62272,673 

LIST OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES PRODUCED IN RECENT YEARS-The following is a list of certain commodities produced in New Zealand during the four latest years.

Commodity1960-611961-621962-631963-64
Toasters-No.52,36563,62044,16461,502
Irons- No.58,92052,53842,85777,795
Radiators, electric—No.89,016154,898136,208152,312
Vacuum cleaners—No.45,93150,45745,99655,111
Washing machines—No.48,16439,50339,81942,102
Refrigerators (home and commercial and freezers)—No.55,83744,45937,66853,728
Electric ranges—No.37,71041,51337,89540,321
Electric rangettes—No.4,1403,5193,2963,144
Radios, including radiograms, etc.-No.161,309x142,446x103,679x94,856
Television sets—No.9,32927,24063,989113,904
Blankets-Pairs215,261221,276202,068225,216
Floor coverings (textile top coverings) sq. yd.3,576,5303,906,3664,077,1273,719,181
Mattresses -
Innerspring -
Single-No56,10861,22874,84081,707
Double-No.25,42624,77027,92728,884
Soft filled -
Single-No.75,30078,78277,50776,327
Double-No.16,62715,53715,71914,615
Infants-No.10,32616,77013,55210,386
Venetian blinds—sq.ft.3,769,8963,284,2402,987,2102,812,418
Newspapers produced -
Dailies-thousand298,704310,292316,401328,082
Other than dailies—thousand50,73449,23850,22453,018
Hot-water bottles—No.213,162306,382300,230302,711
Soap -
Toilet-ton3,4333,6503,9343,601
Bar-ton5,2364,6734,6074,458
Powder and flake—ton14,75213,62314,26615,057
Paints and enamels—gal(000)3,1343,0163,0963,321
Lacquers-gal(000)264270294346
Toothpaste-cwt9,63512,09411,82712,756
Furniture and floor polish- cwt21,97216,21725,08827,249
Shoe polishes and cleaners- cwt4,1464,4373,3163,651
Water heaters -
Under 10 gallons—No.13,64315,32714,81214,287
10 gallons and over- No.37,00439,52836,55836,387
Sinks: stainless steel- No.49,23244,41739,04442,931
Sink tops: stainless steel- No.20,26418,54923,41526,619
Wheelbarrows—No.17,23317,35520,57219,939
Lawnmowers (hand and power)-No.58,10752,26654,28666,264
Prams, pushchairs, strollers -
Cane (inc. dolls')—No.8,4107,1586,7414,180
Other than cane—No.32,31729,90930,81832,442
Toothbrushes-No.2,341,0082,207,2322,508,4802,655,204

DETAILS OF CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES-The principal statistics regarding leading factory industries for the last three years available are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Report on the Industrial Production Statistics.

 1960-611961-621962-63
* In addition, 1,121,100 bundles were produced in the sausage casings industry in 1962-63.
Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of establishments373737
Persons engaged-No.17,27118,38119,129
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)18,48519,97221,503
Materials- £(000)85,96485,12492,058
Other expenses-£(000)7,3167,8578,737
# Totals £(000)111,765112,952122,299
Value of output- £(000)112,243120,419128,208
Value added in manufacture—£(000)26,27835,29536,149
Overtime worked by wage earners- h4,912,4875,286,3585,242,522
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#120712821292
Principal products -
Meat -
Lamb carcasses-No.,cwt19,161,06420,611,67320,022,136
5,414,3155,522,8485,438,122
Mutton carcasses-No.,cwt4,112,6044,819,8714,111,634
1,856,6962,102,2191,858,136
Boned mutton-cwt203,095125,999123,356
Mutton and lamb pieces- -cwt89,631127,155189,438
Beef quarters, bone in—cwt1,240,4431,319,3501,106,004
Beef quarters, without bone- cwt41,95053,082183,229
Boneless beef-cwt1,048,6151,343,2131,637,536
Bobby veal- cwt176,321186,307192,098
Other veal- cwt84,530120,532116,838
Pork- cwt433,440435,890472,283
Edible offals-cwt645,806724,902747,110
By-products -
Runners (not processed)—No.6,095,7324,729,5085,454,727
Casings*- bundles4,081,5864,827,1074,614,869
Woolly sheepskins-No.164,160174,634160,372
Pelts- No.24,650,49727,020,79625,908,679
Cow hides- No.499,458630,117645,597
Ox and bull hides-No.252,396302,003365,196
Bobby calf hides-No.1,163,4291,250,4651,267,873
Other calf hides-No.60,08089,54983,024
Wool- lb60,972,43659,927,75458,882,688
Boiling-down products -
Tallow- cwt1,255,6861,262,9531,397,833
Neatsfoot oil-gal134,929158,910168,215
Manures- cwt759,671724,889794,768
Livermeal- cwt14,72413,86643,781
Meatmeal- cwt497,190591,642592,579
Canned and other preserved meats, pastes, extracts, and miscellaneous cannings-cwt111,639127,093109,213
 1960-611961-621962-63
* Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of establishments—#444850
Persons engaged-No.1,1921,2901,401
Production costs-
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,0491,1631,267
Materials- £(000)7,1407,5057,606
Other expenses-£(000)525,591704 
Totals £(000)8,7149,2609,577
Value of output- £(000)9,1299,69210,090
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,9882,1872,484
Overtime worked by wage earners- h265,767272,960338,376
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#112511601183
Pigs dealt with -
Carcasses- No.437,853438,522441,495
Cost—£(000)4,8174,9994,829
Principal products -
Ham and bacon-cwt331,542336,738333,001
Frozen pork- cwt31,99330,28927,670
Small goods- cwt245,957263,889276,028
Lard (edible)- cwt11,69210,76910,876
Butler, Cheese, and Other Milk Products
Number of establishments -
Butter and cheese-No.250241234
Other milk products-No.958077
Persons engaged-No.4,5564,4854,555
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)4,3714,4044,550
Materials- £(000)77,96978,24279,994
Other expenses-£(000)4,7494,9745,101
 Totals £(000)87,08987,62089,646
Value of output- £(000)87,68488,31890,069
Value added in manufacture—£(000)9,71510,07710,074
Overtime worked by wage earners- h993,5301,059,4141,075,630
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#107810821110
Butterfat used -
For creamery butter-lb(000)386,583382,544393,745
For cheesemaking-lb(000)87,20591,15288,048
For whey butter making -
Recoveries from own whey- lb(000)1,5212,3111,378
Whey fat purchased—lb(000)3,1223,7974,012
Second grade creamery butterfat- lb(000)1,175112131
 Total for whey butter lb(000)5,8186,2205,521
Principal products -
Creamery butter-ton209,558207,524214,247
Whey butter- ton3,2603,2343,036
Cheese—ton98,129100,67698,291
Condensed and powdered whole milk-ton16,74614,86113,778
Skim-milk powder-ton42,92441,73050,789
Buttermilk powder-ton16,97017,70218,516
Casein—ton30,40135,75037,210
Ice Cream
Number of establishments—#312923
Persons engaged-No.560583537
Production costs
Salaries, wages-£(000)419433405
Materials- £(000)1,3641,4631,501
Other expenses-£(000)444523662
# Totals £(000)2,2282,4192,568
Value of output- £(000)2,5552,9413,070
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,1911,4791,569
Overtime worked by wage earners- h61,96664,30367,946
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#127213931383
Main materials used -
Milk—gal515,785570,1661,060,400
Cream—gal63,35356,015171,673
Ice-cream mixture-cwt81,55177,1469,243
Butter—cwt17,69720,05823,541
Skim-milk powder-cwt17,58018,72916,958
Sugar—cwt39,18344,38764,197
Products -
Bulk ice-cream-gal(000)2,7282,9612,819
Ice cream, cartoned, wrapped, chocolate-coated, etc.- gal(000)2,8723,1033,073
Iced lollies- gal(000)574650636
Grain Milling
Number of establishments—#444242
Persons engaged-No.868889924
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)695734783
Materials- £(000)3,8744,1104,418
Other expenses-£(000)628635660
 Totals £(000)5,1975,4785,861
Value of output- £(000)5,5855,8666,338
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,7101,7561,920
Overtime worked by wage earners- h118,162155,805127,327
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#115212011265
Main materials used -
Wheat—bushel9,542,6389,882,80910,015,207
Oats—bushel571,830538,563540,349
Principal products -
Flour—short ton210,676216,238215,421
Wholemeal, wheatmeal—short ton7,6948,3808,466
Bran and pollard-short ton57,10560,62260,706
Breakfast cereals -
Oatmeal, rolled oats—short ton5,7645,4925,533
Other (including cereals in biscuit, flake and puff form)*-short ton7,8278,81110,324
 1960-611961-621962-63

* Includes production by establishments classified in other industries.

†In addition, in 1960-61, 138,693 gallons in 1961-62, 219,238 gallons: and in 1962-63, 149,364 gallons were recorded by establishments classified in other industries.

‡ Includes malting in 1962-63.

Biscuits
Number of establishments—#888
Persons engaged-No.1,1951,2651,169
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)851935907
Materials- £(000)2,0032,1031,990
Other expenses-£(000)505555580
  Totals £(000)3,3593,5923,477
Value of output- £(000)3,9544,2654,080
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,9512,1622,090
Overtime worked by wage earners- h325,512300,563246,997
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#107911731123
Main materials used -
Flour—short ton10,99111,43611,852
Sugar—ton3,9113,9704,206
Chocolate- cwt9,11211,63111,327
Margarine, lard, confectionery fat-cwt54,94461,06654,580
Biscuits manufactured-ton17,42018,79818,053
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Sugar Confectionery
Number of establishments—#474850
Persons engaged-No.1,9451,9652,002
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,2681,3461,418
Materials- £(000)3,7053,6963,653
Other expenses-£(000)631752813
  Totals £(000)5,6055,7955,884
Value of output- £(000)6,4226,6646,861
Value added in manufacture—£(000)2,7172,9683,208
Overtime worked by wage earners- h232,367258,722241,143
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#118412721291
Main materials used -
Sugar—ton10,70611,31411,455
Cocoa beans- cwt49,22853,56552,816
Cocoa butter- cwt11,34210,86110,015
Glucose- cwt73,87572,68778,133
Nuts—cwt25,01425,39726,110
Confectionery manufactured -
Chocolate and chocolate-coated- ton8,2828,9118,349
Sugar—ton10,43910,97011,558
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving
Number of establishments—#343435
Persons engaged-No.1,7422,1682,202
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,3331,6921,814
Materials- £(000)4,0925,3645,704
Other expenses-£(000)1,1451,2831,632
# Totals £(000)6,5708,3399,151
Value of output- £(000)6,7379,1709,774
Value added in manufacture—£(000)2,6453,8064,071
Overtime worked by wage earners- h397,566551,615620,362
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#124416961828
Main materials used -
Fruit (fresh)- ton10,19516,81117,212
Vegetables and tomatoes (fresh)- ton23,83753,25256,933
Sugar—ton4,8685,7115,366
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving - ctd.
Principal products -
Canned fruit- cwt136,149180,917215,256
Canned beans in sauce—cwt66,99576,59670,259
Canned peas- cwt42,07899,910139,400
Canned green beans-cwt6,88426,95236,427
Other canned vegetables (not tomatoes)-cwt38,57667,48293,271
Tomato soup- gal429,693546,156452,040
Pickles and sauces*-gal741,099825,348854,773
Jams, jellies, and conserves—cwt74,48888,10283,887
Canned spaghetti in sauce—cwt77,38099,47986,899
Canned tomatoes (whole and halves)-cwt11,34822,84712,784
Quick-frozen vegetables -
Peas—cwt169,110186,331196,675
Beans- cwt26,96936,06839,102
Other- cwt10,81825,64729,078
Breweries
Number of establishments—#171720
Persons engaged-No.1,2421,2721,415
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,2021,2661,448
Materials- £(000)3,7744,0935,079
Other expenses- £(000)1,6831,6061,867
  Totals £(000)6,6596,9648,395
Value of output- £(000)8,4229,27811,037
Value added in manufacture—£(000)4,6485,1865,958
Overtime worked by wage earners- h283,625312,059368,625
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#106911201146
Main materials used -
Malt—bushel1,375,3311,449,4261,480,824
Hops—cwt7,3237,2217,099
Sugar—cwt124,829130,249139,924
Beer produced for sale-gal52,090,40054,664,68056,585,528
Stout produced for sale—gal345,817336,066341,041
Aerated Waters and Cordials
Number of establishments—#707064
Persons engaged-No.661697695
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)526571577
Materials- £(000)9981,2271,253
Other expenses-£(000)379411420
  Totals £(000)1,9032,2082,249
Value of output- £(000)2,2982,5442,640
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,3011,3271,338
Overtime worked by wage earners- h70,83167,07259,097
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#116713381384
Main materials used -
Sugar—ton5,4266,2616,612
Essential oils and essences—lb380,655507,850488,893
Fruit extracts and juices—gal70,32089,53894,617
Aerated waters made-gal7,952,6349,217,4739,671,912
Cordials made- gal425,380466,591454,841
 1960-611961-621962-63
Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes
Number of establishments—#555
Persons engaged-No.1,2051,2251,193
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)869955968
Materials- £(000)6,3116,3386,080
Other expenses-£(000)777734778
  Totals £(000)7,9588,0287,825
Value of output- £(000)8,6668,8528,929
Value added in manufacture—£(000)2,3552,5132,849
Overtime worked by wage earners- h250,858309,327238,307
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#143614901524
Tobacco leaf used in manufacture-lb12,806,97713,046,92512,811,898
Cigarettes made-million3,1833,4013,530
Tobacco made- lb5,189,3705,127,8154,740,523
Woollen Milling
Number of establishments—#222221
Persons engaged-No.3,5593,7033,681
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)2,4262,6852,747
Materials- £(000)3,3343,5713,603
Other expenses-£(000)1,0861,2171,183
  Totals £(000)6,8457,4737,534
Value of output- £(000)7,4368,0807,732
Value added in manufacture—£(000)4,1034,5094,129
Overtime worked by wage earners- h531,194583,836530,856
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#164717461713
Main materials used -
Wool fibres -
Greasy and slipe wool—lb10,624,04311,429,05211,137,222
Scoured wool-lb528,967534,618508,079
Tops, noils- lb1,289,6621,264,2681,318,907
Woollen and worsted yam- lb120,99399,510124,156
Non-wool fibres -
Artificial and synthetic—lb528,802715,101725,832
Other- lb31,76216,04414,901
Principal products -
Woollen cloth-yd, 54 in.1,531,4481,547,3061,425,971
Worsted cloth-yd, 54 in.1,084,3361,389,3571,416,890
Flannel- yd, 54 in.334,012292,891251,617
Blankets- pairs215,261221,276202,068
Rugs—No.71,16376,51189,348
Yarn produced for sale or transfer -
Fingering- lb1,448,6541,388,6911,635.096
Machine knitting-lb2,323,4302,429,8582,071,999
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills
Number of establishments—#918581
Persons engaged-No.4,4814,4904,199
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)3,0073,1062,855
Materials- £(000)5,1896,0485,803
Other expenses-£(000)1,3951,5771,620
  Totals £(000)9,59110,73010,278
Value of output- £(000)10,49911,89011,369
Value added in manufacture—£(000)5,3105,8425,566
Overtime worked by wage earners- h259,011292,362255,209
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#151316831729
 1960-611961-621962-63
* Includes production by establishments classified in other industries.
Clothing
Number of establishments—#765732692
Persons engaged-No.19,28719,43018,999
Production costs -
Salaries, wages-£(000)10,64211,04410,973
Materials- £(000)19,49520,19419,646
Other expenses-£(000)2,6272,8332,782
  Totals £(000)32,76434,07133,402
Value of output- £(000)34,73036,23935,717
Value added in manufacture—£(000)15,23416,04516,070
Overtime worked by wage earners- h486,529458,351434,315
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#111311211075
 Footwear   
Number of establishments—#124126129  
Persons engaged-No.5,2545,5595,564  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-£(000)3,6784,0844,225  
Materials- £(000)5,4816,0645,882  
Other expenses-£(000)1,1471,3011,372  
  Totals £(000)10,30611,44911,479  
Value of output- £(000)11,05912,40412,269  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)5,5786,3406,387  
Overtime worked by wage earners- h436,242490,998354,135  
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#132714601515  
Main materials used -  
Upper leather-sq. ft.9,448,5039,937,1689,265,44  
Sole leather- lb2,733,7552,442,9122,206,484  
Synthetic soling material—lb1,666,6062,404,3841,315,050  
Felt—sq. yd.100,86762,50651,498  
Sawmills  
Number of establishments—#464437413  
Persons engaged-No.6,4686,2265,862  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-£(000)5,7065,5525,533  
Materials- £(000)9,9339,8739,434  
Other expenses-£(000)3,9004,2794,384  
# Totals £(000)19,53919,70419,352  
Value of output- £(000)21,73921,49320,629  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)11,80711,62011,195  
Overtime worked by wage earners- b942,025620,411723,883  
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#119511201055  
Rough-sawn timber produced- thousand ft b.m.698,438654,867616,854  
Planing Mills  
Number of establishments—#147144140  
Persons engaged-No.1,9422,0892,032  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,5981,7661,780  
Materials- £(000)7,2358,5779,019  
Other expenses-£(000)749947960  
  Totals £(000)9,58111,29011,759  
Value of output- £(000)10,39312,19812,736  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)3,1593,6213,717  
Overtime worked by wage earners- h232,960329,476282,622  
Rough-sawn timber used in manufacture  
thousand ft b.m.137,136155,774170,923  
Dressed timber produced -  
Floorboards-thousand ft b.m.36,49736,57634,322  
Weatherboards—thousand ft b.m.24,47725,25521,397  
Other- thousand ft b.m.61,18172,76284,264  
Joinery work done1,337,3551,374,0701,367,588  
Joinery  
Number of establishments—#391399402  
Persons engaged-No.3,8153,8753,855  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-$(000)3,3033,4353,457  
Materials- £(000)6,4186,2725,901  
Other expenses-£(000)9951,0541,087  
# Totals £(000)10,71610,76110,446  
Value of output- £(000)11,69111,96311,463  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)5,2745,6925,562  
Overtime worked by wage earners- h601,868601,302523,733  
Timber used in manufacture- thousand ft b.m.83,37482,46678,062  
Dressed timber produced -  
Floorboards-thousand ft b.m.5,9966,8956,417  
Weatherboards—thousand ft b.m.4,4243,0371,801  
Other- thousand ft b.m.5,6345,3627,702  
Joinery and other woodwork—£10,621,42110,873,50210,355,418  
Furniture  
Number of establishments—#448458448  
Persons engaged-No.4,3064,3104,308  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-£(000)3,5823,7523,944  
Materials- £(000)5,4435,4635,910  
Other expenses-£(000)9011,0021,039  
  Totals £(000)9,92610,21710,893  
Value of output- £(000)10,72810,96611,824  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)5,2855,5035,915  
Overtime worked by wage earners- h491,529503,406513,603  
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard  
Number of establishments—#677  
Persons engaged-No.2,5122,4682,847  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-£(000)2,9363,0143,757  
Materials- £(000)5,5945,6857,168  
Other expenses-£(000)6,0136,2508,944  
  Totals £(000)14,54414,94919,869  
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard - ctd.  
Value of output- £(000)18,12418,23422,953  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)12,53012,54915,785  
Overtime worked by wage earners- h524,211689,774785,485  
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)148415021885  
Principal products -  
Newsprint- ton92,59788,754159,829  
Other paper- ton52,14257,60264,701  
Paperboard- ton40,68638,59545,098  
Fibreboard-sq.yd. (000)8,42610,0828,756  
Wood pulp for sale-ton83,85983,33067,209  
Cardboard Boxes, Cartons, and Paper Bags  
Number of establishments485251  
Persons engaged-No.2,0002,0072,094  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,5751,6531,880  
Materials- £(000)6,0886,5997,210  
Other expenses-£(000)9959341,040  
  Totals £(000)8,6589,18710,130  
Value of output- £(000)9,45910,41811,560  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)3,3713,8194,350  
Overtime worked by wage earners- h393,684342,610385,083  
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#167718222060  
Paper used in manufacture—ton13,81514,25823,780  
Cardboard used in manufacture- ton43,19747,58838,070  
Cardboard boxes, cartons, made*- £(000)7,3238,6989,325  
Paper bags and paper sacks, made*- £(000)2,1362,0802,123  
  Printing and Publishing  
Number of establishments—#969392  
Persons engaged-No.5,8316,0956,007  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-£(000)5,3505,7965,927  
Materials- £(000)5,7405,5635,303  
Other expenses-£(000)2,7803,0543,092  
  Totals £(000)13,87014,41214,321  
Value of output- £(000)16,85217,53517,685  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)11,11211,97212,382  
Overtime worked by wage earners- h454,523441,233452,602  
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#133913181295  
Newsprint used- ton66,30464,47763,794  
Other paper used—ton3,6473,8013,438  
Job and General Printing  
Number of establishments—#295306324  
Persons engaged-No.5,0495,2385,480  
Production costs -  
Salaries, wages-£(000)4,1844,4374,833  
Materials- £(000)4,6175,0035,418  
Other expenses-£(000)1,6071,8342,031  
  Totals £(000)10,40811,27512,282  
Value of output- £(000)11,73912,76013,784  
Value added in manufacture—£(000)7,1227,7588,366  
Overtime worked by wage earners- h580,534631,122607,514  
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)-#145215331776  
Newsprint used- ton1,5181,6641,702  
Other paper used-ton15,43116,58318,009  
Cardboard and paper-board used- ton5,1465,5645,591  
 1960-611961-621962-63
* Other principal products withheld to avoid disclosure of figures for individual establishments.
Tanning
Number of establishments101111
Persons engaged-No.633647655
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)587620645
Materials- £(000)1,8991,9631,682
Other expenses-£(000)207238273
  Totals £(000)2,6932,8212,600
Value of output- £(000)3,0463,1653,031
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,1481,2011,349
Overtime worked by wage earners- h131,700135,719116,952
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)105411501081
Principal products*-#
Leather-#
Hides
Bends-lb1,370,6621,447,4701,225,210
Shoulders-lb804,894792,467725,856
Bellies- lb739,193717,180736,313
Chrome and other sides- sq. ft.6,863,5097,571,1677,297,955
Rubberware
Number of establishments-#273028
Persons engaged-No.2,4692,6092,584
Production costs
Salaries, wages-£(000)2,4082,6602,778
Materials-£(000)5,2755,0915,000
Other expenses-£(000)1,3881,4881,612
  Totals £(000)9,0719,2389,390
Value of output-£(000)10,52110,98811,516
Value added in manufacture £(000)5,2455,8986,516
Overtime worked by wage earners- h374,996368,864355,846
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)122013021341
Main materials used
Natural rubber-lb(000)10,91110,0479,537
Synthetic rubber-lb(000)8,16410,96811,785
Latex- gal377,074370,722378,922
Principal products
Motor tyres- No.725,461753,834769,194
Motor tubes- No.486,922526,675571,913
Camelback- lb5,081,1855,104,9494,995,111
Milking rubberware-£(000)1,2681,2921,409
Bicycle tyres and tubes-£(000)1,2681,2921,409
Battery containers-£(000)1,2681,2921,409
Rubber and canvas footwear-£(000)1,2681,2921,409
 1960-611961-621962-63
* Principal products shown for this industry include the production of establishments classified in other industries.
Chemical Fertilisers
Number of establishments121212
Persons engaged-No.1,4051,3691,329
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,327x1,3611,349
Materials-£(000)8,3287,9648,746
Other expenses-£(000)1,6251,5661,508
Totals £(000)11,280x10,89111,603
Value of output-£(000)12,61011,88212,937
Value added in manufacture- £(000)4,2823,9194,191
Overtime worked by wage earners- h408,223419,572386,006
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)125312111325
Main materials used
Rock phosphate-ton629,241 642,941
Serpentine rock-ton139,246133,882144,355
Sulphur- ton124,933120,712134,584
Carbonate of lime-ton15,95716,63120,308
Nitrate of soda-ton3,0402,9063,196
Potash—ton71,75372,27281,891
Principal products
Serpentine superphosphate and mixtures-ton441,557433,595429,860
Basic and reverted superphosphate and mixtures-ton37,17336,83535,512
Straight superphosphate and mixtures-ton513,771463,959541,092
Aerial superphosphate and mixtures-ton273,182276,664328,732
Other (including ground rock)-ton1,56879314,804
Superphosphate content of above- ton1,045,1681,006,9871,109,763
Soap Manufacture
Number of establishments121212
Persons engaged-No.445464475
Production costs
Salaries, wages-£(000)386406422
Materials- £(000)1,6131,7011,627
Other expenses-£(000)372445405
  Totals £(000)2,3712,5532,454
Value of output- £(000)3,2003,3333,358
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,5871,6311,731
Overtime worked by wage earners- h51,96251,29470,538
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)128112931343
Main materials used
Tallow—ton12,29811,64712,058
Other oils and fats-ton1,1481,2431,260
Caustic soda- ton2,0572,0172,079
Soda ash- ton3,4322,9692,676
Principal products
Soap- #
Toilet- ton3,4333,6503,934
Bar—ton5,2364,6734,607
Powder and flake-ton14,75213,62314,266
Candles- ton161114147
Sandsoap- ton384338310
Crude glycerine-ton1,3781,4971,489
Paint and Varnish
Number of establishments293125
Persons engaged-No.940913820
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)897885837
Materials- £(000)4,3294,2794,249
Other expenses-£(000)523511508
  Totals £(000)5,7495,6755,594
Value of output- £(000)6,4036,5406,838
Value added in manufacture—£(000)2,0742,2612,588
Overtime worked by wage earners- h118,617114,874105,545
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)12041181x1242
Main materials used
White lead- cwt12,35811,65110,894
Titanium dioxide (in terms of 100% TiO2) cwt68,73967,48870,943
Other pigments and extenders- cwt136,708122,932115,075
Linseed oil- gal381,077351,781359,862
Solvents- gal1,766,2891,336,8851,774,575
Resins-cwt88,56685,43593,757
Principal products-#
Paints and enamels-gal(OOO)3,1343,0163,096
Lacquers- gal(000)264270294
Pharmaceuticals, Toilet Goods, and Cosmetics*
Number of establishments424038
Persons engaged-No.966941964
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)630638668
Materials—£(000)2,4002,4932,614
Other expenses-£(000)305391424
  Totals £(000)3,3343,5223,706
Value of output—£(000)4,1364,3284,570
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,7361,8351,956
Overtime worked by wage earners- h30,11336,96633,822
Principal products-#
Pharmaceutical products—£(000)1,8752,0592,066
Toilet preparations and cosmetics
Dentifrices—£(000)413472481
Cosmetic creams and lotions- £(000)200207220
Hair dressings-£(000)552658682
Powder, face and talcum—£(000)238261234
Lipstick—£(000)137135144
 1960-611961-621962-63
* Includes production of establishments classified in other industries.
Structural Clay Products
Number of establishments444444
Persons engaged-No.1,1011,1041,047
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,0281,0611,018
Materials—£(000)229280268
Other expenses-£(000)9371,0551,026
  Totals £(000)2,1942,3962,312
Value of output—£(000)2,5032,6962,542
Value added in manufacture—£(000)2,2742,4162,274
Overtime worked by wage earners- h303,944330,538272,583
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)116912561109
Clay used-#
Purchased—ton14,30710,02412,943
From own quarry-ton347,519344,514306,145
Principal products-#
Firebricks*—No.3,616,0473,375,6682,764,960
Building bricks-No.56,394,92460,486,81546,773,840
Salt-glazed pipes and fittings
Above 6 in.-No.7,87327,45727,372
6 in and below-No.2,884,9563,093,8263,059,353
Field tiles and fittings—No.11,227,11811,712,79810,143,662
Pottery, China, and Earthenware
Number of establishments—#766
Persons engaged—# No.737692704
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)541539538
Materials—£(000)202177154
Other expenses-£(000)260256266
  Totals £(000)1,003973958
Value of output—£(000)1,1031,1071,133
Value added in manufacture—£(000)901930978
Overtime worked by wage earners- h137,153156,882151,724
Principal products- #
Insulators and refractory insulator elements £(000)274326337
Crockery, artware and novelties, stoneware £(000)1502502441
Other earthenware including sanitaryware-£(000)]230242306
Cement
Number of establishments—#666
Persons engaged-No.793780801
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)808838818
Materials-£(000)1,2181,1981,071
Other expenses-£(000)2,4102,5072,593
  Totals £(000)4,4364,5434,483
Value of output-£(000)5,3075,4055,671
Value added in manufacture—£(000)4,0904,2074,599
Overtime worked by wage earners- h349,799327,608311,248
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)129613641380
Principal materials- #
Limestone-ton533,901545,891523,623
Clay, marl, cement rock—ton603,683628,629601,167
Gypsum- ton25,47426,68326,703
Cement made-ton619,569647,914653,225
 1960-611961-621962-63

* Principal products shown for these industries include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

†Includes assembled vehicles from the motor-body building industry.

Concrete Products
Number of establishments297304299
Persons engaged—No.2,4022,4312,311
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)2,1642,2342,205
Materials—£(000)3,6123,5533,293
Other expenses-£(000)1,0451,1171,158
  Totals £(000)6,8216,9036,656
Value of output—£(000)7,9787,9797,777
Value added in manufacture—£(000)4,3664,4264,484
Overtime worked by wage earners- h465,444483,583438,740
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)137513871343
Materials used-#
Portland cement-ton107,778109,344102,545
Sand, shingle—yd507,353507,547441,672
Reinforcing—ton15,24213,39912,287
Pumice—yd34,46331,30564,326
Principal products
Roofing tiles and ridges—No.11,014,20411,227,6319,415,045
Fencing posts—No.2,922,5382,755,4512,586,525
Housing bricks and blocks—No.13,098,01812,945,33413,592,280
Pipes—ton128,279130,433122,629
Plywood and Veneer
Number of establishments—#889
Persons engaged-No.640679723
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)595650716
Materials—£(000)1,2811,3711,457
Other expenses-£(000)368313342
  Totals £(000)2,2442,3342,514
Value of output—£(000)2,6252,8172,991
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,3441,4461,535
Overtime worked by wage earners- h83,22386,376102,470
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)141315021647
Species of logs used-#
Rimu—ft (H. Dahl)10,052,7279,514,68410,201,507
Matai—ft (H. Dahl)826,706736,247703,297
Kahikatea-ft (H. Dahl)2,471,2861,675,3431,583,659
Radiata pine-ft (H. Dahl)3,720,3176,866,1278,273,495
Other—ft (H. Dahl)1,470,5611,674,995473,841
Veneer produced (1/16 in. basis)-sq. ft.176,186,722189,348,030188,813,117
Plywood made (3/16 in. basis)—sq. ft.48,022,27549,270,487*51,393,141
Range Making*
Number of establishments776
Persons engaged-No.1,0641,1511,044
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)867987924
Materials—£(000)1,2991,5891,499
Other expenses-£(000)312352391
  Totals £(000)2,4782,9272,814
Value of output- £(000)2,7033,1853,102
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,4051,5971,603
Overtime worked by wage earners- h151,569159,234112,529
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)137114801362
Iron and steel used-ton5,7365,8466,276
Principal products-#
Domestic gas ranges-No.3,7383,8103,990
Domestic electric ranges-No.37,71041,51337,895
Domestic electric rangettes—No.4,1403,5193,296
Domestic coal ranges—No.1,6791,422990
Radio and Television Assembly and Manufacture*
Number of establishments—#302933
Persons engaged-No.1,8481,9612,324
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)1,2561,4611,660
Materials—£(000)3,9724,5426,191
Other expenses-£(000)525590858
  Totals £(000)5,7536,5938,709
Value of output- £(000)6,1317,1749,689
Value added in manufacture—£(000)2,1602,6323,498
Overtime worked by wage earners- h175,648179,409199,458
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)202624833370
Principal products-#
Radios
Car and portable-No.100,28589,98757,941
Table-No.37,97031,95125,245
Radiograms—No.21,48719,70520,284
Television sets—No.9,32927,24063,989
Motor-vehicle Assembly
Number of establishments131517
Persons engaged-No.2,7813,0063,217
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)2,7453,1493,401
Materials—£(000)21,44823,50524,484
Other expenses-£(000)1,0691,1771,137
  Totals £(000)25,26227,83229,021
Value of output—£(000)27,81530,65432,240
Value added in manufacture—£(000)6,3677,1497,757
Overtime worked by wage earners- h583,887623,165765,282
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)95710401073
Vehicles assembled-#
Cars— No.29,98832,70836,357
Buses— No.10082136
Vans— No.2,6854,0664,452
Trucks— No.5,4645,2944,093
 1960-611961-621962-63
Motor-body Building
Number of Establishments-No.698081
Persons engaged-No.1,1651,2841,302
Production costs- #
Salaries, wages-£(000)9661,1221,174
Materials-£(000)1,1601,5811,703
Other expenses-£(000)248297319
  Totals £(000)2,3752,9993,196
Value of output-£(000)2,5733,2453,565
Value added in manufacturer—£(000)1,4131,6631,862
Overtime worked by wage earners—h150,906155,162x164,249
Main materials- #
Timber-ft. b. m.824,625881,731754,523
Plywood- sq.ft.582,909536,385525,738
Paints and oils-gal27,10533,92450,389
Motor bodies built- #
Buses—No.129141219
Vans—No.296405252
Trucks- #
Cabs—No.60739590
Trays—No.467825594
Caravans—No.548601634
Repairs to Motor Vehicles
Number of establishments—#1,8701,9972,009
Persons engaged—No.15,77416,47117,098
Production costs-
Salaries, wages— £(000)11,94813,06113,834
Materials-£(000)17,22520,12020,808
Other expenses-£(000)4,0734,5524,720
  Totals £(000)33,24537,73239,362
Value of output-£(000)35,82840,28542,293
Value added in manufacture—£(000)18,60320,16521,485
Overtime worked by wage earners- h905,379951,5271,036,440
Sheet-metal Working
Number of establishments159169174
Persons engaged-No.4,1894,2684,761
Production costs-
Salaries, wages-£(000)3,7373,8924,501
Materials-£(000)7,2047,7608,372
Other expenses-£(000)1,5411,6752,092
  Totals £(000)12,48113,32814,965
Value of output—£(000)14,09415,06116,980
Value added in manufacture—£(000)6,8907,3018,608
Overtime worked by wage earners-# h700,002772,6391,005,891
Volume index. Base: 1956-57(= 1000)-#142815181757
Metal Products n.e.i.
Number of establishments—#197233261
Persons engaged-No.4,2464,5264,941
Production costs-
Salaries and wages-£(000)3,9164,3244,861
Materials—£(000)7,3968,3829,220
Other expenses-£(000)1,5952,1492,605
  Totals £(000)12,90714,85516,685
Value of output—£(000)14,56116,81417,989
Value added in manufacture—£(000)7,1648,4328,769
Overtime worked by wage earners- h953,7661.030,3751.063,106
Agricultural and Pastoral Machinery #
Number of establishments—#717580
Persons engaged-No.928953892
Production costs-#
Salaries, wages-£(000)766812786
Materials—£(000)4,2115,2403,130
Other expenses-£(000)291292299
  Totals £(000)5,2686,3434,214
Value of output—£(000)5,8026,9874,619
Value added in manufacture—£(000)1,5911,7481,490
Overtime worked by wage earners- h117,089111,21697,415
Machinery n.e.i.
Number of establishments—#459498531
Persons engaged-No.9,84710,37110,426
Production costs
Salaries, wages-£(000)8,9319,87010,138
Materials—£(000)15,67515,00413,910
Other expenses-£(000)3,2913,7804,073
  Totals £(000) 27,89728,65528122
Value of output- £(000)30,24531,25531,182
Value added in manufacture—£(000)14,56916,25117,271
Overtime worked by wage earners- h1,782,9761,954,4441,849,640

Chapter 19. Section 19 BUILDING AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

GENERAL-With minor fluctuation there has been a steady long-term increase in the building of houses and flats to meet the housing needs of a growing population, while the expansion of industry, trade, and commerce has led to extensive construction of factories, shops, warehouses, and offices. The erection of more multi-storey buildings, including blocks of flats, in the inner city areas has been a feature of building construction in recent years.

In the post-war years building and construction activity has absorbed a growing proportion of ; the labour force, and there has been an even greater increase in the cost of buildings erected. The value of building construction according to permits issued in 1946 was £20.7 million, in 1952, £59.2 million, in 1956, £90.2 million, and in 1964, £147.3 million. The permit values for houses and flats in corresponding years were as follows: 1946, £13.9 million; 1952, £36.5 million; 1956, £51.5 million; and 1964, £69-9 million. It should be noted that building controls introduced as a wartime measure were not finally removed until December 1956.

The number of houses and flats constructed each year rose from 16,100 in 1953 to a peak of 24,300 in 1962, with a subsequent fall to 21,100 in 1964. Nevertheless, in proportion to population the average building rate is still very high. Approximately 90 per cent of the dwellings completed annually are privately built, the balance being erected by Government agencies.

Government Encouragement-The impetus of post-war housing levelled off in the early 1950s and led the Government in 1953 to call a National Housing Conference. This conference, which was attended by organisations and persons associated with housing, surveyed the general housing situation and investigated ways and means of implementing the Government's housing policy of promoting the building of more houses at a reasonable cost. Every aspect of housing was discussed, and the action taken on resolutions adopted by the conference helped to effect the expansion in house building to the present level. The conference assessed the extent of the housing shortage and set a number of 206,000 houses in 10 years as a target to overcome the shortage and provide for the increase in population expected from both natural increase and immigration. At the end of the 10 years a total of 203,200 house units was actually constructed.

A National Housing Council was set up to continue the work of the conference. Various housing schemes were introduced, the most noteworthy being the group building scheme designed to give builders continuity of work and reduce non-productive time. By 1964 a total of 18,172 houses had been completed under this scheme. Through this and other measures the annual total of dwellings built in New Zealand increased by 3,100 within a space of three years.

To encourage home ownership and to show the latest developments in low- and moderate-cost housing, the National Housing Council sponsored the holding of Parades of Homes. Since 1954 over 50 of these exhibitions have been held in major cities and towns throughout New Zealand, and they have attracted the keen interest of home seekers and others wishing to improve their existing homes.

Encouragement has been given to the construction of blocks of flats by private enterprise through the introduction of a plan for individually-owned flats. A company is formed to construct or take over a new flats building, and ownership of a block of shares in the company entitles the holder to occupy a particular flat. Amendments have been made to the Companies Act to facilitate the operation of the system. In major cities most new flats are now constructed on this basis, and the scheme is rapidly gaining in popularity.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. At 31 March 1964, 63,809 of these houses and flats had been built and, since 1950, 18,374 of them had been sold to the occupiers. About 1,600 of these dwellings are now built each year and let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances with an income of not more than £900 a year. Some 400 houses are also built by the State each year for the accommodation of Government employees.

Under the Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas. Reclamation schemes are in progress at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, assisted with Government finance. With the view to expediting the renewal of older residential areas of major cities, a committee of interested bodies has been established to study the whole question of urban renewal and to report and make recommendations to the Government.

Government Capital Assistance on New Housing-The following table gives the Government's total capital assistance on new housing in the latest two years and includes both direct expenditure by Government Departments and money advanced by way of mortgages and loans by the State Advances Corporation and Maori Affairs Department and amounts advanced in capitalisation of family benefits payable under social security. Expenditure on new housing by hospital boards, education boards, etc., is not included.

 1962-631963-64
 £(000)
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.8,3268,318
Expenditure by Housing Division for other Departments1,2971,105
Department of Maori Affairs2,7702,762
Department of Lands and Survey410275
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new urban houses26,58123,773
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new rural houses320434
State Advances loans paid to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing etc.8811,015
Department of Health subsidies paid to local authorities for pensioners' flats228283
Advances under capitalisation of family benefits4,7314,436
 Totals45,54442,401

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED-Statistics of completed houses and flats include any new flats which are created by the conversion of existing buildings. Some difficulty is encountered in obtaining accurate figures for completions from a few local authorities, and in some cases estimates have been made, either by the local authorities concerned, or by the Department of Statistics. While it is therefore believed these figures are reasonably accurate, and enable a comparison to be made of year-to-year changes, it is the practice of the Department to round completed figures to the nearest hundred. All houses and flats completed by the Government are included.

The results of this collection of statistics for the latest six years are given in the following table.

District1958-591959-601960-611961-621962-631963-64
Urban districts14,80016,90018,80019,70018,10017,800
Rural districts4,8004,7004,7004,6004,0003,300
Totals19,60021,60023,50024,30022,10021,100

The number of houses and flats completed in 1963-64 showed a decrease of 1,000 from the previous year and a decrease of 3,200 from the 1961-62 figures which were the highest annual figures so far recorded.

Trends in Average Costs-The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period with general characteristics of rising costs.

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
193919501955196019631964
 ££££££
State rental house (976 square feet)1,0612,1722,5822,7642,7942,962
Buildings (reinforced concrete): For similar size and type10,00025,10028,80032,10033,00035,000

Projections of Permanent Private Dwellings-The Department of Statistics has made projections of permanent private dwellings up to 1975. Assuming that (a) the head-of-household rates at the 1961 Population Census rise by 0.84 per cent a year, (b) the occupied/unoccupied ratio at the 1961 Census continues unchanged, (c) net immigration of 10,000 a year, and (d) an annual loss of dwellings of 3,000 a year from obsolescence, fire loss, conversion to business premises, etc., men the annual additions to 31 March each year are: 1966, 24,900; 1967, 27,100; 1968, 26,500; 1969, 28,300; 1970, 29,300; 1971, 30,500; 1972, 31,000; 1973, 31,900; 1974, 33,000; 1975, 33,800. Projections on other assumptions are given in a supplement to the April 1964 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

On the assumptions stated, the numbers of houses expected to be in existence in future years are set out in the following table.

As at 31 MarchOccupied DwellingsUnoccupied DwellingsTotalAs at 31 MarchOccupied DwellingsUnoccupied DwellingsTotal
1966727,20068,600795,8001971843,00079,500922,500
1967749,20070,700819,9001972868,60081,900950,500
1968770,70072,700843,4001973895,00084,400979,400
1969793,80074,900868,7001974922,40087,0001,009,400
1970817,90077,100895,0001975950,60089,6001,040,200

BUILDING PERMITS-The returns from local authorities that operate a building-permit system cover all private and local authority building subject to permit. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government Departments, hospital, and education boards is included, even though permits are not actually taken out.

The value shown represents in the majority of instances the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies with greater force to the monthly than the annual statistics, and applies more particularly to large buildings than to houses and small blocks of flats.

The value placed on a building is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be greater than originally estimated. This increase is not reflected in building permit figures.

The following table gives a summary of building permits (including State building operations) for the latest two years.

Districts1962-631963-64
New Houses and Flats: NumberNew Houses and Flats: ValueTotal. All Buildings: ValueNew Houses and Flats: NumberNew Houses and Flats: ValueTotal, All Buildings: Value
  £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)
Urban districts16,88653,519109,05518,29358,998123,206
Rural districts3,75011,10128,0613,47010,90024,071
Totals, New Zealand20,63664,619137,11621,76369,898147,277

The following table is a summary of building permits for the latest 11 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchPermits Issued for New Houses and FlatsTotal Value, All New Houses and FlatsTotal Value, All Buildings
PrivateGovernmentTotal
    £(000)£(000)
195414,0253,43217,45741,73669,500
195517,4203,44320,86352,76793,405
195616,2343,27019,50451,48690,173
195715,6942,66018,35449,21489,388
195816,9851,97018,95552,504101,767
195918,1212,44720,56857,014101,466
196020,5273,05123,57866,339114,013
196121,6482,74924,39772,476134,712
196220,3252,06922,39469,313129,577
196318,4482,18820,63664,619137,116
196419,8221,94121,76369,898147,277

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

Building Permits in Urban Districts-In the next table figures are given covering 11 years of building activity for all urban districts. The urban districts include all cities, boroughs, town districts, and eight urban counties.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of New Private Houses and FlatsValue of New Houses and FlatsValue of Other New BuildingsTotal Value. AH Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)
  £(000)£(000)£(000)
195412,59631,52410,98153,973
195515,44340,24220,48574,590
195614,16238,51216,38270,157
195713,44537,17117,06269,009
195813,77239,25423,19079,438
195915,59044,50117,97880,309
196018,43753,19719,34493,031
196119,18357,60421,306110,611
196217,47354,76018,754105,048
196316,88653,51921,677109,055
196418,29358,99828,797123,206

Statistics of houses and flats treat each flat as one unit. During the year ended 31 March 1964, 979 blocks of flats, totalling 3,312 individual units, were commenced in urban districts.

The following table shows details for the last 11 years of blocks of flats included in the numbers of permits for houses and flats issued for urban districts. These figures do not include motels or holiday flats as these are included in commercial buildings with hotels, etc.

Year Ended 31 MarchBlocksNumber of FlatsYear Ended 31 MarchBlocksNumber of Flats
19547318919603701,395
195514161519613551,309
195612357319624051,537
195717457319635321,982
195828998119649793,312
1959276967   

These figures cover only buildings erected as new blocks of flats. Where flats have been created by conversion of existing buildings, the values of such conversions are included in alterations and additions. However, as this class of work has become more prevalent in recent years it was decided to collect information on the number of flats being created in such a manner, the first data being for the year ended 31 March 1955 for urban districts.

The following table shows the numbers of permits for flats to be created by conversion of existing buildings. Since the year 1961-62 additional information makes it reasonably certain that the figures for flats created by conversion refer to complete units. In earlier years the figures are known to include some apartments not completely self-contained.

Year Ended 31 MarchAll Urban DistrictsYear Ended 31 MarchAll Urban Districts
19555011960883
19565181961845
19576551962462
19587001963401
19597921964745

The statistics quoted in the preceding paragraphs relate only to the main types of building activity. More detailed statistics are included in the annual report on Population, Migration, and Building Statisticscompiled by the Department of Statistics.

In 1963-64 the number of permits for houses and flats in urban districts showed an increase of 1,407, or 8.33 per cent, from 1962-63.

The value of permits for houses and flats in 1963-64 increased by £5,278,703, or 8.17 per cent, on the preceding year. The average permit value in 1963-64 was £3,212, as against £3,131 in 1962-63 and £3,095 in 1961-62.

There were 1,941 Government houses and flats (1,653 in urban and 288 in rural districts) commenced in 1963-64 compared with 2,188 (1,850 in urban and 338 in rural districts) in 1962-63. The value of the houses and flats commenced in 1963-64 was £6,200,136 as against £6,928,640 in 1962-63.

For new buildings other than houses and flats, together with all alterations and additions, the value of permits issued showed an increase of £4,882,114, or 6.73 per cent, on the 1962-63 figure.

The following table arranges urban local authorities with building values of over £500,000 in 1963-64 in descending order.

 £(000) £(000)
Auckland city12,154Nelson city1,215
Wellington city10,456Gisborne city1,152
Christchurch city7,346Timaru city1,119
Manukau county7,336Paparua county1,100
Waitemata county5,223Upper Hutt1,047
Lower Hutt city4,929Northcote1,009
Hamilton city4,652Papakura904
Waimairi county3,024Birkenhead890
Dunedin city2,922One Tree Hill855
Palmerston North city2,748Mount Albert820
Hutt county2,739Papatoetoe810
Invercargill city2,487East Coast Bays793
Mount Wellington2,231New Lynn785
Porirua2,109Howick776
Rotorua city2,079Tawa755
Takapuna city1,982Blenheim689
Napier city1,940Mount Eden671
Tauranga city1,773Onehunga649
New Plymouth city1,691Masterton636
Mount Roskill1,678Levin629
Whangarei city1,606Otahuhu586
Hastings city1,504Ashburton535
Wanganui city1,429Taupo526
Manurewa1,232Mount Maunganui512

Building Permits in Rural Districts-The counties of Waitemata, Manukau, Hurt, Waimairi, Heath-cote, Paparua, Peninsula, and Taieri are included in urban building statistics. The great majority of the population in these counties is urban, and they were included in order to obtain more complete statistics of building activity for the urban areas of Auckland, Hurt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The tabulation for rural districts is therefore confined to the remaining counties and Waiheke Island. In the few instances where counties do not operate a building-permit system estimates of building activity have been made.

Data are available for all Government building in rural districts and have been included in the total for rural building.

Excluding the eight counties which are included in urban districts, the total value of rural building in 1963-64 amounted to £24,071,432, a decrease of £3,989,821 as compared with the 1962-63 figures for the same districts. The number of new dwellings was 3,470, a decrease of 280 on the preceding year.

The following table arranges rural local authorities with building values of over £500,000 in 1963-64 in descending order.

County£(000)County£(000)
Matamata1,603Bay of Islands631
Southland1,508Waitaki618
Whangarei1,079Taupo603
Waikato764Waimea602
Tauranga756Rangitikei525
Hawke's Bay738Horowhenua513
Rotorua737Franklin510
Wallace709Kairanga510
Cook699  

The total value of building for the eight counties included in the total for urban districts in 1963-64 was £20,163,946, and the number of new houses and flats 4,193. The comparable value for 1962-63 was £18,616,924, and the number of new houses and flats 3,959.

Other Government Building Operations-In 1963-64 Government building commenced, other than houses and flats, totalled £4,716,461 in value. The comparable figure for 1962-63 was £11,080,790. Buildings erected by or for hospital or education boards are not included in these figures but are included in the total building statistics quoted previously. For the year ended 31 March 1964 the value of building commenced for hospital boards amounted to £2,130,976, while that commenced for education boards was valued at £2,915,936. The comparable figures for 1962-63 were: hospital boards £3,678,673; education boards £3,455,011.

Monthly Permit Statistics-Monthly statistics of building permits are collected from the larger centres. While these returns cover approximately 60 per cent of the total population, they represent approximately 81 per cent of the total New Zealand building activity.

BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER CENTRES
MonthNew BuildingsAlterations to Existing BuildingsTotal
Houses and FlatsTotalNo.ValueNo.Value
No.ValueNo.Value
  £(000) £(000) £(000) £(000)
1964
January1,1243,6391,1855,5051,9961,7873,1817,292
February1,4584,6541,5517,4242,5102,5584,0619,982
March1,4014,5451,5006,2302,9372,5554,4378,785
April1,8135,6401,9607,9893,3812,7175,34110,706
May1,6915,3511,8138,1033,1402,7574,95310,861
June1,5895,0241,7166,5622,8952,2004,6118,761
July1,7295,6321,8829,9503,0922,5054,97412,455
August1,5714,9811,6786,4552,7773,4304,4559,885
September1,8715,9752,00610,0022,9602,9164,96612,918
October1,7675,5741,9118,0722,8472,5364,75810,609
November1,5795,2281,74910,1802,9232,6624,67212,843
December1,5434,9741,6668,0952,6982,4294,36410,524

BUILDING MATERIALS-Most materials with the major exception of steel and galvanised iron are produced in New Zealand and current production is meeting demand. Although supplies of imported materials are restricted under the system of import licensing, building operations have not been hampered by lack of supplies. Expansion still continues in the quantity and range of materials and fittings manufactured in New Zealand.

Availability of Principal Building Materials-The following tables show the availability of the principal building materials in the years quoted.

The first of the two tables relates to the production of principal building materials.

PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS
Production YearRough-sawn Timber*Dressed Timber (from Rough-sawn)Building SheetPlywoodWall-boardPaints, etc.
Paints and EnamelsVarnishesLacquers

* Source: New Zealand Forest Service; for years ended 31 March.

†Asbestos-cement and cement sheet.

‡Includes fibrous plasterboard.

ft. b.m. (million)sq. ft. (million)gal (thousand)
1953-54572.2113.726.530.9121.82,058162119
1954-55616.0119.431.232.7124.52,464132146
1955-56625.8121.128.435.7132.02,604115171
1956-57596.9110.126.237.8125.12,650110173
1957-58596.8105.728.138.8125.52,763140211
1958-59636.8119.328.740.0141.22,892128217
1959-60693.8128.431.643.1153.13,033118256
1960-61714.1144.433.848.0170.83,134115264
1961-62692.6157.031.352.9188.43,016130270
1962-63643.4160.228.351.4x170.33,096126294
1963-64666.0154.030.152.9168.73,321136346
PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS
Production YearConcrete Roofing TilesBricks and BlocksDrainpipes, Salt Glazed, 6 in. and BelowCement
Building BricksConcrete
BricksBlocks
* In millions of effective running feet.
No. (million)tons(000)
1953-5413.341.60.32.9205288.2
1954-5513.648.00.44.02.20361.8
1955-5612.448.10.35.52.37422.7
1956-5710.243.80.55.72.39472.1
1957-589.349.30.66.72.35544.0
1958-599.452.20.68.22.28542.1
1959-6011.450.90.510.12.76575.4
1960-6111056.40.612.52.88619.6
1961-6211.260.50.512.43.09647.9
1962-639.446.81.412.23.06653.2
1963.649.850.20.815.25.82*754.1

To complete the review, the second table deals with imports of materials.

IMPORTS OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS
Year EndedTimber, SawnBuilding Sheet*PlywoodWall boardLinseed OilCommon Window Glass
* Asbestos-cement and cement sheet.
 ft (b.m.)sq.ft.sq. ft.sq. ft.galsq. ft.
 (million)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
31 Dec
195428.23179182,34655310,138
195538.56214,88615,95796112,616
195628.72334,09416,44266813,903
195738.72783,84713,5076739,752
195832.9668494,40353712,727
195923.9173517122913,110
196031.0551,87268724414,789
196137.4302,1339856713,847
196228.11881,133128510,542
30 Jun
196327.91661,11720129,633
196427.8931,087388213,478
IMPORTS OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS
Year EndedPlaster of ParisGypsumAsbestos CrudeCementGalvanised-iron SheetAluminium Sheet
CorrugatedFlat
cwt (000)
31 Dec
1954330.8788.369 03,727.164529319
1955425.9781.282.12,695.079925433
1956354.4714.055.7926.150922926
1957334.8948.325.574.093824232
1958292.11,171.978.360.863634747
1959220.11,153.284.039.966123243
1960282.71,307.393.664.366122958
1961328.21,530.5103.875.990335345
196281.11,773.2116.660.359628921
30 Jun
196334.1,780.3123.267.467433814
196447.21,744.7109.456.377437710

HOUSING FINANCE-The chief agency providing finance for housing in New Zealand is the State Advances Corporation, a wholly Government owned institution described in detail in Section 30B. Increases have been announced from time to time in the maximum loans which may be granted by the State Advances Corporation for the building of homes. Since 1959 the loan limits have been £2,500 for families with up to two dependent children, ranging up to £2,650 where there are five or more children. Applicants who own a suitable unencumbered freehold building section, however, can qualify for a loan of up to 100 per cent of the cost of the house with a maximum of £2,850.

State Advances Corporation building loans with interest rebated to 3 per cent are granted to families where the income of the breadwinner is not more than £1,000 a year, plus £50 for each dependent child, but excluding family benefit and war disability pension. The amount of loan approved varies between £2,500 and £2,650 according to the size of family, or £2,850 where an unencumbered freehold section is owned. The standard lending rate of interest for loans not eligible for the rebate is 5 per cent. Large numbers of borrowers have been attracted by State Advances loans at 3 per cent interest, as the ruling rate for first mortgages charged by private lending institutions averages about 6 per cent. For the year ended 31 March 1964, the State Advances Corporation authorised loans valued at £24.4 million for new urban dwellings, of which £15.9 million was at the 3 per cent rate. In the last full year prior to the introduction of the rebated loans, 1957, the total sum authorised by the Corporation amounted to £13-8 million. From 1964 all new 3 per cent loans are subject to review every five years, and if the income of the borrower exceeds the qualifying limit existing at the review date, the standard rate will be charged for the balance of the loan term.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social security family benefit, the capitalised benefit to be applied towards the provision of a family home or for essential alterations or for repayment of encumbrances on a family home. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed £1,000. Family benefit capitalisation advances totalling £26.4 million were authorised in the first five years of the scheme by the State Advances Corporation to applicants holding eligibility certificates issued by the Social Security Commission.

Under the Mortgage Guarantee Scheme introduced in 1961, the State Advances Corporation assists building societies, insurance companies, and other approved lending institutions to grant loans for the purchase of existing houses by guaranteeing the difference between the usual limit of 665 per cent of value and 85 per cent, with a loan maximum of £3,000. Guarantees are also available in respect of new houses up to a limit of 90 per cent of valuation and a maximum loan of £3,200.

In July 1957 the Government announced the commencement of a home lay-by scheme in the Post Office Savings Bank and this has been extended to trustee and private savings banks. A subsidy, known as a suspensory free deposit, of £5 per £100 up to a limit of £50 is credited to each home lay-by account when the money is used to acquire a new home to be occupied by the depositor. There is no limit to the amount which can be deposited but the maximum amount in any one year on which the subsidy can be credited is £250. The effect of the scheme is that a person who deposits £250 each year in a home lay-by account for four years will qualify for the maximum subsidy of £50, in addition to the normal savings bank interest. Deposits of £100 a year for 10 years can also earn the maximum subsidy.

Further information on housing finance is contained in Section 30B-State Advances Corporation.

Role of Local Authorities-The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities at 3½ per cent to enable them to undertake the erection of accommodation for pensioners or persons in comparable circumstances. Since 1950 there has been a generous Government subsidy for pensioners' housing, and it is now half the net capital cost, with a maximum of £850 for a two-person unit and £800 for a one-person unit. At 31 March 1964 Government subsidies of £2,065,872 had been granted to local authorities and also loans of £2,357,439. Local authorities were providing accommodation for 3,512 elderly persons. (These subsidies are separate from those granted to religious and relief organisations-see Section 5A.)

The Rural Housing Act 1939 provides facilities for the granting of financial assistance to farmers requiring new houses for themselves or their employees, or desiring to improve their existing houses. The county councils have been charged with the duty of investigating the loan applications, and provided they are satisfied with the security, etc., they have authority to approve a loan. Loans are made by the State Advances Corporation to local authorities bearing interest at 4½ per cent, (rate charged by the county to the farmer borrowers is 4½ per cent) and are repayable on the amortisation system over terms of up to 35 years. Advances for the erection of a house under this scheme may be up to £3,000, including any suspensory loan benefits (described in Section 30B) available to applicants who comply with the conditions laid down. At 31 March 1964, £2,749,252 (in respect of 1,538 houses) had been uplifted by county councils.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes up to a limit of £3,232; to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loans Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are being encouraged to play a more prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING-In addition to the facilities of the State Advances Corporation, financial assistance towards the erection of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris under the Maori Housing Act 1935, the lending authority being the Board of Maori Affairs. Section 18 of the Maori Housing Amendment Act 1938 provided for the Special Housing Fund to be set up. The use of a Special Housing Fund as a reserve enables the Board of Maori Affairs to cater for families who are unable to meet the full repayments normally required.

In addition to providing loans, the Department, through its building organisation, arranges for construction of the houses in many cases. The Department has available a comprehensive plan service to meet the special needs of the Maori people. In determining its building programme the Department endeavours to ensure that the most needy cases are given priority. The numbers of houses erected in recent years have been: 1959-60, 623; 1960-61, 700; 1961-62, 750; 1962-63, 802; and 1963-64, 800.

Loans up to set limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefit are available to Maoris and Europeans alike. Where the applicant does not qualify for the special interest concession, loans are granted at an interest rate of 5 ½ per cent, suspensory interest-free loans also being available in such cases, subject to usual conditions.

Special "pools" of State rental houses are established in some of the larger towns and cities to help meet the housing needs of Maori families. The quota of houses available to these special "pools" is based on the number of urgent Maori applications held in relation to European applications, and allocations to eligible Maori families are made by special allocation committees which have been set up. By 31 March 1964 a total of 98 State rental houses had been allocated to Maori families from these special pools.

In addition to houses allocated through the State rental pools, other dwellings obtained through the agency of the State Advances Corporation and the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works were sold to Maori families. These, together with new houses built by the Department of Maori Affairs and the Maori Trustee, brought the total number of Maori families housed in the past four years to 6,149, of whom 1,602 were housed in 1963-64.

In the last two years the Government has devoted particular attention to providing accommodation for single Maori girls in urban areas and has erected rental flats in Auckland and Wellington, and, through the agency of the Maori Trustee, has provided flats in Christchurch. Hostel accommodation for Maori boys has also been made available in Christchurch by the Maori Trustee.

STATE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION-A programme of building State rental houses and flats was commenced in March 1937. These are for letting (and subsequent purchase if the occupier wishes) to people in the moderate income group according to need. Since 1950 there has been an income bar (at present £900 per annum) on applicants for tenancies of State rental units, increased slightly in respect of special classes of accommodation.

The Housing Division of the Ministry of Works acquires and develops sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. These activities are covered by the Housing Act 1955.

The totals of State rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 12 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1964 there were 63,809 units completed.

YearNumber cf UnitsYearNumber of Units
1952-532,1241958-591,647
1953-542,7811959-602,128
1954-552,8921960-612,148
1955-562,2581961-621,972
1956-572,7461962-631,948
1957-581,8531963-641,562

Flats and Multi-unit Dwellings-In compliance with Government policy, aiming at higher density housing in the interests of conserving land and at the same time arresting urban sprawl, the State has continued to build increasing numbers of multi-unit dwellings, mainly two and four units, also a number of three-storey blocks of flats each comprising 12 units. The number of multi units built by the Housing Division for State rental purposes up to 31 March 1964 was 11,522 two-unit dwellings, 495 three-unit dwellings, and 4,561 four- to eight-unit blocks. In addition, the Housing Division built 1,314 multi-storey flats and 1,031 pensioners' flats, also for State rental purposes.

State Services Housing-State services houses are houses built for Government Departments and the Armed Forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Division to 31 March 1964 was 9,751. This includes houses built at the site of major construction jobs such as electric power schemes.

Finance-The cost of the State housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Construction vote in the Public Works Account, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchState HousingState ServicesLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
* In addition sums of £1,915,353 in 1961-62, £1,291,358 in 1962-63, and £1,105,325 in 1963-64 were spent on State Services houses, these amounts being charged directly to the Departments concerned.
£ (thousand)
19547,5747761,74451410,608
19556,1177461,9515369,351
19565,8081,0443,02652210,399
19576,552612,7865559,955
19584,816562,6955708,138
19594,865263,1135998,602
19607,186303,20159811,016
19616,215463,20864510,114
19625,81934*2,6636779,193
19635,17722*2,0471,0708,326
19645,38236*1,9809208,318

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Division in the last five years.

YearVote, "Housing Construction"On Behalf of Other Departments (Charged Direct)Total
Construction Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationLand Development, MuruparaOn Behalf of Other Departments*Total
* Expenditure on behalf of other Departments charged meantime to vole, "Housing Construction".
£ (thousand)
1959-6010,974123011,0161,14212,158
1960-6110,06354610,1141,59211,706
1961-629,12930349,1931,91511,108
1962-638,25836328,3261,2919,617
1963-648,2784368,3181,1059,423

Room Content of Units (State Houses and State Services Housing)-The types of units according to the number of bedrooms in units built during 1963-64 as compared with the previous year, also the totals to date, are shown in the following table.

Number of Bedrooms1962-631963-64Total to Date
Number of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of Total
One bedroom or bed-sitting room31813.81477.74,3995.9
Two bedrooms76833.323.623,21531.6 
Three bedrooms1,02744.41,09157.440,93855.7
Four or more bedrooms1968.521511.35,0086.8
 Totals2,309100.01,900100.073,560100.0

Sheathing Material Used (State Houses and State Services Housing)-The sheathing materials used in the units built during 1963-64 as compared with the previous year, also the total to date, is as follows.

Material1962-631963-64Total to Date
Weatherboard1,4951,03743,764
Brick22821812,909
Concrete2941324,307
Other sheathing29251312,580
 Totals2,3091,90073,560

Land Acquisition-During 1963-64 a total of 158 developed unit sites was purchased as a charge against the Housing Construction vote, also some 1,402 acres of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 4,697 unit sites. Approximately one half of these sections are intended for State rental house building, the balance being for private home building, including houses under the Government-approved group building scheme.

State Rental Housing Tender Prices-The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the four main centres at the end of the last 12 financial years for similar types of three-bedroom State rental houses of equivalent floor space. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square foot.

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
1953-542,809(536)2,762(527)2,406(474)2,576(491)
1954-552,890(551)2,896(552)2,600(484)2,634(502)
1955-563,062(584)2,964(566)2,710(517)3,001(572)
1956-573,085(589)3,007(573)2,557(488)3,054(582)
1957-583,051(581)3,002(572)2,545(486)3,031(579)
1958-593,009(574)3,022(577)2,538(484)2,952(563)
1959-603,109(593)3,034(579)2,681(511)3,067(585)
1960-613,169(605)3,067(585)2,750(525)3,109(593)
1961-623,167(604)3,139(5910)2,736(521)3,086(5810)
1962-633,149(600)3,158(602)2,726(520)3,091(5810)
1963-643,153(601)3,165(604)2,843(542)3,117(595)

JOINT FAMILY HOMES-The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 makes provision for a form of ownership by which a family home will belong not to the husband and wife separately but to both of them jointly so that it may pass to the survivor on the death of one of them. The predominant purpose behind the legislation is die preservation of a family home outside the business or personal speculations of either spouse. A husband and wife, or either of them, being solvent and owning land whether freehold or leasehold on which a residence is erected or on which a residence will be erected within six months, may settle the land as a joint family home provided the residence is used exclusively or principally as a home for themselves and the members of their household. The 1964 Act makes it possible to settle flats as family homes. The settlement is cancelled when the land is sold or when both husband and wife have died or have ceased permanently to reside and have their home on the land. There are substantial benefits resulting from settlement under the Act. The husband and wife have equal rights in connection with ownership and possession while they are both living but cannot deal separately with their interest. On the death of either of them the joint family home becomes the property of the survivor. In the event of claims by creditors or an assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected up to a sum of £2,000. Further, on the death of one of the spouses there is an exemption of £4,000 from estate duty. Settlements under the Act are exempt from gift and stamp duty.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered for the last 11 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes SettledYear Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
19544,808196011,195
19554,477196116,368
19565,363196216,012
19575,655196314,683
19586,262196413,056
19597,052  

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act caused a very substantial increase from 1959 onwards due mainly to the condition attaching to capitalisation of the benefits that the home, if not in the sole name of the wife, be settled as a joint family home.

CENSUS INFORMATION: Total Dwellings-Figures from the 1961 census are now given with comparative figures from the 1956 census.

 Census 1956Census 1961
All occupied dwellings572,759643,410
Average number of occupants per dwelling3.793.75
Uninhabited dwellings
Occupants temporarily away10,94412,840
Untenanted dwellings12,61419,870
Baches (weekend or summer dwellings)19,89926,997
Totals, uninhabited43,45759,707
Dwellings in course of erection10,46211,383

In the above summary "all occupied dwellings" includes all types occupied on census night, i.e., in addition to houses and flats it includes hotels, hospitals, camps, tents, caravans, etc.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Nature of Dwelling-The following table shows the nature of dwellings at the censuses at 1956 and 1961.

Nature of DwellingNumbersPercentage of Total Inhabited Dwellings
1956196119561961
A. Inhabited dwellings-
Permanent private dwellings
Private house, not partly sublet495,632564,19686.5387.69
Private house, partly sublet3,6847970.640.12
Flat41,66952,9367.288.23
Combined shop and dwelling, rooms attached to offices, etc.7,6866,8301.341.06
Bach, hut14,3408,9052.501.38
Other41430.010.01
  Totals563,052633,70798.3098.49
Temporary dwellings
Mobile residences'1,5801,2480.280.19
Other3442480.060.04
  Totals1,9241,4960.340.23
Non-private dwellings
Hotels, boardinghouses, etc.6,0716,0821.060.95
Public and private hospitals4905340.090.08
Camps5673800.100.05
Other (including not specified)6551,2110.110.20
Totals7,7838,2071.361.28
Grand totals, inhabited dwellings572,759643,410100.00100.00
B. Uninhabited dwellings-
Occupants temporarily away10,94412,840......
Untenanted dwellings12,61419,870......
Baches (weekend or summer dwellings)19,89926,997......
  Totals43,45759,707......
C. Building
Dwellings in course of erection10,46211,383......

The average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.58 in 1956 and 3.56 in 1961.

Between 1956 and 1961 the number of inhabited permanent private dwellings increased by 70,655. or 12.5 per cent, while the population increased by 11.1 per cent and there were also substantially more uninhabited dwellings in 1961.

Tenure of Dwelling-The following table classifies the inhabited permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19561961
Number of DwellingsPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumber of DwellingPer Cent of Total Specified
Renting or leasing144,72125.80153,72824.34
Free dwelling provided with job34,2706.1134,0875.40
Loaned without payment9,2241.658,5861.36
Buying with table mortgage130,94723.35166,63626.38
With flat mortgage72,76012.9786,35913.67
Unspecified mortgage cases5530.104330.07
Owned without mortgage168,38330.02181,79328.78
Not specified2,194...2,085...
  Totals563,052100.00633,707100.00

The proportion of houses classed as "occupier owned" in 1961 was 68.9 per cent as against 66.4 per cent in 1956, an increase of 2.5 per cent, while rented dwellings decreased by 1.5 per cent. The totals for all classes of mortgage were 151,200 in 1951, 204,260 in 1956, and 253,428 in 1961.

Amenities of Dwellings-The next two tables present the various amenities in permanent private dwellings in 1961 and show whether they were used solely by the occupants of a dwelling or shared by occupants of other dwellings.

AmenityNot SnaredSharedNilNot SpecifiedTotal
Hot water service588,4476,41937,5451,296633,707
Bath or shower607,3857,84917,908565633,707
Flush toilet552,5127,82572,886484633,707
Refrigerator509,4611,923121,1761,147633,707
Washing machine488,2535,800137,6072,047633,707

Of the specified cases, 80.8 per cent of houses had the sole or shared use of refrigerators and 78.2 per cent had the sole or shared use of washing machines.

Means of CookingNumber of DwellingsPer Cent of Total Specified
Electric range, stove434,96068.80
Electric cooker, stovette, rangette, plate, ring, etc.2,1290.34
Gas range, stove82,69513.08
Gas cooker, stovette, ring, etc.7160.11
Coal, wood, coke, range75,93012.01
Oil range, stove4790.08
Oil, other, including primus stove1310.02
Electric range and gas range3,7390.59
Electric range and coal, wood, coke, range25,4674.03
Gas range and coal, wood, coke range4,7740.75
Other, including open fire, primus (not stove), camp oven, etc.1,2270.19
Not specified1,460...
  Totals633,707100.00

Considering only cases where one means of cooking is used, the electric range held pride of place, being used in 68.8 per cent of inhabited dwellings; the next place being held by the gas range which was used in 13.1 per cent of inhabited dwellings. Including cases where alternatives are also installed, it will be noted that 73.4 per cent of the dwellings in New Zealand were equipped with an electric range. When this question was first asked (1945 census), the position was that in 37.7 per cent of the dwellings a coal, wood, or coke range was used and in 29.9 per cent an electric range. It should be remembered that the 1945 figures do not include Maori dwellings.

At the 1961 census 74.1 per cent of dwellings were heated mainly by open fireplaces, 9.8 per cent by space heaters, 9.4 per cent by electric fires or radiators, and 2.5 per cent by kerosine heater or radiator.

In 1961, 87.8 per cent of all inhabited permanent private dwellings had piped water, while 11.8 per cent depended on rain-water tanks, and only 0.4 per cent had no water laid on.

Materials of Outer Walls-The following table gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed. Flats are included individually and not as blocks. Therefore part of the increase, for instance, in brick and concrete construction, is accounted for by a lesser number of buildings than indicated by the difference in number of dwelling units.

Material of Outer WallsNumber of Dwellings
19561961
Wood411,370431,318
Stone1,1212,456
Concrete, including concrete blocks17,86922,510
Concrete and wood1,0872,039
Brick, including hollow brick47,42065,171
Brick and wood3,3326,157
Brick and other material3,4017,035
Wood and iron3,7213,314
Wood and proprietary wallboard2,3697,335
Iron3,8623,083
Asbestos2,0112,176
Proprietary wallboards of asbestos type26,25047,963
Roughcast on wood lath and plaster23,9996,844
Roughcast not otherwise defined3,94518,711
Other materials3,9226,817
Not specified7,373778
  Totals563,052633,707

Although the number of houses and flats with outer walls of wood increased by slightly less than 20,000 between the 1956 and 1961 censuses, as a percentage of all inhabited permanent private dwellings they decreased from 73.1 to 68.1.

Houses and flats with outer walls constructed of concrete, brick, proprietary wallboards of asbestos type, and roughcast increased both in number and as a percentage of the total, thus continuing the post-war trend.

Materials of Roofs-Most dwellings (70.1 per cent) in 1961 were roofed with sheet or corrugated iron with tiles the next popular choice (21.3 per cent).

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants-The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1961 according to the number of rooms and the number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of Occupants
12345678 and OverTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
14,884909256192986839666,5121.5
28,9357,2382,2041,03853627716926820,6652.0
311,15716,5798,4375,5672,7781,4248011,14747,8902.7
419,89745,35028,68324,41912,2945.8282,7272,820142,0183.1
517,00352,42444,65754,21441,82422,2119,4977,728249,5583.8
66,97621,36118,89022,03118,32211,6886,2555,963111,4864.1
71,9295,9325,6606,8006,1714,2112,2762,12235,1014.2
86341,8971,8792,1642,0951,53983883311,8794.4
92176076527277115053192994,0374.4
10902972803213032171191431,7704.4
11 and over972702803062611911301131,6484.4
Not specified1852892001601237649611,1433.5
  Totals72,004153,153112,078117,93985,51648,23523,21921,563633,7073.6

Of the total number of dwellings (where number of rooms was specified) 503,062, or 79.5 per cent, had either four, five, or six rooms and of these 312,029 were occupied by either two, three, or four persons.

The number of dwellings with only one occupant increased from 56,414 in 1956 to 72,004 in 1961, a rise of 27.6 per cent, with those living alone in dwellings of three rooms rising from 8,201 to 11,157, those in four rooms from 14,993 to 19,897 and those in five rooms from 12,400 to 17,003. A large proportion of these persons living alone are widows.

TENANCY-The Tenancy Act 1955 administered by the Department of Labour governs rents and possession of certain houses and business premises. Because of the progressive relaxation of this legislation since 1950 the Act now has only limited application. The principal exemptions which apply to dwelling-houses are (a) All flats erected or resulting from conversion of buildings into flats since November 1953; (b) All buildings erected since October 1955; (c) All tenancy agreements entered into since November 1961. Where the Act does apply, a landlord or a tenant may apply to a rents officer or the Magistrate's Court to fix a fair rent.

There are restrictions on recovery of possession. Tenants of business premises, who would otherwise have lost protection of their tenancies in November 1964, were enabled under the Tenancy Amendment Act 1964 to give notice to the landlord by 19 November 1964 of their wish to have their tenancies extended. A tenant, having given such notice, and unable to obtain an extension on terms satisfactory to him, could apply to the Magistrate's Court, which was empowered to grant an extension up to 18 November 1967 at a rental obtainable on the open market or to refuse an extension if the landlord objected on specified grounds and proved his case.

Chapter 20. Section 20 ELECTRIC POWER AND GAS

20 A-ELECTRIC POWER: GENERATION AND SUPPLY

ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT-New Zealand has been generously endowed with natural resources which can be developed for the generation of electric power. Its vast lakes supply natural storage reservoirs for hydro-electric schemes and the rain and melting snows in the mountain areas continually replace the waters which are harnessed to supply electrical energy. Natural lakes have been supplemented by man-made lakes backing up from hydro-electric dams across rivers. In the thermal regions nature has provided geothermal steam, which also is being developed to provide power. Coal is another source of energy but mining and freight charges to the point of use are costly.

An important factor governing future plans for electric power development is that the hydro potential is mainly in the South Island and the preponderance of population is in the North Island. In 1962, after extensive investigations, the New Zealand Electricity Department commenced the task of erecting the 354-mile 500,000-volt direct-current transmission line between Benmore in the South Island and Haywards in the North Island which will incorporate a 25-mile submarine cable-link across Cook Strait.

In the North Island, maximum run off of water in the catchment areas usually occurs in the winter whereas in the South Island the maximum run off for the snow-fed rivers such as the Waitaki and Clutha is in the summer months. For the interconnected system lake-storage problems should be greatly simplified and costs reduced. The diversity between the peak load in the two Islands is not as great as might be expected but even the 1 to 2 per cent diversity factor results in an appreciable saving in the capital cost of installed generating capacity.

For New Zealand conditions the cost of power produced in nuclear power stations would be higher than in coal-fired steam stations. As the latter cost at least twice as much as for power production in hydro stations there appears to be no case for nuclear power stations for some years to come, especially in view of the hydro potential being developed in the Waitaki River basin, including Benmore and Aviemore, and the latest schemes which the Government have decided to develop at Lake Manapouri and Tongariro.

Geothermal steam is making a material contribution to electric power generation in the centre of the North Island. The Wairakei scheme is based on tapping a vast underground hot-water system. Investigations for further steam areas are continuing adjacent to and within the producing area, and exploratory work is proceeding in other parts of the thermal zone.

In the Waikato the Meremere coal-fired station makes a significant contribution to the North Island electric supply but at a much greater cost per unit than hydro power.

Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by private and local enterprise. Legislation passed in 1886 empowered local authorities to arrange for the supply of electricity in the areas under their control. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1887. Wellington and Auckland, and to a lesser extent Christchurch, began with coal-fired steam-generating plants and their supplies were extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. The Wellington plant began as a private venture, but later was taken over by the City Council. Dunedin early developed hydroelectric supply at Waipori. By 1918 many municipalities had local electricity supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases advantage had been taken of an adjacent water supply to develop hydro-electricity.

DEVELOPMENT OF WATER POWER: North Island-The hydro-electric power station at Horahora on the Waikato River, privately built in 1913, was purchased by the Government in 1919. Between 1920 and 1930 several Government stations were constructed, the first being the Mangahao station in the Tararuas which commenced to supply the surrounding area in 1924. After the Mangahao station was completed a commencement was made in 1926 on the development of the Waikaremoana scheme, which consists of three stations, Kaitawa, Tuai and Piripaua. The first station completed, Tuai, commenced supply in 1929; Piripaua station was completed in 1943; and Kaitawa station in 1948. The three stations are within a distance of 5 miles and the power generated by each is collected and transmitted from Tuai, the centre station.

The Waikato River constitutes the principal power source in the North Island, having, in its course of 200 miles from Lake Taupo, a total fall of 1,170 ft and a final discharge of over 10,000 cusecs. The rate of flow from Lake Taupo is controlled by works constructed in 1941 to conserve the water previously lost in the heavy spring and summer run-off.

Arapuni, Karapiro, Maraetai, Whakamaru, Atiamuri, Ohakuri, Waipapa, and Aratiatia power stations have been constructed on the Waikato River. The stations make use of the greater part of the fall of the Waikato River from Lake Taupo to Cambridge.

Arapuni came into operation (with one unit) in 1929, but was closed down between 1930 and 1932 as a result of damage caused by an earth movement. By 1946 Arapuni had eight units operating while construction work was in progress at Karapiro (commenced 1940) and Maraetai (commenced 1945). Karapiro station came into operation in 1947-48 with three units, the Horahora station ceasing generation prior to its site being submerged by the newly formed Karapiro lake. This artificial lake is 14 miles long and extends up river to Arapuni. Late in 1952 the Maraetai station was brought into operation and by May 1954 the installation of the fifth machine brought Maraetai to its full rating of 180,000 kW. Construction on Whakamaru was commenced in 1949; the station was commissioned with two machines in May 1956 and completed in December 1956 with four machines rated at 100,000 kW. Atiamuri station was begun in 1953 and the first machine was commissioned in November 1958; the station reached its full capacity of 84,000 kW from four machines in April 1962.

During 1961 three machines were commissioned at Ohakuri and the station was completed in February 1962 with a capacity of 112,000 kW from four machines. The hydro station at Waipapa was completed with three machines totalling 51,000 kW in November 1961 and the 90,000 kW Aratiatia station in May 1964. A 70,000 kW station scheduled for first operation in April 1967 is under construction at Matahina on the Rangitaiki River. The Government has approved the development of the Tongariro and Upper Waikato Rivers including a 180,000 kW station at Tokaanu.

All the State-owned stations are linked and operate as one system. Connections also exist with all the larger non-Government generating stations (steam and hydro). To transmit power for distribution from the new stations on the Waikato, a 220,000-volt system was added to the existing network of 110,000- and 50,000-volt transmission lines and interconnected substations. From Whakamaru collecting station, electricity is transmitted to the major substations at Otahuhu in the north and Bunnythorpe and Haywards in the south.

South Island-The Lake Coleridge station was commenced in the year following the passing of the Aid to Water Power Works Act 1910 and completed in 1915. This was the first station wholly designed and constructed by the Government. Its initial capacity was 4,500 kW, but by 1930 this was increased to 34,500 kW. The next station, Waitaki, commenced in 1928, came into use in 1935, and with the commissioning of its fifth machine in March 1949 was developed to its originally designed capacity of 75,000 kW. This was later increased by the addition of two further units which came into operation in May and June 1954. With a total capacity of 105.000 kW, Waitaki is the next largest station to Roxburgh operating in the South Island. Further use of the Waitaki River is being made at Benmore, where a station of 540,000 kW capacity is being constructed and is scheduled for first operation in 1965, and at Aviemore, where a 220,000 kW station is being built. The Government has also approved in principle further development of the Waitaki Basin and the construction of two power stations, one at Maryburn and one at Pukaki, with a total installed capacity of 190,000 kW. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo, to ensure an adequate water supply to Waitaki stations during the winter, and a single unit of 25,200 kW, incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo, was commissioned in May 1951. Another single unit, also of 25,200 kW, was installed in 1945 at Highbank to make use of the surplus water available in winter from the Rangitata irrigation race.

In 1936 the Government took over the Southland Electric Power Board's system, including the generating station at Lake Monowai, and in 1938 acquired from the Grey Electric Power Board the Arnold station at Kaimata.

Construction of the Cobb River station, with a capacity of 12,000 kW, was commenced by a private company, but the project was taken over and completed by the Government. Supply from this station, which has now been expanded in capacity to 32,000 kW, commenced in 1944.

The Roxburgh station on the Clutha River has a capacity of 320,000 kW. First operation of this station was in July 1956, and by December 1956 four machines with a capacity of 160,000 kW were commissioned. Two further machines were commissioned in 1961 and the last two in 1962.

A grid system similar to that in the North bland was established in 1939, when the Lake Monowai, Arnold, Lake Coleridge, and Waitaki stations were linked. A 220,000-volt line was constructed from Roxburgh to a major substation at Islington to bring the power from Roxburgh. From Islington a 220,000-volt line was extended to Kikiwa in the Nelson Provincial District and completed in 1958. This linked the Nelson-Marlborough area with the main South Island network.

In February 1963 the Government announced that it would take over the development of the Manapouri power potential from the organisation which had originally intended to develop the scheme to provide power for an aluminium industry. This scheme involves an underground power station using the waters of Lake Manapouri which will be discharged through a 6 ¼-mile tunnel to Doubtful Sound. A first-stage development of 400,000 kW is proceeding and power not required for the aluminium industry will be fed into the national grid.

THERMAL STATIONS-In the North Island a steam station at King's Wharf, Auckland, and one at Evans Bay, Wellington, with a combined capacity of 49,000 kW are now used only for peak-load and emergency purposes. In order to provide additional power in the North Island, a coal-fired steam station was constructed near Mercer, on the Waikato River. Meremere station, as it is called, was commenced in 1956 and first commissioned with two machines in August 1958 and completed in 1960 with six machines rated at 180,000 kW. Coal to feed the boilers is obtained from Huntly mines and is also brought by aerial cableway across the swamps from opencast mines at Maramarua.

In September 1964 Government approved in principle the installation of an additional 30,000 kW machine at Meremere and the construction of a 240,000 kW oil-fired thermal station at Marsden Point, near Whangarei.

GEOTHERMAL STEAM-At Wairakei station, a few miles north of Taupo, geothermal steam is being harnessed for the generation of electricity and the first machine in the initial development commenced generating in November 1958. Bores which are 4, 6, or 8 in. in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 570 ft and 4,000 ft. With closed bores, well-head pressures vary between 50 and 500 lb per sq. in. High-pressure valves are required to control the output from the bores. The quantity of steam discharged from the bores varies considerably, and a large quantity of water is ejected with the steam. The steam contains a trace of gas, mostly carbon dioxide; and in the water about three parts in a thousand are dissolved solids.

Steam is collected from a number of wells after being separated from the water that is ejected with it and piped to the power station through steel mains. From the mains the steam passes through high-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and low-pressure turbo-alternators, after which it is condensed to water and discharged into the Waikato River. A wide investigation is now being made of the possibilities of other geothermal resources.

COOK STRAIT SUBMARINE POWER CABLE-The Government announced in March 1956 that it had been decided to proceed immediately with a detailed investigation into the practicability of linking the power systems of the North and South Islands by a submarine cable across Cook Strait. The interconnection by a direct-current cable designed for 600,000 kW capacity was investigated and a trial length of cable which was laid in Cook Strait in May 1958 was lifted in March 1960 and returned to the manufacturers in England for inspection. An overseas firm of consultants furnished an independent report in 1959 for Government consideration. The report stated that the installation of submarine power cables across Cook Strait would be difficult but the project was feasible. In March 1961 the Government decided to proceed with the project which involves not only the installation of submarine cables but also the construction of an overhead 500 kV d.c. transmission line from Benmore to the southern side of Cook Strait and from the north side to Haywards, and the installation of a.c./d.c./a.c. converting plant and equipment at Benmore and Haywards substation. The transfer of power across Cook Strait began in April 1965.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRIC POWER-Since the end of 1958 New Zealand has enjoyed freedom from restrictions in the use of power, and forward planning is continually under review to ensure that the increasing demand may be met at all times. New schemes have to be conceived, designed, and constructed, while at the same time provision must be made for the transmission system to be expanded so that the power will become available when and where needed for future requirements. In 1957 a Combined Committee was set up to assist in this complicated task. The Committee consisted of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works, and representatives of the electrical supply authorities. In June 1957 the Government announced that the Committee's recommendations on how to meet future power demands were generally approved as a basic plan for the comprehensive and orderly development of the electric power system.

The use of committees has become an important feature of planning and for some years the following procedure has taken place. The Power and Finance Utilisation Committee of the Electrical Supply Authorities Association, on which the New Zealand Electricity Department is represented, collates detailed estimates for each area of unit consumption and peak demand for a period of five years in advance. These estimates, which are revised and extended each year, show when and where power will be required in all parts of New Zealand. The Committee to Review Power Requirements then considers the estimates. This committee has as chairman the General Manager of the New Zealand Electricity Department, with his Chief Engineer, a representative of the supply authorities, a representative of the Treasury, and the Government Statistician as members. Its function is to combine and project the supply authority estimates for a further five years for the North and South Island requirements and for New Zealand as a whole, also comparing them with the New Zealand requirements as arrived at by statistical methods. A Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development in New Zealand, which consists of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works, Treasury, and supply authority representatives, with the General Manager of the New Zealand Electricity Department as chairman, considers the findings of the Review Committee.

The Planning Committee recommends what projects it considers should be proceeded with, and when, in order to meet the estimated needs. The review and planning reports are submitted to the Minister of Electricity who tables them in the House of Representatives.

In 1962 the Government passed an Act to set up an Electricity Council to advise as to the extent to which an adequate supply and effective distribution of electricity is being achieved, to review the provision being made to meet the demand, and to report annually to Parliament on the plan of development.

To finance the huge outlay involved in electricity development the New Zealand Electricity Department drew up a plan which involved decreasing dependence on loan moneys, thus reducing the interest bill as well as stabilising the price. Legislation was passed in 1957 which made the Department no longer liable for income tax, provided that interest formerly capitalised be charged to revenue, and allows for revenue to provide a direct contribution towards capital requirements. This last provision came into effect in October 1961.

PROJECTED ELECTRICITY REQUIREMENTS-There has been a great upsurge in the consumption-of electric power. Power generated to meet the demand doubled between 1955 and 1964 to reach nearly 9,000 million kilowatt hours. In the same period generating capacity of power plants was also doubled to reach over two million kilowatts. Projected power requirements are expected to double again by 1974 to reach over 18,000 million kilowatt hours. To meet the estimated power needs the generating capacity must be increased to four and a half million kilowatts by 1975.

Up to 1955 some £162 million had been expended in generation, transmission, and distribution, of which the Government share was £112 million. By 1964 the capital invested by the Government had risen to £277 million, and with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on distribution, the total capital outlay had increased to £382 million. By 1975 the provision of barely sufficient generating capacity to meet the expected power needs could call for a further expenditure by Government of some £480 million. To this must be added the capital needs of the electrical supply authorities who must also increase the capacity of their distribution systems in step with the increasing power demand. In all probability the capital investment in 1975 in all branches of the electrical supply system will be in the region of £950 million.

Huge construction projects are necessary to meet the demand. The project at Benmore on the Waitaki River, has come into operation in 1965 and the transmission of 540,000 kW of power to the North Island involves 360 miles overland and 25 miles across Cook Strait, a large scheme by world standards. The World Bank made a loan of £11.6 million to meet overseas costs of this project. Construction has commenced at Aviemore on the Waitaki River of a station similar to Benmore but of the lesser capacity of 220,000 kW, and a massive hydro scheme has been started at Tongariro which is estimated to cost £70 million and involves the diversion of water from some of the tributaries of the Wanganui River into Lake Rotoaira and thence into Lake Taupo, and also the diversion of the headwaters of the Moawhango River and tributaries of the Whangaehu River into the Tongariro River and thence into Lake Rotoaira. From the Lake Manapouri project the first 200,000 kW of power should become available in 1969 to the national grid. An oil-fired thermal station with two 120,000 kW generators is being planned for Marsden Point, Whangarei, to produce power in 1968, and this will help in the transmission problems of delivering power to the Auckland area. There are other projects under construction and investigation.

LEGISLATION-Under the Electricity Act 1945 the New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for preparing plans for submission to Government to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering arc carried out by the Ministry of Works to the requirements of the New Zealand Electricity Department. The New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the networks which supply electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES-Various local authority Acts from 1886 onwards made provision for counties and municipalities to supply electricity in addition to their other functions, but in 1918 legislation was passed enabling local authorities to be set up with the sole function of supplying electricity. The legislation, amended and consolidated under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, provided for the constitution of electric power districts controlled by boards.

Of the 41 electric power boards actively functioning at 31 March 1964,13 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 28,345 kW. There were also 34 municipal electric supply authorities, 12 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 57,519 kW, and 2 companies both operating generating stations of a total rated capacity of 1,202 kW. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities at 31 March 1964 totalled approximately 91,252 square miles, with a population of 2,579,000 people, or 99.5 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

While the constitution of electric power boards enabled power to be available to more people outside the towns, the supply to remote areas still presented difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in comparison with the revenue from power sold. It was later agreed by the supply authorities that a council should be set up with power to make a levy of ± per cent on the gross revenue

of all supply authorities and Government-owned electrical undertakings, and that these funds be used in the form of subsidies to meet the annual cost of supply in remote areas. (In 1961 legislation was passed to permit the application of a levy of up to ½ per cent of the gross revenue.) The Rural Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March 1964 had approved subsidies on 7,918 route-miles of line to supply some 13,100 consumers. At this date 7,455 miles of line were completed and 12,518 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure was estimated at £6,170,752 and the subsidy approved for the year amounted to £264,740.

GOVERNMENT STATIONS-The following table covers all Government plants in operation and those under construction or for which contracts for machinery have been let, and shows the installed capacity and ultimate installed capacity, together with the static head.

Name of StationInstalled Capacity at 31 March 1964Ultimate Installed CapacityStatic Head (ft).
Number of UnitskWkVANumber of UnitskWkVA
* Under construction.
Hydro
Arapuni8157,800180,0008157,800180,000175
Karapiro390,000100,000390,000100,000100
Maraetai5180,000200,00010360,000400,000200
Whakamaru4100,000111,1004100,000111,100124
Atiamuri484,00093,333484,00093,33381
Waipapa351,00056,700351,00056,70053
Ohakuri4112,000124,4004112,000124,400115
Aratiatia*130,00033,333390,000100,000109
Matahina*.........270,00077,778195
Mangahao519,20024,000519,20024,000896
Waikaremoana
Kaitawa232,00038,000232,00038,000443
Tuai352,00062,000352,00062,000676
Piripaua240,00044,000240,00044,000370
Cobb River632,00037,222632,00037,2221,950
Arnold23,0603,60023,0603,60042
Lake Coleridge934,50040,640934,50040,640490
Highbank125,20028,000125,20028,000330
Waitaki7105,000116,6667105,000116,66670
Benmore*.........6540,000675,000305
Lake Tekapo125,20028,000125,20028,00080-105
Roxburgh8320,000355,5558320,000355,555150
Monowai36,0007,05036,0007,050154
Thermal
Meremere6180,000211,7646180,000211,764-
Evans Bay422,00027,500.........-
King's Wharf427,00033,800.........-
Geothermal
Wairakei12192,420213,801    
  Totals1071,920,3802,170,464    

ANNUAL GENERATION-During the year ended 31 March 1964 a total of 8,952,293,000 kWh was generated by public utilities, of which 6,851,518,000 kWh (76 per cent) was generated by water power, 2,111,278,000 kWh by steam engines, and 557,000 kWh by oil engines. A further 11,060,000 kWh was purchased by public supply authorities from generating stations operated by industrial establishments and fed into the supply system, making a total of 8,963,353,000 kWh available for distribution. By far the major portion of the generation is undertaken by Government-owned plants, which, in the period under review, generated 6,552,211,000 kWh by the use of water power and 2,100,238,000 kWh by use of steam power.

The following table shows the annual and daily average quantities of electricity generated for public supply over the latest 11 years. Index numbers are on base 1954 (= 100).

Year Ended 31 MarchNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.
 (000) kWh(000) kWh(000) kWh 
19542.758,1327,5571001,271,3593,4831004,029,49111,040100 
19553,066,9708,4031111,316,2553,6061044,383,22512,009109 
19563,323,8889,0821201,424,4463,8921124,748,33412,974118 
1957,0889,6991281,427,2743,9101124,967,36213,609123 
19583,955,78210,8381431,688,3674,6261335,644,14915,463140 
19593,892.37710,6641411,785,0354,8911405,677,41215,555141 
19604,419,55812,0751601,941,1245,3041526,360,68217,379157 
19614,759,92213,0411732,074,6225,6841636,834,54418,725170 
19625,155,50314,1251872,243,8006,1471767,399,30320,272184 
19635,589,11815,3132032,362,1536,4721867,951,27121,784197 
19646,355,07917,3642302,608,2747,1262058,963,35324,490222 

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS: Government Establishments-The following table gives details of the operations of Government establishments generating and distributing electricity during the latest three years. It includes Southland electric power supply, operated by the New Zealand Electricity Department, and in the year ended 31 March 1954 includes Rotorua Electric Supply operated by Government Tourist Department.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
196219631964
Establishments-No.232123
Persons engaged-No.3,6974,0334,178
Salaries and wages paid—£3,513,9943,943,2334,231,934
Consumers- No.21,85822,54537,052
Prime movers-#
Hydro- b.h.p.1,994,9002,080,9002,363,900
Thermal- b.h.p.447,139477,367491,254
  Totals b.h.p.2,442,0392,558,2672,855,154
Generators (capacity)-#
AC. kw,kVA1,736,3151,860,3801,920,3 80
1,966,5902,103,7982,170,464
Revenue
Sales of power
Retail- £1,657,2301,886,7172,947,145
Bulk and interchange—£18,777,21120,812,92423,196,884
Other-£139,711153,885184,041
  Total revenue £20,574,15222,853,52626,328,070
Expenditure
Power purchased (including interchange) £194,780220,486516,242
Generating costs-£3,058,4462,103,9603,555,277
Transmission and distribution costs-£1,169,9121,224,7581,385,137
Management and general- £1,218,0501,260,3311,360,225
Capital charges—£13,028,49414,127,08715,047,807
  Total expenditure £18,669,68218,936,62221,864,688
Capital outlay
Total expenditure to date- £234,992,278253,398,273278,876,329
Expenditure during year—£17,323,48918,405,99525,478,056
Generation
Hydro- (000) kWh5,641,4986,429,8696,552,211
Steam- (000) kWh1,445,4661,164,0712,100,238
Oil—(000) kWh---
  Totals (000) kWh7,086,9647,593,9408,652,449
Retail sales- (000) kWh346,210409,859642,492

Electric Power Boards-This table gives similar information concerning generation and distribution by electric power boards.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
 196219631964
EstablishmentsNo.434341
Persons engagedNo.4,1544,3684,483
Salaries and wages paid£4,017,6274,292,1174,649,547
ConsumersNo.564,226582,412606,542
Prime movers
Hydrob.h.p.25,32734,12737,671
Thermalb.h.p.4,9304,9304,190
  Totals b.h.p.30,25739,05741,861
Generators (capacity)
A.C.,kW20,46526,40528,345
kVA24,82831,42833,478
Revenue
Sales of power
Retail£22,186,73324,121,97926,562,384
Bulk and interchange1,310,8311,476,5841,575,369 
Other (including rates)£420,842487,909573,255
  Total revenue£23,918,40626,086,47228,711,008
Expenditure 
Power purchased (including interchange)£14,000,39515,647,44417,289,874
Generating costs£60,36951,49950,398
Transmission and distribution costs£2,521,2822,713,2432,931,723
Management and general£1,802,9381,906,2512,026,817
Capital charges£3,854,5344,156,0434,690,519
  Total expenditure£22,239,51824,474,48026,989,331
Capital outlay 
Total expenditure to date£66,647,15970,975,47375,847,743   
Expenditure during year£5,040,6684,328,3144,872,270   
Generation    
Hydro(000) kWh98,436134,191129,775   
Oil(000) kWh423595   
  Totals (000) kWh98,478134,226129,870   
Retail sales(000) kWh3,951,9434,298,6284,804,631   

All Establishments-The next table sets out the same information in respect of all establishments engaged in the generation and distribution of power. These consisted at 31 March 1964 of 23 Government establishments, 2 limited liability companies, 41 electric power boards, 11 city councils, 18 borough councils, 4 county councils, and 2 town boards.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
196219631964
Establishments-No.105103101
Persons engaged—No.9,75410,43710,631
Salaries and wages paid—£9,278,98310,146,57710,810,895
Consumers- No.859,683884,155912,673
Prime movers
Hydro- b.h.p.2,115,4972,196,2072,482,211
Thermal- b.h.p.441,609485,797498,944
  Totals b.h.p.2,557,1062,682,0042,981,155
Generators (capacity)
A.C.,kW,A.C.,kVA1,814,5991,944,6042,006,344
2,062,2702,206,0782,274,544
Revenue
Sales of power-#
Retail- £34,449,49737,470,40041,814,660
Bulk—£19,987,28522,170,93624,674,064
Other (including rates)—£908,9361,060,9501,141,232
  Total revenue £55,345,71860,702,28667,629,956
Expenditure- #
Bulk power purchased (within industry)-£20,162,97722,368,09724,856,148
Power purchased (outside sources)-£13,69915,19128,814
Generating costs-£3,237,5232,296,3483,750,097
Transmission and distribution costs-£5,010,9825,418,8985,743,221
Management and general—£3,693,0453,925,6414,270,294
Capital charges-£18,275,67819,841,29521,349,801
  Total expenditure £50,393,90453,865,47059,998,375
Capital outlay-
Total expenditure to date—£327,067,641351,558,255382,307,002
Expenditure during year—£24,264,49024,490,61430,748,747
Generation
Hydro—(000) kWh5,946,4666,778,7266,851,518
Steam—(000) kWh1,452,5781,172,3082,121,278
Oil—(000) kWh260237557
  Totals (000) kWh7,399,3047,951,2718,973,353
Generation per head of mean population-kWh3,0293,1773,505
Retail sales- (000) kWh6,169,4976,683,7857,577,490

Employment-Further details concerning the number of employees and the salaries and wages paid to them are given in the following table for the year ended 31 March 1964.

Category of StaffPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesTotalTo MalesTo FemalesTotal
Charged to operation and managementNo.No.No.£££
Managerial and clerical1,9707122,6822,376,264436,7282,812,992
Wage earners5,7441225,8665,808,29172,6035,880,894
Charged to capital
Managerial and clerical11810128137,0846,875143,959
Wage earners1,935201,9551,956,34616,7041,973,050
Totals9,76786410,63110,277,985532,91010,810,895

Capital Expenditure-The following table gives capital expenditure during 1963-64 and total capital outlay to 31 March 1964.

ItemExpenditure During YearTotal Capital Outlay to 31 March 1964
Generating system£(000)£(000)
Head works, pipelines, etc.12,488126,318
Powerhouse, buildings, cottages, etc.1,30328,187
Generating plant and machinery, etc.4,30944,903
Transmission and distribution lines, substations, land and houses11,113138,078
Street lighting1751,867
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, service buildings5169,435
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, trucks, motorcars, equipment49110,505
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, loan conversion premiums, surveys, preliminary expenses, interest during construction)10514,273
Stock and materials (including trading department stocks)2428,551
Other items not capable of inclusion above7190
  Total capital outlay30,749382,307

Additions to the capital value of all electrical systems during 1963-64 totalled £31,036,975, while deductions, i.e. sales and amounts written off, amounted to £288,228. The previous table shows for each item the net expenditure only during the year.

General Balance Sheet as at 31 March 1964-The next table summarises the balance sheet at 31 March 1964 for all establishments.

Liabilities
 £(000) £(000)
Capital raised 
Original amount of current loans299,524
less amounts repaid41,829
Balance owing on 31 March 1963257,695
Temporary loans417
Sundry Creditors- 
Bank overdraft158
Other9,491
Reserves 
Loan repayment reserve44,841
Capital expenditure out of revenue23,718
Sinking fund reserve2,895
Depreciation reserve40,080
Renewal fund reserve- -1,500
General and other reserves23,452
Surplus in Appropriation account5,723
  Total409,970
Assets
 £(000)
Total capital outlay382,307
Sundry debtors10,770
Other assets 
Cash and trading bank balances4,170
State, Advances stock, balances at POSB, National Savings--75
New Zealand Government stock738
Local authority stock788
Public Trust and National Provident Fund7,700
Other3,422
  Total409,970

Power-The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. The excess generation of certain local factories, which is bought in for public supply, is given in the column "Other Sources".

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNon-productive
N.Z. Electricity DepartmentSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
thousand kWh
19606,050,066299,02011,5966,360,6825,273,9321,086,750
19616,504,620318,42311,0016,834,5445,683,5471,150,997
19627,086,964304,9167,4247,399,3046,169,4971,229,807
19637,593,940349,0948,2377,951,2716,683,7851,267,486
19648,652,449299,84411,0608,963,3537,577,4901,385,863

Analysis of Units Retailed-The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table "Domestic" includes domestic water-heating units, and "Commercial" both commercial and dairy water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticCommercial and IndustrialStreet LightingTramways and Trolley BusesElectric RailwaysOther PurposesTotal
thousand kWh
19603,122,1732,066,78339,05422,37623,2942525,273,932
19613,359,7552,234,89743,35822,22123,316-5,683,547
19623,656,0432,419,13448,09322,22023,6403676,169,497
19633,919,870x2,661,264x57,91621,69322,964786,683,785
19644,408,0113,055,83165,43120,50623,2194,4927,577,490

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

Revenue-Revenue is derived chiefly from the sale of power, and in 1963-64 this source was £97.8 per cent of the total. The following table sets out the revenue from all sources (excluding bulk sales) for the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchSale of Power (Retail)Profits from TradingMiscellaneousTotal*
* Excluding revenue from interchange of power.
 ££££
196030,031,508121,337617,33730,770,182
196131,722,325129,870720,71132,572,906
196234,449,497131,988776,94835,358,433
196337,470,400126,826736,96338,334,189
196441,814,660125,097834,05142,773,808

Expenditure-Of the total expenditure of £35,142,227 (excluding cost of interchange of power in bulk) recorded in the year ended 31 March 1964, 72.9 per cent represented overhead costs (comprising management expenses and capital charges), while operating expenses of prime costs stood at 27.1 percent.

Power may be sold more than once in bulk before reaching the retailing authority, and in these tables the revenue from such interchange of power between authorities is set off against the cost, the net figure for cost of power purchased representing the cost to the industry of purchases from outside sources. In this connection mention may be made of certain contracts existing between the Government and some local authorities, whereby the latter are required to maintain their plants and to operate them, whenever called upon, to supplement the State electricity supply. The units so generated, often by fuel plants, are purchased by the Government and resold, in most cases to the generating authority, for distribution.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure, excluding the cost of bulk interchanges.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1961196219631964
* Does not Include the interchange of power between supply authorities.
 ££££
Operating Expenditure
Cost of power purchased*55,04313,69915,19128,814
Cost of generation948,471950,420991,1101,071,636
Fuel1,719,4261,797,566797,2862,147,839
Repairs and stores469,201489,537507,952530,622
Cost of transmission and distribution4,835,8264,907,6445,310,9685,627,740
Public (street) lighting87,137103,338107,930115,481
Totals8,115,1048,262,2047,730,4379,522,132
Miscellaneous Expenditure
Cost of management3,213,4233,512,4673,739,0214,011,644
Losses from trading6,7254,9047,6849,436
Other expenditure and insurance123,280175,674178,936249,214
Totals3,343,4283,693,0453,925,6414,270,294
Capital Charges (Including Taxation)
Interest9,128,37210,816,40511,564,59712,255,452
Sinking fund474,590494,971489,059522,227
Renewals798,931844,1371,133,297909,340
Depreciation3,433,1543,002,6013,388,9993,740,011
Loan repayment—2,925,7753,117,5643,265,3433,922,771
  Totals16,760,82218,275,67819,841,29521,349,801
Grand totals28,219,35430,230,92731,497,37335,142,227

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold retail is given hereunder.

-Year Ended 31 March
1961196219631964
 d.d.d.d.
Operating expenses0.3430.3210.2780.302
Miscellaneous expenses0.1410.1440.1410.135
Capital charges0.7080.7110.7120.676
  Total1.1921.1761.1311.113

20 B-GAS GENERATION AND SUPPLY

HISTORY-Gas produced from coal was an early source of light and heating in New Zealand. The first gasworks was erected in 1862 at Auckland which at that time had a European population of about 25,000. By 1869 there was a gasworks in each of the four main centres. There were 56 establishments engaged in the generation and supply of gas to the public in 1916. Since that date the number of works has declined steadily, although the output of gas increased and a much larger number of consumers was supplied through the expansion of remaining works.

In the 1950s, the decline of the gas industry was viewed with concern by the Government and the authorities which are required to supply the country with electric power, because of the additional demand for electricity which must follow any reduction of the gas supply.

The Electricity and Gas Coordination Act 1956 established an Electricity and Gas Coordination Board to advise the Minister on the coordination of the electricity and gas industries. Following a report from the Board regarding the difficulties to be overcome in effecting local mergers, legislation was passed in 1958 setting up a Gas Council in place of the Board. The main functions of the Council are to advise the Government and the industry regarding the preservation and expansion of gas supplies. Subsidies, grants, and loans may be made to assist the industry. The Gas Council has pursued a basic policy of spending funds available for the purpose of promoting efficiency and confidence in the gas industry. Much new plant has been installed, assisted in some cases by grants towards interest and capital repayment charges on loans until the new plant becomes revenue producing.

The discovery of valuable natural gas deposits at Kapuni in Taranaki could affect the gas industry. It has been estimated that natural gas could be supplied to Auckland and Wellington consumers for from 30 to 35 years from the Kapuni reserves. The Kapuni natural gas, with the non-combustible component removed, would have more than twice the heat content per standard cubic foot of coal gas, and would bum with a smaller, sharper, and hotter flame. The Government is investigating the merits of alternative uses of the natural gas, including the development of a petro-chemical industry and the generation of electricity.

GAS SUBSIDY-As a part of the general stabilisation policy during the war, the Government instituted a system of subsidies to gasworks to enable them to meet rising costs without unduly increasing the price of gas to the consumer. These subsidies were paid from 1943 onwards to individual works as required, each case being considered separately. The subsidies were withdrawn in 1950, the price of gas to consumers being raised to meet the additional cost of gas making consequent on this withdrawal. Further increases in operating costs, wages, and coal prices in 1951 led to a restoration of subsidies to the gas industry in the form of a subsidy to all gasworks of 2s. per 1,000 cu. ft. of gas sold. Financial assistance in the form of loans was also offered to works for the purpose of carrying out work necessary to restore the efficiency of gas making and storage plant, and it was considered that at the end of two years the industry would be in a strong enough position for the subsidy to be withdrawn. This has not proved to be the case, and the subsidy is still in force. From October 1959 this subsidy was reduced to Is. 8d., except for works on the West Coast and the oil plant at Hastings. In addition, a new subsidy covering freight charges on coal was given to 18 undertakings. The Gas Council also stabilised the cost of gas-making coal in 1960.

Annual average prices of gas in the four main centres are shown in the following table.

AVERAGE PRICE OF GAS TO CONSUMER PER 1,000 CUBIC FEET
YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
1929-30706117063
1939-40726165511
1949-508106106962
1959-6013510681075
1962-6314511119178
1963-641431269481

RECENT STATISTICS-Statistics for the latest three years are set out in the following table.

Item1961-621962-631963-64
* Including natural gas.
Works- No.302929
Premises and plant
Value at end of year
Land and buildings—£(000)1,2681,2711,294
Plant and machinery—£(000)6,5906,7436,936
Capital expenditure during year
Land and buildings—£(000)112017
Plant and machinery—£(000)897651390
Persons engaged—No.1,4111,4121,371
Salaries and wages paid—£(000)-1,2811,3361,354
Coal used
Quantity- tons279,058261,749268,101
Cost- £(000)1,7361,6231,670
Total expenditure-£(000)4,2074,2574,403
Total revenue-£(000)4,1674,1464,457
Consumers-No.158,437153,260149,953
Gas available for distribution*-cu. ft. (000)5,860,5385,673,4346,047,566
Gas sold retail
Quantity-cu. ft. (000)4,584,5584,451,6504,762,626
Value (including subsidies)- £(000)3,1583,1273,461
Average price of gas to consumer per 1,000
cu. ft.11s. lid.12s. Id.12s. 4d.

There follows an analysis of the 1963-64 statistics, these being dissected by locality of gasworks (North and South Island) and character of organisation. It will be seen that 66 per cent of the total quantity of gas available for distribution was in the North Island and 34 per cent was in the South Island, while proportions available for distribution by registered companies and local authorities were 69 per cent and 31 per cent respectively.

ItemRegistered CompaniesLocal AuthoritiesTotalRegistered CompaniesLocal AuthoritiesTotal

* Depreciated values.

†Undepreciated. Depreciation funds amounted to £28,000. funds amounted to £68,000.

‡Undepreciated. Depreciation

 North IslandSouth Island
Works- -No.691531114 
Value of land and buildings-£(000)908*1321,03982*173255 
Value of machinery and plant-£(000)2,317*l,7864,102910*1,9232,834 
Capital additions during year 
Land and buildings- £(000)41015-22 
Machinery and plant- £(000)188362247096166 
Persons engaged 
Males-No.660194854188222410 
Females—No.641377201030 
Totals No.724207931208232440 
Salaries and wages paid 
To males-£(000)692194887178223401 
To females-£(000)4274912618 
  Totals £(000)734201936190229419 
Motive power 
Engines in use—No.22513235772215287 
Total horsepower—h.p.3,4459764,4219151,1762,091 
Materials used 
Coal- tons(000)133351675348101 
# £(000)8532381,091279300578 
Oil- gal(000)87839916 279279 
 £(000)443471616 
Products 
Gas available for distribution cu. ft (m)3,1438333,9761,0101,0622,071 
Gas sold retail- cu. ft (m)2,3676623,0298968381,734 
Value (including subsidies)-£(000)1.8655412,4045045531,056 
Coke-tons(000)35843241237 
# £(000)1946325717772249 
Tar- gal (000)1,0603171,377467408875 
# £(000)11734151463581 
Other residuals—£(000)5966419221 
Total expenditure—£(000)2,2527202,9725968351,431 
Total revenue—£(000)2,3786753,0536807241,404 
Consumers-No.74,68924,52299,21116,69634,04650,742 

Chapter 21. Section 21 MARKETING

21 A-MARKETING OF PRIMARY PRODUCE

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat-Most meat produced in the world is used for domestic consumption, and only about 6 per cent of world output enters into international trade-About three-quarters of all meat exports come from five countries. In order of importance these are New Zealand, Denmark, Argentina, Australia, and the Netherlands. The import trade is dominated by the United Kingdom, which takes about two-thirds of the total exports. Next in importance as importers are the United States of America, and the Western European countries such as Italy, Western Germany, and France.

Beef and veal comprise about half the world exports, with Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand the main exporters. In recent years, exports of pig meats (mostly by European countries) and mutton and lamb (mostly by New Zealand and Australia) have increased, while exports of beef have declined. New Zealand faces a problem of disposing of a rapidly increasing quantity of sheep meats in world markets. The United Kingdom has been a sheep-rearing country for centuries, and her people have developed a taste for mutton and lamb. In other likely markets the taste must to some extent be cultivated.

The population of the United Kingdom is increasing only slowly, and the consumption per head of carcass meat has remained fairly stable in recent years. At the same time the United Kingdom home production has risen considerably following encouragement by a system of guaranteed agricultural prices.

Though the United Kingdom is traditionally New Zealand's export market for meat and must remain so in the foreseeable future, there has been for some years a growing realisation of the need for supplementary markets. Efforts made during the past few years to develop alternative markets have had some success.

In the past the main markets outside the United Kingdom for New Zealand's meat nave been the countries of Western Europe, but in recent years exports to these areas have declined, as these countries have intensified protection of their agricultural industries. Market opportunities may also be affected by developments in the European Economic Community, comprising Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Western Germany, and also by the European Free Trade Association, comprising United Kingdom, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

Canada and the United States of America have been developed into important supplementary markets for lamb, and sales of mutton to Japan, Greece, and other markets outside the United Kingdom have increased substantially.

A reduction in size of beef herds in the United States of America following a drought and low prices in 1955-56 led to a demand for imported beef by that country. In 1958 New Zealand became a leading exporter of beef to the United States with shipments totalling about 91,000 tons, mostly boneless. In 1958 Canada also bought 4,100 tons of New Zealand beef and veal, with the result that 76 per cent of New Zealand's 1957-58 beef exports went to North American markets. In 1958-59, however, there was a drop in shipments to both the United States and Canada, partly because there was less beef for export and partly from competition from a greater supply of Australian beef following an amendment to the United Kingdom-Australian long-term agreement on meat which permitted Australia to divert a larger proportion of her production to markets outside the United Kingdom. Shipment of beef from New Zealand to the United States declined by 15,000 tons in 1959-60 but increased sales were made to other markets. Between 1 October 1960 and 30 September 1961 the shipments of boneless beef and veal totalled 51,900 tons to the United States and 1,200 tons to Canada. Smaller supplies from domestic production, coupled with continued heavy consumer demand, led to a sharp expansion in United States import requirements in 1962; receipts of beef and veal from Australia and New Zealand rose by 102,000 tons and 27,000 tons respectively. The rises in 1963 were much 'smaller.

Exports of New Zealand, meat to the United States form only a very small proportion of national consumption. In February 1964 the United States and New Zealand Governments reached an agreement which guaranteed New Zealand continued access to the United States market with provision for a steady growth in the quantity exported each year from New Zealand. Access was granted for 103,000 tons of beef and veal in 1964. The annual rate of growth fixed in the agreement was the estimated rate of increase in the total United States market for these products, namely 3.7 per cent. Based on this figure the permissible level of New Zealand exports is 107,000 tons in 1965 and 111,000 tons in 1966. A similar agreement was made between the United States and Australia.

The following table shows the main destination of exports from New Zealand of frozen and chilled beef and veal for the two latest years.

Country of DestinationYear Ended June
19631964*
* Provisional.
 tons£(000)tons£(000)
United Kingdom5,9579109,4831,952
United States103,67624,99990,86722,612
Canada5,1151,1302,543652
Other countries11,9962,37916,7853,888
  Totals126,74329,419119,67829,104

Imports into the United States of some classes of fresh, chilled, or frozen meat are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country of ExportBeef and VealMutton and Lamb
196119621963x1964196119621963
tons (thousand)
New Zealand679410975547
Australia99201229168192730
Canada139712---
Republic of Ireland3130329---
Mexico24263322---
Other countries15243571---
  Total imports248384445357243237
United States production7,2967,282x7,746x 371356 

Wool-New Zealand is one of the largest exporters of wool in the world but marketing presents few difficulties. Most of the wool is auctioned in New Zealand and buyers come from interested countries to make their purchases of wool. A small percentage of wool produced is shipped to England for sale on the London market. Prices fluctuate according to the demand for wool, but the present market requirements are such that the Wool Commission has not had to buy in very much wool under its minimum price scheme, and even then has had to hold it only temporarily. The threat of competition from synthetic materials is such that the International Wool Secretariat is actively promoting advertising, merchandising, and research. World wool production and wool utilisation have in recent years been approximately in balance and there has been no pressure on supplies.

World wool production increased by almost 40 per cent in the 10 years to 1960-61; this growth reflects improvements both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep), and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population, the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. Since the war there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production, which remains heavily concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay-all of which export on a large scale-and in the United States and the Soviet Union, neither of whose clips enters the international market to any significant extent. These countries accounted for 76 per cent of world production in 1963-64; of the world total Australia alone produces 30 per cent and with New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa some 53 per cent.

Most of the major producing countries increased their wool production over the 10 years to 1960-61; Australia by 46 percent, New Zealand by 51 per cent, and South Africa by 29 per cent. In the Soviet Union wool production almost doubled. In the United States the increase was less than 20 per cent, while production in South America was little changed.

The distribution of wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population since the production of wool, or yield per sheep varies considerably. While there is undoubtedly scope for improvement in a number of the lower yielding countries, the yields, which are averages over the sheep populations as a whole, are determined by the type of pasture, breed of sheep, average age of flock, and age of the sheep at slaughter. Variations in yield between countries, therefore, do not necessarily reflect variations in efficiency, but rather differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries in 1962-63 are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

CountrySheep NumbersWool ProductionProduction per Head of Sheep
 millionmillion lb (greasy)lb (greasy)
Australia158.61,67110.6
New Zealand50.262012.3
Argentina45.04089.1
South Africa34.03229.5
Uruguay21.71908.8
United States30.22999.9
United Kingdom29.51314.4
U.S.S.R.139.78065.8
Whole world912.05,6896.2

Dairy Produce-For the sale of dairy products New Zealand is very largely dependent on the United Kingdom market, which is practically the only open market of any size for butter and cheese. In 1960 the total production of butter by 32 of the main producing countries of the world amounted to 4-2 million tons. In the same year world exports by 19 of the leading exporters amounted to about 560,000 tons, that is, only about 13 per cent of world production entered into international trade. Of this quantity, 408,000 tons (73 per cent) came on to the United Kingdom market. Of the exports of 431,000 tons of cheese from 20 countries in 1960 there were 133,000 tons sent to the United Kingdom. These figures show that relatively small changes in demand-supply relationships in individual countries can have a most disturbing effect on the United Kingdom market.

Some countries have adopted agricultural income and price support policies to maintain and stabilise farming incomes. Only industrialised countries with a relatively low proportion of their national income derived from agriculture can continue support measures on a large scale. International trade is adversely affected in several ways. To maintain prices at support levels many countries have restricted imports of agricultural products, so that entry into markets, in which New Zealand's exports could effectively compete, has often been denied. High support prices and consequent high domestic prices discourage consumption and often lead to the accumulation of supplies which are surplus to domestic requirements. Surpluses generated in this manner are frequently disposed of in other markets at prices well below the cost of production. New Zealand's position in the United Kingdom market was adversely affected in 1958 when some European countries dumped on the market such quantities of butter that there were serious falls in prices.

Since 1958 price reductions in some European countries have to some extent stimulated consumption in them, but not a great deal of progress has been made in the reduction of subsidised dairy production that leads to dumping. It is essential for New Zealand to maintain strong and consistent pressure in international councils so that these measures are furthered. There were indications in 1960 that OEEC countries were prepared to exercise restraints to ensure a normal flow of supplies to the United Kingdom market, but dumping by a number of countries led to a serious fall in prices early in 1961. Discussions extending over a number of months in GATT and other international bodies were aimed at finding a remedy to the situation. Some alleviation of New Zealand's position was afforded in November 1961 when the British Government asked all countries currently supplying butter to Britain to agree to limit their shipments to the quantities proposed by GATT up to 31 March 1962. Britain restricted imports of butter for the year from 1 April 1962 to 390,000 tons, of which New Zealand's quota was 156,000 tons. This involved a waiver by New Zealand of the agreement for unrestricted entry to the United Kingdom market. For the year to 31 March 1964 the import level was raised to 410,000 tons, of which New Zealand's quota was 163,800 tons. The import level was later raised to 437,000 tons. In August 1963, when Britain increased the quota to the end of October 1963 by 12,000 tons, New Zealand was asked to supply an extra 2,000 tons.

In October Britain sought another 5,000 tons to make up for short supply. When the New Zealand Government agreed in May 196$ to the request of the British Government (in connection with EFTA discussions involving Denmark) that the tariff of 15s. a hundredweight on non-Commonwealth butter be suspended for the duration of the present system of quota restrictions, Britain agreed to import not less than 163,800 tons of New Zealand butter annually. The basic butter quota for 1964-65 was set at 420,000 tons, with New Zealand's share as 168,000 tons. The quota and New Zealand's share remained the same for 1965-66.

New Zealand is moving towards the development of more supplementary markets for dairy produce, although quantities of the major products that can thus be disposed of are relatively small compared with the United Kingdom, New Zealand's long-standing market. Major industrial countries where income levels and food-consumption habits could provide important markets have, adopted trading policies aimed at restricting imports of foodstuffs to protect their agriculture. International commodity agreements are now proposed as a long-term solution to the problem facing the suppliers of some of the temperate foodstuffs.

TRADE AGREEMENTS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM-The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for primary produce. New Zealand's trading relations with the United Kingdom are governed by a number of formal commitments. Under the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 New Zealand undertook to maintain a preferential tariff on imports from the United Kingdom, while the United Kingdom for its part was obliged to grant duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and maintain specified duties on some foreign products of interest to New Zealand. The United Kingdom also undertook to place quota restrictions on foreign meats.

On butter the foreign tariff rate, and therefore the margin of preference, fixed in 1932 was 15s. a hundredweight (at which comparatively low rate it still remains); on cheese the tariff preference is 15 per cent; on meat there is no preference on mutton and lamb, and a negligible tariff preference exists on beef coupled with a foreign quota on meat which was designed to ensure an expanding share of the United Kingdom's market; while on wool there has never been a preference.

During the trade talks in the United Kingdom in April-May 1957 the question of a review of the Ottawa Agreement was raised, and following discussions which took place in New Zealand early in 1958 on the occasion of the visit of the United Kingdom Prime Minister it was agreed desirable to review the provisions of the Ottawa Agreement which had remained substantially unaltered since 1932. Negotiations were opened by a New Zealand official delegation in London on 17 April 1958, and the new agreement came into force on 25 November 1958.

The agreement gave new flexibility to New Zealand's international trading and negotiating position. The levels of preferences in favour of the United Kingdom of the 1932 Agreement could be modified but the basic principle was retained to ensure that the close and mutually beneficial economic partnership between the United Kingdom and New Zealand would continue. Recognising that, because of changed conditions, the balance of advantage under the 1932 Trade Agreement had moved against New Zealand, the United Kingdom Government agreed to New Zealand having the right to reduce the 20 per cent margin of preference on British goods. (See Section 22d-Customs Tariff and Revenue.)

The greater flexibility which will result will assist in reducing the cost of imports, and also enable other markets for an increasing volume of exports to be maintained and developed. New Zealand must be able to produce exports at competitive prices and to do this it is essential that plant and raw material used in production be imported on the most favourable basis. Provision has also been made for New Zealand to resort to a limited measure of bilateral trading with third countries, without causing serious harm to the trade of the United Kingdom.

In the latest agreement all existing rights and preferences for New Zealand goods entering the United Kingdom market were preserved. These included the 1957 supplementary agreement providing for annual consultations on the agricultural production and marketing policies of the two countries, as well as the 10-year right of entry to the United Kingdom market, without restriction as to quantity, of butter, cheese, skim and buttermilk powders, casein, and chilled and frozen pork. The 15-year right of entry for New Zealand meat, agreed to in 1952 outside the 1932 pact, remains in force.

Under the agreement the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments recognise that each other's trade may be materially injured by competition from dumped or subsidised exports from third countries. If, after consultation, it is established that such injury is being caused or threatened, each Government will consider remedial action consistent with its own laws and its international obligations.

The system of quota restrictions on butter and the suspension of the tariff constitute a suspension of part of New Zealand's rights under the trade agreement.

Trade between the United Kingdom and New Zealand is at present governed broadly by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and in particular by the New Zealand-United Kingdom Trade Agreement of 1959. Under this Agreement New Zealand has been guaranteed unrestricted and duty free entry to the United Kingdom market for dairy produce and pork until May 1967. The Agreement also gives guarantees of duty free entry for all New Zealand's exports and the preservation of specified margins of preference over imports from foreign sources of commodities such as dairy produce, beef, and veal during the currency of the Agreement, which may be terminated following six months' notice on either side. In addition, the United Kingdom has undertaken, in a Joint Declaration of 1952, to permit New Zealand's exportable surplus of beef, veal, mutton, and Iamb to be sold in the United Kingdom market without restriction of quantity up to 31 October 1967. These are the formal arrangements. In practice they are of considerable importance because of New Zealand's dependence on the United Kingdom market. Of our total exports over 50 per cent are sent to the United Kingdom but for certain products the degree of dependence is much greater. In recent years over 90 per cent of butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb exports were sent to the United Kingdom. On the other hand, in the case of beef (because of the development of exports of this commodity to the United States) and some minor dairy products, the degree of dependence on the United Kingdom market has dropped sharply in recent years.

Restricted Alternative Outlets-Finding suitable trading outlets outside the United Kingdom has, for a number of reasons, proved difficult. The systems of agricultural protection used in North America and in Europe generally rely on restriction of supplies, especially imports, in order to maintain domestic prices and thus incomes to producers. These systems not only make it very difficult for New Zealand to export to these markets (which could be most lucrative) but also frequently result in the dumping of surpluses on relatively free markets. These problems are particularly acute in respect of dairy produce. In some instances lack of consumer appeal is a barrier to the promotion of new markets, as in the case of mutton and lamb in Continental Europe. The development of markets on any significant scale for the most vulnerable products-dairy produce and mutton and lamb-in African, Asian, and Latin American countries faces difficulties of a rather different kind. The developing countries in these areas of the world need to allocate a substantial proportion of their limited foreign exchange for imports of capital goods essential to their development programmes. They cannot therefore afford to import freely dairy produce and meat which for them are luxuries. Moreover, consumer preference for local foodstuffs, the lack of cold storage facilities, and the existence of religious and social barriers against meat consumption are significant among other factors in inhibiting the growth of trade between New Zealand and these regions in certain classes of meat and foodstuffs. Difficulties such as these make New Zealand more conscious of the restrictions on imports in the countries of Europe and North America which could be expected to be "natural" markets for our products.

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY-The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community entered into force on 1 January 1958. Under the terms of this treaty, the n six member countries, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands will, over a transitional period, eliminate tariffs and other restrictions to trade within the Community. At the same time the tariffs on goods entering each member country from outside the Community will be adjusted until all member countries have a common external tariff. By January 1965 the member countries had brought the level of duties on intra-community trade down to 30 per cent of their 1957 level on industrial products, 45 per cent on non-liberalised agricultural products, and 50 per cent on liberalised agricultural commodities. At the same date the difference between the eventual common external tariff and the separate duties applied by each member in 1957 had been reduced by a total of 70 per cent. The aim is for the tariffs to disappear by 1 January 1967.

During 1961 there loomed the prospect of the United Kingdom's joining the European Economic Community. This raised the threat of tariffs, levies, and quotas on New Zealand's dairy produce and meat going into the United Kingdom market. Strong representations were made to the British Government and Britain stated that she would not feel able to join the European Economic Community unless special arrangements could be secured to protect vital interests of New Zealand and other Commonwealth countries. (See special article in Appendix (d) of the 1962 Yearbook.)

At the conclusion of the Community's last Ministerial meeting in. August 1962 the Chairman of the meeting informed Britain that because of the extent of her dependence on the British market the Six recognised that New Zealand was in a special position. They were prepared to consider additional solutions to cope with the particular difficulties arising from New Zealand's high degree of dependence on the United Kingdom market.

In January 1963 negotiations for a basis of entry by Britain into the European Economic Community ended in failure, because of France's insistence on strict application of the Rome Treaty without special dispensations, particularly for agricultural products. Subsequently Denmark announced that she would not proceed with her application to join the Common Market.

EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA)-On 27 May 1959 Sweden invited Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom ("The Seven") to join with her in exploring the possibility of forming a free trade area. Discussions began in Stockholm in June 1959, and a Convention for a European Free Trade Association, agreed by Ministers of the Seven on 20 November 1959, became effective on 3 May 1960.

The Convention defines the objects of the Association as (1) to promote economic expansion in the area of the Association and in each member state; (2) to ensure that trade between member states takes place in conditions of fair competition ; (3) to prevent significant disparity between member states in the conditions of supply of raw materials produced within the area; and (4) to contribute to the harmonious development and expansion of world trade and to the progressive removal of barriers to it.

Members agreed to abolish their tariffs on industrial goods originating in the area within 10 years by means of a series of reductions. An initial 20 per cent reduction of tariffs was made on 1 July 1960. Members undertook to abolish quantitative restrictions on imports of goods from the free trade area within 10 years. There is no common external tariff for the Association, each member country being free to fix the level of its tariffs against the countries outside the area. Various rules govern trading within the area of goods manufactured wholly or in part from materials originating outside the area and fair conditions of competition-such matters as government subsidies, restrictive practices, dumping, etc. Special arrangements are in force in relation to agricultural produce and fish.

The Council of EFTA consists of one ministerial or official representative from each member country. Each state has a single vote and recommendations must normally be unanimous. Decisions of the Council are binding on member countries.

EFTA Tariff Reductions-By 1963 tariffs were lowered to half their original level. Following the breakdown of negotiations for Britain's entry into the European Economic Community a new phase of activity was begun by the European Free Trade Association. Plans were made for the removal of all tariffs on industrial goods by 1966 and new proposals were put forward for agricultural and fishery products. In May 1963 agreement was reached to set up a completely free trade area in industrial goods by the end of 1966. By 1964 the tariffs had been reduced by 60 per cent.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Dairy Produce-New Zealand's important position in the supply of butter, cheese, and milk powder to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table, showing imports into the United Kingdom, by country of export. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom is relatively small in comparison with total supplies. Domestic cheese supplies, on the other hand, are comparatively large, as is also the domestic output of milk powder. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country of ExportButterCheeseMilk Powder
19381962*196319641938196219631964193819621963
* Import restrictions applied.
tons (thousand)
New Zealand1301561561768279748072833
Australia9072717512151615224
Canada2-21834111114---
Denmark11896919019109-11
Netherlands361615151091111586
Other countries100677990716151942126
  Total imports476407414464146139137148186170
 United Kingdom production2060432343112105110..11386

For the 1962-63 season over 90 per cent of New Zealand's total exports of butter and almost 88 per cent of the total exports of cheese went to the United Kingdom.

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Product1938195919601961196219631964*
* Provisional.
lb per head
Butter24.118.518.319.720.319.319.0
Margarine10.014.715.013.313.113.413.4

Meat-The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country (of Export)Mutton and LambBeef and VealAll Meats*
19381962196319641933196219631964196219631964
* Including pig-meat, offal, and canned meat.
tons (thousand)
New Zealand184292283294527226317303340
Australia952223231153519857257124
Argentina45212212354181236149214277175
Denmark--------299298303
Other countries221715116810410185469425420
  Totals3463523433405893273583451,3701,3601,362
 United Kingdom production2112502422526049049308642,0322,0702,048

The important part played by New Zealand in the supply of meat to the United Kingdom is shown in the preceding table, this country being one of the leading suppliers, accounting in 1963 for 82 per cent of the mutton and lamb and 22 per cent of total meat products. Corresponding figures for 1962 were 83 per cent and 23 per cent respectively.

It should be noted that over half of the meat consumed in the United Kingdom is now obtained from domestic supplies.

As the United Kingdom takes the great bulk of the mutton and lamb exported from New Zealand it is interesting to note the extent to which New Zealand contributes to this market in comparison with other countries. In the calendar year 1938 New Zealand supplied 63 per cent of the total frozen mutton imported into the United Kingdom and 50 per cent of the total imports of frozen lamb. Australia, the next largest supplier in 1938, contributed 23 per cent of mutton imports and 29 per cent of lamb imports, while Argentina, which ranked third on the list, supplied 6 per cent and 15 per cent respectively. That New Zealand has more than maintained her position in this connection in the post-war years is evidenced by the figures for 1963, when New Zealand supplied 83 per cent of mutton and lamb imported into the United Kingdom, whereas Australia supplied 7 per cent and Argentina 6 per cent.

New Zealand's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that the New Zealand share of the United Kingdom's beef imports has been relatively small; in addition in recent years a market for boneless packaged beef has been developed in North America, particularly in the United States, and supplies have been diverted there. In 1963 New Zealand supplied less than 1 per cent of the United Kingdom's total imports of beef, as compared with 7 per cent in 1938.

In international trade, exports of bacon far exceed those of other pig products, with the United Kingdom normally absorbing most of the exports of other countries. United Kingdom imports of New Zealand pork and bacon are negligible at present.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING-In a country such as New Zealand which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance. Since the gradual abandonment of the principles of laissez faire from the First World War onwards, great changes have taken place, and developments have been described in detail in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Broadly speaking, the policy of controlled marketing of primary products has exhibited five phases:

  1. In the early 1920s the producer organisations made moves to rationalise the organisation of marketing.

  2. The next stage was for the State to trade directly, buying products outright, bearing losses and retaining profits. The Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 established the Marketing Department, which confined its pre-war operations to dairy produce.

  3. This was followed, after the outbreak of the Second World War and the establishment of bulk purchase, by the formation of financial pool accounts for each industry, the profits, subject to the general policy of stabilisation, being paid out to the suppliers, and any reserves held for the benefit of the industry. During the war the United Kingdom Government was the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and the Marketing Department the authority in New Zealand responsible for the bulk purchase and shipment of dairy produce, meat, wool, and tallow.

  4. The fourth phase was the direction of policy by boards and committees with the assumption of executive and not, as previously, merely advisory powers. Each body continued to use the marketing organisation for assembly, storage, transport, distribution, and accounting which the Marketing Department had built up, these services being made available at cost.

  5. The fifth phase was the progressive transfer from 1947 to various boards or authorities representative of the industry concerned (with Government representation to protect the public interest) of the responsibility and authority for the effective marketing of their own products, or the return to private enterprise with the boards assuming mainly their former pre-war functions.

Marketing Authorities-The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921-22 and the Amendment Act of 1956 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Commission Act 1951, the Milk Act 1944, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (as regards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce-By the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947 the functions of the Marketing Department as regards butter and cheese for export (later extended to cover the control of all dairy produce for export) were transferred to the New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission. By the same Act the control and regulation of butter and cheese for local consumption were also transferred to the Commission. Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, which came into force on 1 September 1961, the functions of the Commission were assumed by the New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board.

The Dairy Production and Marketing Board acquires and markets all New Zealand butter and cheese intended for export, controls the export of other dairy products, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. In selling the industry's exportable surplus of milk powder and casein, the Board is guided by an advisory committee for each product. The Board owns in the United Kingdom a company, Milk Products (N.Z.) Ltd., through which all New Zealand milk powder sold in the United Kingdom is distributed. It also owns Empire Dairies Ltd., which acts as one of the 17 first-hand agents through which New Zealand butter and cheese are distributed in Britain. The Board carries out extensive advertising and publicity of New Zealand produce in the United Kingdom.

Meat-The New Zealand Meat Producers Board, which was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921-22, has as its object the control of meat exports in the interests of the producers. The Board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported, the levy being at present 0.09d. per pound on all carcass meat. Meat destined for local consumption is not dealt with by the Meat Producers Board. With the end of the bulk purchase agreements in September 1954, the export trade in meat reverted to a trader-to-trader basis. Provision was made by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, however, for the determination annually by the Meat Export Prices Committee of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand. The farmer sells his stock to a works or exporter and is paid by the works or exporter, who in turn is reimbursed by the Meat Producers Board for any deficiency payment.

Under the Meat Export Control Amendment Act 1959 the Meat Producers Board may purchase meat for sale outside New Zealand to promote the sale of meat in other countries, provided such action establishes new markets. A further amendment to the Act in 1962 gives the Meat Board power, with the approval of the Minister of Finance, to provide financial backing to export companies operating in any markets.

To encourage the further exploitation of new markets, a company was formed in 1960 on the initiative of the Meat Producers Board. The capital is provided by the New Zealand owned freezing companies, but these companies and the Meat Producers Board appoint an equal number of directors. The company will ensure that new markets are adequately supplied and that reasonable pricing policies are followed.

Wool-By the Wool Commission Act 1951 there was established a Wool Commission. with the principal function of assuring minimum prices for greasy, scoured, and growers' slipe wool in accordance with the table of minimum prices (effective only after agreement with the Minister), for New Zealand wool sold in New Zealand or the United Kingdom at auction sales approved by the Commission. The Wool Disposal Account was abolished and its moneys, together with those standing to the credit of the Wool Industry Deposit Account, were transferred to the Wool Commission Account which was established by the Act. The marketing of wool is carried out by public auction. Although the Wool Commission Act makes provision for a charge to be made on all wool sold or exported in order to cover the administration costs of the Commission, in fact no such charge has ever been levied. The annual interest earnings on the Commission's investments, together with profits from the resale of wool bought in at floor price, have met all costs and, in addition, have been sufficient to augment the original capital. The Commission, acting on behalf of the Wool Board, collects a levy, which is paid over in its entirety to the Wool Board for research and promotional activities. From July 1964 the levy increased from 7s. 6d. to £1 3s. 6d. a bale to enable the Wool Board to meet its share of the budget of £13 million for promotion and research by the International Wool Secretariat, of which Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa are members. Since 1954 the Commission has from its funds made a supplementary payment to the Board each year of an amount equal to that levied on growers direct and this meant that the levy on growers for Wool Board purposes was, up to 1963, at half the rate that otherwise would have applied. Since 1964 the Commission's supplementary payment has been 15s. a bale.

Apples and Pears-Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This Board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. It administers a guaranteed price scheme based on the cost of production of apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. In this case the Board does not itself declare the average price to be paid for apples and pears, its powers being limited in this respect to making recommendations to the Minister of Agriculture, who declares the cost of production. This cost of production has, since the passing of an amending Act in 1954, become the average price to be paid for apples and pears for the season concerned. The Board is charged with the duty of recovering from the market these prices together with the costs of marketing. It determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the Board exceed the amount which the Board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the Board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. Until the reserve fund reached £1,000,000 the whole of the annual profit was paid into it. From then until the fund reached £1,250,000 the profit was distributed in the proportion of 25 per cent to the growers and 75 per cent to the fund. This amount having been reached, the profit is now allocated equally between the two. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the Board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. Most apples and pears are purchased by the Board, with the Act making limited provision for certain private sales by growers in accordance with regulations issued thereunder. The Board was able to declare a bonus to fruitgrowers for five seasons from 1953-54, the average amounts paid out per case being for 1954, 4.09d.; for 1955, 2.37d.; for 1956, 3.98d.; for 1957, 14.07d.; and for 1958, 4.92d. In 1959 a loss of £433,963 was incurred by the Board, and in 1960, though a profit of £304,443 was made by the Board, it was agreed with the growers that no bonus would be paid, the amount involved being invested in a processing factory set up by the Board. In the 1961 season the Board incurred a loss of £134,804 but in 1962 there was a profit of £23,284, and a bonus of 0.55d. per case was paid. In 1963 there was a loss of £69,580, and in 1964 a loss of £626,000.

With the exceptions listed below, all fruit must be offered to the Board, and accepted by it if it comes within the scope of the New Zealand Grown Fruit Regulations 1952, which set standard grades with which the fruit must conform.

Officers of the Department of Agriculture inspect the fruit, and if it complies with the required standards the fruit becomes the property of the Board.

The exceptions under which fruit is not required to be offered to the Board are:

  1. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than two cases, or with permission of the Board, to retailers in specified localities. In the latter case the Board may prescribe conditions as to quantities, varieties, standards, etc., of fruit sold:

  2. Manufacturers may be licensed by the Board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the Board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). In such cases, also, the Board may make conditions as above:

  3. Growers may also be permitted by the Board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Board is not obliged to accept fruit from a grower while he holds a permit to sell at such a market.

The Board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. As at 1 December 1953 the Board purchased from the Government the greater part of the facilities then in use for the handling of the crop. They included cool stores and ancillary equipment. Since then, however, the reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

A Committee of Inquiry into the sale of apples and pears on the local market reported to Parliament on 4 October 196-see parliamentary paper H. 29A. The Committee supported continuance of the existing form of marketing with minor variations.

Potatoes-The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants and an officer of the Public Service as an advisory member, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the Board for main-crop potatoes, and the appointment of wholesalers authorised to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with he Board. The Board replaced the Potato Advisory Committee of the Marketing Department from November 1950. In June 1956 the Government announced that it would guarantee the overdraft of the Potato Board to enable the Board to guarantee a certain schedule of minimum prices to contract growers for any potatoes unsold at the end of the season. The purpose is to encourage the growing of an adequate supply of potatoes.

Milk-The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the National Milk Scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk.

The Board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Revenue Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Government after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for pasteurising and bottling milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Government on the recommendation of the Board. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs-The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of seven members-four producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives. The principal function of the Authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs, or, as directed by the Authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Prices are governed by supply and demand. Eggs are subject to price control. A subsidy, at present at the rate of 4d. per dozen, is paid by the Government in respect of eggs received at authorised egg floors (as the licensed distributors are known). This is to offset floor charges and distribution costs which would otherwise be passed on to the consumers.

Imported Citrus Fruits and Bananas-Since the beginning of 1951 the importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, and pineapples have been taken over by a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are two Government members on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges-The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 with the tasks of selling fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand and processing unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The Authority has a membership of six, five of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture representing the consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the Authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The Authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, Auckland, and Tauranga.

Honey-The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the task of packing and marketing honey within New Zealand and for export, and operates the blending plant in Auckland. A levy is made at the rate of 1d. per pound on all honey sold locally and the funds paid into the Honey Industry Account, which is administered by the Authority for the benefit of the industry in general.

The Authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, and one member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

PRICES OF PRIMARY PRODUCTS: Wool-Statistics of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand (compiled from information supplied by the New Zealand Wool Commission) are shown in the following tables. The first table gives total quantities and values as recorded at sales, no attempt being made to allow for variations in quality or in the relative quantities of the various types of wool sold from season to season. Besides price movements, therefore, the average value per pound of wool sold shown in this table includes variations on account of these additional factors. Under the Wool Commission Act 1951 the Wool Commission is authorised to prepare a table of minimum prices for various classes of wool, which becomes effective by agreement with the Minister of Agriculture. Where wool is sold at less than the minimum price at an approved sale, the Commission may supplement the sale price so as to increase it to the minimum price, or, alternatively, may buy such wool at a price not greater than the minimum price.

WEIGHT, SALE VALUE, AND AVERAGE VALUE PER POUND OF GREASY WOOL SOLD AT AUCTION
SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per PoundAverage Minimum Floor Price per Pound of Greasy Wool
* See Latest Statistical Information.
 lb (000)£(000)d.d.
1931-52314,89652,73440.1924.00
1952-53311,90260,02246.1924.00
1953-54317,09366,39250.2526.00
1954-55338,60870,08449.6726.00
1955-56341,57665,73546.1930.00
1956-57356,23781,28354.7630.00
1957-58370,40763,52041.1633.00
1958-59406,26161,06436.0733.00
1959-60409,19976,12144.6533.00
1960-61420,94170,75340.3433.00
1961-62423,35869,11539.1833.00
1962-63444,07979,26342.8433.00
1963-64433,87699,56055.0733.00
1964-65***35.00

In the next table details of a wool price index on base 1963-64 (= 1000) are given. This index has been compiled in an attempt to eliminate all but the price factor in movements of average wool values. A description of the make-up of this index is given in a supplement to the December 1964 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

SeasonPrice per Pound on Floor, Greasy*Index Numbers Base: 1963-64 (= 1000)

* Average of selected types.

†Based on price on floor, clean.

‡See Latest Statistical Information.

d. 
1953-5450.83903
1954-5549.98886
1955-5646.98832
1956-5756.15985
1957-5842.72750
1958-5937.59663
1959-6046.05812
1960-6142.29745
1961-6241.36731
1962-6345.20788
1962-6457.561000
1963-65

Dairy Produce-The measures introduced by the United Kingdom Government against dumping by European countries of surplus quantities of butter on the British market were an important factor contributing to the improvement in the price of butter which took place in the second half of 1958. In December 1958, however, the United Kingdom Government decided to uplift the quota restrictions previously imposed and withdrew its requests to Sweden and Finland to limit their exports and informed the Republic of Ireland that arrangements with it could lapse. The United Kingdom Government stated that if at any future time the imports of dumped or subsidised butter from any country should assume such proportions as to cause or threaten material injury to the New Zealand producers, application could again be made by New Zealand under the Customs Duties (Dumping and Subsidies) Act, and an assurance was given that any application would be dealt with expeditiously.

Largely as a result of an exceptionally dry summer in Europe in 1959, which reduced dairy production and resulted in depleted stocks in the United Kingdom, the price of New Zealand butter rose remarkably during the year to reach a peak of 410s. per hundredweight in October 1959. Early in 1960 the price dropped quickly following a loss of some trade to margarine and greater shipments from Europe following a good production season.

There were indications in 1960 that European countries had adopted some change of outlook so far as the flooding of the United Kingdom market with surplus butter was concerned, and would tend to encourage greater sales on their home markets, but disposals of surpluses in 1961 again upset the market. Consumption in the United Kingdom increased, but stocks built up as Continental countries disposed of embarrassing butter surpluses, and the price of New Zealand butter dropped to 250s. per hundredweight. New Zealand raised the matter with GATT and discussions were held within the framework of GATT in April and June 1961 and again in September, the British Government having sought this latter meeting after the lodging of an anti-dumping application by New Zealand. In November 1961, when Britain asked all exporting countries to limit their supplies to the quantities proposed by GATT to 31 March 1962, the price for New Zealand butter rose almost immediately and recovered still further after quota restrictions were introduced by Britain from 1 April 1962.

The following table shows the average weekly sterling price for New Zealand butter ex-store United Kingdom for each month in the past four years, along with the average weekly sales on the London market during the same period. (Source: Dairy Production and Marketing Board.)

MonthButter
(Finest and First Grades) Average Price per Cwt(All Grades) Weekly Average Sales*
1961196219631964196519611962196319641965
* Averages are for weeks ending Saturday.
 S.S.S.S.S.tonstonstonstonstons
January2692853153353502,3042,5863,1053,1993,057
February2582853153353503,1812,3283,2593,2443,077
March2502853153353503,6933,1983,1233,2163,070
April2502853153353483,5173,2023,1213,4252,796
May2502853153353373,4003,4383,0833,0572,898
June250301327335 3,2673,1853,0983,060 
July250305335335 2,7062,8283,1013,098 
August250305335335 2,5723,0413,0073,127 
September250305335335 3,3023,0022,9923,058 
October250305335341 3,1392,8533,0012,894 
November260315335350 3,1682,9563,1652,971 
December282315335350 3,2313,2503,1263,273 
 Annual average256298326338 3,1283,0023,0983,135 

The next table gives similar information for the London sales of New Zealand cheese. (Source: Dairy Production and Marketing Board.)

MonthCheese
(Finest and First Grades, White) Average Price per Cwt (Crated)(All Grades) Weekly Average Sales*
1961196219631964196519611962196319641965
* Averages are for weeks ending Saturday.
 S.S.S.S.S.tonstonstonstonstons
January2302302302302601,3091,4041,8042,2381,388
February2302302302302601,6871,4601,3641,5861,203
March2302302302352601,3511,4331,1541,9941,297
April2302302302402601,7601,6431,4181,5731,328
May2302302302402551,2161,4901,4841,5891,403
June230230230240 1,4901,3251,6701,523 
July230230230247 1,4451,4351,4401,468 
August230230230250 1,3691,4801,3841,478 
September230230230250 1,6541,4291,2941,472 
October230230230250 1,6491,4351,7131,401 
November230230230257 1,5201,5491,9501,313 
December230230230260 1,4521,2951,3431,652 
 Annual average230230230243 1,4981,4421,5021,606 

The next table gives the comparative f.o.b. and ex-store London prices in relation to the basic price per pound of butterfat.

NOTE-"F.o.b. equivalent" represents payments by the Dairy Production and Marketing Board to dairy factories, and therefore excludes the Board's expenses as exporters.

"Equivalent ex-store London" includes such selling expenses in New Zealand and United Kingdom (e.g., advertising). Strictly it also includes discount and, in the case of crated cheese, an allowance for shrinkage, as well as the expenses already noted (insurance, freight, handling and storage charges, and commission). It is in sterling currency.

YearProductBasic Price d. per lbf.o.b.* Equivalent s. per cwtPrice Equivalent Ex-store London ts. per cwt

* f.o.b.=free on board, i.e., loaded at a New Zealand port.

†The ex-store price includes insurance and freight to London, unloading and storing charges, and commission on sales.

1957-58Butter36.25310345
 Cheese39.25173209
1958-59Butter32277315
 Cheese35159194
1959-60Butter32279313
 Cheese38171208
1960-61Butter32278314
 Cheese38174210
1961-62Butter32277313
 Cheese38177214
1962-63Butter32278314
 Cheese37175213
1963-64Butter32277217
 Cheese37177217
1964-65Butter33.9290328
 Cheese40.9183222

The movements in prices and sales of butter on the United Kingdom market are shown in the following diagram.

The movements ia prices and sales of cheese on the United Kingdom market are shown in the following diagram.

Basic Prices for Dairy Produce-Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) for butter and cheese were introduced by the Government on 1 August 1936 to give stability to the dairy industry, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 set out the principles which underlay the fixing of the prices. (See the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.) Under the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947 the Commission was given authority to fix the basic price, and another principle was added, namely, the promotion of the general economic stability of New Zealand.

The Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act 1956, which, came into force on 1 August 1957, made miscellaneous amendments to the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947. It reconstituted the Dairy Products Marketing Commission, established a Dairy Products Prices Authority and a Dairy Industry Loans Council, and provided for the disposal of any annual surplus received from the sale of butter and cheese.

The Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947, as amended in 1956, provided that, unless the Dairy Board otherwise agreed, a surplus in any one trading year should be paid out to producers up to the assessed cost of production for that year (the trading period was defined by the Act as the 12 months ending 31 May). As early as July 1959 it had become clear that the industry's account for the year ending 31 May 1960 was likely to show a surplus. An understanding was reached between the industry and the Government that half of any such surplus would be paid to the producers and half would be retained in the Dairy Industry Account. An amount of £6,951,000 was paid to dairy companies under this arrangement.

Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, which came into force on 1 September 1961, the Dairy Board and the Dairy Products Marketing Commission were amalgamated in a new body named the Dairy Production and Marketing Board, which consists of two Government and 11 producer members. The Dairy Products Prices Authority and the Dairy Industry Loans Council were retained under the new legislation but with changed constitutions.

Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961 prices for butter are fixed by the Dairy Products Prices Authority after taking into account the following matters:

  1. The necessity in the public interest of maintaining the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry.

  2. The amount which butter and cheese acquired by the Board is realising and the market prospects for the coming year.

  3. The state of the Dairy Industry Account, the Dairy Industry Reserve Account, and the Dairy Industry Capital Account.

  4. Any submissions made by the Dairy Production and Marketing Board.

  5. Any other matters deemed relevant.

The price fixed for butter in any season must not vary by more than 5 per cent from the maximum price fixed for the previous season.

The price for cheese is determined by the Authority, having regard to (a) the cost of manufacturing cheese as compared with the cost of manufacturing butter, (b) the desirability of ensuring that dairy produce will be produced in such quantity and in such proportions as will be of the greatest benefit to the dairy industry.

The Authority must consult with the Minister before it fixes any prices. The members of the Authority are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture, and comprise three representatives of the Government, three members nominated by the Dairy Production and Marketing Board, and a Chairman approved by the Board before appointment.

In a normal trading year not more than 50 per cent of any surplus will be distributed to dairy companies and the balance placed in reserve. An end-of-season payment of l½d. a pound of butterfat was made for the season ended 31 May 1964.

In 1963 there was held a Commission of Inquiry into the return for butter sold for consumption within New Zealand. The report of the Commission was printed as parliamentary paper B. 8. Another related paper is the Report on the Economic Position of the Farming Industry (parliamentary paper B. 4. of 1963).

The basic prices in pence per pound of butter and cheese for export paid to dairy factories are now given.

SeasonCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93-93½ pt)Whey Butter (First Grade)Cheese (First Grade 92-92½ pt)

* Equivalent, on a product basis, of additional amounts paid to dairy companies. For details refer to appropriate annual reports of New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission.

†These additional amounts are surplus payments, as authorised by the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act 1956 and Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961.

‡Increase in the differential payment in favour of cheese.

pence per lb (net weight)
1953-54
1 August-14 September32.537231.618118.1747
1.1294*-0.5612*
15 September-31 July34.353232.908619.1380
1.1294*-0.5612*
1954-55
1 August-30 November33.942532.497918.7437
1 December-31 July34.496932.497919.0204
1955-5633.264931.264918.3600
0.5749*-0.2857*
--0.8163*
1956-5734.135532.135519.2673
(gross weight)
1957-5833.149131.149118.5335
1958-5929.689527.689516.9622
1959-6029.795027.795018.3196
3.6225*-1.7598*
1960-6129.72927.72918.308
Ended 31 May
1961-6229.69927.69918.452
1962-6329.66327.66317.944
1963-6429.61427.61418.084
1.235-0.602
1964-6531.07829.07819.594

Produce of other grades incurs differential premiums or penalties according to grading points. Differentials used since the introduction of basic purchase prices are as follows.

CREAMERY BUTTER
Grade1936-37 to 1957-581958-59 and 1959-601960-61 to 1964-65
Pence per 1b
Finest 94 points and over+0.125+0.1875+0.2
Finest 93-93½ points (basic)---
First 92-92½ points-0.0625-0.1875-0.2
First 90-91½ points-0.25-0.5625-0.75
Second grade-0.75-2.0-2.0
Third grade (from 1955-56)-6.0-6.0-6.0
CHEESE
Grade1936-37 to 1950-511951-52 to 1954-551955-56 to 1959-601959-60 to 1964-65
pence per lb
Finest 94 points and over+0.15625+0.3125+0.3125+1.25
Finest 93-93½ points+0.125+0.215+0.215+1.0
First 92-92½ (basic)----
First 91-91½ points-0.0625-0.0625-0.0625-0.25
Second 88-90½ points-0.25-0.725-1.075-1.25
Second 87 and under-1.2-3.75-3.75

The prices quoted in the table on page 588 were designed to enable average dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in pence per pound of butterfat used for butter or cheese manufacture. Also given is the actual average net revenue per pound of butterfat supplied.

SeasonPrice per Pound of Butterfat Used for-
Butter-making (Basic Price)Cheese-making (Basic Price)Butter-making (Average Net Revenue)Cheese-making (Average Net Revenue)

* Plus 0.625d. additional payments made separately from purchase prices.

†Plus 0.700d. surplus payments at end of season.

‡Plus 4.3995d. surplus payments at end of season.

§ An additional 2d. per pound of butterfat was paid in 1955-56 to factories on all butterfat used for cheesemaking during season.

∥Plus 1.5d. surplus payments at end of season.

Pence per 1b
1949-50-
August 1949 to April 195028.24430.24428.72030.785
May 1950 to July 195028.97230.972 
1950-51-
August 1950 to 14 February 195129.67831.67830.56832.425
15 February 1951 to 31 July 195131.40733.407 
1951-5233.65536.15534.10636.764
1952-5335.670*38.670*35.916*38.958*
August 1953 to 14 September 195335.834*38.834*37.610*40.554*
15 September 1953 to 31 July 195437.984*40.984* 
1954-55-
August 1954 to 30 November 195437.34939.83137.73240.133
1 December 1954 to 31 July 195537.96140.240 
1955-5636.45938.459§36.54738.730§
1956-5737.54840.54837.47940.887
1957-5836.25039.25036.32239.822
1958-5932.00035.00032.35235.271
1959-6032.000‡38.000‡32.346‡38.259‡
1960-6132.00038.00032.35838.554
1961-6232.00038.00032.30938.088
1962-6332.00037.00032.38737.463
1963-6432.00037.00032.53538.224
1964-6533.90040.900....

In addition to the basic price payments, payouts were made from realisations of the sale of butter and cheese in the 1951-52, 1952-53, and 1953-54 seasons, in accordance with the agreement by which the full proceeds received from the sale of these commodities up to the end of the 1954-55 season were to be used for the benefit of suppliers and/or dairy companies.

There was no surplus distribution In 1954-55, the Commission in fact incurring a loss of £597,344. In 1955-56 payments were made to cheese companies, thus increasing the differential as mentioned later. At the end of the 1955-56 season an additional payment of 0.7d. per pound of butterfat was made.

With the decline in butter prices during 1956 and the heavy falls for both butter and cheese during 1957 and into 1958, the funds in the Dairy Industry Account, amounting to £27 million at the start of the 1956-57 season, were exhausted during 1958. After the completion of sales of butter and cheese produced in the 1957-58 season the account was in debit to an amount of £7,349,485, but the sales of the 1958-59 production at higher prices brought about a recovery in the account. A surplus payment of 4.3995d. per pound of butterfat received and used in the manufacture of butter and cheese for the period 1 August 1959 to 31 May 1960 was made to dairy companies in August 1960.

At the conclusion of the 1960-61 season there was a net deficit of £7,491,850. The gross deficit of £8,301,471 on sales of butter, which was only partially offset by a gross surplus of £2,366,622 on cheese and by commission on sales of milk powder and casein, was an indication of the extent to which New Zealand's interests had been injured during the season by butter dumping on the United Kingdom market.

The price differential of butterfat for manufacture of cheese over that for manufacture of butter was 2d. a pound during 1937-38 to 1950-51, 2½d. for 1951-52, 3d. for 1952-53 and 1953-54, 2½d. for 1954-55, and, as shown in the previous table, was first fixed at 2d. for 1955-56. By subsequent announcements during the season this was increased to 4d., the additional 2d. being distributed, not by increasing the guaranteed price for cheese, but by paying to factories 2d. per pound on all butterfat used by them in the manufacture of cheese during the season. For 1956-57, 1957-58, and 1958-59 the price differential was 3d., but for 1959-60 it was increased to 6d. to maintain the volume of cheese production, remained at this figure for 1960-61 and 1961-62, and was reduced to 5d. for 1962-63. It remained at this figure for 1963-64 but was increased to 7d. for 1964-65.

There is an assumption implicit in the basic price scheme that the payout to butter factory suppliers is for cream at the farm and the payout to cheese factory suppliers is for whole milk delivered to the factory. Where a factory receives whole milk and makes butter, the residual skim milk can be manufactured into any of several products, the main ones being skim-milk powders and casein. The only possible products of a cheese factory additional to those covered by the guaranteed price for cheese are products of separated whey and are of relatively insignificant value. Because of the existence of the price differential of butterfat for manufacture of cheese over that for manufacture of butter, factories with the necessary equipment generally make butter and skim-milk powder or butter and casein only where the combined returns are likely to be at least equal to the return from cheese.

Meat-The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being "ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market". The next table gives prices at the end of the last week in the month. One half of the value of all exports of frozen and chilled meat are generally accounted for by lamb, and the two first-quality weight grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 5 per cent and 40 to 50 per cent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported. Beef accounts for one quarter of the total exports of frozen and chilled meat (by value), but mutton comprises only about 5 per cent of the total value of frozen-meat exports. With the reduction of regular supplies of quarter beef to the United Kingdom, price quotations have been infrequent.

In 1960 imported lamb and mutton prices in the United Kingdom improved considerably, but towards the end of the year lamb values again took a downward turn, which continued during 1961. United Kingdom domestic production of lamb and mutton showed still further increases during 1961 and this, combined with larger stocks of imported lamb held in United Kingdom stores, had the effect of keeping lamb prices at the lower levels until there was a recovery in prices in the second quarter of 1962. After a drop early in 1963 there was a good recovery which was further assisted by a shortage of beef in the middle of 1964.

End of Last Week inLambMutton
First QualitySecond QualityWetherEwe
28 lb and Under29 to 36 1b28 lb and Under29 to 36 lb49 to 56 1b57 to 64 1b49 to 56 1b57 to 64 lb
* Nominal; figures so marked have, in the absence of actual quotes, been carried forward from earlier weeks in the same month.
pence per lb
1960-March24 -2522 -2324 -2522½-2314½*13*11 -11½10
1961-March22½-2321½-222322 -22½12½*12*12½-1311 -11½
1962-March2120½-2119½20½12½ll½-1211½11
1963-March20 -2119½-20½20 -212013½1311½-1210½
June23 -23½22½-2322½-2322½1513 -13½13½11
September27½25½-2625½-262514½ll½-121310
December27½2626½-2722 -22½1311½12 -12½10½
1964-January21½-22½21½-222321½-2214-14½1311½
February23½-2422½-2323½-2422½-2314½*13½*14*11½*
March25½-2624½26 -26½24½-25........
April28 -28½26½-2728½-2926½-27........
May27½-2826 -26½28 -28½26½-27........
June27½-2826½-272826½-27........
July2928 -28½2928........
August30½-3129½-3030½-3129½17161615
September3129½-3030½-3129½171616½15
October3128½30½27½-2816½161514½
November3128½-2930½2816-16½151514½
December..29½..29½16-16½151514½-15
1965-January29½-3029-29½30-30½29½1615½15-15½15
February26½-2726-26½272716½15½-1615½15
March26½25½-2626½-2726-26½16½-1716½1615½
April30 -30½28½30 -30½28½17..1615½

Schedule Prices-A schedule of buying prices is issued each week. Since the beginning of the 1950-51 season the fixing of the schedule prices has been wholly in the control of the operators. The Meat Producers Board keeps a close watch on the prices being received for the meat and all by-products and on processing costs to ensure that the schedule prices give a just and equitable return to producers.

The opening schedules for the last ten seasons are given below. Prices quoted are for dressed weights "on the hooks" at freezing works.

ItemSeason
1955-561956-571957-581958-591959-601960-611961-621962-631963-641964-65
Price of Lamb, Wether, and Ewe Minion, In Pence per Pound
Lambs
Downs (29-36 lb)2423262013½20½16½1719½22½
Canterbury (29-36 lb)   132016½16½1922
Crossbred (29-36 lb)    13½20½16½1719½22½
Seconds (29-36 lb) (N.I.)23½22251922½19½15½1618½22
Wethers
Primes (48 lb and under)
North Island16½15½1411½611½8912½
South Island15½1513½1110½11½
Seconds (48 lb and under)
North Island13½12½11½10½7811½
South Island12½1211910½
Ewes (48 lb and under) (N.I.)6465710½
ItemSeason
1955-561956-571957-581958-591959-601960-611961-621962-631963-641964-65
* For 1955-56 the Ox G.A.Q. price refers to carcasses of up to 800 lb. From 1956-57 to 1961-62 Heifer G.A.Q. prices were for 680 lb and under. From 1959-60 G.A.Q. cow prices arc for carcasses 600 lb and under. In 1963-64 the Ox range was 740 lb and under, and the Heifer range 560 lb and under for both G.A.Q. and F.A.Q.
Price in Shillings and Pence, per 100 lb of Beef (N.I.)
Quarter beef, North Island-
Ox, chiller beef (680 lb and under)12008009501300135014001150135012501500
Ox-
G.A.Q. (680 lb and under)*11006008001300135014001150135012501500
F.A.Q. (all weights)10005507501176117612261026115012001500
Heifer
G.A.Q. (500 lb and under)*11005507261226127613261076125012001450
F.A.Q. (all weights)1000500700117611761150950110011501450
Cow, G.A.Q. (all weights)*900500650100011001100950105010001126
Boner beef (cow)8007008261400120011001000100010501050

Minimum Prices for Export Meat-The institution of a system of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand was provided for by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955. A Meat Export Prices Committee was established, and consists of two members of the Meat Board, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, and a Chairman nominated by agreement between the Government and the producers. A schedule of minimum prices is fixed at the beginning of the season. Regard must be paid by the Committee to the average of the prices received for each class of meat during the preceding three seasons, the ruling level of minimum prices, and the Committee may have regard to the market trend and future prospects for the sale of meat, prices ruling for other farm products, and the general level of costs, prices, and wages in New Zealand.

The following table gives the minimum prices which apply for the year ending 30 September 1965.

Class of MeatGrade of MeatMinimum Price per Pound f.o.b.
d.
LambPrime down cross 29-36 lb15½
Wether muttonPrime 49-56 lb
Ewe muttonPrime 49-56 lb
Chilled beefOx 680 lb and under14½
Ox and heifer quarter beefG.A.Q.: 680 lb and under14½
Quarter cow beefG.A.Q.: 600 lb and under11
Boner cow, ox, and heiferAll weights, boned-out value14
Boner bull
Veal (sides or quarters)Under 280 lb11½
PorkersPrime 60-80 lb16
BaconersPrime 111-160 lb14

Deficiency Payments-Payments are made from the Meat Industry Reserve Account when the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices paid to farmers fall below the minimum price determined for any class of meat in the week to which the schedule relates. For the season ended 30 September 1956, deficiency payments were declared for beef from the end of March onwards, expenditure amounting to £367,169 at an average of 1.1d. per pound of killings in that period; no payments were necessary in other classes of meat. Deficiency payments continued into the succeeding production season but at diminishing rates until early in February 1957, when prices for all classes of meat were above the minimum levels, and the payments in the 1956-57 season amounted to only £111,975. In the 1957-58 season there were no payments under the scheme. Some payments were made in the 1958-59 season and the amount involved was £79,000. For the 1959-60 season the total amount involved in deficiency payments was £930,000, of which £380,000 was paid on lambs. No deficiency payments were necessary during the 1960-61 season. In the 1961-62 season it became necessary to make deficiency payments totalling £2,412,332 on lamb and wether mutton. Nearly £2,300,000 of this amount was required in the case of lamb killings from December 1961 to March 1962 inclusive, the payment averaging approximately l½d. per lb for the period. No deficiency payments were required for later seasons.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES-Although the details of wartime bulk-purchase agreements are now of historical interest only, it was during the period of bulk purchase that the present farm industry reserves were built up. Following the introduction of the Government stabilisation scheme in December 1942, agreement was reached between the Government and farmers' organisations in May 1943 regarding the stabilisation of meat and dairy prices. It was agreed that other than those increases necessary to meet higher costs of production, all increases in overseas realisations would be paid into a special fund which would be used in subsequent years for the benefit of the industry concerned. A meat pool account was already in existence, having been created to assist those producers who were affected by restrictions imposed on the export of particular classes of meat as a result of the shipping shortage. Subsidies designed to keep down farm production costs were also paid out of these funds. The wool reserve account was created in a somewhat different fashion, arising in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a levy on all wool sold at auctions.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve accounts at given dates.

YearDairy Produce Account at 31 JulyMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SeptWool Commission Account at 30 June

* This amount was reduced by the payment to dairy companies of £6,951,000 shortly alter the end of the season under the agreement that half the surplus earned during the trading year ended 31 May 1960 would be paid out to producers. The final balance was £1,936,000.

†At 31 May.

‡Provisional.

£(thousand)
195425,12739,55128,388
195524,53040,27728,230
195627,14640,68128,991
195713,91341,29229,751
1958- 7,34942,22830,523
19592,13243,21831,268
19608,887*43,44432,507
1961- 5,16944,81333,318
1962- 6,69043,16834,703
1963- 4,21444,04435,639
1964- 3,56544,74136,415

21 B-DOMESTIC TRADE

GENERAL-Surveys of domestic trade are a comparatively recent development in international statistics. They have been advocated by United Nations and are made by most economically advanced countries. In New Zealand the Department of Statistics has conducted Censuses of Distribution in 1953, 1958, and 1963. These censuses have covered retail trade, wholesale trade, and some service establishments. Quarterly sample surveys of retail and wholesale trade have been based on the Census of Distribution; these provide valuable economic indicators on the value of sales by the various types of stores and the value of stocks held.

The Census of Distribution for 1962-63 revealed retail trade sales of £758 million or an average turnover of £27,374 for each of the 27,688 stores. At 31 March 1963 there was one retail shop for every 91 persons, nearly one half of them selling food and drink. A large proportion of the goods sold had earlier passed through wholesale stores, there being 3,052 such stores covered in the census with a total turnover of £493 million. The 3,170 service establishments covered in a limited survey at the Census had total receipts of £27.5 million at an average of £8,676 per establishment. Notable exclusions from the Census were petrol and oil sales, newspaper sales other than in shops, and sales by bread bakers and milk vendors. A full report of the census is given in the publication Census of Distribution 1963.

In the following table the main results of the Censuses of 1958 and 1963 for retail trade are set out; the 1958 statistics have been adjusted to make them comparable, that is, by the exclusion of returns for bread bakeries and milk vendors.

Item19581963Percentage Increase
Number of stores25,63427,6888.0
 £(000)£(000) 
Sales587,401757,94529.0
Purchases459,881580,33826.2
Opening stocks89,538116,58930.2
Closing stocks97,054117,98621.6

Some other features of retail trade shown by the 1963 Census together with comparative figures for 1958 are shown in the following table.

Store-type GroupAverage Turnover per StoreAverage Labour Force per StoreTurnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationAverage Population per Store
  £ ££ 
Food and drink196318,4143.65,12197.7188
 195815,5783.44,57283.9186
Apparel196319,1093.85,00630.2633
 195816,9823.94,36028.8590
Furniture196333,6285.16,64719.31,742
 195828,8905.35,43517.01,696
Automotive196386,7474.718,36539.72,184
 195861,1596.010,18527.82,200
Hardware196342,5255.47,80614.42,956
 195839,5015.86,81213.52,933
Chemicals196318,9543.85,0057.92,409
 195814,1053.63,9295.52,563
Miscellaneous
General, department, and variety1963110,68321.95.05133.53,308
 1958101,24221.84,64530.73,295
Other196328,8964.36,71557.3504
 195824,1654.35,66951.5469
All retail stores196327,3744.56,152299.991
 195822,9154.45,185258.789

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1963: Retail Establishments-Of the 27,688 retail stores covered by the census, 19,205, or 69.4 per cent, were situated in the North Island, and 8,483, or 30.6 per cent, in the South Island.

The following table shows details by statistical areas. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Statistical AreasPopulation at 31 March 1963Number of StoresPurchases During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
 (000) £(000)£(000)£(000)
Northland88.986816,45821,3043,448
 (3.5)(3.1)(2.8)(2.8)(2.9)
Central Auckland549.56,295125,916167,10324,141
 (21.7)(22.7)(21.7)(22.0)(20.5)
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty369.73,98986,398110,82717,508
 (14.6)(14.4)(14.9)(14.6)(14.9)
East Coast47.14098,84811,9692,030
 (1.9)(1.5)(1.5)(1.6)(1.7)
Hawke's Bay120.11,29625,74633,4875,706
 (4.8)(4.7)(4.4)(4.4)(4.8)
Taranaki102.41,06822,86429,1394,758
 (4.0)(3.9)(4.0)(3.8)(4.0)
Wellington-Hutt492.95,280114,350150,45023,979
 (19.5)(19.1)(19.7)(19.9)(20.3)
Marlborough28.83326,6118,4501,428
 (1.1)(1.2)(1.1)(1.1)(1.2)
Nelson65.476413,57217,8972,964
 (2.6)(2.8)(2.3)(2.4)(2.5)
Westland24.83344,3415,795891
 (1.0)(1.2)(0.8)(0.8)(0.8)
Canterbury359.03,91187,379113,75617,226
 (14.2)(14.1)(15.1)(15.0)(14.6)
Otago180.82,05540,83252,7758,158
 (7.2)(7.4)(7.0)(7.0)(6.9)
Southland97.81,08727,02334,9935,749
 (3.9)(3.9)(4.7)(4.6)(4.9)
  Totals2,527-127,688580,338757,945117,986
 (100.0)100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

In 1963 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 60.6 per cent of New Zealand's people, but contained 65.8 per cent of all retail stores, with 70.3 per cent of total sales or turnover.

The following table shows details by urban and rural areas. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Location GroupPopulation at 31 March 1963Number of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)

* Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin.

†Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Nelson, Timaru, Invercargill.

‡Boroughs outside urban areas with population over 4,000.

 (000) £(000)£(000)
Main urban areas* (including Hütt Urban Area)1,083.412,448357,34053,094
 (42.9)(44.9)(47.1)(45.0)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)446.55,779175,63829,265
 (17.7)(20.9)(23.2)(24.8)
Smaller centres‡192.23,28699,18116,559
 (7.6)(11.9)(13.1)(14.0)
Other urban132.82,68461,31610,483
 (5.2)(9.7)(8.1)(8.9)
Rural672.23,49164,4708,585
 (26.6)(12.6)(8.5)(7.3)
  Totals2,527.127,688757,945117,986
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Leading results of the Census relating to principal urban areas are shown in the following table.
Urban AreaPopulation March 1963Percentage of N.Z. Total PopulationNumber of StoresPercentage of N.Z. Total StoresSales or Turnover During YearPercentage of N.Z. Total SalesStocks at Close of YearPercentage of N.Z. Total Stocks
     £(000) £(000) 
Auckland482,30019.15,73220.7155,66020.522,57319.1
Wellington155,4006.11,8456.766,8448.89,9748.5
Hutt105,6004.29023.322,7523.03,3292.8
Christchurch232,7009.22,7069.878,52510.412,07110.2
Dunedin107,4004.21,2634.633,5594.45,1474.4
Whangarei23,7000.93271.29,8451.31,6141.4
Hamilton55,6002.27422.728,4323.84,5183.8
Tauranga27,9001.14491.610,5891.41,6761.4
Rotorua28,1001.13281.29,4081.21,5341.3
Gisborne25,9001.03061.110,0271.31,7311.5
Napier35,1001.44141.510,6421.41,7371.5
Hastings35,0001.44431.612,1821.62,1341.8
New Plymouth34,1001.34381.613,4961.82,3052.0
Wanganui37,2001.54261.510,3181.41,7271.5
Palmerston Nth.45,8001.86132.216,8042.23,1032.6
Nelson26,9001.13581.311,0501.51,7981.5
Timaru27,3001.13641.311,8271.61,9191.6
Invercargill43,9001.75712.121,0182.83,4692.9

The next table gives the number of stores and value of sales or turnover for boroughs with over 1,000 population not included in the 18 main urban areas of the preceding table.

BoroughNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During
£(000)
Kaitaia751,855
Kaikohe621,470
Dargaville742,079
Helensville29731
Pukekohe1123,082
Waiuku44930
Tuakau36956
Thames1142,088
Paeroa801,795
Waihi631,072
Te Aroha882,069
Huntly822,295
Morrinsville1122,788
Ngaruawahia40749
Te Puke802,536
Matamata1052,754
Cambridge982,621
Whakatane1655,877
Opotiki611,431
Te Awamutu1524,297
Putaruru852,744
Kawerau431,184
Otorohanga631,771
Te kuiti942,476
Taupo1143,145
Taumarunui923,555
Wairoa822,117
Waipawa40884
Waipukurau632,298
Dannevirke1042,981
Woodville34535
Waitara581,436
Inglewood441,082
Stratford1093,505
Eltham41860
Hawera1474,092
Patea36695
Ohakune27507
Raetihi33712
Taihape681,768
Marton782,293
Feilding1404,337
Pahiatua601,560
Foxton46706
Shannon20433
Levin1623,699
Otaki691,022
Masterton2166,602
Carterton611,312
Greytown27387
Featherston33626
Martinborough28602
Picton46625
Blenheim1936,451
Motueka661,579
Richmond49756
Westport1001,968
Rangiora782,212
Kaiapoi54896
Runanga11182
Brunner556
Greymouth1513,480
Hokitika721,142
Ashburton1686,488
Geraldine361,558
Temuka541,058
Waimate682,160
Queenstown29457
Oamaru1827,327
Alexandra431,148
Milton44940
Balclutha732,646
Kaitangata13176
Gore1456,351
Winton44992
Mataura26535
Riverton27350
Bluff36681

Just under half the total number of retail stores were in the food and drink groups-grocers, butchers, dairies, etc. This group accounted for only 33 per cent of the turnover, however, the average turnover per store being £18,400. As against this, the automotive group, which accounts for only 4 per cent of all retail stores, handled 13 per cent of the turnover, with an average turnover of £86,700 per store.

The following table shows details by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force on 9 April 1963Average Labour Force Per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Average Sales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
MalesFemalesTotal
       £(000)£(000)££(000)
Food and drink13,41016,35013,71630,06648,2153.618,907246,9265,12113,735
Apparel3,9923,4908,10211,59215,2393.87,30876,2845,00623,869
Furniture1,4514,3121,8936,2057,3415.14,90248,7946,64710,960
Automotive1,1573,8996264,5255,4654.73,885100,36618,36511,409
Hardware8552,9181,0433,9614,6585.43,12936,3597,8068,243
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)1,0491,3311,7703,1013,9733.82,20819.8845,0053,683
Department, variety, and general stores7645,98310,15516,13816,74221.99,63184,5625,05116,972
Miscellaneous5,01010,8086,08116,88921,5604.312,450144,7706,71529,115
Totals, all retail stores27,68849,09143,38692,477123,1934.562,420757,9456,152117,986

The following table shows details by turnover size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force on 9 April 1963Salaries and Wages Paid During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
MalesFemalesTotal
£ £     £(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 5,0003,8934991,4801,9796,63982111,9522,362
5,000- 9,9996,0492,1204,5746,69414,1103,13444,7117,435
10,000- 19,9998,6696,5248,87515,39926,0608,954124,21718,018
20,000- 49,9996,55213,28610,62423,91030,61316,674192,84127,743
50,000- 99,9991,4638,2274,54012,76713,7079,657100,97615,954
100,000-249,9997407,9204,74812,66812,9529,526112,32418,273
250,000-999,9992927,5925,33412,92612,9779,348123,94521,305
1,000,000 and over302,9233,2116,1346,1354,30646,9796,896
 Totals, all retail stores27,68849,09143,38692,477123,19362,420757,945117,986

Of the 27,688 retail stores, 11,499 (41 per cent) were operated by private registered companies, 9,947 (36 per cent) were under individual ownership, 4,396 (16 per cent) were run by partnerships, and 1,271 (5 per cent) were run by public registered companies.

The following table shows details by type of organisation. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Type of OrganisationNumber of StoresTurnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
  £(000)£(000)
Private registered companies11,499398,28667,651
 (41.5)(52.5)(57.3)
Public registered companies1,271158,11827,853
 (4.6)(20.9)(23.6)
Individual ownership9,947105,83811,936
 (35.9)(14.0)(10.1)
Partnership4,39664,1045,980
 (15.9)(8.4)(5.1)
Other57531,5994,566
 (2.1)(4.2)(3.9)
Totals27,688757,945117,986
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The number of multiple stores engaged in retail trade represented only 11 per cent of the total stores, but accounted for 31 per cent of the total turnover. A multiple store is defined as one of a group of four or more under common ownership.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at
Start of Year (April 1962)Close of Year (March 1963)
Multiple Stores
  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Food and drink1,11239,2431,9012,046
Apparel42013,6014,1243,931
Furniture19513,5272,4892,551
Automotive10524,6352,5452,664
Hardware11415,5472,8333,063
Chemicals (chemist etc.)411,944258294
Miscellaneous1,109129,69527,04026,407
  Totals3,096238,19241,19140,956
Other Stores
Food and drink12,298207,68311,23211,689
Apparel3,57262,68319,83519,938
Furniture1,25635,2678,2838,409
Automotive1,05275,7318,4838,745
Hardware74120,8124,9895,180
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)1,00817,9403,2213,389
Miscellaneous4,66599,63719,35619,680
  Totals24,592519,75375,39877,030

The following table shows the disposition of the different methods of selling by store-type group and by location group. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

GroupTurnover (1962-63) in the Form ofTotal Sales or Turnover (1962-63)
CashCharge AccountHire Purchase Not Assigned to Finance CompaniesHire Purchase Assigned to Finance CompaniesBudget Store Credit, etc.Cash-Order CouponsOther Installment
Store-type Groups £(000)
Food and drink214,09332,49942827725246,926
 (46.7)(13.8)(0.1)(-)(4.7)(1.1)(0.1)(32.6)
Apparel62,1209,6454414211,8441481,66576,284
 (13.5)(4.1)(1.5)(1.7)(31.4)(80.4)(45.8)(10.1)
Furniture14,42118,54910,7034,484239239648,794
 (3.1)(7.9)(35.4)(18.7)(4.1)(1.1)(10.9)(6.4)
Automotive51,20525,5397,74515,8457-25100,366
 (11.2)(10.9)(25.6)(65.9)(0.1)(-)(0.7)(13.2)
Hardware8,40727,399159329915536,359
 (1.8)(11.6)(0.5)(1.4)(0.2)(0.5)(1.5)(4.8)
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)18,834926--124--19,884
 (4.1)(0.4)(-)(-)(2.1)(-)(-)(2.6)
Department, variety, and general stores44,91631,0535,7343871,409211,04284,562
 (9.8)(13.2)(19.0)(1.6)(24.0)(11.4)(28.7)(11.2)
Miscellaneous44,73889,6405,4112,5651,96010446144,770
 (9.8)(38.1)(17.9)(10.7)(33.4)(5.5)(12.3)(19.1)
 Totals, all retail stores458,734235,25030,23524,0395,8691843,634757,945
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.
Location Groups £(000)
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)240,46181,18518,02212,7912,2661132,502357,340
 (52.4)(34.5)(59.6)(53.2)(38.6)(61.4)(68.9)(47.1)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)100,53159,0777,4515,6552,25569600175,638
 (21.9)(25.1)(24.6)(23.5)(38.4)(37.5)(16.5)(23.2)
Smaller centres50,56441,5113,0273,321345241199,181
 (11.0)(17.7)(10.0)(13.8)(5.9)(1.1)(11.3)(13.1)
Other urban32,05825,7191,3201,731411-7761,316
 (7.0)(10.9)(4.4)(7.2)(7.0}(-)(2.1)(8.1)
Rural35,12027,758415541592-4464,470
 (7.7)(11.8)(1.4)(2.3)(10.1)(-)(1.2)(8.5)
 Totals, all retail stores458,734235,25030,23524,0395,8691843,634757,945
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following table shows, by the store-type group, average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over per annum.

Store-type GroupAverage Sales or Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentSales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceSales or Turnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
 £ ££ 
Food and drink18,4143.65,12197.718.0
Apparel19,1093.85,00630.23.2
Furniture33,6285.16,64719.34.5
Automotive86,7474.718,36539.78.8
Hardware42,5255.47,80614.44.4
Chemicals18,9543.85,0057.95.4
Miscellaneous39,7186.65,98790.85.0
 All retail stores27,3744.56,152299.96.4

Self Service Grocery Stores-As might be expected, self-service stores are most common among the larger establishments. A total of 83 per cent of grocery stores with turnovers of £50,000 or more have self-service units, 73 per cent of those in the £40,000-£49,999 group and 67 per cent of those in the £30,000-£39,999 group. The percentages decline steadily with size of turnover to 20 per cent of stores in the £5,000-£9,999 group and only 10 per cent of those in the under £5,000 group.

Turnover SizeWith Self-service UnitsWithout Self-service UnitsPercentage of Self-service Units to Total Stores
Number of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63Value of StocksNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1962-63Value of Stocks
Start of YearClose of YearStart of YearClose of Year
£ £ £(000)£(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)£(000) 
Under 5,0001769111316147461709.6
5,000-9,999106834941044323,31931332919.7
10,000-19,9996329,7409259701,20617,6451,5621,63634.4
20,000-29,99956813,7751,1001,18352512,5931,1081,13152.0
30,000-39,99931810,8158348901575,25846246166.9
40,000-49,9991275,643410439462,01818118873.4
50,000 and over14010,298743837291,80819518182.8
 Totals1,90851,1744,1174,4362,55643,1153,8823,99642.7

Wholesale Establishments-The total of 3,052 wholesale stores included in the tables accounted for a turnover of £492,933,000, or an average turnover of £161,511 per store.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 89.6 per cent of wholesale stores with 96.1 per cent of total turnover. Auckland and Wellington (including Hutt) urban areas together accounted for 46.6 per cent of stores and 57.0 per cent of turnover.

The following table shows the distribution of wholesale trade by statistical areas and by main location groups. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

AreaPopulation at 31 March 1963Number of StoresPurchases During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
 (000) £(000)£(000)£(000)
Statistical Areas
Northland88.9574,6855,582703
 (3.5)(1.9)(1.2)(1.1)(1.0)
Central Auckland549.5924135,029168,99723,207
 (21.7)(30.3)(34.0)(34.3)(32.8)
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty369.721520,84725,6322,763
 (14.6)(7.0)(5.3)(5.2)(3.9)
East Coast47.1232,0752,521310
 (1.9)(0.9)(0.5)(0.5)(0.5)
Hawke's Bay120.11109,38011,4131,635
 (4.8)(3.6)(2.4)(2.3)(2.3)
Taranaki102.4817,1118,6111,211
 (4.0)(2.7)(1.8)(1.7)(1.7)
Wellington-Hutt492.9700109,455134,46920,195
 (19.5)(22.9)(27.6)(27.3)(28.5)
Marlborough28.8231,3181,520179
 (1.1)(0.8)(0.3)(0.3)(0.3)
Nelson65.4574,9126,048805
 (2.6)(1.9)(1.2)(1.2)(1.1)
Westland24.8222,2902,751299
 (1.0)(0.7)(0.6)(0.6)(0.4)
Canterbury359.052866,74684,11912,549
 (14.2)(17.3)(16.8)(17.1)(17.7)
Otago180.821424,36930,5205,308
 (7.2)(7.0)(6.1)(6.2)(7.5)
Southland97.8988,92610,7501,632
 (3.9)(3.2)(2.2)(2.2)(2.3)
  Totals, all wholesale stores2,527.13,052397,143492,93370,796
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)1,083.42,060309,502386,71057,143
 (42.9)(67.5)(77.9)(78.5)(80.7)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)446.567672,05687,24311,682
 (17.7)(22.1)(18.2)(17.7)(16.5)
Smaller centres, other urban and rural997.231615,58518,9801,971
 (39.4)(10.4)(3.9)(3.8)(2.8)
  Totals, all wholesale stores2,527.13,052397,143492,93370,796
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following tables show details of wholesale establishments by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force on 9 April 1963
MalesFemalesTotal
Food and drink7846,9742,5089,4829,986
Apparel3091,7911,2613,0523,242
Furniture1651,0863621,4481,515
Automotive2632,7816393,4203,487
Hardware4194,2309865,2165,370
Chemicals1241,1085691,6771,706
Miscellaneous9888,4073,01811,42511,858
 Totals, all wholesale stores3,05226,3779,34335,72037,164
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Average Sales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
  £(000)£(000)££(000)
Food and drink12.78,094160,51416,07410,920
Apparel10.52,84142,43013,0887,689
Furniture9.21,36421,41014,1322,751
Automotive13.33,04846,41913,3127,527
Hardware12.84,68258,92210,97213,232
Chemicals13.81,34118,42410,8003,726
Miscellaneous12.010,227144,81412,21224,951
 Totals, all wholesale stores12.231,597492,93313,26470,796

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with under £20,000 turnover numbered 755 (24.7 per cent), but accounted for only £6,988,000, or 1.4 per cent of turnover. At the other end of the scale a total turnover of £231,348,000 (46.9 per cent) was accounted for by only 212 stores (6.9 per cent) which had a turnover of £500,000 or more.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force on 9 April 1963Salaries and Wages Paid During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63Stocks at Close of Year (March 1963)
MalesFemalesTotal
£ £     £(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 5,000212829017241479580121
5,000- 9,9992111681513195391781,528250
10,000- 19,9993326653299941,2297254,880985
20,000- 49,9996622,1087622,8703,2092,38922,4614,407
50,000- 99,9995472,8699273,7963,9963,39939,7297,859
100,000-249,9995916,1301,8097,9398,0847,28294,17016,042
250,000-299,999871,5085022,0102,0261,76523,9083,985
300,000-399,9991352,2947893,0833,1072,79246,6416,040
400,000-499,999631,7284602,1882,1942,00127,6884,186
500,000 and over2128,8253,52412,34912,36610,987231,34826,921
Totals, all wholesale stores3,05226,3779,34335,72037,16431,597492,93370,796

Service Establishments-Only a selected group of services was included in the Census of Distribution 1963. These were grouped in three broad divisions, personal, business and community, and other services.

Of the total number of service establishments, 85.7 per cent provided services only, and in the remainder some secondary form of trading was also carried on.

Services covered by the census totalled 3,170 establishments of which 2,243, or 70.8 per cent, were in the North Island and 927, or 29.2 per cent, in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 71.9 per cent of service establishments, with 87.4 per cent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census.

ItemPersonal ServicesBusiness and Community ServicesOther ServicesTotal
Number of establishmentsNo.2,1323017373,170
Sales or turnover during 1962-63£(000)14,3599,4413,70227,502
Location of establishments
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)No.9881893401,517
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)No.52563174762
Smaller centresNo.29134104429
Other urbanNo.220867295
RuralNo.108752167
Paid employees on 9 April 1963
MalesNo.3,4418557105,006
FemalesNo.7,5764851388,199
TotalsNo.11,0171,34084813,205
Total labour force on 9 April 1963No.13,1951,6221,65916,476
Salaries and wages paid during 1962-63£(000)5,5891,3416387,568

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1963Total Labour Force 9 April 1963Salaries and Wages During 1962-63Sales or Turnover During 1962-63
MalesFemalesTotal
£ £     £(000)£(000)
Under 1,0003668778547122222
1,000- 1,999747583944521,2521421,064
2,000- 2,9995461075696761,2512421,296
3,000- 4,9995352797631,0421,6134752,031
5,000- 9,9995207101,1101,8202,3859823,564
10,000-19,9992549607621,7221,9751,1253,457
20,000-49,9991211,0141,3732,3872,4701,4623,694
50,000-99,999426461,5382,1842,2051,0222,907
100,000 and over391,2241,6132,8372,8542,0969,267
 Totals3,1705,0068,19913,20516,4767,56827,502

Special Analyses-Special analyses were taken out to show total retail trade by retail and service establishments and, at the same time, details were also obtained of total services provided.

The following table shows details of retail trade as above by commodity groups.

Commodity GroupSales or Turnover During 1962-63
AmountPer Cent of Total
 £(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)95,93512.7
Meat and fish (uncooked)39,7865.3
Fruit and vegetables22,6903.0
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)22,4633.0
Milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks21,3222.8
Beer, wine, and spirits47,2806.3
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries24,3813.2
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)21,9042.9
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods91,14412.1
Footwear17,5162.3
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings and household textiles33,4274.4
Television sets and spare parts7,8021.0
Radios, radiograms, and record players5,0020.7
Other musical instruments3,4510.5
Household appliances and electrical goods20,6942.7
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware14,2871.9
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)25,2643.4
Books, stationery, and newspapers19,3322.6
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oil)103,22913.7
Bicycles, parts and accessories1,5500.2
Coal, coke, and firewood2,8040.4
Fertilisers and manures14,3441.9
Florists' goods1,2420.2
Grain, seed, and fodder14,7652.0
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)5,0930.7
Leather, luggage, and harness1,9090.2
Agricultural machinery14,4281.9
Office machinery6,0120.8
Other machinery6,8480.9
Paint, glass, and wallpaper6,6990.9
Photographic supplies and equipment1,6380.2
Plumbing equipment and piping227-
Professional and scientific equipment6610.1
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)4560.1
Sewing machines and accessories1,2420.2
Sports goods (including toys and games)5,1540.7
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies2,5850.3
Other goods28,6523.8
  Totals, retail commodities753,218100.0

The following table shows details of total services provided by retail and service establishments.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedSales or Turnover During 1962-63
Personal service provided by establishments classified as £(000)
Service establishments2,13214,359
Retail stores7881,484
Totals, personal services2,92015,843
Community and business services provided by establishments classified as
Service establishments3019,441
Retail stores191242
Totals, community and business services4929,683
Other services provided by establishments classified as
Service establishments7373,702
Retail stores1,5273,836
  Total, other services2,2647,538
   Grand totals, all services5,67633,064

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trade.

Commodity GroupSales or Turnover During 1963-62
AmountPer Cent of Total
 £(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)82,79316.8
Meat and fish (uncooked)11,2242.3
Fruit and vegetables25,7745.2
Other food (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)9,0951.8
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks10,5522.1
Beer, wine, and spirits22,7174.6
Tobacco, cigarettes, end tobacconists' sundries23,5604.8
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics22,3564.5
Clothing, drapery, and piece goods39,7138.1
Footwear6,8081.4
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles16,4513.3
Television sets and spare parts4,9211.0
Radios, radiograms, and record players2,2090.5
Other musical instruments1,1040.2
Household appliances and electrical goods19,9434.1
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware10,6372.2
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)23,6644.8
Books, stationery, and newspapers7,8481.6
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oil)47,3679.6
Coal, coke, and firewood1,6660.3
Fertilisers, manures, grain, seed, and fodder12,1752.5
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)2,6420.5
Leather, luggage, and harness1,9750.4
Agricultural machinery4,1320.8
Other machinery20,1794.1
Paint, glass, and wallpaper7,3521.5
Photographic supplies and equipment2,7670.6
Plumbing equipment and piping5,2741.1
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)1,3500.3
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies1,1420.2
Sports goods (including toys and games)3,0380.6
Other40,5058.2
   Totals, wholesale commodities492,933100.0

Statistics of capital assets (both new and second-hand) acquired or sold in 1962-63 are shown in the following table.

Store-type GroupNew Assets AcquiredSecond-hand Assets AcquiredAssets Sold
Plant and MachineryFittings and InstallationsMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryMotor Vehicles
£(thousand)
Retail Stores
Food and drink1,4281,033900664682321551
Apparel474072452210717146
Furniture83158324119213164
Automotive111128600273069789
Hardware10410530484913126
Chemicals229189756658
Miscellaneous7339811,21855201136623
  Totals2,5282,9033,6807941,4935152,457
Wholesale Stores
Food and drink818129811676154298
Apparel35912214293139
Furniture19331171120187+
Automotive87762661163131
Hardware19211739664217166
Chemicals3028180--382
Miscellaneous557518909469144468
  Totals1,9129902,9541252591251,371
Services
Personal2911442766014538132
Community and business232356220228
Other51018538302425
  Totals8241853857019564185
   Grand totals5,2644,0787,0199891,9477044,013

Interest paid and depreciation charged during 1962-63 are shown in the next table.

Store-type GroupInterest Paid on Bank Overdraft and Other Business BorrowingsBusiness Depreciation Charges in Respect of-
BuildingsPlant, Equipment, Furniture, and FittingsMotor VehiclesTotal
£ (thousand)
Retail Stores
Food and drink1,0304372,2447733,454
Apparel39068374163605
Furniture40353153208414
Automotive308113171126410
Hardware27664140208412
Chemicals512110460185
Miscellaneous1,5773631,1488092,320
  Totals4,0351,1194,3342,3477,800
Wholesale Stores
Food and drink4701625284641,154
Apparel23915110126251
Furniture851110966186
Automotive10042130121293
Hardware35786417238741
Chemicals47226274158
Miscellaneous6811685774541,199
  Totals1,9795061,9331,5433,982
Services
Personal8730321187538
Community and business63362564
Other2937544122
   Totals12236432256724
  Grand totals6,1361,6616,6994,14612,506

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE-Following the Census of Distribution in 1953 a continuing quarterly sample survey of retail trade was inaugurated.

The present sample survey excludes certain types of retail stores which were included in the Census of Distribution 1963; these store types are hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, and the complete automotive group. Besides the above exclusions, for purposes of the sample survey some changes in the grouping of store types apply. In the following table comparable census figures are given together with statistics of turnover, based on sample results, for the quarters ended 30 September 1964 and 31 December 1964. The composition of the store-type groups can be readily seen.

Store Type and GroupingSales or Turnover
Year Ended 31 March 1963 (Census Figures)Quarter Ended
30 September 196431 December 1964
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
Butcher, poulterer, etc. 37,46310,50011,110
Grocer 94,28925,41129,013
Other food and drink
Baker, pastrycook, etc.5,937   
Confectioner1,532   
Dairy, milk bar24,917   
Fish, fish and chip shop4,322   
Fruiterer, greengrocer16,780   
Restaurant, cafeteria, tearoom13,050   
Other food and drink750   
  Total, other food and drink 67,28817,09019,408
Footwear 13,1983,2134,079
Other apparel
Draper, etc.46,857   
Men's and boys' clothier15,428   
Other apparel801   
  Total, other apparel 63,08616,12019,968
Furniture and soft furnishings 25,0847,7318,992
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc.-
Household appliances, radios, etc.23,710   
Electrical goods1,659   
Music store3,018   
Sewing machine dealer1,324   
  Total, household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc. - 29,7119,20410,494
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.
Hardware, builders' hardware, etc.28,216   
Paints and varnishes6,469   
Other hardware2,213   
  Total, hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc. 36,89810,49012,263
Chemist 18,7355,0786,260
General, department, and variety 84,56223,58929,837
Other-
Bookseller, newsagent, stationer17,189   
Coal and wood merchant2,678   
Florist1,184   
Jeweller5,143   
Pawnbroker, secondhand dealer1,545   
Seedsman, nurseryman4,666   
Tobacconist6,828   
Toys, novelties, etc.1,670   
Other chemicals1,149   
Stock and station agents55,851   
Miscellaneous41,030   
   Totals, other 138,93335,89443,840
  Totals, New Zealand 609,247164,320195,264

Later information will be found in the section on Latest Statistical Information.

It will be noticed that total turnover for retail stores for the year ended 31 March 1963, as shown earlier, £609,247,000, differs from the figure, £757,945,000, in respect of all retail trading as quoted on a preceding page. The sample does not purport to cover all aspects of retail trading, but covers all store types with the exception of the exclusions already specified.

The sample survey from which quarterly estimates are obtained is designed to provide satisfactory accuracy in store-type figures at national level and in regional figures at the all-store-type level. To obtain the same accuracy in regional figures for each store type it would be necessary to make the sample very much larger and a great deal of the saving in trouble and cost which the sample gives would be lost. Of the regional figures for each store type it can be said that, in general, they give quite a good indication of the value of trading, but that in this case successive quarterly figures are not necessarily reliable as an indication of trends.

The following table gives details of value of sales or turnover by store-type groups for each of six geographical regions for the quarters ended 30 September and 31 December 1964.

VALUE OF SALES OR TURNOVER
Store-type GroupNorth IslandSouth IslandTotals, New Zealand
Auckland Urban AreaWellington and Hutt Urban AreasRemainder of North IslandTotals, North IslandChrist-church Urban AreaDunedin Urban AreaRemainder of South IslandTotals, South Island
£(thousand)
Quarter Ended 30 September 1964
Butcher, poulterer, etc.2,3771,1873,7407,3049937051,4983,19610,500
Grocer4,6033,1409,71517,4582,3991,2594,2957,95325,411
Other Food and drink5,0522,2645,75613,0721,7206391,6594,01817,090
Footwear8094321,0302,2713631873929423,213
Other apparel3,2462,1036,55511,9041,4336972,0864,21616,120
Furniture and soft furnishings1,7849442,8985,6267243261,0552,1057,731
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, television sets, etc.2,0661,4683,1866,7207702521,4622,4849,204
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.3,1401,2903,8188,2481,2323196912,24210,490
Chemist1,1905541,8703,6145252496901,4645,078
General, department, and variety5,7022,5718,27616,5492,5441,0173,4797,04023,589
Other5,3912,97113,68121,8433,5512,0548,44614,05135,894
  Totals35,36018,92460,325114,60916,2547,70425,75349,711164,320
Quarter Ended 31 December 1964
Butcher, poulterer, etc.2,4821,2794,0427,8031,0517281,5283,30711,110
Grocer5,4823,43911,35920,2802,6251,3724,7368,73329,013
Other food and drink5,5232,5236,67514,7211,9457272,0154,68719,408
Footwear1,0426071,1782,8275022215291,2524,079
Other apparel4,1112,5737,88714,5711,8918102,6965,39719,968
Furniture and soft furnishings2,1441,1393,4056,6888133251,1662,3048,992
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, television sets, etc.2,2511,4853,8187,5548532671,8202,94010,494
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.3,5081,3954,7559,6581,4463238362,60512,263
Chemist1,4786632,3014,4426763158271,8186,260
General, department, and variety7,7433,2129,81720,7723,4441,3814,2409,06529,837
Other6,9393,65516,75727,3514,3511,97010,16816,48943,840
  Totals42,70321,97071,994136,66719,5978,43930,56158,597195,264

The information in the preceding table has been regrouped in the following table to give statistics of commodity sales.

SALES OR TURNOVER BY COMMODITIES
Commodity GroupQuarter Ended
30 September 196431 December 1954
 £ (thousand)
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)24,59427,206
Meat and fish11,44012,039
Fruit and vegetables5,8126,712
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)6,0736,787
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.5,1335,976
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries6,2496,868
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)5,9837,695
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods22,97529,349
Footwear4,1555,396
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles9,15610,888
Musical instruments (incl. radios and television sets)5,1965,411
Household appliances and electrical goods5,6036,992
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware3,8895,067
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks and roofing tiles)7,2707,629
Books, stationery, etc.4,7126,068
Other commodities36,08045,181
   Total sales or turnover164,320195,264

Statistics for Earlier Quarters-The growth in the number of stores causes considerable difficulty in the field of statistical collection if the retail trade of such new stores is to be adequately allowed for in the quarterly surveys. The compilation procedures used in conjunction with the area-unit sample automatically allow for the retail trade of new stores.

A number of alterations in the grouping and coverage of store types in the survey were also made with the introduction of the new sample from 1959. For these reasons revised statistics of turnover for earlier periods were prepared, which are directly comparable with those compiled under the present sample. Comparable statistics extending back to the March 1955 quarter are given in the next table.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER-STORE-TYPE GROUPS
Quarter EndedTurnover for Store-type Group
Butcher, poulterer, etc.GrocerOther Food and DrinkFootwearOther ApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, Radios, etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department, and VarietyOtherAll Groups
£ (million)
1955
Mar6.915.311.11.910.84.15.06.52.114.522.8100.8
Jun7.115.511.02.313.34.95.27.42.315.423.6108.1
Sep7.516.311.52.012.24.85.27.42.515.623.2108.2
Dec7.517.512.72.515.05.26.67.62.818.428.2123.9
1956
Mar7.016.211.82.011.54.15.06.92.414.823.1104.9
Jun7.416.611.82.313.64.94.77.12.515.924.4111.2
Sep7.417.112.22.011.95.15.07.12.515.324.6110.1
Dec7.718.713.42.714.85.67.17.62.918.829.6128.7
1957
Mar7.216.912.32.111.34.25.56.92.615.325.3109.7
Jun7.817.712.32.614.95.35.07.42.916.925.6118.3
Sep8.118.012.32.212.55.65.57.62.916.226.4117.3
Dec8.420.213.72.915.35.76.28.93.520.230.2135.2
1958
Mar7.618.212.72.412.45.05.97.62.916.626.4117.8
Jun8.218.512.42.715.66.05.98.23.018.428.0127.0
Sep8.418.512.62.312.95.35.08.13.016.826.8119.8
Dec8.420.213.72.915.35.76.28.93.520.230.2135.2
1959
Mar7.518.212.52.311.44.34.47.12.915.724.0110.3
Jun8.418.812.92.814.85.04.87.53.118.126.6122.9
Sep8.719.313.52.412.55.25.17.53.217.327.8122.4
Dec9.021.214.93.115.76.16.38.73.922.032.9143.8
1960
Mar8.119.514.52.512.74.95.17.73.317.632.1128.1
Jun8.620.114.53.216.05.95.38.13.519.429.9134.4
Sep9.121.215.22.913.96.16.08.73.818.731.1136.6
Dec9.222.916.73.717.57.16.69.64.323.636.3157.6
1961
Mar8.721.015.92.913.85.85.48.83.918.733.5138.3
Jun9.021.315.13.516.96.45.88.84.120.832.4144.2
Sep9.622.115.82.914.36.16.79.14.318.832.5142.2
Dec9.624.117.73.717.76.97.610.15.024.636.7163.6
1962
Mar8.922.116.52.914.15.45.98.84.318.532.8140.2
Jun9.322.615.73.516.66.06.78.94.420.530.9145.1
Sep9.523.416.22.914.56.17.08.74.519.533.1145.5
Dec9.625.218.33.717.77.18.69.85.325.438.2169.0
1963
Mar9.223.117.13.014.45.97.39.54.619.136.6149.7
Jun9.723.916.63.617.56.78.79.24.522.534.3157.3
Sep10.324.817.43.015.67.09.69.54.621.534.7158.0
Dec10.726.919.53.718.97.810.611.25.628.442.0185.2
1964
Mar9.824.618.22.915.46.39.410.24.721.439.4162.4
Jun10.725.517.53.718.77.410.210.74.924.738.9172.9
Sep10.525.417.13.216.17.79.210.55.123.635.9164.3
Dec11.129.019.44.120.09.010.512.36.329.843.8195.3

The information in the preceding table on turnover has been regrouped in the following table to give statistics of commodity sales.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER-COMMODITY GROUPS
Quarter EndedGroceries and Small Goods (Including Butter, Bacon, etc.)Meat and FishFruit and VegetablesOther Foods (Baked and Cooked Foods, Meals, etc.)Milk, Ice Cream, Confectionery. Soft Drinks, etc.Tobacco, Cigarettes, and Tobacconists' SundriesChemists' Goods, Toiletries, Cosmetics (Including Dispensing)Clothing, Drapery, Dress Piece GoodsFootwear
£(million)
1955-Mar16.310.83.74.13.52.515.22.4
Jun16.511.04.03.73.62.718.42.9
Sep17.311.64.23.83.73.016.82.5
Dec18.912.14.44.14.03.420.53.3
1956-Mar17.311.04.14.13.52.916.02.6
Jun17.811.64.23.83.63.018.73.0
Sep18.512.04.33.73.73.016.52.6
Dec20.212.64.64.44.13.420.33.5
1957-Mar18.111.74.14.43.53.115.62.7
Jun18.912.34.53.93.73.420.43.4
Sep19.412.84.53.83.83.517.22.9
Dec21.113.74.84.34.24.021.53.7
1958-Mar19.312.34.34.63.73.417.43.2
Jun19.512.84.44.13.93.521.43.5
Sep19.613.44.44.04.13.517.73.0
Dec21.514.14.34.44.64.020.83.8
1959-Mar18.712.23.84.54.13.415.73.0
Jun20.58.94.54.74.34.53.821.73.7
Sep21.49.44.74.74.34.73.918.33.1
Dec23.49.55.65.05.15.34.823.44.2
1960-Mar21.28.75.14.85.05.03.918.63.4
Jun21.49.34.75.24.75.14.122.94.3
Sep22.510.05.15.44.85.24.420.13.8
Dec24.410.06.15.55.55.75.325.54.9
1961-Mar22.39.45.45.25.45.24.519.83.8
Jun22.69.74.85.55.05.34.824.24.7
Sep23.110.35.25.54.95.35.020.33.8
Dec24.910.46.25.75.75.96.125.75.0
1962-Mar22.39.35.55.35.55.54.919.73.8
Jun23.19.95.05.45.05.65.123.64.7
Sep23.610.15.35.65.05.65.220.63.9
Dec25.910.16.75.85.86.16.326.54.9
1963-Mar23.29.75.75.55.55.65.220.43.9
Jun24.510.15.26.05.05.75.325.25.0
Sep25.110.85.86.25.15.95.422.34.0
Dec24.611.45.86.15.16.26.023.04.2
1964-Mar25.210.15.96.05.65.75.421.64.0
Jun26.311.15.56.35.25.85.726.95.1
Sep24.611.45.86.15.16.26.023.04.2
Dec27.212.06.76.86.06.97.729.35.4

20*

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER-COMMODITY GROUPS—
Quarter EndedFurniture, Bedding, Floor Coverings, Soft Furnishings, and Household TextilesMusical Instruments (Including Radios and Television Sets)Household Appliances and Electrical GoodsDomestic Hardware, China, and GlasswareBuilders' Hardware and Materials (Excluding Timber, Bricks, and Roofing Tiles)Books, Stationery, etc.Other CommoditiesTotal Sales or Turnover
£(million)
1955-Mar5.61.34.22.95.53.219.7100.8
Jun6.31.54.43.16.52.920.6108.1
Sep6.61.54.53.26.32.820.4108.2
Dec6.81.75.83.86.33.825.0123.9
1956-Mar5.61.34.33.15.93.419.8104.9
Jun6.51.64.23.26.23.120.8111.2
Sep6.71.74.23.15.63.121.4110.1
Dec7.31.96.03.96.34.126.2128.7
1957-Mar5.71.54.53.15.93.622.1109.7
Jun7.11.94.23.36.53.321.6118.3
Sep7.41.84343.46.73.322.6117.3
Dec8.12.26.14.26.64.228.0136.7
1958-Mar6.71.74.83.76.43.822.5117.8
Jun8.22.15.03.87.23.424.2127.0
Sep7.31.74.23.56.83.123.4119.8
Dec7.61.85.04.27.24.427.6135.2
1959-Mar5.91.33.63.25.73.721.7110.3
Jun7.02.03.93.36.13.520.5122.9
Sep7.02.04.23.26.13.521.9122.4
Dec8.02.75.84.46.24.726.0143.8
1960-Mar6.62.14.33.35.63.726.9128.2
Jun8.02.34.33.46.13.624.9134.5
Sep8.02.64.83.56.43.926.2136.6
Dec9.12.65.94.66.25.131.3157.6
1961-Mar7.42.14.43.56.44.129.4138.3
Jun8.32.34.83.56.74.227.8144.2
Sep8.22.94.63.46.44.129.2142.2
Dec9.12.86.14.66.55.234.0163.6
1962-Mar7.12.24.33.36.14.530.9140.2
Jun8.23.64.73.36.34.327.3145.1
Sep8.43.84.63.16.14.430.1145.5
Dec9.34.66.14.46.35.734.5169.0
1963-Mar7.63.94.83.46.54.934.0149.7
Jun8.74.75.43.56.24.632.0157.3
Sep9.45.05.93.56.44.732.6158.0
Dec10.25.67.04.86.66.040.9185.2
1964-Mar8.25.55.23.56.64.938.8162.4
Jun9.86.75.83.97.24.836.7172.9
Sep9.25.25.63.97.34.736.1164.3
Dec10.95.47.05.17.66.145.2195.3

Retail Stocks-The following table shows quarterly stock values. The figures up to June 1964 have been revised.

QUARTERLY STOCK VALUES-STORE-TYPE GROUPS
Quarter EndedStocks for Store-type Groups
Butcher, Poulterer, etc.GrocerOther Food and DrinkFootwearOther ApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department and VarietyOtherAll Groups
£(000)
1959-Jun0.47.51.94.019.05.54.67.12.715.024.191.7
Sep0.577.62.04.219.75.54.67.02.716.224.894.7
Dec0.47.72.03.918.85.44.47.02.715.124.691.9
1960-Mar0.47.82.13.919.25.84.37.02.815.424.493.2
Jun0.48.12.14.319.25.84.67.12.914.724.493.6
Sep0.48.12.14.320.16.04.97.32.816.025.697.7
Dec0.48.12.24.319.36.04.87.52.816.025.396.6
1961-Mar0.47.92.24.220.06.14.97.93.016.525.198.2
Jun0.58.12.14.319.76.75.08.13.116.326.9100.8
Sep0.48.32.24.520.86.95.48.23.118.328.7106.8
Dec0.58.32.34.419.66.65.25.03.116.727.6102.2
1962-Mar0.58.42.34.420.96.25.28.03.317.227.2103.5
Jun0.58.42.24.420.46.25.38.33.416.727.4103.2
Sep0.58.62.34.521.16.25.78.03.417.928.8106.8
Dec0.58.52.34.219.66.25.68.13.416.427.6102.4
1963-Mar0.58.42.44.419.46.55.78.33.517.027.9104.1
Jun0.58.72.44.119.26.55.88.63.618.729.8104.1
Sep0.58.92.44.620.16.86.38.43.618.729.8109.9
Dec0.59.02.44.519.26.65.98.63.617.829.0107.1
1964-Mar0.59.32.54.520.66.76.68.93.818.028.9110.2
Jun0.59.82.54.521.66.96.89.43.918.129.3113.3
Sep0.49.32.55.122.67.87.09.03.822.130.5120.1
Dec0.49.32.54.921.57.77.19.33.819.529.1114.9

Retail Trade Statistics Corrected for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes-To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally corrected values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this, seasonal correction factors were calculated representing, for each quarter an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately centred moving averages). The factors have been revised from time to time as later figures indicated changes in the magnitudes of the seasonal fluctuations. Those in use from the June quarter 1963 are based on the period March quarter 1958 to December quarter 1962.

Over the period covered by the retail trade survey there has been a rise in the general price level so that part of the increase in the survey figures has been the result purely of this price change and does not represent an increase in the real volume of sales. A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in pounds of constant purchasing power-i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this i are the commodity prices used in the Consumers' Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: year ended 31 March 1958 (=1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant 1957-58 pounds.

Finally, a further adjustment has been made to express the series in terms of turnover per head of population in recognition of the fact that part of the expansion of retail turnover is due to population growth.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER-ALL STORE TYPES
Quarter EndedTotal Sales or Turnover
In Current £sIn Constant 1957-58 £s
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*
* Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 (=1000).
 £(m)£(m) £(m)£(m) 
1955-March100.8107.7881105.0112.2917
June108.1109.1892111.7112.8922
September108.2111.6913111.3114.9939
December123.9111.3910128.1115.1941
1956-March104.9112.0916108.1115.5944
June111.2112.2917113.6114.7938
September110.1113.7930110.7114.2934
December128.7115.6945129.7116.5953
1957-March109.7117.2958112.1119.8980
June118.3119.4976119.3120.5985
September117.3121.1990117.4121.2991
December136.7122.81004136.3122.51002
1958-March117.8125.91029117.0125.01022
June127.0128.21048125.2126.41034
September119.8123.61011115.7119.4977
December135.2121.5993129.8116.6953
1959-March110.3117.8963105.9113.2925
June112.9124.01014118.0119.2974
September122.4126.31033116.8120.5986
December143.8129.21056137.3123.41009
1960-March128.2136.91119122.3130.61068
June134.5135.71110128.1129.31057
September136.6141.01153129.0133.11088
December157.6141.61158147.7132.71085
1961-March138.3147.81208130.4139.31139
June144.2145.61190135.7137.11121
September142.2146.81200132.7136.91119
December163.6147.01202152.1136.61117
1962-March140.2149.71224130.3139.11138
June145.1146.51198134.9136.21113
September145.5150.21228134.5138.81135
December169.0153.41254155.7141.41156
1963-March149.7158.61297137.9146.21195
June157.3160.11309144.7147.21204
September158.0163.11334144.7149.41221
December185.2167.81372168.1152.21245
1964-March162.4171.81405146.7155.21269
June172.9175.91438154.4157.01284
September164.3169.71387145.0149.81225
December195.3176.91446169.9153.91258
QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER-ALL STORE TYPES-
Quarter EndedTurnover per Head of Population
In Current £sIn Constant 1957-58 £
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*
* Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 (= 1000).
 ££ ££ 
1955-March47.450.793149.452.8970
June50.751.193852.452.9972
September50.552.195752.053.6984
December57.551.694859.453.4981
1956-March48.351.694849.853.2977
June51.151.694852.252.7968
September50.452.095550.752.3961
December58.552.696659.053.0973
1957-March49.552.997250.654.1994
June53.253.798653.654.1994
September52.454.199452.554.2995
December60.754.5100160.554.4999
1958-March51.955.5101951.6355.11012
June55.756.3103355.055.51019
September52.354.099250.652.2958
December58.652.796756.350.5928
1959-March47.550.893245.648.8895
June52.853.397850.751.2940
September52.454.199350.051.6947
December61.254.9100958.452.5964
1960-March54.257.9106351.755.21014
June56.757.3105154.054.51001
September57.459.3108954.256.01028
December65.859.1108661.755.41018
1961-March57.461.4112754.157.81062
June59.760.2110656.256.71042
September58.560.4110954.656.31034
December66.760.0110162.055.71023
1962-March56.760.6111352.756.31035
June58.559.0108454.454.91008
September58.460.3110754.055.71023
December67.361.1112262.156.31034
1963-March59.262.8115354.657.81062
June62.063.1115957.158.11066
September62.164.1117756.858.71078
December72.265.4120165.659.41090
1964-March62.966.5122256.860.11104
June66.767.8124659.560.61112
September63.265.3119855.857.61058
December74.667.6124164.958.81080

The information in the two preceding tables is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE-A quarterly survey of wholesale trade was commenced in September 1960.

Certain store types, which by nature of their business have a low ratio of stock to total turnover, have been omitted from the survey, which otherwise covers all businesses dominantly wholesale. For the excluded firms the value of closing stock recorded in the Census of Distribution 1963 was £4,624,000 (comprising food and drink store-type group £3,314,000, apparel £315,000, and miscellaneous £995,000), representing only 6.5 per cent of the total value of all stock recorded by wholesale businesses in the census.

The following table shows, by store-type group, values of stocks held by wholesalers on 31 March 1960, 1961, 1962, and 1963 and at quarterly intervals from 31 March up to and including 31 December 1964.

Store-type GroupValue of Stock as at
31 March 196031 March 196131 March 196231 March 196331 March 196430 June 196430 September 196431 December 1964
 £(thousand)
Food and drink4,9355,0465,7686,0186,5016,5227,2936,255
Apparel5,9326,0715,8446,0766,3716,8416,6906,444
Furniture2,4932,9823,1213,2133,7263,8364,0063,732
Automotive7,2888,0548,3118,66510,58610,75210,82710,092
Hardware9,37310,3059,92110,76811,40511,27111,40311,050
Chemicals3,3693,6213,9343,7914,2914,1344,6344,592
General merchants9,02510,1939,79010,44010,85910,66311,00010,638
Machinery-Agricultural, heavy, electrical and industrial7,3818,7828,5198,7079,2159,4589,3119,308
electrical supplies3,3354,1183,7643,9324,5784,8614,9365,028
Paper and stationery1,6681,8781,6941,6872,1732,0912,1862,224
Grain and seeds8309381,0691,1011,3221,4451,3391,320
Rubber, leather, and canvas goods1,1941,4181,4441,3981,5941,6521,7161,751
Office, printers' and photographic supplies9541,3991,4121,4341,7271,6842,0972,126
Miscellaneous5,6415,9486,6706,3066,6546,4547,1846,983
  Totals63,46870,75371,26173,53681,00281,66484,62281,543

The following table shows, by store-type group, for stores covered by the survey, values of sales or turnover by wholesalers for quarterly periods, commencing with the quarter ended 30 September 1963 up to and including the quarter ended 31 December 1964.

Store-type GroupValue of Sales or Turnover for Quarter Ended
30 September 196331 December 196331 March 196430 June 196430 September 196431 December 1964
£(thousand)
Food and drink18,17620,61717,75919,06521,14122,101
Apparel10,3569,4289,02510,0919,7909,039
Furniture7,6827,5606,4217,7988,7368,572
Automotive21,91825,16218,28022,06024,71123,364
Hardware12,33812,13911,74313,37713,35913,604
Chemicals6,4786,2306,5576,6677,0027,453
General merchants20,43323,45719,57321,11220,91024,906
Machinery
Agricultural, heavy, electrical and industrial8,0998,0957,8698,1168,8929,063
Electrical supplies6,2205,8645,6247,0317,2218,495
Paper and stationery4,2004,3253,7804,0124,3654,631
Grain and seeds2,5322,2562,3162,1672,2502,254
Rubber, leather, and canvas goods2,2652,2982,1212,3992,4212,630
Office, printers' and photo-graphic supplies1,6761,9911,6761,4701,8371,997
Miscellaneous11,32613,77212,23811,92411,87213,379
  Totals133,749143,194124,982137,289144,507151,488

HIRE-PURCHASE TRADE-Hire-purchase trade in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Installment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicle sales on hire purchase. Regulations covering hire-purchase trade specifying, inter alia, minimum deposits, maximum loan values, and maximum periods of credits, have existed since 22 July 1955. On 17 April 1961 amended regulations increased the minimum deposit on new motorcars and light trucks to 66 ⅔ per cent, and reduced the maximum repayment period to 12 months, while the minimum deposit for secondhand cars and light trucks was increased to 50 per cent and the maximum repayment period reduced to 18 months; a minimum deposit of 5 per cent was required on furniture and furnishings and of 10 per cent on other consumer goods, the maximum period of credit being 18 months. On 3 May 1962 the maximum period of credit in respect of furniture, furnishings, and other consumer goods was increased from 18 to 24 months, and the minimum deposit for other consumer goods was reduced from 10 to 5 per cent. This minimum deposit was raised to 10 per cent again on 24 April 1964.

A quarterly survey is made of hire-purchase trade. It includes selected merchandising firms and finance corporations and is estimated to cover about 58 per cent of hire-purchase business. The following table shows the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded by the businesses in the survey and the percentage deposit to total value of goods so sold.

PeriodValue of Goods Sold on Hire-purchaseDetails of PurchasePercentage in Cash to Total Value of Goods Sold on Hire-purchase
Cash PaymentsAmount Financed Under Hire-purchase Agreements
 £(000)£(000)£(000)per cent
Quarter ended-Motor Vehicles
1962-30 June3,5921,9421,65054.1
30 September3,7341,9611,77352.5
31 December4,0662,0632,00350.7
1963-31 March3,6711,9661,70553.6
30 June3,6861,9331,75352.4
30 September4,2552,1802,07551.2
31 December5,1012,5492,55250.0
1964-31 March4,3402,2542,08651.9
30 June4,5162,3322,18451.6
30 September5,3322,7722,56052.0
31 December5,9012,9582,94350.1
Plant and Machinery
1962-30 June56917639330.9
30 September84621163524.9
31 December1,26636789929.0
1963-31 March1,6164811,13529.8
30 June80019760324.6
30 September1,41354387038.4
31 December1,6556161,03937.2
1964-31 March1,8346391,19534.8
30 June1,08839968936.7
30 September1,6054781,12729.8
31 December1,9305301,40027.5
PeriodValue of Goods Sold on Hire-purchaseDetails of PurchasePercentage in Cash to Total Value of Goods Sold on Hire-purchase
Cash PaymentsAmount Financed Under Hire-purchase Agreements
 £(000)£(000)£(000)per cent
Quarter endedTelevision Sets
1962-30 June5339044316.9
30 September67611755917.3
31 December72315357021.2
1963-31 March72115656521.6
30 June97618479218.9
30 September94919075920.0
31 December75014560519.3
1964-31 March87414872616.9
30 June95721174622.0
30 September95418976519.8
31 December80319960424.8
Other Household and Personal Goods
1962-30 June2,8313652,46612.9
30 September3,0365262,51017.3
31 December3,9175683,34914.5
1963-31 March2,8414912,35017.3
30 June3,4365722,86416.6
30 September3,2355062,72915.6
31 December4,1227063,41617.1
1964-31 March2,9184992,41917.1
30 June3,4895822,90716.1
30 September3,1965492,64717.2
31 December3,8816183,26315.9
Total
1962-30 June7,5252,5734,95234.2
30 September8,2922,8155,47733.9
31 December9,9723,1516,82131.6
1963-31 March8,8493,0945,75535.0
30 June8,8982,8866,01232.4
30 September9,8523,4196,43334.7
31 December11,6284,0167,61234.5
1964-31 March9,9663,5406,42635.5
30 June10,0503,5246,52635.1
30 September11,0873,9887,09936.0
31 December12,5154,3058,21034.4

The following table shows the amount owing under hire-purchase agreements and the percentage of payments overdue at the end of each quarterly period. As stated previously the statistics cover about 58 per cent of total hire-purchase business.

As atAmount Owing Under Hire-purchase AgreementsPercentage of Payments Overdue
£(000)
1962-30 June18,2474.6
30 September17,8815.2
31 December19,7655.9
1963-31 March20,1695.1
30 June21,3154.8
30 September21,9314.6
31 December23,4344.5
1964-31 March24,0954.8
30 June23,9054.9
30 September24,5374.4
31 December26,2254.4

The following table shows the average amount covered by hire-purchase agreements in each of the four categories of sales for each quarterly period.

PeriodMotor VehiclesMachineryHousehold and Personal Goods
Television SetsOther Household and Personal Goods
Quarter ended££££
1962-30 June2941,02013225
30 September3081,14913526
31 December3241,37714028
1963-31 March2991,98514032
30 June3201,59414528
30 September3191,41914529
31 December3301,46314528
1964-31 March3142,02313730
30 June3141,74112827
30 September3171,52312529
31 December3372,06411628

Chapter 22. Section 22 EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A-GENERAL,

GENERAL-Throughout its short history New Zealand has been dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Early trade was principally with Australia. In the 1840s the foundations of the agricultural industries were laid. Sheep had already been introduced and the first shipment of wool was exported to Hobart in 1839. Dairying was established, grain and potatoes were cultivated, and kauri gum was dug from the ground in the far north. In 1853, when the population of New Zealand, exclusive of Maoris, was only 32,000, trade data were first compiled for New Zealand as a whole. The values of the main exports were: timber £93,000; wool, £67,000; potatoes, £30,000; whale oil, £22,000; kauri gum, £16,000; and grain, £19,000. At this time Australia was experiencing its "gold rush" period, and the demands of the rapidly increasing Australian population created an opportunity for increased exports from New Zealand, and quantities of butter and cheese were shipped across the Tasman. A rapid change then took place in the pattern of the trade. In 1855 the principal items were wool (25 per cent of total value), grain (22 per cent), and potatoes (25 per cent). By 1860 wool accounted for 76 per cent of total exports, and with the opening of the goldfields in 1861 wool and gold together accounted for 93 per cent of exports in that year.

During this period imports far exceeded exports, being about double in value, and consisted mainly of capital goods for the development of new industries, together with clothing and foodstuffs to sustain the growing numbers of new settlers. The borrowing policy initiated by Vogel in 1870 for an extensive public works programme had the immediate effect of increasing imports and later gave an indirect impetus to exports.

The introduction of refrigeration in 1882 further changed the pattern of the export trade, making possible the shipment of perishable foodstuffs to more distant markets. This had a marked effect on New Zealand's trade with the United Kingdom. In 1870 only 52 per cent of the exports went to the United Kingdom; by 1880 the proportion had increased to 75 per cent. Australia, which had been New Zealand's main trading partner in the early years, was receiving only 21 per cent of the exports by 1880 and 15 per cent by 1890.

The United Kingdom has remained New Zealand's predominant market for exports and the biggest supplier of imports although in recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually been declining. In 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 per cent of New Zealand's exports but by the year ended June 1964 its share had fallen to 48 per cent. However, the United Kingdom remains New Zealand's best export market by far, taking almost all New Zealand's lamb, cheese, and butter, and about one-third of the wool. The marketing of primary products is discussed in Section 21A.

So far as export markets are concerned, New Zealand has until recently enjoyed unrested access to the United Kingdom, but increased competition is being met from United Kingdom producers and countries exporting primary products. Perhaps the most important development in recent years has been the expansion of British agriculture fostered by Government subsidies. New Zealand butter has also had to face competition from blended butter and margarine. Because the market became oversupplied during the European summer of 1961, the United Kingdom placed quotas on countries supplying butter. These quotas, initially for a period of six months, were placed on a formal basis in April 1962, and have since been maintained.

New Zealand has found it necessary in recent years to develop supplementary markets. There has been a marked expansion of New Zealand's overseas markets, notably in the United States, France, West Germany, and Japan. Exports to Japan, for instance, have shown a marked increase from £3.1 million in 1953 to £16.1 million in the June year 1964. Almost half of the exports to Japan in the year ended June 1964 was wool (£7.9 million). Other principal commodities were meat (mainly mutton), timber, and casein.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaOther Countries

* Gold in included in figures up to 1950.

†Provisional.

Per Cent
Exports*
18607027-3
18705246-2
1880752122
1890751564
1900771463
191084934
1920745165
1930803512
194088345
19506631021
19605341330
19615141530
January-June
1962x5031433
June Year
1963x4741732
19644851532
YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaOther Countries
Per Cent
Imports*
1860564211
1870583615
1880563149
18906717610
190061171012
19106214816
192048171817
19304781827
194047161225
19506012721
196043181029
19614516930
January-June
1962x4321828
June Year
1963x4219930
19643921931

Since the Second World War New Zealand's external trade has expanded considerably. Moreover, the value per head of New Zealand's overseas trade is one of the highest for any country in the world, particularly if re-exports are excluded.

Except for the growth of trade pulp and paper products, the composition of New Zealand's exports today does not vary greatly from that of pre-war years. About 90 per cent of the total value of exports is still derived from wool, meat, and dairy produce. New markets have been developed for meat; and since the end of bulk purchase by the United Kingdom there has been a considerable switch of meat to markets outside the United Kingdom; in fact meat now goes to over 60 countries. The main market for beef is now the United States of America, where imports in boneless packaged form have increased in recent years, and other countries-particularly Japan-have become important markets for mutton.

Attention is being given to the development of exports of New Zealand manufactured goods, and, although the trade is still small, there has been some expansion. Trade missions have surveyed market prospects for a variety of goods of a kind which are, or could be, made in New Zealand.

A Trade Promotion Council was set up in March 1962 as a coordinating and advisory agency in a concerted continuous New Zealand trade drive. The Council advises in the exploration of new or potential markets including trade surveys and missions; the coordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs and publicity; and the improvement of facilities, both within New Zealand and overseas, which may assist exporters. An Export Development Conference was held in June 1963. The Export Development Conference was called by the Government to examine the problems to be met in a programme of expanded exports. The need to diversify markets and products was underlined when Britain applied to join the European Economic Community. A trade drive was recognised as essential to earn more overseas exchange to continue to improve the standard of living for a steadily increasing population and to expand economic and national development. A scheme of export aids was developed by the Government following the conference, among them an export guarantee scheme to provide guarantees to exporters against losses which might result from circumstances not insurable with commercial insurers. To promote the export of manufactured goods, exhibitions have been arranged at trade fairs and trade missions conducted in selected areas overseas.

The distribution of New Zealand's overseas trade by broad groupings during the latest 11 years is given in the following table (excluding gold and current coin).

YearSterling AreaDollar AreaEuropean Economic CommunityEuropean Free Trade Association (Excluding United Kingdom)Other CountriesSterling AreaDollar AreaEuropean Economic CommunityEuropean Free Trade Association (Excluding United Kingdom)Other Countries
* Provisional.
Percentage of Export TradePercentage of Import Trade 
195472.697.4315.170.594.1278.5610.575.292.033.55
195571.247.8816.200.574.1175.4211.865.902.364.47
195670.568.8415.970.524.1176.1810.326.062.105.35
195765.2110.0418.360.525.8775.8910.445.982.405.29
195863.0116.8814.220.705.1977.329.236.342.234.88
195963.4816.4814.470.584.9973.6710.736.302.656.65
196060.8514.9516.690.666.8569.8214.406.952.386.45
196158.4616.8815.750.768.1568.5914.198.032.466.72
Jan-Jon
196255.8616.2820.641.046.1871.5912.817.072.026.51
June
196355.9919.3217.570.706.4368.8613.526.602.348.68
June*          
196455.9017.0418.141.117.8068.6314.086.672.398.24

The direction of external trade is shown graphically in the following diagram.

TRADE PER HEAD-The next table shows the value of exports, imports, and total trade per head of mean population. Values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency. In this table the valuation used for imports is current domestic value in the country of origin.

YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
* Provisional.
 £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
194342 19 1052 18 895 18 6
194446 2 547 8 893 11 1
194547 8 629 10 1176 19 5
194656 18 036 19 693 17 6
194771 7 1065 0 7136 8 5
194880 4 1063 13 8143 18 6
194978 7 358 5 11136 13 2
195095 11 375 4 1170 15 4
1951126 19 696 8 0223 7 6
1952120 2 3114 18 9235 1 0
1953114 17 579 17 0194 14 5
1954116 9 3101 14 10218 4 1
1955121 2 0117 3 8238 5 8
1956127 0 2107 15 1234 15 3
1957123 14 9117 4 3240 19 0
1958109 6 10110 11 5219 18 3
1959125 12 7887 16 5213 9 0
1960127 3 6106 9 5233 12 11
1961116 17 7118 14 9235 12 4
Jan-June
196267 3 347 18 10115 2 1
June Year
1963124 14 2104 1 7228 15 9
June Year   
1964*143 2 4121 19 9265 2 1

New Zealand has a relatively high value of trade per head of population when compared with other countries. There are difficulties in the way of making precise comparisons with the values of trade in other countries, mainly on account of differing methods of valuation used. In the following table, however, New Zealand's position is shown in comparison with some of the main trading countries. The source, in respect of data for other countries, is a United Nations publication providing data on trade values using the c.i.f. basis for the valuation of imports. For comparative purposes the c.i.f. basis has been used to value New Zealand imports, and therefore the figure given below as a value for New Zealand trade per head of population exceeds that given in the last table.

VALUE OF TOTAL TRADE PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION 1963
CountryTotal External Trade per Head
 £(Stg.)
Netherlands Antilles2,392
Belgium and Luxembourg404
Iceland394
Switzerland349
Netherlands326
Sweden310
Denmark307
Norway282
New Zealand256
Canada236
Hong Kong216
Finland185
Germany, West178
Ireland176
Australia172
United Kingdom163
Venezuela153
Israel150
Austria149
Libya146
France125
Cyprus117
Czechoslovakia118
Jamaica91
Italy89
Hungary89
Malaya80
Bulgaria78
United States of America76
Cuba70

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE-In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade.

YearVisible Excess of Exports

* Excess of imports.

†Provisional.

 £(000)
195343,680
1954- 1,354*
1955-27,845*
19569,068
1957-20,52*
1958-34,904*
195962,241
196020,269
1961-40,909*
196215,672
June Year 
1963x25,457
196426,396

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries. Debt services, capital transfers, charitable and other personal remittances, freight payments, insurances, tourist expenditure, and the like, are vitally important factors which frequently reverse a credit visible balance of trade into a debit balance of payments (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS-As from 1 July 1962 the processing of external trade statistics was transferred from the Customs Department to the Department of Statistics.

Provisional trade data are published in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics within a month of the period to which they relate. A special supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics entitled External Trade of New Zealand (Country Analyses) is published quarterly.

Annual volumes are also published by the Department of Statistics, the latest available issues being Exports 1962-63, Imports 1962-63 Part A Commodity by Country, and Part B Country by Commodity.

New Zealand adopted the Standard International Trade Classification as from 1 January 1955, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. This classification remained in use until 30 June 1962 when it was replaced by the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised); the S.I.T.C. order was also adopted on 1 July 1962 as the Customs Tariff classification. The revised nomenclature, particularly at the lower orders of classification, is not comparable with the previous international classification.

Values of imports and exports arc set out in the following table.
Period1963-641964-65
Exports f.o.b. ValueImportsExports f.o.b. ValueImports
c.d.. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d.. Valuec.i.f. Value
 £(thousand)
Month of July24,36833,02637,15320,89531,65334,203
2 months ended August45,93158,87464,85348,63258,73063,492
3 months ended September68,40183,99592,33170,89184,92991,833
4 months ended October93,380111,637122,33596,068111,321120,697
5 months ended November111,283139,536151,226122,111139,505151,519
6 months ended December139,691162,990176,780157,939166,210180,536
7 months ended January177,877188,284204,447186,870191,803208,261
8 months ended February220,692214,064232,722225,640214,357233,575
9 months ended March252,886239,020260,179264,072241,772263,273
10 months ended April298,234263,625287,131   
11 months ended May337,819287,325312,974   
12 months ended June367,991313,662341,595   

In the subsections dealing with exports and imports, information is given regarding the nature of the transactions which are included in the trade statistics, there being particular inclusions and exclusions which require to be considered when using the figures.

Of considerable consequence in the use of external trade statistics are the methods used in valuing the commodities comprising the trade. In New Zealand it has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when a departure from this procedure was effected in respect of wool exports. Wool was valued for export at the appraisal prices and, as the prices later realised were higher than the appraisal prices, and New Zealand shared in this profit, export values for the years concerned were understated. On the other hand, the export values recorded for meat and dairy produce during the Second World War and in the years following up to 1954 were generally accurate, while for earlier and later years they can only be regarded as approximations. During the period mentioned almost all meat and dairy produce exported was sold f.o.b. at firm prices to the United Kingdom Ministry of Food under bulk contracts. Under the free marketing conditions of earlier and later years most meat and dairy produce exports have been consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which consigned. Price changes in these markets before the actual sale of the produce could be quite substantial.

Up to the end of 1951 imports were recorded on the basis of their value for Customs purposes, this being their current domestic value (c.d.v.) in the country of export at the time of shipment, plus 10 per cent. For several years the limitations of this basis of valuation for economic studies, particularly those relating to balances of trade and of payments, had been apparent. There was a tendency generally to regard the Customs value of imports as being equivalent to at least a conventional c.i.f. value (cost including freight and insurance). In fact the Customs value of some bulky low-unit-cost items such as fertilisers fell short of the actual c.i.f. cost by amounts ranging up to 50 per cent or more. The domestic and export price levels in the exporting country may differ on account of price controls, subsidies, etc., while external packing, railway freights, etc., generally tend to raise the f.o.b. cost of goods above the current domestic price. For some few types of commodities the 10 per cent allowance is more than adequate to cover insurance and freight charges. For a larger proportion of imports, particularly those where the value relative to weight or bulk is low, the allowance is inadequate to cover these costs.

As from 1 January 1952 a change was made in that imports were recorded in the trade statistics without the additional 10 per cent required for duty purposes, i.e., at current domestic value, generally, as indicated above, equivalent to but not identical with the f.o.b. cost. Provision was also made to record statistical class totals and the grand total of imports on the c.i.f. basis. For the period of use of the Standard International Trade Classification from 1955 to June 1962, division totals replaced class totals for presentation on the c.i.f. basis. A description of the changed classification appears later in this Section. From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification, Revised, statistics on the c.i.f. basis are available at item level.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available-viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f.-will vary from period to period depending on (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential changes in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchase and of shipping. The relatively high freight rates and insurance charges in wartime resulted in c.i.f. costs rising considerably above Customs values. The high charter freights of 1951-52 had a similar effect. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the import entries, either for home consumption or into bonded warehouse, passed by the Customs Department. Under the system in use it is possible for an importer to pay the duty involved, if any, and have the import entry passed very shortly after he receives the shipping documents; this enables him to take delivery of the goods on arrival. Thus the import may be recorded before the carrying vessel has reached New Zealand. Generally, however, the import entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf. On the other hand, it may sometimes occur that goods may have been unloaded and in the custody of a harbour board for some time before the importer has the entry passed (and the import is recorded) and takes delivery.

New Zealand trade statistics have been compiled on a calendar year basis up to June 1962. However, special tables have been prepared to show the values of trade during years ended 31 March and 30 June. The Government financial year ends on 31 March, and external trade tables drawn up for that period show the relationship between the trade transactions and the public accounts for the year. In New Zealand the farm production year fits reasonably well to the year ended 30 June, and trade statistics compiled for years ended 30 June accordingly include the export values of approximately a whole season's production from the pastoral and agricultural industries. From 1 July 1962 trade statistics are being prepared for years ended on 30 June.

The statistics of the external trade of New Zealand given in this section (comprising the three subsections) do not include the Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands, which, though constitutionally part of New Zealand, are treated separately for trade statistics purposes. These island territories are covered in Section 38, and also in the Analysis of External Trade Statistics published annually by the Department of Statistics.

In the following table are given the values of the export and import trade for years ended 31 December, 31 March, and 30 June. The movement of specie is not included in these figures.

YearExports f.o.b.Imports
c.d.vc.i.f..

* Provisional.

†Excluding gold.

£(thousand)
Year Ended 31 December
1952240,561229,447276,215
1953235,860163,613192,180
1954244,466213,155245,820
1955259,289250,661287,134
1956277,483234,779268,415
1957276,569261,738297,098
1958250,173252,800285,077
1959293,659205,076231,417
1960302,603253,157282,333
1961283,996288,291324,905
1962287,793245,795271,995
1963x332,174297,867325,351
1964*386,240316,883345,352
Year Ended 31 March
1953238,413198,713240,725
1954242,817173,308201,915
1955235,008226,769259,773
1956278,776245,692281,455
1957275,634236,875270,374
1958275,452267,034303,438
1959250,179233,454263,087
1960313,755216,787243,909
1961280,120270,654301,403
1962290,285268,263303,030
1963288,832257,088284,570
1964355,816307,702336,478
Year Ended 30 June
1952254,000247,548..
1953244,123171,592208,224
1954241,829182,080210,130
1955239,747241,639277,211
1956270,663241,782276,848
1957277,603243,229276,681
1958272,023268,280305,203
1959260,734217,262244,640
1960314,768227,206254,585
1961280,702291,326324,809
1962291,437253,914286,146
1963x313,775261,870288,317
1964*367,991313,662341,595

The following table shows for the calendar year 1961 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at current domestic value in country of purchase and in country of origin. The New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results, in respect of its trade with any given country, from those obtained from the trade statistics of that country, since in the latter New Zealand's exports will in most cases be valued c.i.f. in the given country and New Zealand's imports f.o.b. in that country.

These systems, however, axe not universally used, and the methods of valuation in any particular country with whose trade statistics any comparison is attempted must be considered separately.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1963
CountryExportsImports
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of OriginBy Country of Purchase
Sterling Area Countries£(thousand)
Aden Colony and Protectorate5555643
Australia12,58213,73848,58348,570
Bahamas7575-1
Bahrein--2,0091,705
Barbados39639612
Basutoland--77
Bermuda252252-4
British Guiana146146145
British Honduras77--
British Solomon Islands44--
Brunei--64-
Ceylon3813812,4052,400
Cyprus208208101101
Enderbury-Canton Island Condominium12--
Falkland Islands22--
Fiji9301,0751,3501,388
Ghana216216661449
Gibraltar----
Gilbert and Ellice Islands7981174143
Hong Kong5956032,9463,358
India1,2911,3004,7424,509
Ireland, Republic of2922937564
Jamaica1,7741,774194178
Jammu and Kashmir---2
Kenya8484244208
Kuwait445127
Leeward and Windward Islands13613641
Malaya, Federation of8768781,4601,519
Malta--2415
Mauritius and Dependencies32324444
Nauru134135773734
New Hebrides Condominium23--
New Zealand--203317
Nigeria1611611511
Norfolk Island67-2
North Borneo9915914
Pakistan9898242197
Papua and New Guinea (British)204205158
Pitcairn Island34--
Rhodesia and Nyasaland6969213191
Sarawak4412033
Seychelles----
St. Helena, Ascension, etc.----
Sierra Leone--2-
Singapore7957991,2702,724
South Africa and South West Africa7958131,127942
Tanganyika11521390
Tonga1761858688
Trinidad and Tobago1,5871,5872425
Uganda22185136
United Kingdom147,819148,225109,684114,511
Western Samoa827886474478
Zanzibar and Pemba--43
  Totals, sterling area173,108174,934180,332185,506
E.F.T.A. Countries (excluding United Kingdom)£(thousand)
Austria11468444
Denmark509510434417
Norway236236667621
Portugal583583329331
Sweden7617631,9391,890
Switzerland and Liechtenstein80842,3022,236
  Totals, E.F.T.A.2,1712,1786,1395,939
 E.E.C. Countries    
Belgium and Luxembourg8,3648,3691,7371,693  
France and Monaco20,51720,5262,3301,964  
Germany, West11,16711,1997,7587,446  
Italy and San Marino9,6149,6182,5322,420  
Netherlands5,1445,1712,9232,869  
  Totals, E.E.C.54,80654,88317,28016,392  
Dollar Countries  
Alaska121121--  
American Samoa24126277  
Antarctic Territories (United States)5262-1  
Bolivia--    
Canada4,5024,5158,9258,974  
Colombia26263214  
Costa Rica--108  
Cuba--1-  
Dominican Republic--858857  
Ecuador--31  
El Salvador--1-  
Guam141141--  
Guatemala--22  
Haiti1717--  
Hawaii, etc.1,3191,32088  
Liberia----  
Mexico131131278223  
Panama Canal Zone1515-1  
Panama Republic285285-2  
Philippines65065310698  
Puerto Rico, etc.2121--  
Ryukus Islands, etc.6868--  
U.S. Trust Territories in Pacific11--  
United States of America52,16452,44123,98723,024  
Venezuela85851,1841,162  
  Totals, dollar countries59,79460,36435,40134,383  
Other Countries  
Afghanistan----  
Algeria----  
Angola and Cabinda1165  
Argentina771814  
Brazil--16636  
Bulgaria----  
Burma15916621  
Cambodia11--  
Canary Islands22--  
Cape Verde Islands77--  
Chile19194319  
China1,5251,525530219  
TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1963
CountryExportsImports
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of OriginBy Country of Purchase
Other Countries£(thousand)
Comoro Islands----
Congo (Brazzaville)--62
Congo (Leopoldville)101097
Czechoslovakia134134431407
Egypt (U.A.R.)20720732
Ethiopia and Eritrea--5555
Finland111111562554
Formosa (Taiwan)1111358354
French Oceania88219220
French Somaliland----
French West Indies2727--
Gabon--11
Germany, East10810810083
Greece49249244
Hungary38382219
Iceland----
Indonesia992,086606
Iran442,1811,704
Iraq222018
Israel40401220
Ivory Coast--99
Japan12,74712,76712,09911,866
Jordan122122--
Korea, Republic of2142141-
Lebanon1723
Macao----
Madagascar--2-
Mauritania--11
Morocco222242
Mozambique838311
Nepal11--
Netherlands Antilles2782781,5481,440
Netherlands New Guinea11--
New Caledonia6163-1
North Vietnam77--
Paraguay----
Peru9279271,1641,098
Poland9969971411
Reunion----
Rumania----
Saudi Arabia77518432
Senegal--223
Society Islands200253556
Somalia11--
South Vietnam66--
Spain1,1261,126138116
Sudan17172215
Syria--54
Thailand3539116113
Turkey15155919
U.S.S.R.8585143101
Uruguay1111--
Yemen--53
Yugoslavia10810887
  Totals, other countries19,98920,08422,71919,651
Ships' stores1241,278--
Passengers-54--
  Grand totals309,993313,775261,870261,870

The next table shows the values of New Zealand's trade with several groupings of countries since 1959.

YearExports (Excluding Ships' Stores)ImportsExports (Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports
According to Country of OriginAccording to Country of PurchaseAccording to Country of OriginAccording to Country of Purchase

* Provisional.

†Belgium, Luxemburg, France, West Germany, Italy, and Netherlands.

‡Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

£(thousand)
Sterling AreaDollar Area
1959185,700151,040151,16348,21022,00321,523
1960183,604176,700179,73145,19836,45535,806
1961164,840197,685200,36647,59540,90640,215
Jan-June 196292,43184,97386,45226,93515,20714,957
Year ended:
June 1963174,934180,332185,50660,36435,40134,383
June 1964*202,658215,279 ..61,78644,148.. 
 EEC Countries EFTA Countries‡
195942,32712,90912,6291,7075,4355,232 
196050,35717,58617,0532,0026,0235,761 
196144,39923,15522,3902,1437,0996,820 
Jan-June 196234,1538,3908,0141,7162,3942,287 
Year ended: 
June 196354,88317,28016,3922,1786,1395,939 
June 1964*65,76920,914..4,0227,481.. 

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF EXTERNAL TRADE-The series for exports of New Zealand produce are linked chain series. Up to the year 1949 the exports of each year were revalued at the unit values of the immediately preceding year and the aggregate so obtained was compared with the recorded value in that (preceding) year. Each year's index was, therefore, a Laspeyre type index on base previous year. From 1950 on, aggregates were also calculated for immediately preceding years at the unit values of the latest year, which, compared with the recorded value in the latest year, gave a Paasche type index. The final index for the year was then obtained as the geometric mean of these two-i.e., a Fisher "Ideal" index-and in the table the successive annual movements are linked. The quarterly indices are similarly calculated on base previous year, but only a limited number of the more important commodity headings are used in the calculation. When the final indices for the year become available the quarterly indices are adjusted to accord with these; consequently, the indices for quarters are provisional.

The series for total exports includes an allowance for re-exports of imported goods. Since these are normally approximately 1 per cent of total exports the approximate volume movements are obtained by "deflating" the recorded values by the import price index as the best indicator available of price movements for these commodities. The two indices, exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports, are then combined by weighting by their relative values in 1960, which is the base period for the current series.

The import volume index up to 1946 was calculated by revaluing each year's imports at 1937 unit values, assuming comparable price movements in the unpriced items as in the priced items. Thereafter a change was made to the calculation of each year on base previous year and the linking of these annual movements. Anterior year weights were used up to 1949 to give a Laspeyre type index. From 1950 on, a Fisher "Ideal" index has been obtained as the geometric mean of both anterior year and current year weighted indices. The quarterly indices, too, are calculated on base previous year, and, like the export series, are provisional until the calculation of the annual index. Currently, the items for which quantities are recorded (and consequently unit values obtained) represent approximately two-thirds of the total value of imports. Price movements are imputed to the remaining third on the basis of the price movements of items in the same statistical groupings.

The total exports and imports series are combined into the total trade series by weighting by their relative values in 1960, being the base period for the current combined series. Index numbers of volume of external trade for the latest eleven years are given below on the base: calendar year 1960 (= 1000). Since July 1962 trade statistics have been compiled on a June year basis and consequently the figures given in this table cover June years only, but quarterly figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and in the annual Analysis of External Trade Statistics. These also give series for calendar and March years.

VOLUME INDEX NUMBERS OF EXTERNAL TRADE Base: calendar year 1960 ( = 1000)
June YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
New Zealand ProduceTotal Exports
Dairy ProduceMeatWoolTotal
* Provisional.
1954945795730797797772785
19558127817467587581032890
19561011914772864864995927
1957981944795893892969929
195810658768789359351068999
19591057917985976975874926
19601124957100910191019914967
1961975101798498898811511066
19621122100411101072107610081043
19631070113011071111111410531084
1964*1159113510851147115112501199

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE-Descriptions of the index numbers of export and import prices compiled in New Zealand and of the terms of trade are given in Section 23, together with the index numbers.

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE-There is no mint in New Zealand and all new coin is imported from the Royal Mint in England. In Section 29 dealing with Banking and Currency is a description of the coinage in use in New Zealand. The movement of specie to and from New Zealand is recorded in the trade statistics, but the value is not included in the totals of merchandise exports and imports. All records of specie are at face value.

The following table shows exports and imports of specie stated at face value for each of the latest 11 years.

YearSpecie ImportedSpecie ExportedExcess of Specie Imports (+) or Exports (-)
* Provisional.
 £££
1953107,1067,929+ 99,177
195421,3607,573+ 13,787
195543,72613,255+ 30,471
195612,0272,463+ 9,564
195748,93115,026+ 33,905
195897,577161,547- 63,970
195954,86438,823+ 16,041
1960102,14936,374+ 65,775
1961263,85425,564+238,290
Jan-June 196217,73614,328+ 3,408
June Year:
196379,0656,963+ 72,102
1964*100,3428,093+ 92,249

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION-To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, there have been import control and export licences regulations since December 1938.

The Import Control Regulations 1938 prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption (e.g., Government imports). The Export Licences Regulations 1938 provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence must be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953. The Import Licensing Control Regulations 1964 (related to the authority of the Customs Act 1913) consolidated and amended the Import Control Regulations 1938 and their amendments. Under the Import Control Regulations 1964 importation is permitted under a written permit granted by the Minister of Customs; also a licence or permit is for the sole use of the licensee or holder of the permit, unless the Minister permits otherwise.

Export Control-Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchaser's licence applies to those cases where goods have been purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

Import Selection-The Import Control Regulations are administered through Import Licensing Schedules. The first four Schedules were for six-monthly periods and the first three were confidential to Government Departments. From 1941 to 1961 the Schedules were issued for calendar years, with occasional extensions into the following year. From 1 July 1962 the Schedules have been for years ending 30 June.

The items in the Import Licensing Schedules were originally divided into: basic items for which licences were allocated according to the applicant's import history in a base year; items subject to individual consideration (C); and items for which no licences were available (D). In the case of basic items there were differentiations between the sources of supply, with emphasis on sterling area countries, and several hard-currency countries were excluded from the allocation of basic licences.

Import licences are issued by the Customs Department which is advised by the Department of Industries and Commerce on the import of materials and machinery for existing or planned New Zealand manufacturing industries and on the import of goods of a kind made in New Zealand.

In the 1949 Schedule provision was made for token licences to allow old-established business connections with United Kingdom exporters to be maintained on a small scale in cases where no allocation for such items had been made. The amount of token licences was a percentage of 1938 imports from the United Kingdom.

An extension of import licences on sterling area countries to all non-scheduled countries commenced with the 1951 Schedule. Scheduled countries are those enumerated in the annual Import Licensing Schedule for which only individual licences, limited to the specific country, are issued.

In May 1950, as a further liberalisation of import licensing, the Government made provision for the issue of no-remittance licences which could be financed out of the applicant's own overseas funds. As no limit was placed on the nature or extent of imports that could be made, nor of the funds to be used, abuses soon became apparent and it was necessary to amend the scheme. A limitation was placed on the type of overseas funds which could be used and the amended scheme applied in general only to imports required by private individuals for their own use and not for purposes of resale.

From 1 December 1950 innovations were: the freeing of a large number of items from licensing if the goods were imported from non-scheduled countries; the introduction of world exemption items ("EE"); and the introduction of two categories of modified "D" items.

The 1958 Import Licensing Schedule was initially released in August 1957 but, because of New Zealand's balance of payments crisis it had to be replaced by one which restored import control on virtually all private imports. An important change in the new Schedule was that it included all tariff items. The allocations for items were based on 1956 imports but some items were given a "B" category (or "B" plus percentage classification) and these allocations were related to the old 1958 Schedule provision. Other categories were the "C" (individual consideration) and "D" (no allocation), but the "E" (exempt) and "EE" (world exempt) categories were cancelled. It was also necessary to withdraw the scheme for token imports. However, a new category "A" was introduced under which licences were granted for imports from non-scheduled countries up to the full value sought.

Because of the further deterioration of New Zealand's balance of payments, the 1959 Schedule provided for lower imports than in 1958. One feature of the Schedule was the reintroduction of "global" licences, which could be used for imports from any source, for all items except a limited number designated "M". Licences for "M" items were available for non-scheduled countries only. However, it was later decided to issue licences for scheduled countries on the same basis as that which applied to the same goods from other countries.

Towards the end of 1958 there was a considerable improvement in the overseas prices received for New Zealand's exports. This rise continued in 1959 and enabled the Government to make additional funds available for imports. Two major relaxations in April 1959 and June 1959 greatly extended the 1959 provision for imports.

The improvement in New Zealand's overseas reserves was reflected in the 1960 Import Licensing Schedule. The 1960 Schedule provided for a much higher value of imports than in 1959 and introduced several new features in licensing procedures. These new departures were aimed at giving the maximum flexibility to importers while retaining those minimum restrictions which were necessary for the effective protection of the balance of payments.

The 1960 Schedule had an increased number of basic allocations, a total of 401 items being in this category. The basis was mainly the value of 1959 licences, although in several cases other bases were used. Many items which were previously considered individual were made basic to let the importer know his entitlement as soon as possible, so eliminating delays in dealing with applications for licences.

The exemption of items from import licensing was reintroduced. Although the number of items was not large, their import value amounted to a considerable sum. The items were: raw sugar, crude oil, motor spirits, certain bulk oils (kerosene and lubricating oils), explosives, crude sulphur in bulk, and manures. These items were particularly suited for exemption as they are essential, of major value, and are imported by relatively few firms so that actual and likely expenditure can be readily ascertained.

The token licence provision which had been cancelled because of the critical circumstances at the beginning of 1958 was reintroduced in a new form. Over a wide range of items, for which no other allocation had been made, token licences were available for imports from any source to the extent of 10 per cent of the value of imports of the same goods from any source in 1956. For a few items which were severely restricted in 1956 the basis was 100 per cent of the value of 1956 Licences. The token licence procedure permitted overseas suppliers and their New Zealand customers to maintain trading contact; it also introduced variety and kept overseas standards before manufacturers and consumers.

The most important new features of the Schedule were the replacement licence ("R") scheme and the industry group scheme. The replacement scheme permitted an importer to obtain his genuine import needs of an item. (In 1960 an importer was entitled to an initial licence representing 50 per cent of the value of his normal 1959 licence for the "R" items. Further licences were issued up to the ceiling of 150 per cent in replacement of the value of actual imports made under his 1960 licence.) The "R" system applied also to new importers.

The application of "global" licences introduced in the 1959 Schedule was extended in 1960 so that the only goods remaining in the "M" category were motor vehicles (excluding spare parts). For this item the allocation for "scheduled" countries was the same as for "non-scheduled" countries.

The 1961 Import Licensing Schedule further liberalised the import licensing allocations. The number of "Replacement" ("R") and "A" items was increased and the initial entitlement to "R" licences raised from 50 to 100 per cent. It was estimated that 55 per cent of private imports was either exempt from import licensing or subject to the "R" or "A" allocations which made licences available to regular or prospective new importers.

A fall in export receipts, particularly from dairy produce, and a large increase in private imports forced the Government to adopt more restrictive measures in 1961. In April 1961 the replacement ("R") scheme was suspended and the "A" category abolished in June 1961.

The qualifying date for the use of overseas funds for personal imports, mainly of motorcars, was advanced from 18 November 1953 to 31 December 1958.

In June 1961 two major decisions were taken to reduce imports to the level of lower export earnings. The 1961 licences were spread over an 18 months' period to 30 June 1962 and a limited Supplementary Schedule was introduced for the first half of 1962 to cover urgent needs beyond the 1961 entitlements. The Supplementary Schedule provided for a reduction of £50 million on current import levels.

While the exempt items of the 1961 Schedule were continued in the Supplementary Schedule, the "A" and "R" category remained cancelled, token licences were eliminated, and the number of items without allocation ("D") or subject to individual consideration ("C") was greatly increased.

Import Licensing Schedules now apply to the 12 months ending 30 June, the first Schedule covering the period from 1 July 1962 to 30 June 1963. This Schedule issued in March 1962 provided for private imports at a level of about £250 million and represented a considerable easing in relation to the supplementary period in the first half of 1962. In general the provision made for essential raw-material imports was expected to allow manufacturers to maintain actual usage at a level consistent with that for 1960. The Schedule was based on the new Customs Tariff which came into force on 1 July 1962. A new "A" category was introduced for a limited number of items to ensure continuity of supply while avoiding any undue build-up of stocks. The token licence scheme was discontinued.

In October 1962 provision was made for increased basic licences for a wide range of goods and for the reintroduction of token licences. Most of the increases in basic licences were for those consumer goods which had been severely restricted before. No extra provision of funds was involved, the reallocation being possible through a review of actual licence issue and use.

Innovations of major importance introduced in 1962 were the Free Funds and the Export Incentive schemes.

The Free Funds Scheme extended the no-remittance policy to commercial imports. It permitted the use of privately held funds of the following kinds: (a) Legitimately acquired overseas earnings held by the applicant on or before 28 February 1962. These funds comprised mainly royalties and commissions, (b) Sterling area currencies or securities, including shares, purchased legitimately from other New Zealand residents on or before 31 December 1958.

To offset inequities between those importers who had repatriated or never held "approved" funds and those who had retained such funds it was decided that for every £5 of approved funds £1 must be repatriated to New Zealand through normal banking channels, only the balance of £4 being available for imports. Where goods were purchased for resale, licences would be granted only to those with a history of importing goods of a similar class.

The Export Incentive Scheme was made available to all manufacturers who manufacture for export or who undertake to do so, whether or not they have an entitlement to import licences for raw materials or components. Licences issued under the scheme are either replacement, assistance, or bonus licences. A manufacturer already holding a licence or entitlement to a licence for raw materials or components may obtain a replacement licence to the value of the imported content of the goods exported, produced for export, or in the course of manufacture against confirmed overseas orders. Assistance licences will be granted either in the case of confirmed overseas orders where production has not been commenced, or when a manufacturer not holding overseas orders makes a declaration of intention to export and shows that active steps to open up an export market have been taken. Bonus licences are available to manufacturers who have actually exported; they may obtain licences for raw materials or components either of the same kind and value as those used in the manufacture of the exported goods, or of a different kind provided that the latter have a basic allocation and that the grant is not likely to affect adversely the efficient operation of an existing New Zealand industry. Bonus licences are in addition to licences issued as replacement or assistance licences. Once a bonus licence has been granted the materials or components may be used to manufacture goods for sale either overseas or in New Zealand as the manufacturer decides.

For the 1963-64 import licensing year £250 million was provided for private import payments-the same as for the previous year. Particular efforts were made to increase the flexibility of operation of the licensing system. Over 100 items were included in the "A" category compared with 15 in the previous schedule. These covered a wide range of industrial raw materials together with many essential goods for retail sale. Licences for "A" items were granted initially to the extent of 75 per cent of the value of licences (other than "special" licences) granted for imports of similar goods during the 1962-63 licensing period. On evidence of full commitment of their initial licence, importers were granted further licence in the light of sales performance or use in manufacture.

Two general schemes were introduced for the 1963-64 year to assist manufacturers holding licences for raw materials for use in their own plant: (a) General "A" licences—Manufacturers entitled to "A" licences in more than one item were permitted to amalgamate these into one general licence which might be used at the licence holder's discretion to import goods up to the full monetary limit of the combined licences. This gave greater freedom of choice and enabled changes in demand to be met more readily; (b) General entitlement licences—A similar arrangement was introduced to provide for amalgamation of licences covering over 100 items relating to raw materials or components for use in manufacture.

Additional flexibility was provided by placing approximately 140 items in 14 "interchangeability groups". A licence holder with a 1963-64 licence for one or more of the items in a group might use 25 per cent of that licence to import any of the other items in that group.

Following experience with the new Customs Tariff, and a study of the pattern of imports during the 1962-63 period, it was possible to reduce the number of item codes by 15 per cent. To the existing list of exempt items was added the major item of printed books (other than magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and comics). The issue of separate licences for motor vehicles from dollar and nondollar sources was discontinued and licences became available for imports from any source.

During the 1963-64 import licensing period commercial and industrial growth expanded rapidly. Additional funds totalling slightly more than £8 million were made available for further imports of cars, agricultural tractors, on extension of the "token" import scheme, additional components for television manufacture, and further industrial raw materials.

However, by the time of issue of the 1964-65 Import Licensing Schedule in April 1964, it became apparent that private import payments for the licensing period 1 July 1963 to 30 June 1964 would reach a considerably higher figure than the £258 million provided. This was due to three main factors: (a) The value of imports of goods exempt from import licensing control had increased sharply, due principally to the large increase in the price of raw sugar, greater use of petrol, and of agricultural fertilisers; (b) There was a larger carry-over than usual from the previous period of goods imported and paid for under 1962-63 licences; (c) Increased flexibility in the 1963-64 Schedule provisions, together with increasing demand, resulted in a greater utilisation of licences than normal.

In preparing the Schedule for 1964-65 it was decided that the principle of allowing as much flexibility as possible in the use of licences should be continued. An increase in the range of industry groups and provision for further transfers to interchangeability groups reflected this decision. Accordingly it was considered wise to budget on a non-utilisation figure of 10 per cent for 1964-65 compared with the previous 15 per cent. Therefore, although the new Schedule was framed on approximately the same funds basis, a reduction was necessary in calculating the total value of licences that could be issued. This meant that the level of allocations for individual items had to be reduced in many cases. It was decided to review the situation in September when final balance of payments figures for external trade during the 1963-64 period would be known, but at the date of issue of the Schedule no undertaking could be given that additional funds would be provided. Licences for 1964-65 for "A" items were again based initially on 75 per cent of the value of licences (other than "special" licences) granted on or before 31 January 1964 for imports of similar goods during the 1963-64 licensing period. Licences for additional requirements were to be considered in the light of commitment of basic licences, usage in manufacture or sales performance, and stock holdings. In line with the general reduction of allocations, it was necessary to place a ceiling on the value of "A" licences issued. This was fixed at 100 per cent of licences issued in 1963-64.

A revision was undertaken of the industry groups, and the items which might be imported under each group were set out in detail in the Schedule. Previously, these groups were defined in terms of the former Customs Tariff. Opportunity was taken to bring the contents of these groups into line with current demands, and attention was given to the effect of growing domestic manufacture of many components. In order to extend the advantages of the industry group scheme to further defined manufacturing industries, some additional groups were introduced-those for materials and components for the manufacture of garments, carpets, and electric storage batteries; and materials for use in the tanning of hides and skins. Two groups which were deleted from the 1963-64 Schedule, because of the introduction of the Manufacturers' General Entitlement Scheme, were revived. These arc the groups relating to the manufacture of soaps and paints. A major departure was to permit the inclusion of "A" items in industry groups.

Following the revision of existing industry groups and the introduction of further groups. together with the inclusion of "A" items, there was no further need for the manufacturers* "A" and "General" licence groups. These were accordingly cancelled. Interchangeability groups, which were introduced during the 1963-64 period, were continued, and, generally speaking, licence holders were permitted to transfer a further 25 per cent of their individual item entitlements to these groups. Where materials or components for use in manufacture did not fit into an existing industry group, it was decided to give consideration, on individual application, to the "consolidation" or "aggregation" of licences. In these cases, one "consolidated" licence, specifying the item codes for which it was valid, would be issued.

In accordance with New Zealand's undertaking to assist the trade of less fully economically developed countries, tea imported in packages of 5 lb net weight or over was removed from import control. This was previously an "A" item, and actual requirements were freely imported. Tea in smaller packages, that is, for retail sale, continued to be a restricted item. Control was also removed from fresh, chilled, or frozen meat (except poultry); dried, salted, or smoked meat; greasy or scoured wool; undressed hides and skins (except furskins).

A major innovation in 1964-65 was the introduction of a new procedure under which importers were relieved of the need to make application for basic licences under a wide range of items. For the great bulk of basic items, licences were issued automatically with considerable saving in time and paper work.

In the Import Licensing Schedule for 1965-66 goods valued at £45 million comprising raw materials, equipment and finished products not made in New Zealand were exempted from licensing. Added to existing exemptions, this meant that one-third of New Zealand's import trade was exempt from import licensing. The category "A" licences were extended by a maximum of one-third and a new provision permitted importers to aggregate licences for a wide range of items into one licence.

Section 29 on Banking and Currency contains detailed information on the exchange allocation system.

BOARD OF TRADE-In December 1950 the Board of Trade Act 1950 was passed. This Act provided for the establishment of a Board of Trade to consist of not more than four members. The advisory functions of the Board included the economic aspects of such matters as the rates of customs duties and the general effect of the operation of the Tariff, and the maintenance and expansion of existing industries and the development of new industries.

The Board was occupied principally on a general review of the Customs Tariff in 1956 and 1957 its report being made on 29 November 1957. Changes made in the Customs Tariff in July 1960, and a completely new Tariff which came into force on 1 July 1962, generally reflected the recommendations of the Board in that report, not only as to rates of duty but also as to abolition of primage duty and surtax and the charging of duty on current domestic value without the addition of 10 per cent. The Tariff is now classified according to the revised Standard International Trade Classification.

In 1961 the Board of Trade was abolished and replaced by the Tariff and Development Board.

TARIFF AND DEVELOPMENT BOARD-The Tariff and Development Board was established under the Tariff and Development Board Act 1961. The Board as constituted on 1 June 1962 comprised six members, four of whom, including the chairman, were part-time members, and two, including the deputy chairman, full-time members. Members are appointed initially for a term of three years, and may be reappointed.

The Board has the functions, when so requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Industries and Commerce or the Minister of Overseas Trade, to inquire into and report on any of the following matters, with such recommendations as it thinks fit:

  1. The desirability of new, increased, or reduced Customs duties, or of exemptions from such duties:

  2. The general effect of the operation of the Tariff on the trade and commerce, and the farming, manufacturing, and distributing industries of New Zealand and also on the interests of consumers:

  3. The desirability of providing or continuing to provide assistance, whether by means of subsidies, grants, bounties, Tariff concessions or preferences, or otherwise, for the protection and encouragement of any New Zealand industry or for the development of New Zealand's overseas trade:

  4. The relationship between the rates of Customs duties on raw materials and those on finished or partly finished products:

  5. Any matter relating to the licensing of imports, including any appeal against a decision to decline, in whole or in part, any application for an import licence:

  6. Any matter relating to the application of Customs duty under any item of the Tariff, or to the granting of concessions as provided for in the Tariff or in the Customs Acts:

  7. Any other matter affecting the protection or development of industry or the development of overseas trade, whether by means of the Tariff or otherwise.

The Board may also from time to time, of its own motion, inquire into and make recommendations to any of the said Ministers on any matter of policy.

Two of the first questions which the Board had referred to it for inquiry and report were "the need for criteria in the light of which industrial growth and development should proceed" and "the need for additional medium and long term establishment and developmental finance". Reports have been furnished on these subjects, and published as Parliamentary papers, H. 48 and H. 49,1963. The Board has held a number of public inquiries into other subjects, including the commercial, economic, and social implications of hire purchase and credit transactions and practices in New Zealand. It has also inquired into the rates of import duty which should be imposed on various classes of goods, including infants' clothing, crockery, wool and man-made fibres, yarns and fabrics, bicycles, and certain papers and paperboards.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE-Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Industries and Commerce through the service of Trade Commissioners, who are stationed in 19 posts-Accra, Athens, Auckland (for the Pacific), Canberra, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, London, Melbourne, Montreal, New Delhi, New York, Paris, San Francisco, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, Trinidad, Vancouver, and Washington. While this representation is modest in comparison with other countries, it reflects the country's growing interest in the desirability of diversifying export markets. This is further exemplified by the fact that 11 posts have been established in the last eight years: New York and Singapore in 1956, Trinidad in 1958, San Francisco and Kuala Lumpur in 1959, Hong Kong in 1960, Paris in 1961, Accra and Vancouver in 1962, and Athens and Canberra in 1964. In addition, Air New Zealand, the international airline, agreed at the end of 1961 to its managers in Fiji and Tahiti acting as trade correspondents of the Department of Industries and Commerce In most cases Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

While the selling of goods in overseas markets is basically the responsibility of New Zealand exporters, the Trade Commissioner can be of considerable help in conducting market surveys and supplying information on import and exchange restrictions, Customs duty, sales tax, normal sources of supply (local production and imported), marketing methods, freight rates, statutory or customary requirements for packing, labelling, etc., and reliable importers in his territory. He may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in his territory enable him to give valuable advice. His task is made easier if he is given adequate notice of the visit.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with his territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example, by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make representations at the official level.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are: representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government Departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc., and maintaining liaison where they are stationed with business and Government circles.

Businessmen may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned but, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Secretary, Department of Industries and Commerce, Wellington, who is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

Overseas representatives are listed in Section 41, Official.

22 B-EXPORTS

GENERAL-In New Zealand the Customs Department requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination, and the export statistics are compiled from the analysis and totals of these statements.

Exports are valued in New Zealand currency "free on board at the port of shipment", except re-exports ex bonded warehouse or under drawback of duty, which are recorded at the original import values. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

With the adoption of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) for classifying external trade for statistical purposes from 1 July 1962, June year figures are separately tabled, and are the commencement of a new series from June year 1963.

CLASSFICATION OF EXPORTS-The table following gives merchandise exports (i.e., excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 12 years for the four main commodity groups.

YearDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Skins, and PeltsTotal Merchandise Exports*

* Including other commodities, but excluding gold.

†Provisional.

£(thousand)
195377,68447,82684,59810,692235,347
195466,79859,55688,43710,449243,979
195570,42368,19093,8879,223259,028
195682,22371,07991,53210,606277,239
195766,29270,706105,95910,117276,258
195858,50279,51880,0378,317249,940
195988,51476,86989,64313,254293,294
196078,85581,188102,40913,309302,291
196168.55677,271100,31212,154283,704
Jan-June
196236,19543,98563,7467,625166,283
June year
1963x73,61691,716107,19112,722313,775
196484,50897,569135,57215,182367,991

The commodity groups shown above normally account for more than 90 per cent of the total value of merchandise exports.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade has varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. In the preceding subsection is set out a table of volume index numbers for these commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices.

New Zealand's reliance upon grassland farming for her exports is brought out by the figures in the next table showing total exports of pastoral products and the percentage which they represent of the total exports of New Zealand produce.

EXPORTS OF PASTORAL PRODUCTS
YearValuePercentage*

* Of total exports of New Zealand produce.

†Provisional.

£(000)
194069,05797.2
194162,23895.6
194274,36194.3
194361,02988.8
194458,94883.9
194568,11288.4
194689,58290.4
1947120,34295.0
1948137,75094.4
1949138,70295.3
1950174,39996.3
1951239,13797.4
1952288,17996.0
1953223,74695.9
1954229,20494.7
1955246,09395.8
1956259,66794.5
1957257,67694.0
1958231,28393.4
1959273,27194.0
1960280,79493.7
1961263,333940
1962265,34593.4
June year
1963x289,85093.5
1964339,03493.2

Of exports other than pastoral the principal ones of economic significance in the June year 1964 were: newsprint (£5.8 m.), woodpulp (£2.8 m.), apples (£2.5 m.), grass and clover seeds (£1.7 m.), fish and fish products (£1.6 m.), logs of radiata pine (£1.4 m.), sawn timber (£0.9 m.).

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce by primary source are next given for the three latest years, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities for the last 50 years. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)1961xJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
* Provisional.
Mining products
Coal(ton)4810149
Pumice(cwt)9,1214,55017,024
Scheelite(ton)2--
Cement(cwt)69121210
Fishery products
Fish, fresh and frozen(cwt)53,89246,64148,659
Fish, other(cwt)-....
Crayfish(cwt)26,20428,23524,610
Whale oil(gal)43,84913,127-
Fish oils and fish-liver oils(gal)11,1866,73616,551
Forest products
Kauri gum(ton)433453
Timber
Logs, radiata pine(cu. ft.)9,669,8737,804,99810,816,961
Sawn(sup. ft.)28,709,30028,297,04829,465,134
For cases in shooks(sup. ft.)4,249,2924,272,3374,011,367
Wood pulp(ton)70,12369,05665,601
Newsprint(cwt)829,8711,441,2242,147,043
Building board(sq. ft)1,835,4172,519,4992,396,228
Plywood(sq. ft.)15,3921,9067,584
Commodity (New Zealand Produce)1962xJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
* Provisional.
Pastoral products
Butter(cwt)3,368,7393,291,7093,632,233
Casein(cwt)538,786595,363830,434
Cheese(cwt)1,845,7941,844,1791,752,205
Milk, dried and condensed(cwt)1,138,2341,266,9951,440,275
Sugar of milk(cwt)85,08585,09386,016
Eggs
In shell(doz)30,54221,19133,275
Not in shell(lb)1,2011,366,3911,322,232
Honey(lb)2,110,1942,470,6662,731,259
Meat, frozen and chilled(cwt)9,398,75510,169,76610,289,865
Meat, canned(cwt)71,13165,94060,575
Meat extract(lb)402,448189,452355,984
Other preserved meat(cwt)24,52041,47144,538
Sausage casings(hanks)-6,037,5936,494,577
Liver meal(cwt)26,32815,09224,999
Cattle hides(number)1,046,9941,141,2121,011,538
Horse hides(number)5,8874,0683,563
Calf skins(number)1,115,9981,029,7581,172,559
Deerskins(number)62,58661,78255,717
Opossum skins(number)576,697848,875916,589
Sheep skins and pelts(number)28,751,14328,801,97731,349,387
Horse hair and other coarse animal hair(lb)60,52047,93957,748
Wool(lb)547,275,891576,534,334564,302,613
Lard(cwt)8,210671515
Edible tallow(ton)9,69310,17313,396
Edible stearine(ton)9468721,098
Inedible tallow(ton)52,35248,83559,689
Neatsfoot oil(ton)-402599
Live cattle(number)85052849
Live sheep(number)282,023507
Live horses(number)511553689
Agricultural products
Apples(lb)98,927,31469,259,85978,433,278
Pears(lb)7,587,0285,222,0127,660,817
Hops(lb)26,64141,3735,560
Potatoes(ton)4,7294,3084,369
Onions(ton)2,0012,3208,114
Canned vegetables(lb)1,079,2222,504,9511,291,126
Frozen vegetables(cwt)18,81136,343114,454
Peas, food(cental)139,764124,030140,366
Peas, seed(cental)176,153163,319172,927
Seeds, grass and clover(cwt)154,949163,526182,082
Seeds, other(cwt)-11,49611,197
Miscellaneous
Biscuits(cwt)3,0063,6655,913
Ale, beer, stout(gal)208,389248,601250,129
Sugar(cwt)1,4064,9392,719
Cigarettes(lb)36,00644,18347,972
Cut tobacco(lb)200,847209,529225,286
Textile waste(lb)2,101,2751,833,0922,415,114
Soaps(lb)1,554,6091,639,4651,556,488
Chamois leather(sq. ft.)370,340424,387360,789

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)1962xJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
* Provisional.
Mining products£££
Coal1,106187679
Pumice5,7652,76410,638
Scheelite470--
Cement111112277
Other16,01932,27723,018
  Totals23,47135,34034,612
Fishery products
Fish, fresh and frozen403,271410,153432,488
Fish, other18,24828,64334,496
Crayfish1,137,7211,224,3981,093,862
Whale oil11,4302,705-
Fish oils and fish-liver oils42,31323,09559,547
  Totals1,612,9831,688,9941,620,393
Forest products
Kauri gum9,5587,48211,481
Timber
Logs, radiata pine1,252,185995,4691,408,372
Sawn850,136828,654874,659
For cases in shooks229,391230,554215,642
Wood pulp2,833,4742,749,4222,754,752
Newsprint2,298,2174,018,6275,758,950
Other paper and paper board127,14698,80989,322
Building board27,42532,70735,840
Plywood1,114173957
Other1,9702,6092,555
  Totals7,630,6168,964,50611,152,530
Pastoral products
Butter43,803,52445,462,56554,682,153
Casein4,041,4234,191,6255,673,086
Cheese18,740,37518,497,12317,539,937
Milk, dried and condensed4,307,4504,729,2405,456,212
Sugar of milk418,179413,690428,132
Other dairy produce28,281321,382728,807
Eggs
In shell7,1144,4394,788
Not in shell26596,342101,451
Honey114,868140,101173,417
Meat, frozen and chilled73,563,22484,837,16290,041,445
Meat, canned1,324,1521,199,8481,073,800
Meat extract126,79081,61388,376
Other preserved meat272,993367,099372,129
Sausage casings4,767,8665,229,9055,992,861
Liver meal75,72543,97978,817
Cattle hides2,636,6152,703,2732,109,178
Horse hides11,5298,2395,516
Calf skins887,559790,561653,153
Deer skins55,69554,37958,217
Opossum skins331,616599,179397,311
Commodity (New Zealand Produce)1962xJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
* Provisional.
Pastoral products£££
Sheep skins and pelts8,646,8568,463,20311,842,792
Horse hair and other coarse animal hair12,3109,76110,657
Wool96,518,101107,191,254135,571,753
Inedible offals (including dried blood)918,492914,1291,082,308
Lard46,1866,0134,178
Edible tallow459,572461,614708,749
Edible stearine52,10047,39366,639
Inedible tallow2,145,5211,929,5782,727,471
Neatsfoot oil53,52042,48950,575
Live cattle66,54551,5434,779
Live sheep29,70427,58027,365
Live horses451,058412,031569,836
Other429,456521,654708,208
  Totals265,344,664289,849,986339,034,096
Agricultural products
Apples3,093,3842,163,7492,464,396
Pears237,285163,327239,673
Hops4,8088,871417
Potatoes113,74192,96290,566
Onions83,21175,460252,105
Canned vegetables58,358129,475105,803
Frozen vegetables171,037265,824732,526
Peas, food216,849221,452286,976
Peas, seed511,406481,908501,693
Seeds, grass and clover1,812,2291,791,9711,724,818
Other seeds60,013110,50199,719
Other184,528157,639152,386
  Totals6,546,8495,663,1396,651,078
Miscellaneous
Biscuits28,69740,82448,794
Ale, beer, stout-92,355109,511105,540
Sugar4,58716,10313,274
Soups1,0484,6924,862
Infant and invalid food (cereal)31,65326,47067,614
Cigarettes32,87540,81242,631
Cut tobacco87,89692,757112,933
Textile waste120,805111,717184,526
Soaps56,85359,36755,408
Scrap metal217,404221,070349,016
Dairy machinery150,132185,767180,559
Chamois leather47,24956,49655,421
Vitamins and concentrates2,7531,76320
Other2,069,1452,823,9813,878,078
  Totals2,943,4523,791,3305,098,676
  Totals, New Zealand produce (excluding gold)284,102,035309,993,295363,591,385
  Gold (excluded from above)218,717230,259106,435

In the following table exports for the years ended June 1963 and 1964 are classified according to the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Exports, New Zealand Produce-Section and DivisionYear Ended
June 1963xJune 1964*
* Provisional
Section O. Food and Live Animals£(thousand)
Div. 00 Live animals495614
Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations86,48691,576
Div. 02 Dairy products and eggs69,11178,513
Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations1,6611,559
Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations98139
Div. 05 Fruit and vegetables3,7424,810
Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations575626
Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof716
Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)516615
Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations130144
  Totals, Section 0162,822178,612
Section J. Beverages and Tobacco  
Div. 11 Beverages114119
Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures134210
  Totals, Section 1248329
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels  
Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed12,72215,182
Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels..91
Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed3-
Div. 24 Wood and cork1,8282,287
Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper2,7552,762
Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste107,405135,851
Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones68112
Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap241376
Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.8,5489,513
  Totals, Section 2133,571166,173
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials
Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes..5
Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products..1
Div. 34 Gas--
  Totals, Section 316
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats
Div. 41 Animal oils and fats2,5363,663
Div. 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed2-
Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats processed2324
  Totals, Section 42,5613,687
Exports, New Zealand Produce-Section and DivisionYear Ended
June 1963xJune 1964*
* Provisional.
Section 5. Chemicals£(thousand)
Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds3536
Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas--
Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials3129
Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products99163
Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations83102
Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured37
Div. 57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products44
Div. 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins3380
Div. 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products4,2295,727
  Totals, Section 54,5186,149
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material
Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs-97119
Div. 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.127149
Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)266234
Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof4,1845,934
Div. 65 Textile yam, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products325280
Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.s.4673
Div. 67 Iron and steel1018
Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals250356
Div. 69 Manufactures of metal96122
  Totals, Section 65,4017,285
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment
Div. 71 Machinery other than electric374473
Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances70127
Div. 73 Transport equipment34107
  Totals, Section 7477706
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings813
Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures4126
Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles44
Div. 84 Clothing68138
Div. 85 Footwear1423
Div. 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments;
  photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks1172
Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.s.180349
  Totals, Section 8326625
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions not Classified According to Kind
Goods under £10 in value6610
Other49
  Totals, Section 97019
Total New Zealand Produce Exports309,993363,591
Re-exports3,7814,400
Grand total, merchandise exports313,775367,991
  Exports of gold (excluded from above)230106

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS-Since the 1850s the United Kingdom has been New Zealand's principal trading partner, replacing Australia, which took the bulk of the trade in the early days of settlement. The proportion of our exports going to the United Kingdom market in the years prior to the Second World War was between 70 and 80 per cent of the total value of all exports. With the growing diversification of our markets in recent years the proportion of New Zealand's exports going to this market has fallen and by 1964 (June year) represented only 47 per cent of the total value of all exports.

Trade with the Commonwealth countries has always greatly exceeded that with foreign countries. During recent years, however, there has been a decline in the proportion of the export trade going to Commonwealth countries, occasioned mainly by the export of wool to European countries and meat to the United States of America. In 1948 Commonwealth countries took 80 per cent of the total exports. By 1964 (June year) this proportion had fallen to 56 per cent.

In recent years trade has been recorded with over 100 countries each year.

EXPORTS TO EACH COUNTRY-The following table gives exports (including re-exports but excluding gold and current coin) to each country for the June years 1963 and 1964.

EXPORTS TO EACH COUNTRY, JUNE YEARS 1963 AND 1964
CountryJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*

* Provisional.

†Burma, Iceland, and Jordan included in other countries for 1963, sterling area for 1964.

‡Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore merged to form Malaysia, 16 September 1963.

§French Oceania, Society Islands, included under French Polynesia 1964.

Sterling Area££
Aden Colony and Protectorate54,95390,717
Australia13,737,73717,061,736
Bahamas74,97659,374
Bahrein13-
Barbados395,966337,843
Bermuda251,501273,987
British Guiana146,064122,768
British Honduras7,3741,717
British Solomon Islands4,4951,617
Brunei141170
Burma84,748
Ceylon381,233322,321
Cyprus207,539424,473
Enderbury-Canton1,681359
Falkland Islands1,8172,289
Fiji1,074,7361,389,583
Ghana216,422185,000
Gibraltar16663
Gilbert and Ellice Islands81,41694,459
Hong Kong603,078755,581
Iceland38
India, including Sikkim, etc.1,300,376557,639
Ireland, Republic of292,638460,851
Jamaica1,774,0831,238,532
Jordan4,715
Kenya83,65778,591
Kuwait3,82210,431
Leeward and Windward Islands135,644107,262
Malaya, Federation of878,458
Malaysia2,111,783
Malta, including Gozo108,825
Mauritius and Dependencies31,80353,069
Nauru134,938124,820
New Hebrides2,9501,542
Nigeria161,293140,220
Norfolk Island6,8679,084
North Borneo9,127
EXPORTS TO EACH COUNTRY, JUNE YEARS 1963 AND 1964
CountryJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*

* Provisional.

†Burma, Iceland, and Jordan included in other countries for 1963, sterling area for 1964.

‡Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore merged to form Malaysia, 16 September 1963.

§French Oceania, Society Islands, included under French Polynesia 1964.

Sterling Area££
Pakistan97,92163,863
Papua, etc.204,983182,042
Pitcairn Island3,5903,573
Rhodesia and Nyasaland69,385169,792
Ross Dependency-313
Sarawak3,560
Seychelles79233
St. Helena, Ascension, etc.52164
Sierra Leone117-
Singapore799,229
South Africa and S.W. Africa812,6651,328,074
Tanganyika1,147479
Tonga-184,768230,459
Trinidad and Tobago1,586,8351,261,740
Uganda2,302374
United Kingdom148,224,505172,353,788
Western Samoa885,551945,856
Zanzibar and Pemba120130
  Totals, sterling countries174,933,633202,657,687
E.F.T.A. (Excluding U.K.)
Austria1,1281,829
Denmark509,917830,487
Norway236,277479,408
Portugal583,4191,340,133
Sweden763,0401,289,895
Switzerland and Liechtenstein83,76680,191
  Totals, E.F.T.A. countries2,177,5474,021,943
E.E.C.  
Belgium and Luxembourg8,369,15610,906,732
France and Monaco20,526,27622,802,392
Germany, West11,199,24313,239,103
Italy and San Marino9,617,99212,301,788
Netherlands5,170,6236,519,232
  Totals, E.E.C, countries54,883,29065,769,247
Dollar Countries
Alaska121,44679,007
American Samoa261,525323,801
Antarctic Territories (U.S.)261,9873,573
Canada4,514,5034,321,996
Colombia25,874-
Ecuador40352
El Salvador107-
Guam141,316307,328
Haiti16,8424,469
Hawaii, etc.1,319,5051,314,946
Mexico131,154166,265
Panama Canal Zone14,83017,006
EXPORTS TO EACH COUNTRY, JUNE YEARS 1963 AND 1964
CountryJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*

* Provisional.

†Burma, Iceland, and Jordan included in other countries for 1963, sterling area for 1964.

‡Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore merged to form Malaysia, 16 September 1963.

§French Oceania, Society Islands, included under French Polynesia 1964.

Dollar Countries££
Panama Republic285,354245,937
Philippines653,4761,003,768
Puerto Rico, etc.21,01033,278
Ryukyu Islands, etc.67,99665,154
U.S. Trust Territories in Pacific1,39414,877
United States of America (excluding Alaska and Hawaii)52,440,91953,867,923
Venezuela84,83116,800
  Totals, dollar countries60,364,10961,786,480
Other Countries
Algeria150270
Angola, including Cabinda929-
Antarctic (Foreign)-225
Argentina7,3249,941
Brazil-7,822
Bulgaria-80,426
Burma166,127
Cambodia938-
Canary Islands1,50014,635
Cape Verde Islands7,396-
Chile18,83725,753
China1,525,1872,703,867
Congo (Leopoldville)10,264155
Czechoslovakia134,2381,031,201
Egypt207,193292,538
Ethiopia and Eritrea-20
Finland110,647109,355
Formosa10,63022,781
French Guiana-1,282
French Oceania7,787§
French Polynesia§329,210
French West Indies26,67230,801
Germany, East107,706196,576
Greece491,5581,726,640
Hungary37,55092,174
Iceland3
Indonesia9,3363,734
Iran4,0045,720
Iraq2,0202,523
Israel39,80812,983
Japan12,766,79016,144,395
Jordan121,912
Korea, Republic of213,854155,045
Lebanon6,9671,631
Morocco22,42714,372
Mozambique82,75457,643
Nepal565312
Netherlands Antilles278,432206,933
Netherlands New Guinea934-
New Caledonia62,85175,062
North Vietnam7,40918,409
Other Countries££
Peru926,624263,282
Poland996,5111,508,025
Saudi Arabia6,6473,204
Senegal-4,823
Society Islands253,153§
Somalia5731,619
South Vietnam6,4464,632
Spain1,125,6241,379,099
Sudan17,3932,160
Surinam-498
Syria375190
Thailand39,05735,112
Turkey14,7919,819
U.S.S.R.84,8601,001,966
Uruguay10,6606,237
Yugoslavia108,115683,333
  Totals, other countries20,083,52828,278,433
  Totals, all countries312,442,107362,513,790
Ships' stores1,278,0871,275,208
Passengers54,427128,421
Destination optional-4,073,764
  Grand totals313,774,621367,991,183

The table which follows shows for each of the last 10 years the percentage of total exports (excluding gold, current coin, and ships' stores) taken by each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

Country1955195619571958195919601961Jan-June 1962June Year 1963June Year 1964
STERLING  per cent  
Australia2.492.963.564.033.624.353.793.234.404.71 
Fiji0.410.480.380.420.390.370.390.320.340.38 
India0.740.550.590.300.230.340.330.290.420.15 
Jamaica0.240.340.400.490.540.520.420.440.570.34 
Trinidad and Tobago0.290.360.280.310.400.350.450.290.510.35 
United Kingdom65.6564.6458.8555.8356.6353.1451.0749.5447.4447.54 
Western Samoa0.240.200.170.300.280.260.270.220.280.26 
Other1.181.020.991.341.331.511.751.542.032.17 
  Totals, sterling countries71.2470.5665.2263.0163.4860.8558.4655.8655.9955.90 
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.) 
Austria0.010.010.02..0.01.......... 
Denmark0.150.160.190.210.140.170.210.220.160.23 
Norway0.040.020.020.020.050.040.080.070.080.13 
Portugal0.020.030.070.150.130.180.180.360.190.37 
Sweden0.180.260.190.280.240.270.280.370.240.36 
Switzerland0.170.050.030.020.010.010.010.020.030.02 
  Totals, E.F.T.A. countries0.560.520.520.700.580.660.761.040.701.11 
E.E.C. 
Belgium and Luxembourg1.792.072.291.811.782.542.934.052.683.01 
France5.926.067.885.895.896.726.177.476.576.29 
Germany, West4.913.764.452.823.313.532.843.763.583.65 
Italy1.832.412.262.502.052.512.393.753.083.39 
Netherlands1.751.671.481.201.431.381.411.621.661.80 
  Totals, E.E.C. countries16.2015.9718.3614.2214.4716.6915.7520.6417.5718.14 
DOLLAR 
Canada1.641.461.611.631.041.211.331.481.451.19 
Hawaii0.050.070.130.290.310.360.410.250.420.36 
Philippines0.080.070.180.090.090.200.290.210.210.28 
U.S.A.5.847.057.8914.6314.7212.7614.5413.9916.7814.86 
Other0.270.180.230.250.310.430.310.350.460.35 
  Totals, dollar countries7.888.8410.0416.8816.4814.9516.8816.2819.3217.04 
OTHER 
China0.060.050.220.390.850.770.470.300.490.75 
Czechoslovakia0.640.640.350.400.470.580.530.270.040.28 
Egypt0.140.240.030.130.060.090.10O.070.070.08 
Japan0.770.972.842.212.292.965.263.394.094.45 
Poland1.050.801.091.010.430.790.340.670.320.42 
U.S.S.R.0.840.740.970.280.050.830.540.490.030.28 
Other0.620.680.370.770.840.850.910.991.401.54 
  Totals, other countries4.114.115.875.194.986.858.156.186.437.80 
  Grand totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00 

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) during the last 21 years are given in the table below. The nomenclature used in this and subsequent tables in regard to the countries of destination refers generally to status and territories in the years indicated and not necessarily to the present position.

YearUnited KingdomCanadaAustraliaFranceWest GermanyUnited States of AmericaOther Countries*Total Merchandise Exports

* Including ships' stores.

†Provisional.

£(thousand)
194455,4261,9401,670--5,06312,26576,363
194558,6432,2512,93447-7,9858,50980,368
194670,9222,8032,4553,4651,6399,7129,120100,117
194798,6813,0603,3024,447787,95110,865128,384
1948107,9082,9913,3898,3082,7257,23514,655147,212
1949107,7052,1963,1427,6582,9945,51217,468146,673
1950121,6813,5573,4738,0775,93918,38721,328182.441
1951142,3618,5654,27017,8548,83628,85936,539247,283
1952156,4465,2123,27410,4565,22727,26731,880239,762
1953157,9182,9584,36115,5956,08418,37930,053235,347
1954163,1932,9976,06514,67510,49113,89632,663243,979
1955169,6434,2306,44515,28712,68815,10035,635259,028
1956178,7554,0268,18816,76110,40319,50839,598277,239
1957162,1314,4359,80221,69712,26021,73044,204276,258
1958139,1054,06610,03414,6807,02836,44938,579249,940
June Year
1959143,3013,3649,64714,3137,99444,62737,251260,497
1960171,5273,62612,03221,17511,51538,62255,893314,390
1961148,0533,68512,43417,3137,73039,15951,983280,356
1962143,6503,78810,63518,4739,94841,97262,786291,251
1963x148,2254,51513,73820,52611,19952,44163,131313,775
1964172,3544,32217,06222,80213,23953,86884,344367,991

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded by the Customs Department. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and, in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics. It is possible, of course, that the destination of goods may be changed while in transit; and this, in fact, happens occasionally. In such cases the actual destination will be different from that to which the goods have been credited in the statistics; however it is quite impossible to keep a record of all movements of this nature.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an "optional" basis-United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

In the following table figures are given for the value of New Zealand's export trade to European countries in calendar years from 1960 to 1962 together with figures for the June years 1963 and 1964. This table shows the importance of wool as the chief commodity in New Zealand's trade with Europe.

Country196019611962xJune Year
1963x1964*

* Provisional.

†Included with U.S.S.R.

 £££££
Austria4,0218,2105,3741,1281,829
Belgium7,675,5518,266,9558,898,7928,369,15610,906,732
Bulgaria195,697---80,426
Czechoslovakia1,750,2851,487,024553,975134,2381,031,201
Denmark516,066580,453581,507509,917830,487
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania-412,375--
Finland194,291162,250180,865110,647109,355
France20,291,36217,389,79217,791,68320,526,27622,802,392
Germany, West10,641,4388,019,7939,132,56311,199,24313,239,103
Germany, East131,85513,60675,200107,706196,576
Greece372,921397,447385,542491,5581,726,640
Hungary107-27,43837,55092,174
Italy7,569,8736,751,4819,473,1379,617,99212,301,788
Netherlands4,179,1843,970,4944,236,1295,170,6236,519,232
Norway109,088220,472168,428236,277479,408
Poland2,376,385966,4701,480,294996,5111,508,025
Portugal533,599504,882714,258583,4191,340,133
Spain17,08864,235810,0741,125,6241,379,099
Sweden810,560789,878863,138763,0401,289,895
Switzerland28,81739,52297,22583,76680,191
Turkey36,4466,57912,71614,7919,819
U.S.S.R.2,510,9371,520,243894,03384,8601,001,966
Yugoslavia219,64039,96152,732108,115683,333
  Totals60,165,21151,612,12256,435,10360,272,43777,609,804
Per Cent
Percentage of total New Zealand exports taken by European countries (value basis)19.8818.1719.6119.2121.09
Value (£)
Value of wool exported to European countries49,246,24243,318,16045,785,77249,481,41262,430,715
Per Cent
Percentage of wool exports to total exports to European countries (value basis)81.8583.9381.1382.1080.44
Percentage of total New Zealand wool exports taken by European countries (value basis)48.0943.1847.4446.1646.05

Destination of Main Exports-The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the June year 1963.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1963
QuantityValue
Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 lb£
Australia6,094,1061,272,303
Belgium41,502,7207,276,904
Canada3,589,934721,437
China3,903,409821,930
Czechoslovakia693,457103,610
Denmark1,627,118388,431
Egypt1,002,914193,018
Finland138,53130,911
France103,117,00019,049,373
Germany, East529,930100,084
Germany, West41,972,3478,267,261
Greece999,018233,722
India4,152,159831,091
Ireland, Republic of839,006157,429
Italy39,162,6527,360,318
Japan33,531,1356,831,426
Mexico682,418108,065
Netherlands20,670,4953,738,825
Norway589,935146,464
Poland4,608,942921,595
Portugal3,045,031578,265
South Africa1,432,165295,640
Spain3,948,569624,635
Sweden2,545,478565,917
Switzerland287,00557,002
United Kingdom154,651,09529,025,545
United States of America100,583,99417,369,965
Other countries633,771120,088
  Totals576,534,334107,191,254
Frozen and Chilled Beef and Veal
 lb£
Alaska1,085,487121,446
American Samoa219,88722,209
Bahamas241,50224,615
Barbados2,344,492166,531
Belgium1,592,66193,665
Bermuda471,17586,191
Canada13,456,5161,130,467
Cyprus794,05170,314
Fiji78,7869,795
Germany, West472,85629,917
Greece1,607,525101,514
Guam1,176,799126,944
Hawaii8,313,5481,006,680
Hong Kong372,82946,690
Italy688,02348,164
Jamaica2,449,168198,082
Frozen and Chilled Beef and Veal
 ££
Japan3,361,629236,453
Leeward and Windward Islands342,57833,204
Malaya and Singapore1,182,543127,035
Netherlands228,86114,026
Netherlands Antilles1,642,457157,283
Philippines196,15521,282
Society Islands675,07981,550
Tonga111,2778,984
Trinidad and Tobago3,961,623376,848
United Kingdom13,342,881910,279
United States of America223,921,57423,992,386
U.S.A. Pacific Trust Territories8,4391,251
Western Samoa102,8718,067
Other countries1,461,840166,655
Totals283,905,11229,418,827
Frozen Lamb and Mutton
 lb£
Belgium1,246,40247,223
Bermuda415,11444,272
Canada15,908,6071,031,781
Cyprus1,025,81267,243
Czechoslovakia1,150,87930,456
Egypt23,5211,659
Fiji1,793,95074,626
Germany, West6,807,004195,097
Ghana2,522,84772,277
Greece4,465,867120,647
Hawaii374,38926,386
Hong Kong575,48237,598
Jamaica1,184,71362,627
Japan68,585,3562,072,168
Jordan3,830,625115,339
Malaya and Singapore1,778,447114,401
Netherlands774,30127,582
Nigeria836,53944,782
Peru1,329,19241,857
Sweden417,46121,846
Trinidad and Tobago1,903,57691,673
U.S.S.R.2,900,16684,860
United Kingdom650,799,78943,340,612
United States of America14,583,2521,095,001
Western Samoa1,322,45652,594
Other countries4,976,142261,777
  Totals791,531,88949,176,384
Frozen Pork
 lb£
Aden135,45616,103
Australia4,271,583421,346
Belgium414,57142,628
Fiji132,33912,050
Hawaii65,0177,004
Hong Kong290,13428,239
Jamaica70,7245,495
Malaya144,87414,369
Nauru150,67715,334
Netherlands Antilles53,6135,409
Papua249,66137,031
Singapore652,12966,781
Trinidad and Tobago1,334,987132,351
United Kingdom1,434,617132,878
Other countries577,28954,624
  Totals9,977,671991,642
Other Frozen Meat
 lb£
Belgium264,59322,502
Canada570,95960,665
Fiji101,7027,433
Germany, West799,841100,638
Hawaii220,35419,441
Hong Kong432,85627,148
Italy928,56420,121
Jamaica1,253,36771,814
Japan233,44114,769
Malaya409,89022,189
Netherlands241,46828,917
Netherlands Antilles153,65311,653
Peru164,6653,330
Singapore717,12149,096
Trinidad and Tobago293,04421,132
United Kingdom41,703,1914,242,085
United States of America1,800,270267,358
Western Samoa242,1219,577
Other countries2,468,858181,754
  Totals52,999,9585,181,622
Canned Meat
 lb£
American Samoa516,49392,622
Fiji563,02580,629
Gilbert and Ellice Islands205,81240,149
Jamaica543,93275,950
Nauru353,37668,368
Papua and New Guinea145,78219,500
Society Islands173,37933,506
Tonga217,87430,245
Canned Meat
 lb£
United Kingdom3,890,743633,127
Western Samoa612,782102,951
Other countries162,02722,801
Totals7,385,2251,199,848
Butter
 cwt£
Bahamas2,69437,436
Barbados3,82554,289
Bermuda6,08186,405
British Guiana2,92441,007
Ceylon4,78163,985
Fiji5,633105,473
Germany, West24,418362,455
Haiti5347,376
Hawaii3,24869,622
Hong Kong7,208102,025
Jamaica56,781877,096
Leeward and Windward Islands1,51920,820
Malaya, Federation of10,885179,562
Netherlands Antilles5,09765,511
Panama Canal Zone6008,962
Panama Republic19,125277,297
Peru47,094678,352
Philippines12,183178,624
Singapore9,109129,608
Tonga97914,582
Trinidad and Tobago24,373355,903
United Kingdom3,014,99641,286,991
United States of America10,517223,525
Western Samoa2,14129,969
Other countries14,964205,690
  Totals3,291,70945,462,565
Cheese
 cwt£
Australia3,64357,169
Barbados6,38867,106
Bermuda1,58517,543
British Guiana3,78437,409
Germany, West36,623319,640
Jamaica19,774246,963
Japan27,046251,362
Leeward and Windward Islands3,59944,228
South Africa10,059102,609
Trinidad and Tobago18,710190,413
United Kingdom1,618,66316,230,128
United States of America79,074770,553
Other countries15,231162,000
  Totals1,844,17918,497,123
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 cwt£
Barbados2,4207,837
Canary Islands5001,500
Ceylon8,02396,720
Fiji10,09471,181
Germany, West29,11084,999
Hawaii9672,835
Hong Kong9,85338,040
India33,578112,049
Jamaica56,259161,418
Japan64,611192,665
Malaya104,106519,939
Mauritius9,19931,414
Netherlands28,14670,416
Pakistan24,02979,853
Peru60,803174,235
Philippines94,270313,818
Singapore36,105141,940
Society Islands2,95720,549
Trinidad and Tobago38,497317,970
United Kingdom601,9021,992,410
United States of America12,990112,098
Western Samoa3,68828,922
Other countries34,888156,432
  Totals1,266,9954,729,240
Edible Tallow
 cwt£
Australia100239
Burma10,80027,056
China47,260106,554
Germany, West200490
India53,980127,161
Japan6,16013,826
Malaya6,24013,908
Netherlands2,3205,240
Singapore16,56036,588
United Kingdom45,86097,412
Other countries13,98033,140
  Totals203,460461,614
Inedible Tallow
 tons£
Australia10464
British Guiana39018,163
Burma2,924124,205
Ceylon4,209170,803
China11,609457,714
Fiji43518,110
Finland502,133
Ghana2,29889,479
Greece49721,068
Haiti2519,073
India1,57869,876
Jamaica63126,755
Japan1,97981,578
Kenya and Uganda1,86674,841
Malaya1,19447,711
Mozambique2,04679,684
Netherlands501,807
Pakistan2309,849
Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation1,48654,866
Singapore1807,575
South Africa6,446234,916
Sudan48817,393
Thailand2059,736
Trinidad and Tobago1,85275,176
United Kingdom5,519206,616
Vietnam31413,634
Other countries1776,353
  Totals48,8351,929,578
Cattle Hides
 No.£
Australia92,957274,057
Finland1,1303,419
France18,63857,167
Germany, West120,618297,962
Israel11,15120,513
Italy409,714859,624
Japan165,130413,013
Netherlands41,647101,778
Norway15,95145,528
Poland35,00074,412
South Africa51,313104,456
Spain41,803101,898
United Kingdom41,889109,493
United States of America1,0002,237
Yugoslavia21,56156,559
Other countries20,22448,131
  Totals1,089,7262,570,247
Calf Skins
 No.£
Australia133,988139,285
France17,09012,269
Germany, West171,569135,549
Italy236,811176,359
Japan54,512103,626
Netherlands221,030169,837
Spain43,16232,033
United Kingdom201,008151,565
United States of America174180
Other countries1,9002,884
  Totals1,081,244923,587
Sheep Skins (With Wool)
 No.£
Belgium25,92932,797
France849,609517,633
Italy69,49467,607
Spain302,704280,724
United Kingdom83,83899,971
Other countries17,9317,181
  Totals1,349,5051,005,913
Sheep Skins (Without Wool)
 No.£
Australia2,772427
Belgium1,826,136579,568
Canada28,8007,200
Finland279,82865,669
France2,261,676471,544
Germany, West1,344,660365,352
Italy456,036141,560
Mexico62,80821,005
Netherlands1,237,764387,127
Spain109,00826,264
Sweden65,97618,506
United Kingdom3,123,252900,115
United States of America16,548,9604,447,191
Venezuela47,95210,883
Other countries56,84414,879
  Totals27,452,4727,457,290
Sausage Casings
 Hank£
Australia58,40118,623
Canada1,624,9341,383,227
Denmark1,3001,500
Germany, West243,234232,203
Netherlands72,70079,955
United Kingdom3,222,5732,691,081
United States of America763,488769,409
Yugoslavia48,21050,891
Other countries2,7533,016
  Totals6,037,5935,229,905
Casein
 cwt£
Belgium3,89927,608
Canada3002,010
France1,61211,877
Germany, West43,756315,648
India8,00658,058
Italy112,932738,916
Japan163,0271,145,474
Netherlands33,910253,909
Spain3,98227,302
Sweden9,08362,058
United Kingdom129,137957,571
United States of America79,837548,385
Other countries5,88242,809
  Totals595,3634,191,625
Apples (Fresh)
 lb£
Belgium5,372,217167,882
Canada2,786,28087,076
France3,660,080114,378
Germany, West7,943,080248,225
Hawaii379,16011,849
Hong Kong1,102,00034,439
Netherlands991,96030,999
Norway600,00018,750
Singapore1,911,16059,724
Sweden1,968,86060,263
United Kingdom36,711,9851,147,409
United States of America1,496,20046,759
Venezuela2,359,92073,748
Other countries1,976,95762,248
  Totals69,259,8592,163,749
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
 cwt£
Australia14,028271,409
Canada66823,904
Chile2958,914
Denmark1,61350,920
France3,78265,210
Germany, West3153,805
Ireland, Republic of1,84446,094
Italy3664,946
Netherlands1,21916,201
United Kingdom24,178621,790
United States of America4,14348,613
Uruguay39410,660
Other countries1,51224,010
  Totals54,3571,196,476
Peas (Food)
 cental£
Belgium9,79217,517
Fiji4,0449,179
Netherlands5,7029,873
United Kingdom92,978163,613
United States of America5,94010,708
Other countries5,79911,249
  Totals124,255222,139
Peas (Seed)
 lb£
Australia8,872,500271,000
United Kingdom6,650,000189,865
Other countries809,40021,043
  Totals16,331,900481,908
Wood Pulp
 tons£
Australia63,2762,574,969
China4,000116,833
Japan67622,647
Philippines1,11535,307
  Totals69,0672,749,756
Timber (Sawn and Hewn)
 sup. ft.£
Australia27,185,857778,087
Fiji471,44615,320
Nauru181,97111,346
Western Samoa329,75815,354
Other countries128,0158,547
  Totals28,297,047828,654
Timber (for Cases, in Shooks)
 sup. ft.£
Australia451,88422,484
Tonga114,9565,349
Western Samoa3,649,711198,755
Other countries55,7863,966
  Totals4,272,337230,554
Fish (Other than Canned)
 cwt£
Australia41,742389,731
France45419,466
Hawaii2,231109,131
United States of America25,6431,080,381
Western Samoa3,20911,927
Other countries2,77632,889
  Totals76,0551,643,525
Newsprint
 cwt£
Australia1,436,9834,005,401
Other countries4,24113,226
  Totals1,441,2244,018,627

EXPORTS BY PORTS The following table shows for the latest years the value of total exports according to the ports at which they were actually placed on board the overseas vessels.

Port1958195919601961Jan-June 1962June Year 1963
 ££££££
Auckland76,976,535105,005,86898,650,81186,510,22647,055,76398,291,685
Tauranga6,217,9027,724,8478,218,9757,231,5444,113,0559,148,960
Gisborne3,158,7032,902,2192,771,6844,047,7302,111,1833,862,702
Napier21,475,23523,716,52329,024,05730,049,45315,747,73630,076,361
Taranaki16,265,40024,416,88526,115,28828,143,11915,110,86626,842,733
Wanganui673100467166307177,922
Wellington47,855,49445,975,87844,789,89640,852,19523,954,35543,218,083
Picton90,321249,1661,371,3921,357,1291,255,937885,019
Nelson1,909,2181,824,4582,188,6522,183,4341,747,2292,855,550
Greymouth192,814344,107360,901264,20430,528116,179
Lyttelton22,744,02223,175,61624,890,74322,844,75314,509,85028,205,065
Timaru15,213,94515,717,36717,961,33716,137,53010,908,48217,750,883
Oamaru10,060-6851,2844,6706,461
Otago15,290,21718,724,52719,637,72317,901,16811,907,71620,150,117
Bluff22,772,26623,881,09326,619,92126,471,58617,895,81732,186,901
  Totals250,172,805293,658,654302,602,532283,995,521166,353,494313,774,621

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, usually about one-third of all exports being dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately one-seventh of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district

RE-EXPORTS-Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In most years, ships' and international aircraft stores, in which aviation spirit and bunker and lubricating oils loom largely, make up between a quarter and a third of the total reexports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned to the United Kingdom and Australia.

Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

££
* Provisional.
19431,627,900
19446,105,148
19453,114,747
1946994,612
19471,703,235
19481,354,856
19491,194,463
19501,420,140
19511,732,955
19522,141,980
19532,386,391
19542,093,328
19552,138,869
19562,383,620
19572,263,821
19582,188,588
19592,660,587
19602,699,769
19613,591,431
Jan-June,19621,667,303
June year,19633,781,326x
1964*4,399,798

The destination of this re-export trade for the June years 1963 and 1964 is shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*

* Provisional.

†Included with other countries.

 ££
United Kingdom405,392394,353
Hong Kong7,95614,098
India9,514533
Malaya2,833...
Singapore3,783...
Malaysia...99,997
South Africa17,61160,931
Canada12,41440,318
Australia1,156,0551,521,632
Fiji144,810173,577
Gilbert and Ellice Islands2,0903,292
Nauru Island1,1313,609
Norfolk Island8402,064
Papua and New Guinea584173
Solomon Islands165322
Tonga9,09711,026
Western Samoa58,79156,408
Germany, West32,21980,524
Belgium4,8797,712
France8,981754
Sweden1,6191,880
Switzerland3,7922,227
Netherlands26,92919,410
Indonesia81045
Japan20,204122,543
United States of America276,628453,307
Society Islands52,993
Foreign Antarctic regions257,3293,410
Other countries53,18545,462
Ships' stores1,154,2651,158,410
Passengers54,427121,781
Totals (excluding specie)3,781,3264,399,798

GOODS SHIPPED TO COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS-Trade with the Cook and associated Pacific Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the country, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between New Zealand and these islands, and the values of goods shipped to the islands are summarised below.

YearExports
* Provisional.
££
1952478,290
1953490,440
1954559,775
1955587,650
1956565,936
1957656,516
1958750,673
1959648,959
1960744,803
19611,040,471
1962944,226
June year
1963x1,001,006
1964*1,204,874

Further particulars regarding the trade of the islands will be found in Section 38, Island Territories.

22 C-IMPORTS

GENERAL-Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The basis of valuation is usually c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at time of shipment). However in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals are exclusive of gold and current coin, except where the contrary is expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade.

IMPORT CONTROL-Reference to import control is made in Section 22A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS-The following table classifies imports by broad divisions. It illustrates the great variety of imports which New Zealand receives in exchange for its few basic exports.

Calendar YearImports (c.d.v.)
Food, Beverages, and TobaccoMineral FuelsChemicals, Including Manufactured FertilisersBase Metals and Manufactures of MetalMachinery and Transport EquipmentTextiles, Clothing, and FootwearTotal Merchandise Imports*

* Including divisions not listed.

†Provisional.

£(thousand)
195424,82914,96413,23727,13561,48935,272213,139
195526,22616,55115,80135,16575,45637,299250,648
195625,23718,96915,51632,58367,27533,518234,748
195727,55521,87917,52138,63774,64237,638261,686
195824,76919,95220,70338,58871,23836,786252,749
195919,28918,49916,72532,36754,96728,168205,025
196020,16020,69220,31139,30372,26235,699253,078
196121,74621,62022,65346,42689,50037,535288,222
196220,08222,33222,37240,34073,05128,814245,685
June year
1963x21,38622,16823,85318,36779,72732,464261,870
196427,86223,89727,68919,634104,08236,858313,662

The next table gives imports according to sections and divisions for the June years, 1963 and 1964, as described under the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) which came into operation on 1 July 1962.

Section and Division, S.I.T.C., RevisedJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
* Provisional.
Section 0. Food and Live Animals-£(thousand)
Div. 00 Live animals159184228257
" 01 Meat and meat preparations34361313
" 02 Dairy products and eggs2212
" 03 Fish and fish preparations6507129591,046
" 04 Cereals and cereal preparations4,3485,1864,3475,176
" 05 Fruits and vegetables3,8435,4984,2585,943
" 06 Sugar and sugar preparations4,3834,8509,95710,517
" 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof3,9964,9464,4115,369
" 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including un-milled cereals)78847183
" 09 Miscellaneous food preparations134138128136
  Totals, Section 017,62721,63724,37428,542
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco
Div. 11 Beverages2,1552,5062,1752,543
" 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures1,6051,7791,3131,418
  Totals, Section 13,7604,2863,4883,961
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed62667479
" 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels441501438512
" 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed1,7811,9882,1982,398
" 24 Wood and cork1,5762,4261,6962,538
" 25 Pulp and waste paper6728008651,031
" 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread or fabrics) and waste2,0472,2172,6212,814
" 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones3,4436,7964,6158,932
" 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap75857080
" 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.i.1,2061,2951,1881,285
  Totals, Section 211,30316,17313,76619,669
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials
Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes1225510
" 33 Petroleum and petroleum products22,09426,69523,86928,896
" 34 Gas61612227
  Totals, Section 322,16826,78123,89728,933
Section and Division, S.I.T.C., RevisedJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
* Provisional.
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats-£(thousand)
Div. 41 Animal oils and fats20241822
" 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed404458470518
" 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin51566469
  Totals, Section 4475539552609
Section 5. Chemicals
Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds6,5257,0507,2667,734
" 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas141222110189
" 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials1,0891,1311,1211,160
" 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products5,1134,8365,6285,295
" 55 Essential oils and perfume materials; toilet, polishing and cleansing preparations737750833875
" 56 Fertilisers, manufactured1,5602,1681,6992,423
" 57 Explosives522530789801
" 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins5,6445,7666,4276,555
" 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products2,5232,7243,8154,066
  Totals, Section 523,85325,17627,68929,098
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material
Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs502521619641
" 62 Rubber manufactures n.e.i.2,4852,3722,5212,401
" 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)665812671805
" 64 Paper, paperboard and manufactures thereof5,0335,5295,2205,787
" 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products30,49433,32634,65737,118
" 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.i.4,3644,9105,3596,048
" 67 Iron and steel21,75623,94225,14327,090
" 68 Non-ferrous metals7,5067,4348,4858,445
" 69 Manufactures of metals10,86111,24911,14911,526
  Totals, Section 683,66790,09693,82499,860
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment
Div. 71 Machinery other than electric31,76032,88640,28041,586
" 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances18,60718,90623,82723,885
" 73 Transport equipment29,36031,96339,97542,877
  Totals, Section 779,72783,755104,082108,347
Section and Division, S.I.T.C., RevisedJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
* Provisional.
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles£(thousand)
Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, and lighting fittings and fixtures337390446498
" 82 Furniture and fixtures5965101111
" 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles29314448
" 84 Clothing1,5291,6221,6251,739
" 85 Footwear440476576624
" 86 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments: photographic and optical goods, watches and clocks5,7745,4856,5926,326
" 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.i.9,55510,14211,34411,932
  Totals, Section 817,72318,21220,72921,277
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind1,5691,6621,2611,299
  Grand totals, merchandise imports261,870288,317313,662341,595

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE-The United Kingdom has been the chief supplier of New Zealand imports since the eighties of last century. Prior to that the main supply was from Australia. In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 per cent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 per cent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June year 1964 only 39.1 per cent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 15 per cent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 per cent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 per cent. Following a slight fall in 1961, the proportion rose to 21 per cent for the June year 1964.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentages received from the United Kingdom, other Commonwealth countries, European, and other countries. It will be seen that European countries are now playing a greater part in providing New Zealand's import requirements.

The table which follows shows imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 11 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America.

YearCountry where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.
* Provisional.
£(thousand)
1954122,00328,86716,401120,70727,48417,472213,139
1955140,53331,41420,219137,82530,47121,305250,648
1956129,21833,74217,304126,13733,28317,804234,748
1957136,01345,61219,958134,47745,14420,543261,686
1958133,67644,29916,528132,79543,63717,173252,749
195997,69537,73516,32996,96237,06216,739205,025
1960111,13646,35626,380109,95145,51326,544253,078
1961130,16348,25026,376128,95246,87727,165288,222
1962......103,06949,73021,864245,685
June year
1963x......109,68448,58323,987261,870
1964*......122,50066,82129,512313,662

The next table gives imports on a c.d.v. basis by countries of origin for the June years 1963 and 1964.

CountryJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*

* Provisional.

†Burma, Iceland, and Jordan included under Other Countries for 1963; Sterling Area for 1964.

‡Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore merged 16 September 1963 to form Malaysia.

§ French Oceania and Society Islands included in French Polynesia for 1964.

∥ Cuba included under Dollar Area for 1963; Other Countries 1964.

¶ Netherlands New Guinea included in Indonesia 1964.

Sterling Area££
Aden Colony and Protectorate63,83241,785
Australia48,582,77866,820,922
Bahamas44336
Bahrain2,009,457721,746
Barbados1,159662
Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Swaziland7,17720,443
Bermuda-15,179
British Guiana13,64514,294
British Honduras146-
British Solomon Islands-15
Brunei63,719-
Burma3,372
Ceylon2,404,9032,434,825
Cyprus101,005120,801
Fiji1,349,9982,021,948
Ghana660,613572,969
Gilbert and Ellice Islands174,308166,096
Hong Kong2,945,8133,788,401
Iceland86
India, including Sikkim, etc4,741,8385,416,292
Ireland, Republic of74,72953,131
Jamaica193,688201,998
Jammu and Kashmir246-
Jordan249
Kenya244,357300,494
Kuwait50,500918,084
Leeward and Windwards4,1075,186
Malaya, Federation of1,460,175
Malaysia4,387,082
Malta, including Gozo, etc.23,59233,356
Mauritius and Dependencies44,01933,407
Nauru773,2761,145,718
New Hebrides cond.84
New Zealand re-imports203,307210,620
Nigeria14,97064,137
Norfolk Island313154
North Borneo158,867
Pakistan241,785305,135
Papua, etc.15,16222,087
Rhodesia and Nyasaland212,640255,296
Sarawak120,333
Seychelles-25,540
Sierra Leone1,910528
Singapore1,269,601
South Africa and S.W. Africa1,126,976973,052
Tanganyika520,544674,334
Tonga86,370141,780
Trinidad and Tobago23,96925,500
Uganda185,030309,943
United Kingdom109,683,566122,500,451
Western Samoa473,653528,032
Zanzibar and Pemba3,5203,870
  Total180,331,648215,279,340
E.F.T.A. (Excluding U.K.)-
Austria467,712489,292
Denmark433,915522,880
Norway666,575631,135
Portugal328,976259,017
Sweden1,938,8822,756,037
Switzerland and Liechtenstein2,302,4712,822,526
  Total6,138,5317,480,887
E.E.C.-
Belgium and Luxemburg1,736,8942,532,835
France and Monaco2,330,0732,957,953
Germany, West7,757,8088,753,880
Italy and San Marino2,532,2532,816,816
Netherlands2,922,7483,852,386
  Total17,279,77620,913,870
Dollar Area££
American Samoa7,497-
Bolivia425130
Canada8,925,14610,630,390
Colombia31,54723,697
Costa Rica10,09013,113
Cuba501
Dominican Republic857,9091,656,118
Ecuador2,780968
El Salvador803351
Guatemala2,4041,912
Haiti21160
Hawaii, etc.8,00911,029
Honduras-824
Liberia25-
Mexico277,699348,412
Nicaragua-189
Panama Canal Zone-59
Panama Republic-36
Philippines106,160110,925
Puerto Rico, etc.-3,655
United States of America (excluding Alaska and Hawaii)23,986,63329,511,516
Venezuela1,183,6781,834,608
  Total35,401,36344,148,056
Other Countries-
Afghanistan249225
Angola, including Cabinda5,8122,901
Argentina18,21112,769
Brazil165,550250,321
Bulgaria347120
Burma1,942
Cambodia-606
Canary Islands621
Chile42,77365,038
China529,583740,610
Comoro Islands14-
Congo (Brazzaville)5,69317,396
Congo (Leopoldville)9,06016,477
Cuba2,041
Czechoslovakia431,256539,099
Egypt2,7233,766
Ethiopia and Eritrea55,06939,331
Finland562,425692,760
Formosa357,81862,065
French Oceania219,230§
French Polynesia§431,613
French Somaliland26-
Gabon1,212256
Germany, East100,305166,543
Greece4,2977,287
Greenland-97
Hungary21,54129,098
Iceland6
Indonesia2,086,4582,762,560
Iran2,180,6641,172,368
Iraq20,42418,879
Israel11,99922,184
Ivory Coast8,9439,813
Japan12,098,61315,314,949
Korea, Republic of8551,598
Lebanon2,2051,349
Macao228459
Madagascar1,5721,138
Mauritania863-
Morocco3,5452,355
Mozambique8815,581
Netherlands Antilles1,547,6151,134,755
Netherlands New Guinea415
New Caledonia-314
North Korea-33
North Vietnam123
Paraguay1105
Peru1,164,416166,866
Poland13,60713,661
Portugese Guinea-853
Reunion29647,827
CountryJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
Other Countries££
Rumania21750
Saudi Arabia517,618482,308
Senegal22,43123,215
Society Islands5,200§
Somalia225
South Vietnam60609
Spain137,734162,319
Sudan21,58122,573
Syria4,7743,601
Thailand116,046131,773
CountryJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
Other Countries££
Togo-34,363
Turkey59,45965,652
U.S.S.R.142,543372,193
Uruguay-35
Yemen4,650219
Yugoslavia8,317183,298
  Totals22,719,11425,840,343
 Grand totals261,870,432313,662,496

On a country of origin basis the following table shows for the latest 11 years the percentage of the value (c.d.v.) of total New Zealand imports.

Country19541955195619571958195919601961Jan-June 1962June Year 1963June Year 1964*
* Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore together formed Malaysia on 16 September 1963.
Sterling Areaper cent
Australia12.8912.1614.1817.2517.2618.0817.9816.2620.5518.5521.30
Bahrain1.141.141.360.350.370.480.480.200.400.770.23
Ceylon1.241.000.950.990.871.080.950.860.980.920.78
Fiji0.860.690.620.550.480.480.190.230.150.520.64
Ghana---0.110.200.260.240.180.300.250.18
Hong Kong0.220.400.400.370.380.390.780.790.911.121.21
India1.281.291.471.902.372.102.132.021.731.811.73
Malaya and Singapore*2.261.771.351.231.181.301.401.241.821.041.40
Nauru0.230.250.270.240.210.250.290.230.400.300.37
South Africa0.570.380.430.460.460.530.660.700.330.430.31
United Kingdom56.6354.9953.7351.3952.5447.2943.4544.7442.8541.8839.05
Western Samoa0.170.130.110.130.220.330.230.160.230.180.17
Other1.051.231.310.940.771.111.050.970.971.091.27
  Total, sterling countries78.5675.4276.1875.8977.3273.6769.8268.5971.5968.8668.63
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)-
Austria0.110.220.160.170.170.160.150.180.200.180.16
Denmark0.110.170.130.180.150.150.160.150.130.170.17
Norway0.300.320.290.280.330.330.280.280.240.250.20
Portugal0.070.120.080.080.100.080.070.070.070.130.08
Sweden0.780.900.780.970.781.130.780.900.700.740.88
Switzerland0.660.630.660.710.690.790.930.880.680.880.90
  Total, E.F.T.A. countries2.032.362.102.402.232.652.382.462.022.342.39
E.E.C.-
Belgium0.800.940.900.770.770.740.920.810.820.660.81
France0.830.770.830.680.720.640.831.010.920.890.94
Germany, West2.052.742.812.993.013.023.093.463.002.962.79
Italy0.540.480.630.610.590.720.740.791.130.970.90
Netherlands1.080.960.890.941.241.191.371.961.201.121.23
  Total, E.E.C. countries5.295.906.065.986.346.306.958.037.076.606.67
Dollar Area-
Canada2.063.342.672.532.342.343.183.763.463.413.39
U.S.A.8.208.507.587.856.798.1610.499.438.489.169.41
Other0.320.020.070.060.090.230.731.010.870.951.28
  Total, dollar countries10.5711.8610.3210.449.2310.7314.4014.1912.8113.5214.08
Country19541955195619571958195919601961Jan-June 1962June Year 1963*June Year 1964*
* Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore together formed Malaysia on 16 September 1963.
Other Countriesper cent
China0.110.120.140.130.170.200.170.150.170.200.24
Czechoslovakia0.080.110.150.170.180.130.170.210.150.160.17
Indonesia1.141.852.692.181.221.041.040.370.790.800.88
Iran0.350.670.540.530.820.800.590.790.830.37 
Japan0.501.010.950.851.121.752.852.912.594.624.88
Netherlands Antilles1.090.380.170.630.791.480.360.830.740.590.36
Saudi Arabia0.020.200.220.250.260.660.410.630.580.200.15
Other0.620.460.360.540.600.580.641.040.691.271.18
  Total, other countries3.554.475.355.294.886.656.456.726.518.688.24
  Grand totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Origin of Principal Imports-The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports, by country of origin for the year ended June 1963. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Country of Origin1962-63
Canned Salmon
 £
Canada216,508
Japan122,231
Other countries4,137
  Total342,876
Country of Origin1962-63
Oranges
 £
Australia543,706
Cyprus92,377
Jamaica112,874
South Africa31,695
  Totals780,652
Canned Sardines
 £
Canada18,621
Norway75,760
Portugal3,159
United Kingdom20,450
Other countries5,187
  Total123,177
Bananas
 £
American Samoa7,279
Fiji56,281
Tonga55,608
Western Samoa262,414
  Total381,582
Unmilled Wheat
 £
Australia3,876,671
Total3,876,671
Rice
 £
Australia103,271
Thailand19,945
U.S.A.54,770
Other countries1,342
Dried Fruits
 £
Australia1,084,531
Iran67,070
Iraq20,424
Netherlands33,632
South Africa4,019
Spain4,347
Turkey12,363
U.S.A.195,968
Other countries963
  Total1,423,317
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Pineapples
 £
Australia181,246
Basutoland7,177
Kenya28,881
Malaya147,737
Singapore5,788
South Africa38,626
U.S.A.3,280
Other countries1,360
  Total414,095
Country of Origin1962-63
Cocoa
 £
Ghana533,095
Netherlands227,991
United Kingdom3,712
Western Samoa7,390
Other countries2,616
  Total774,804
Sugar, Not Refined
Australia1,241,783
Dominican Republic854,879
Fiji1,167,156
Formosa, Taiwan336,326
Peru456,927
Other countries1,247
  Total4,058,318
Tea
 £
Argentina2,022
Ceylon2,328,745
China, Mainland3,787
India205,151
Kenya5,612
Uganda2,664
Other countries4,233
  Total2,552,214
Glucose
 £
Belgium and Luxemburg15,582
France35,258
United Kingdom181,118
U.S.A.9,610
Other countries723
  Total242,291
Spices
 £
Ceylon2,361
Fiji3,184
France2,566
Hungary1,672
India19,118
Indonesia3,110
Jamaica7,035
Malaya, Federation of8,624
Netherlands1,104
Nigeria1,228
Sarawak43,123
Singapore2,017
Society Islands3,094
Zanzibar and Pemba3,402
Other countries6,930
  Total108,568
Wine
 £
Australia83,849
France69,716
Germany, West27,245
Italy29,902
Portugal6,094
South Africa45,930
Spain23,644
Other countries4,370
  Total290,750
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Brandy
 £
France155,319
Other countries3,939
  Total159,258
Whisky
 £
Canada8,274
United Kingdom1,509,876
U.S.A.9,741
Other countries2,247
  Total1,530,138
Unmanufactured Tobacco
 £
Brazil5,077
Indonesia13,074
Philippines1,943
Rhodesian Federation204,672
South Africa24,473
Syria1,189
Turkey6,121
U.S.A.1,250,595
Other countries777
  Total1,507,921
Copra
 £
Western Samoa187,203
  Total187,203
Crude and Synthetic Rubber
 £
Australia21,261
Canada248,177
Ceylon13,532
France62,781
Malaya, Federation of928,477
Netherlands3,200
Singapore17,046
United Kingdom147,352
U.S.A.337,618
Other countries1,927
  Total1,781,371
Country of Origin1962-63
Wood, in the Round, or Roughly Squared
 £
Australia117,014
North Borneo12,896
Other countries2,342
  Total132,252
Wood, Shaped or Simply Worked
 £
Australia416,684
Canada259,882
Fiji60,256
Ghana121,151
Japan31,250
Malaya, Federation of56,089
Nigeria10,131
U.S.A.437,961
Other countries30,776
  Total1,424,180
Pulp and Waste Paper
 £
Australia70,065
Finland502,922
Sweden62,934
U.S.A.30,143
Other countries6,042
  Total672,106
Wool and Other Animal Hair
 £
Australia578,892
United Kingdom278,482
U.S.A.12,559
Other countries5,691
  Total875,624
Fibre of Sisal and Agave Family
 £
Angola and Cabinda5,626
Kenya58,780
Tanganyika423,759
  Total488,165
Synthetic and Artificial Fibres Suitable for Spinning
 £
Australia30,564
Germany, West27,605
Italy3,570
Japan7,843
Sweden13,141
Switzerland70,884
United Kingdom247,677
U.S.A.37,721
Other countries9,478
  Total448,483
Natural Phosphates
 £
France12,210
French Oceania218,429
Gilbert Islands, etc.174,300
Nauru773,255
Senegal22,391
Other countries2,409
  Total1,202,994
Crude Gypsum
 £
Australia182,132
Cyprus5,775
Other countries323
  Total188,230
Sulphur other than Sublimed, Precipitated
 £
Mexico239,597
United Kingdom4,933
U.S.A.671,921
Other countries1,009
  Total917,460
Common Salt
 £
Australia190,167
Canada18,395
United Kingdom237,789
Other countries7,638
  Total453,989
Country of Origin1962-63
Asbestos
 £
Canada224,360
South Africa94,226
United Kingdom10,287
Other countries2,729
  Total331,602
Animal Hair, etc., for Brushmaking and Waste
 £
China, Mainland272,040
Other countries7,789
  Total279,829
Sausage Casings-Hogs
 £
Canada78,668
U.S.A.294,909
Other countries11,256
  Total384,833
Motor Spirit
 £
Aden Colony and Prot.57,172
Australia1,498,682
Bahrein2,004,620
France230,644
India1,249,363
Indonesia1,779,513
Iran1,264,312
Italy158,870
Netherlands79,974
Netherlands Antilles901,310
Peru22,181
Sarawak77,210
Saudi Arabia279,089
Singapore1,076,098
United Kingdom71,173
Venezuela1,152,777
Other countries164
  Total11,903,152

22*

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Lamp Oil and White Spirit
 £
Australia413,673
Indonesia226,468
Iran83,906
Netherlands8,994
Netherlands Antilles149,184
Saudi Arabia125,559
Singapore126,382
U.S.A.86,144
Other countries17,995
  Total1,238,305
Distillate Fuels
 £
Australia3,085,413
Brunei63,618
Iran231,112
Kuwait29,379
Netherlands Antilles60,943
North Borneo106,434
Peru671,396
Saudi Arabia84,953
  Total4,333,248
Residual Fuel Oils
 £
Australia1,591,398
Iran526,063
Kuwait21,121
Netherlands Antilles9,468
North Borneo38,251
Saudi Arabia26,701
Singapore16,866
  Total2,229,868
Lubricating Oils and Greases
 £
Australia25,738
Netherlands Antilles28,306
United Kingdom836,433
U.S.A.646,528
Venezuela19,681
Other countries14,557
  Total1,571,243
Country of Origin1962-63
Petroleum Bitumen
 £
Australia6,352
Netherlands27,056
Netherlands Antilles398,154
Other countries1,946
  Total433,508
Soft Vegetable Oils, Unprocessed
 £
Germany, West73,456
Italy9,048
Netherlands122,945
Spain14,494
United Kingdom15,575
Other countries8,669
  Total244,187
Organic Chemicals
 £
Australia641,640
Belgium and Luxemburg22,481
Canada136,332
France31,200
Germany, West302,505
Italy13,923
Japan111,796
Netherlands94,754
South Africa70,394
Spain10,176
Switzerland20,634
United Kingdom1,232,700
U.S.A.765,911
Other countries21,203
  Total3,475,649
Inorganic Chemicals
 £
Australia501,657
Belgium and Luxemburg43,882
Canada13,127
France64,213
Germany, East12,268
Germany, West192,912
Japan296,558
Kenya61,058
Netherlands29,647
Norway84,788
South Africa17,798
Switzerland12,225
United Kingdom1,261,226
U.S.A.407,927
Other countries39,497
  Total3,038,783
Synthetic Organic Dyestuffs
 £
Australia8,817
Germany, West48,725
Switzerland129,056
United Kingdom280,423
U.S.A.22,826
Other countries2,910
  Total492,757
Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Products
 £
Australia1,187,057
Canada78,057
Denmark36,507
France15,070
Germany, West239,643
Italy7,573
Netherlands39,846
Switzerland569,115
United Kingdom2,650,175
U.S.A.278,253
Other countries11,269
  Total5,112,565
Essential Oils and Perfumes
 £
Australia28,880
France17,486
Italy17,576
Netherlands20,394
United Kingdom171,787
U.S.A.38,604
Other countries26,461
  Total321,188
Surface-Active Agents
 £
Australia16,005
Belgium and Luxemburg8,743
Germany, West13,172
Switzerland8,641
United Kingdom215,548
U.S.A.72,307
Other countries2,424
  Total336,840
Country of Origin1962-63
Manufactured Fertilisers
 £
Australia44,849
Belgium and Luxemburg151,466
Chile12,060
France86,320
Germany, West687,856
Netherlands54,832
Portugal95,475
United Kingdom36,845
U.S.A.297,080
U.S.S.R.83,689
Other countries9,343
  Total1,559,815
Explosives
 £
Australia382,765
Sweden14,764
United Kingdom90,132
U.S.A.16,242
Other countries18,595
  Total522,498
Plastic Materials, Regenerated Cellulose, and Artificial Resins
 £
Australia787,309
Canada386,149
France81,313
Germany, West436,028
Italy149,265
Japan143,715
Netherlands65,308
Sweden16,886
Switzerland38,164
United Kingdom2,279,029
U.S.A.1,234,224
Other countries27,007
  Total5,644,397
Leather and Composition Leather
 £
Australia15,357
Canada8,633
India109,450
United Kingdom180,228
U.S.A.16,665
Other countries14,972
  Total345,305
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Materials of Rubber
 £
Australia139,621
Canada6,098
Germany, West37,049
Italy9,761
Japan17,185
Netherlands45,937
United Kingdom470,981
U.S.A.272,921
Other countries12,722
  Total1,012,275
Rubber Tyres and Tubes
 £
Australia63,057
Canada19,824
Germany, West32,867
Japan46,328
South Africa8,331
United Kingdom346,820
U.S.A.286,715
Other countries13,279
  Total817,221
Worked Woods, Veneers, and Plywoods
 £
Australia41,289
Belgium and Luxemburg6,795
Canada57,602
Japan6,123
Netherlands8,326
United Kingdom44,593
Other countries23,626
  Total188,354
Cork Manufactures
 £
Australia16,557
Portugal153,110
Spain20,376
United Kingdom52,229
Other countries2,817
  Total245,089
Country of Origin1962-63
Paper and Paperboard
 £
Australia616,162
Austria17,462
Belgium and Luxemburg54,534
Canada624,463
Finland25,870
France14,496
Germany, West76,052
Japan23,832
Netherlands38,724
Norway283,574
Sweden239,288
United Kingdom2,263,455
U.S.A.207,200
Other countries30,551
  Total4,515,663
Textile Yarn and Thread
Australia678,793
Canada21,831
Ceylon10,508
France132,364
Germany, West59,966
Hong Kong503,833
India167,327
Italy10,928
Japan215,063
Netherlands113,549
Norway32,958
United Kingdom2,760,629
U.S.A.101,607
Other countries11,227
  Total4,820,583
Canvas and Duck
 £
Australia33,973
Belgium and Luxemburg10,758
Germany, West8,232
India8,394
United Kingdom260,279
Other countries14,968
Total336,604
Fabrics Suitable for the Manufacture of Apparel
 £
Australia21,643
Australia28,060
Belgium and Luxemburg24,522
Canada87,729
Czechoslovakia59,892
France54,071
Germany, West220,693
Hong Kong826,600
India213,775
Italy46,209
Japan2,310,128
Netherlands72,283
Sweden17,054
Switzerland65,626
United Kingdom1,131,881
U.S.A.476,160
Other countries45,849
  Total5,702,175
Furnishing and Household Fabrics
 £
Australia96,514
Belgium and Luxemburg58,636
Canada20,668
Germany, West38,698
Hong Kong120,170
India485,701
Italy43,897
Japan110,114
Netherlands25,543
Switzerland6,000
United Kingdom914,760
U.S.A.122,317
Other countries35,822
  Total2,078,840
Woven Silk Fabrics
 £
Australia10,352
Italy10,589
Japan62,927
Switzerland9,467
United Kingdom20,098
U.S.A.8,933
Other countries10,833
  Total133,199
Country of Origin1962-63
Woven Woollen Fabrics
 £
Australia113,691
Belgium and Luxemburg24,168
France14,905
Ireland, Republic of20,719
Italy97,912
Japan29,508
United Kingdom1,409,607
Other countries19,829
  Total1,730,339
Woven Linen, Ramie, and Hemp Fabrics
 £
Germany, West6,094
United Kingdom346,296
Other countries16,991
  Total369,381
Woven Jute Fabrics
India541,755
United Kingdom101,103
Other countries1,890
  Total644,748
Woven Fabrics of Synthetic Fibres
 £
Australia99,323
France29,145
Germany, West60,097
Italy61,107
Japan626,295
Switzerland23,093
United Kingdom389,137
U.S.A.334,003
Other countries19,715
  Total1,641,915
Woven Fabrics of Regenerated Artificial Fibres
 £
Australia59,452
Belgium and Luxemburg80,565
Canada16,366
France49,577
Germany, West197,450
Hong Kong14,303
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Woven Fabrics of Regenerated Artificial Fibres-
continued£
India21,037
Italy155,959
Japan893,249
Netherlands80,274
Switzerland40,987
United Kingdom971,175
U.S.A.387,282
Other countries32,769
  Total3,000,445
Knitted or Crocheted Fabrics
 £
Australia74,925
Germany, West10,275
Hong Kong429,660
Italy44,022
Japan29,841
United Kingdom468,866
U.S.A.99,935
Other countries29,753
  Total1,187,277
Embroidery, Ribbons, Fabric Trimmings
 £
Australia41,890
Australia215,736
France38,397
Germany, West11,367
India9,726
Italy23,249
Japan155,205
Switzerland190,513
United Kingdom428,048
U.S.A.78,384
Other countries18,147
  Total1,210,662
Textile Fabrics Coated with Plastic
 £
Australia52,709
Canada7,199
Japan51,353
Sweden24,512
United Kingdom452,855
U.S.A.39,907
Other countries11,573
  Total640,108
Country of Origin1962-63
Elastic Fabrics and Trimmings
 £
Australia101,569
Japan11,071
United Kingdom90,221
U.S.A.91,401
Other countries7,130
  Total301,392
Cordage, Cables, Ropes, Twines
 £
Japan6,247
United Kingdom91,509
U.S.A.11,229
Other countries6,093
  Total115,078
Felt Hat Hoods
 £
Australia8,047
Australia5,629
Czechoslovakia53,514
France20,605
Italy35,442
Switzerland5,649
United Kingdom52,530
Other countries9,811
  Total191,227
Wadding and Articles of Wadding
 £
Australia12,982
South Africa104,680
United Kingdom123,137
Other countries9,336
  Total250,135
Bags and Sacks of Textile Materials
 £
India924,419
Pakistan166,751
Other countries6,732
  Total1,097,902
Household Linens
 £
Australia47,380
Canada34,902
China, Mainland41,088
Czechoslovakia19,223
Germany, West29,007
Hong Kong170,617
India97,770
Italy12,471
Japan144,546
Netherlands13,215
United Kingdom408,048
U.S.A.55,192
Other countries20,936
  Total1,094,395
Linoleum and Similar Floor Coverings
 £
Australia6,856
Canada21,329
United Kingdom706,285
U.S.A.38,168
Other countries6,143
  Total778,781
Carpets and Rugs
 £
Australia17,769
Belgium and Luxemburg14,312
India73,296
United Kingdom183,705
Other countries13,455
  Total302,537
Grinding and Polishing Wheels and Stones
 £
Australia29,919
Canada9,315
United Kingdom97,054
U.S.A.12,077
Other countries9,567
  Total157,932
Country of Origin1962-63
Emery Paper and Cloth
 £
Australia82,176
Canada18,891
United Kingdom24,037
U.S.A.5,599
Other countries7,460
  Total138,163
Manufactures of Asbestos, Friction Materials
 £
Australia55,146
United Kingdom327,458
U.S.A.31,079
Other countries14,421
  Total428,104
Glass
 £
Australia40,124
Belgium and Luxemburg323,230
Canada9,692
France39,464
Germany, West56,261
Japan35,494
Netherlands150,219
United Kingdom788,258
U.S.A.91,258
Other countries2,358
  Total1,536,358
Glassware
 £
Australia39,692
Belgium and Luxemburg10,746
Czechoslovakia30,854
Germany, West30,018
Japan36,725
United Kingdom241,217
U.S.A.91,235
Other countries34,694
  Total515,181
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Pottery
 £
Australia6,054
Germany, West28,628
Japan101,682
United Kingdom530,031
Other countries36,530
  Total702,925
Diamonds, Not Industrial
 £
Belgium and Luxemburg20,696
South Africa181,235
United Kingdom12,629
Israel4,266
  Total218,826
Bars and Rods of Iron or Steel
 £
Australia547,569
Australia8,427
Belgium and Luxemburg32,724
Canada110,418
Japan744,140
South Africa48,942
United Kingdom649,213
Other countries14,957
  Total2,156,390
Angles, Shapes, and Sections of Iron or Steel
 £
Australia358,456
Canada15,745
Japan372,753
United Kingdom1,294,686
Other countries20,682
  Total2,062,322
Universals, Plates and Sheets of Iron or Steel
 £
Australia5,393,812
Canada189,560
Japan2,256,590
United Kingdom1,722,779
U.S.A.204,046
Other countries19,558
  Total9,786,345
Country of Origin1962-63
Hoop and Strip of Iron or Steel
 £
Australia155,619
Belgium and Luxemburg23,350
Canada62,190
Japan56,784
United Kingdom314,478
U.S.A.69,867
Other countries18,001
  Total700,289
Rails of Iron or Steel
 £
Australia683,622
Belgium and Luxemburg697
United Kingdom29,229
  Total713,548
Iron and Steel Wire
 £
Australia1,447,329
Belgium and Luxemburg299,272
Canada11,885
France69,476
Japan33,058
United Kingdom850,840
Other countries15,114
  Total2,726,974
Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings of Iron or Steel
 £
Australia596,973
Canada52,641
Germany, West27,645
India13,381
Japan66,973
Sweden10,444
United Kingdom2,074,722
U.S.A.102,402
Other countries5,691
  Total2,950,872
Silver, Not Fully Worked
 £
Australia86,266
United Kingdom93,259
Other countries274
  Total179,799
Copper and Copper Alloys
 £
Australia1,718,211
Belgium and Luxemburg35,963
Canada816,781
United Kingdom1,471,416
U.S.A.16,734
Other countries22,293
  Total4,081,398
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
 £
Australia16,690
Canada74,035
Japan9,753
United Kingdom109,687
Other countries549
  Total210,714
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
 £
Australia134,010
Belgium and Luxemburg16,858
Canada799,428
France38,483
Germany, West53,753
Netherlands55,770
United Kingdom530,013
U.S.A.323,846
Other countries18,541
  Total1,970,702
Unwrought Lead (Excluding Solder in Cast Bars)
 £
Australia324,542
Other countries2,796
Total327,338
Zinc and Zinc Alloys 
 £
Australia266,935
United Kingdom19,053
Other countries7,202
  Total293,190
Country of Origin1962-63
Tin and Tin Alloys
 £
Malaya, Federation of270,058
United Kingdom42,722
Other countries9,694
  Total322,474
Finished Structural Parts and Structures, Iron or Steel
 £
Australia57,843
Germany, West75,396
Italy441,159
United Kingdom227,488
Other countries3,567
  Total805,453
Compressed Gas Cylinders and Similar, of Iron or Steel
 £
Australia26,688
Germany, West46,448
Sweden10,086
United Kingdom161,085
U.S.A.120,201
Other countries13,610
  Total378,118
Stranded Wire, Cables, Cordage, of Iron or Steel Wire
 £
Australia46,793
Canada8,087
Japan43,947
Netherlands7,277
United Kingdom214,861
U.S.A.12,870
Other countries2,647
  Total336,482
Stranded Wire, Cables, Cordage, of Aluminium Wire
 £
Australia8
Canada249,431
United Kingdom735,173
  Total984,612
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Wire Netting, Gauze
 £
Australia29,264
Belgium and Luxemburg10,689
Canada45,834
Germany, West6,341
Japan5,124
Sweden3,940
United Kingdom316,621
Other countries9,841
  Total427,654
Nails, Screws, Nuts, Bolts, etc., of Iron, Steel, Copper
 £
Australia107,560
Belgium and Luxemburg75,171
Canada21,297
Germany, West12,242
Italy23,634
Netherlands5,172
Switzerland6,166
United Kingdom651,441
U.S.A.73,096
Other countries14,841
  Total990,620
Gardening Hand Tools
 £
Australia7,482
Canada26,735
Germany, West32,155
United Kingdom113,763
U.S.A.8,833
Other countries10,673
Hand Saws and Saw Blades
 £
Australia22,468
Canada104,420
Germany, West12,139
United Kingdom133,584
U.S.A.27,726
Other countries12,452
  Total312,789
Country of Origin1962-63
Files and Rasps
 £
Australia49,212
Canada64,736
Sweden6,428
United Kingdom14,406
Other countries5,439
  Total140,221
Spanners, Wrenches
 £
Australia75,950
Canada9,601
Germany, West45,301
Japan8,474
United Kingdom51,352
U.S.A.77,197
Other countries6,900
  Total274,775
Cutlery
 £
Australia89,232
Canada8,777
Germany, West54,030
Italy8,323
Japan113,342
Netherlands25,960
United Kingdom612,456
U.S.A.22,788
Other countries19,661
  Total954,569
Stoves, Ranges, and Space Heaters
 £
Australia4,901
Sweden9,124
United Kingdom80,651
Other countries7,073
  Total101,749
Aircraft Engines
 £
Australia26,158
United Kingdom424,964
U.S.A.319,704
Other countries3,211
  Total774,037
Internal Combustion Engines, Not Aircraft
 £
Australia165,645
Canada273,315
Denmark28,219
Germany, West50,676
Italy22,297
Sweden13,827
United Kingdom1,024,295
U.S.A.700,706
Other countries11,564
  Total2,290,544
Water Turbines and Other Water Engines
 £
Canada260,166
Germany, West12,436
United Kingdom111,383
Other countries6,733
  Total390,718
Agricultural Machinery and Appliances
 £
Australia63,427
Belgium and Luxemburg15,744
Canada36,320
Germany, West92,432
Netherlands24,543
Sweden90,882
United Kingdom330,521
U.S.A.297,156
Other countries42,333
  Total993,358
Country of Origin1962-63
Tractors
 £
Australia177,277
Canada36,073
Italy22,589
Switzerland36,061
United Kingdom2,890,696
U.S.A.1,501,424
  Total4,664,120
Office Machines
 £
Canada12,778
France91,430
Germany, East30,771
Germany, West228,890
Italy58,119
Japan21,480
Netherlands34,608
Norway32,026
Sweden81,921
United Kingdom1,214,521
U.S.A.311,540
Other countries35,190
  Total2,153,274
Metal-working Machinery
 £
Australia322,816
Belgium and Luxemburg10,450
Czechoslovakia20,973
Denmark31,452
Germany, West125,155
Italy50,733
Mexico13,150
Netherlands16,841
Norway9,088
Sweden41,313
Switzerland14,068
United Kingdom1,135,016
U.S.A.131,865
Other countries32,817
  Total1,955,737
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Textile Machinery
 £
Australia92,099
Canada20,667
Germany, West148,711
Italy71,777
Netherlands18,223
Switzerland47,028
United Kingdom1,028,861
U.S.A.213,402
Other countries24,511
  Total1,665,279
Leather Machinery
 £
Australia7,196
Germany, West28,347
United Kingdom167,431
U.S.A.13,030
Other countries18,299
  Total234,303
Domestic Sewing Machines
 £
Australia122,251
Germany, West68,099
Italy33,491
Japan167,937
Sweden33,703
Switzerland158,062
United Kingdom27,469
Other countries327
  Total611,339
Industrial Sewing Machines
 £
Australia15,372
Germany, West49,814
Italy8,763
Japan8,942
United Kingdom15,779
U.S.A.110,903
Other countries11,586
  Total221,159
Country of Origin1962-63
Paper and Pulp Mill Machinery
 £
Australia39,701
Canada27,482
Finland13,855
France8,805
Germany, West63,766
Japan12,290
Sweden39,639
Switzerland15,416
United Kingdom375,379
U.S.A.117,511
Other countries13,606
  Total727,450
Printing and Bookbinding Machinery
 £
Australia16,623
Germany, West108,400
Italy32,224
Japan6,504
Sweden25,309
Switzerland13,635
United Kingdom568,946
U.S.A.167,769
Other countries18,705
  Total958,115
Food Processing Machines
 £
Australia45,020
Denmark7,763
Germany, West38,191
United Kingdom88,380
U.S.A.68,663
Other countries14,005
  Total262,022
Excavating, Levelling, Boring, etc., Machinery
 £
Australia40,284
Canada113,170
Netherlands9,112
Sweden7,454
Switzerland9,333
United Kingdom699,850
U.S.A.604,111
Other countries10,108
  Total1,493,422
Mineral Crushing, Sorting, etc., Machinery
 £
Australia55,209
Canada8,274
Germany, West102,451
Italy10,319
Switzerland8,262
United Kingdom119,460
U.S.A.64,434
Other countries1,975
  Total370,384
Pumps and Centrifuges
 £
Australia333,577
Canada45,712
Denmark23,578
Finland7,372
France38,680
Germany, West28,696
Italy83,547
Sweden62,393
United Kingdom1,185,787
U.S.A.223,036
Other countries27,659
  Total2,060,037
Mechanical Handling Equipment
 £
Australia78,058
Canada9,239
Germany, West62,010
Ireland, Republic of17,727
Japan15,837
Sweden30,381
United Kingdom1,088,423
U.S.A.206,135
Other countries23,989
  Total1,531,799
Chain Saws
 £
Canada161,760
Germany, West9,843
U.S.A.34,876
Other countries8,181
  Total214,660
Country of Origin1962-63
Paper and Pulp Mill Machinery
 £
Australia
Weighing Machinery and Weights
Canada9,262
Germany, West17,666
United Kingdom134,669
U.S.A.51,499
Other countries14,015
  Total227,111
Spraying Machinery
 £
Australia91,604
Canada12,652
France5,551
Germany, West21,932
United Kingdom101,816
U.S.A.59,739
Other countries8,610
  Total301,904
Ball, Roller, or Needle Roller Bearings
 £
Australia9,110
Australia14,701
Canada13,753
France17,644
Germany, West30,406
Japan17,536
Sweden93,683
United Kingdom513,343
U.S.A.141,910
Other countries17,868
  Total869,954
Taps, Cocks, Valves, and Similar
 £
Australia114,208
Canada31,026
Denmark21,008
Germany, West27,522
Italy22,011
Sweden31,177
United Kingdom726,557
U.S.A.111,377
Other countries3,915
  Total1,088,801
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Transmission Cranks and Shafts, Pulleys, etc.
 £
Australia205,055
Canada30,333
Germany, West22,978
Italy28,438
Sweden19,792
United Kingdom639,190
U.S.A.198,187
Other countries15,506
  Total1,159,479
Metal-plastic Joints (gaskets)
 £
Australia5,949
United Kingdom104,612
U.S.A.21,529
Other countries6,897
  Total138,987
Electrical Power Machinery and Switchgear
 £
Australia539,564
Canada381,480
France15,177
Germany, West87,806
Italy32,719
Japan61,006
Netherlands127,044
Sweden137,140
Switzerland63,890
United Kingdom4,652,874
U.S.A.134,365
Other countries16,854
  Total6,249,919
Equipment for Distributing Electricity
 £
Australia118,145
Canada18,558
France15,003
Japan239,952
Netherlands25,016
United Kingdom1,864,419
U.S.A.11,465
Other countries11,092
  Total2,303,650
Country of Origin1962-63
Television Broadcast Receivers
 £
Australia94,994
Netherlands134,978
United Kingdom73,662
Other countries3,370
  Total307,004
Radio Broadcast Receivers
 £
Australia16,152
Japan64,448
Netherlands7,255
United Kingdom24,523
Other countries7,546
Total119,924
Telecommunications Equipment
 £
Australia85,380
Belgium and Luxemburg12,138
France28,361
Japan139,056
Netherlands23,843
Sweden23,587
Switzerland12,023
United Kingdom2,717,390
U.S.A.185,112
Other countries12,678
  Total3,239,568
Domestic Refrigerators, Electric
 £
Australia37,584
United Kingdom79,471
U.S.A.28,955
Other countries4,134
  Total150,144
Domestic Washing Machines
 £
United Kingdom102,176
U.S.A.6,708
Other countries3,737
  Total112,621
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Food Mixers
 £
Australia106,443
United Kingdom101,791
Other countries8,347
  Total216,581
Medical Electrical Apparatus
 £
Germany, West16,249
Netherlands29,957
United Kingdom48,322
U.S.A.28,490
Other countries15,670
  Total138,688
Batteries and Accumulators
 £
Australia86,425
Japan6,124
Singapore8,505
United Kingdom120,502
U.S.A.8,378
Other countries3,071
  Total233,005
Electric Lamps
 £
Australia9,102
Japan10,254
Netherlands84,136
United Kingdom226,584
U.S.A.12,897
Other countries18,826
  Total361,799
Automotive Electrical Equipment
 £
Australia62,310
Canada139,370
Germany, West30,624
Japan27,064
United Kingdom603,546
U.S.A.98,168
Other countries19,121
  Total980,203
Country of Origin1962-63
Electrical Measuring and Controlling Instruments and Apparatus
 £
Australia39,311
Canada13,884
Denmark8,969
Germany, West30,329
Japan25,847
Netherlands68,029
Switzerland42,004
United Kingdom607,456
U.S.A.8,193
  Total948,075
Electro-mechanical Hand Tools
 £
Australia14,428
Germany, West11,389
United Kingdom216,315
U.S.A.71,711
Other countries8,085
  Total321,928
Electrical Condensers
 £
Australia228,914
Germany, West40,916
Japan27,074
Netherlands78,109
Sweden236,661
United Kingdom127,475
Other countries11,766
  Total750,915
Electrical Carbons
 £
Australia20,289
United Kingdom82,714
U.S.A.17,597
Other countries12,985
  Total133,585
Railway Vehicles
 £
Australia111,232
Australia11,152
Canada610,970
Japan20,814
United Kingdom782,807
Other countries10,300
  Total1,547,275
Motorcars
 £
Australia2,387,551
Canada578,448
Czechoslovakia52,349
France269,254
Germany, West385,047
Italy121,588
Japan94,261
United Kingdom11,235,074
U.S.A.107,686
Other countries1,938
  Total15,233,196
Lorries and Trucks
 £
Australia202,611
Germany, West77,291
Japan384
United Kingdom3,353,253
U.S.A.76,346
  Total3,709,885
Special-purpose Lorries, Trucks, and Vans
 £
Australia21,552
New Zealand Re-imports4,186
United Kingdom133,982
U.S.A.26,459
  Total186,179
Motor Cycles and Motorised Cycles
 £
Australia16,121
Czechoslovakia20,821
Japan64,619
United Kingdom201,519
Other countries13,837
  Total316,917
Country of Origin1962-63
Bicycles
 £
Japan18,511
United Kingdom221,755
Other countries5,775
  Total246,041
Aircraft
 £
Australia58,868
Canada17,335
France15,700
Netherlands11,628
United Kingdom194,157
U.S.A.382,916
Other countries12,086
  Total692,690
Ships and Boats
 £
Australia14,194
Hong Kong190,000
Sweden63,000
United Kingdom2,955,518
Other countries8,567
  Total3,231,279
Clothing
 £
Australia117,160
Canada10,151
France10,825
Germany, West33,720
Hong Kong154,271
Italy9,378
Japan21,697
Malta23,391
New Zealand Re-imports37,440
Portugal10,343
United Kingdom953,722
U.S.A.112,403
Other countries27,745
  Total1,522,246
Footwear
 £
Australia18,854
Germany, West9,364
Hong Kong20,310
Italy11,256
United Kingdom356,622
Other countries24,013
  Total440,419
Spectacles and Spectacle Frames
 £
Australia164,371
Germany, West71,195
Italy22,792
Japan14,529
United Kingdom35,961
U.S.A.44,823
Other countries17,093
  Total370,764
Photographic and Cinematographic Cameras and Equipment
 £
Australia78,418
Denmark12,080
Germany, West207,254
Japan144,869
Switzerland8,567
United Kingdom163,772
U.S.A.113,608
Other countries31,108
  Total759,676
Non-electric Meters and Counters
 £
United Kingdom153,079
U.S.A.12,072
Other countries18,406
  Total183,557
Drawing, Marking out, Mathematical Calculating Instruments
 £
Australia21,455
Germany, West29,895
Japan17,069
United Kingdom163,721
U.S.A.60,657
Other countries17,844
  Total310,641
Instruments for Measuring or Controlling Liquids or Gases
 £
Australia51,355
Canada23,894
Denmark14,968
Germany, West13,435
United Kingdom289,947
U.S.A.96,657
Other countries10,563
  Total500,819
Photographic Film, Plates, and Paper (Not Developed Cinematographic Film)
 £
Australia791,883
Belgium and Luxemburg54,177
Germany, West94,013
Italy14,147
United Kingdom267,727
U.S.A.136,108
Other countries9,357
  Total1,367,412
Watches and Clocks
Canada10,2258
Germany, West210,949
Japan21,605
Switzerland358,264
United Kingdom201,637
U.S.A.47,777
Other countries16,665
  Total867,122
ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS
Country of Origin1962-63
Phonographs and Tape Recorders
 £
Australia20,953
Germany, West17,968
Japan25,179
Netherlands40,175
United Kingdom186,497
U.S.A.35,222
Other countries4,726
  Total330,720
Phonographs Records and Recorded Tapes
 £
Australia10,016
Germany, West10,827
United Kingdom70,968
U.S.A.21,337
Other countries4,939
  Total118,087
Pianos
Czechoslovakia14,557
Germany, West10,998
Japan22,381
United Kingdom161,512
Other countries9,841
  Total219,289
Printed Books and Pamphlets
 £
Australia392,232
Belgium and Luxemburg10,399
Czechoslovakia26,978
Germany, West19,077
Japan29,170
Netherlands23,379
United Kingdom1,995,535
U.S.A.500,243
Other countries41,078
  Total3,038,091
Country of Origin1962-63
Newspapers and Periodicals
 £
Australia867,841
France19,097
United Kingdom767,760
U.S.A.164,960
Other countries11,734
  Total1,831,392
Children's Toys, Indoor Games
 £
Australia11,191
Germany, West17,835
Hong Kong40,354
Japan103,221
United Kingdom229,128
U.S.A.27,071
Other countries10,228
  Total439,028
Non-military Arms
 £
Australia10,662
Belgium and Luxemburg15,101
Germany, West9,637
Italy9,886
Spain12,807
United Kingdom68,060
U.S.A.25,305
Other countries24,403
  Total175,861
Fishing and Hunting Equipment
 £
Australia14,461
France25,272
Germany, West13,319
Japan53,958
Norway10,226
United Kingdom34,113
U.S.A.33,383
Other countries17,932
  Total202,664
Golf Balls
 £
United Kingdom96,340
Other countries6,578
  Total102,918
Pens, Pencils, and Fountain Pens
 £
Australia19,388
Germany, West23,050
Japan43,062
United Kingdom231,189
U.S.A.11,279
Other countries7,227
  Total335,195
Country of Origin1962-63
Imitation Jewellery
 £
Australia19,926
Czechoslovakia19,405
Germany, West75,638
Hong Kong29,289
Japan18,760
United Kingdom50,031
Other countries24,467
  Total237,516
Arms of War and Ammunition
 £
Australia406,500
United Kingdom952,586
U.S.A.189,461
Other countries14,167
  Total1,562,714

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED-The following table shows the quantity imported during the June years 1963 and 1964 of a large number of the principal items.

ItemUnit of QuantityJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
* Provisional.
Canned fishlb (000)3,7845,479
Fruit-
Canned"9,82811,281
Dried"19,74322,767
Fresh-
Bananas"69,68066,839
Oranges"30,96832,074
Grain and pulse-
Wheatbush (000)6,6436,499
Maizena and cornflourlb (000)2,5641,972
Rice (other than rice flour and ground rice)cwt (000)6066
Nuts, ediblelb (000)1,6461,970
Desiccated coconut"2,0233,012
Jams, jellies, and preserves"138126
Confectionery"126135
Sugarcwt (000)2,7212,746
Tealb (000)16,66817,476
Coffee, raw"6,1008,206
Cocoa beans, raw"8,4856,180
Cigarettes"108106
Tobacco"5,5174,395
Spirits (beverages)pr. gal. (000)756775
Wineliq. gal. (000)246232
ItemUnit of QuantityJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
* Provisional.
Cotton and linen piece goods-
Cheese bandages and meat wrapslb (000)3,2263,655
Knitted"205161
Wovensq. yd. (000)72,32081,469
Wool piece goods"2,7153,101
Silk, rayon and synthetic fibre piece goods-
Woven"9,70613,670
Knittedlb (000)358436
Yarns-
Cotton"3,9954,285
Silk, rayon, and synthetic"1,7592,040
Wool"761696
Bags, sacks, wool packsdoz (000)855800
Carpets and carpeting-
Of wool or containing wool-
In rollssq. yd. (000)109104
In squares6282 
Of other textile materials"4748
Linoleum, etc."1,8192,062
Footwear-
Children'sdoz pairs (000)52.058.6
Adults'"7.49.9
Hosiery-
Full length"37.115.8
Half and three-quarter hose"2.93.5
Gloves"30.931.1
Hat hoods, felt, unblockeddoz (000)34.735.1
Mowers and harvestersNo.2,2182,308
Cream separators"375187
Electrical-
Storage batteries"37,56819,772
Wireless valvesNo. (000)2,1313,253
Electric motors-
Under 1 b.h.p.No.263,006373,372
1 b.h.p. and over"15,83021,269
Sparking plugsNo. (000)2,6282,288
TypewritersNo.9,61412,819
Sewing machines, domestic"28,73630,470
Iron and steel-
Bar, rod, billet, bloom, pigcwt (000)1,3251,780
Angle, tee, channel, girder"9231,169
Plate and sheet"3,1393,421
Pipes, tubes, and fittings"678754
Wire"9611,098
Copper"217.8231.9
Brass and muntz"15.318.4
Lead"103.8120.0
Tin"8.17.7
Cordage of metal"160.6140.7
BicyclesNo.31,05027,510
Motor cycles"3,7853,876
Motorcars"42,00968,089
Lorries, trucks, etc."8,2558,899
Tractors"5,2645,501
QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED
ItemUnit of QuantityJune Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
* Provisional.
Tyres (excluding bicycle)No. (000)7686
Mineral oils
Motor spiritsgal (000)300,323311,614
Lubricating oil"10,31210,304
Kerosine"8,16913,396
Crude petroleum, fuel oils, etc."194,371220,863
Chemicals
Acidscwt (000)23.745.5
Calcium carbide"59.249.2
Sulphurtons108,717174,202
Saltcwt (000)1,1231,280
Caustic soda"86.380.2
Carbonate of soda"269.8315.5
Manures
Nitrate of sodatons2,1171,462
Phosphatic"625,631748,590
Potash"86,240100,603
Sulphate of ammonia"9,8506,745
Timber, sawnsup. ft. (000)27,70927,809
Glass, plate and sheetsq. ft. (000)16,24921,930
Linseed oilgal (000)22
Plaster-of-pariscwt (000)33.947.2
Gypsum"1,780.31,744.7
Asbestos, crude"140.1109.4
Cement"67.456.3
Pulp and paper building boardsq. ft. (000)93144
Printing papercwt (000)122.5129.1
Other paper"48.649.0
Rubber"208.3263.5
Paraffin waxlb (000)3,7573,893
Wood and paper pulptons16,25419,889
Plywoodsq. ft. (000)1,1171,087

Imports by Ports-In 1964 New Zealand had 18 ports of entry for Customs purposes-ten in the North Island and eight in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

Port19601961January-June 1962June Year 1963xJune Year 1964*
* Provisional.
£(thousand)
Whangarei----3,982
Auckland102,518114,85248,571107,752128,223
Hamilton----695
Tauranga3,0984,1431,8944,4984,868
Gisborne426501176595435
Napier4,2384,8842,2654,9706,052
Taranaki3,1274,2501,6304,0034,212
Wanganui1,0501,269175362439
Palmerston North----939
Wellington82,87292,45139,00084,467100,102
Picton929226435219
Nelson1,1141,3415681,1141,347
Greymouth349314191200524
Lyttelton35,33242,76116,14835,97339,976
Timaru1,2401,7154021,9263,345
Oamaru22738496343306
Otago13,85714,9165,79711,69712,944
Bluff3,6174,4191,8013,5365,055
  Totals253,157288,291118,740261,870313,662

Almost three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. Lyttelton and Otago occupy third and fourth places in importance. Following these, however, the relative importance of the ports varies from year to year.

It should be mentioned that imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Whenuapai were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Harewood in the Lyttelton figures.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS-Trade with the Cook and associated islands is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand, but is shown separately in official publications. These islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand and the carriage of goods between them and the main islands of New Zealand is not really external trade, but is merely the transport of goods from one part of the country to another. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to the main islands of New Zealand. Particulars of the trade of the islands with other countries will be found in the section dealing with Island Territories.

YearValue of Goods from Cook IslandsYearValue of Goods from Cook Islands
* Provisional.
 £ £
1953287,0021960328,495
1954286,4181961471,436
1955283,443Jan-June 
1956298,2731962225,879
1957289,545June year 
1958297,0711963x593,469
1959343,0071964*780,993

The value of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook and associated islands in recent years are as follows.

ItemYear Ended June
19631964*
* Provisional.
 ££
Oranges54,93970,941
Tangerines, mandarins14,25326,993
Grapefruit3,9906,408
Bananas2,6903,487
Coconuts2,0511,505
Other fresh fruit and nuts and dried citrus fruit and nuts32,6585,921
Pineapple juice17,84842,440
Other fruit juices208,586264,492
Tomatoes28,24366,826
Copra75,638102,842
Men's and boys' outer garments83,421110,615
Other clothing13,9596,544
Other55,19371,979
  Totals593,469780,993

22 D-CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF-Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from the obtaining of revenue, has for its objects the following:

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The encouragement of intra-Commonwealth trade.

When New Zealand's first Customs Ordinance was proclaimed in 1841 the intention was to raise revenue and to some extent to give preference to goods of British origin. The tariff changes of 1851 and 1864 widened the scope of the tariff but retained its revenue aspects, though at this time the duties were mainly specific rather than ad valorem. In 1888 ad valorem rates became more general and the rate of duty was raised to 20 per cent, which was double the amount charged in earlier years.

The prevailing economic philosophy was, of course, that of free trade, and in New Zealand's case it was underlined by the fact that Parliament predominantly represented the farming community. Even so, the depression of the eighties had so affected some of New Zealand's manufacturing industries that protection by tariffs became practical politics in 1888. The tariff revision of 1895 was aimed at protecting a small range of industries, and at the same time it eliminated the duties on many items which entered into the cost of living of those residing in urban areas. These tendencies were continued in 1900 and 1907 and 1921, with British preferences becoming more evident.

In 1921 provision was made for an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This was the first occasion when the legislature tried to cope with twentieth century economic conditions which threatened to cut across tariffs designed to give protection to industries which were supposed to develop in a manner normal to the nineteenth century. The 1921 tariff also made provision for anti-dumping duties-another attempt to meet so-called abnormal practices. The depreciated currency duties ranged from 2 ½ to 20 per cent; the dumping duty was not to exceed the difference between the sale price and the current domestic value.

The 1927 tariff revision extended further British preferences and increased the number of duties imposed for protection purposes. Further important items, if of British origin, were also placed on the free list. In 1930 surtaxes on dutiable goods were imposed for revenue purposes and the general tariff rate was increased by about 5 per cent. In 1931 a primage of 3 per cent was charged on imports (except in specified cases) which were otherwise free of duty.

In the meantime there had been a change in trade policy, which had tended to become one of protection rather than one of free trade.

As a result of the changing conditions the Ottawa Conference was called. The outcome of this conference was the Ottawa Agreement of 1932, the effect of which was to give further preference to British goods and to inhibit the use of the tariff by New Zealand for purely protective purposes. (The United Kingdom, for its part, granted duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and applied tariff rates on butter and cheese from foreign countries and undertook to place quota restrictions on meats from foreign countries. See Section 21A-Marketing of Primary Produce.)

In 1934 a Tariff Commission submitted a report which in the main adhered to the already established principle of British preference, and actually reduced the protection for New Zealand industries in more cases than it provided protection. The adoption of this report by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934 resulted in a wide range of items being made dutiable for revenue purposes, while a small group of items with a low to moderate duty gave limited protection against goods of British origin. Thus New Zealand's tariff remained an expression of the fact that New Zealand placed its economic emphasis on primary production, the market for which was mainly in the United Kingdom.

This tariff remained practically unchanged until 1960, although extended in its scope by subsequent trade agreements. In 1960 some amendments were made.

An agreement signed in Wellington in August 1959 between New Zealand and the United Kingdom made provision for the minimum margin of preference of 20 per cent accorded to British goods under the Ottawa Agreement to be reduced.

In recent years a number of changes in the tariff have resulted from public inquiries conducted by the Board of Trade, and the Board in November 1957 completed a comprehensive review of the whole structure and incidence of the tariff and reported to Government.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act 1961 introduced, with effect from 1 July 1962, a revised Tariff which takes its structure from the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised), a document of the United Nations Economic and Social Council, designed to list in a systematic manner the goods of world commerce according to their economic significance.

Being purely a statistical classification, the S.I.T.C. (Revised) itself lacks definition of item content so essential in any Customs Tariff, but it is keyed to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature, an internationally agreed nomenclature which has carefully drafted rules of definition and in which articles are grouped in logical sequence according to the nature of the material of which they are made. In drafting the present Tariff, therefore, it was necessary not only to translate the Board of Trade recommendations of 1957 into S.I.T.C. form, but also to transcribe and adapt the B.T.N. rules in the form of section and chapter notes, to fit the different ordering of the items of the S.I.T.C. (Revised). Since its introduction, several major amendments to the original text of the Tariff have been made to correct errors and omissions in transcription and adaptation which have become apparent through increased knowledge and understanding gained from actual use of this form of Tariff.

The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand. This publication, as well as the ancillary publication The Explanatory Notes to the Customs Tariff, is available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the tariff is printed in "multi-column" form listing rates of duty under the British preferential tariff, agreements with Australia and Canada, the most-favoured-nation tariff (under which goods from countries adhering to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade are admitted), and the general tariff.

CUSTOMS DUTIES-Specific duties on some of the principal commodities in general use are now given.

Tea-Since 12 June 1964 all tea imported in bulk has been free of duty. Prior to 12 June 1964 foreign tea imported in bulk was dutiable at either 1d. per lb or 2d. per lb, depending on the country of origin. These duties were removed as a means of facilitating trade with developing countries.

Sugar-The duty on sugar of 22 colour or over (Dutch Standard) is 1 ¼d. per pound; on other sugar it is 1d. per pound. Raw sugar imported for refining at Auckland enters free of duty under bond, an excise duty of 1d. per pound being levied on the refined products.

Tobacco-Customs duties on tobacco are at the following rates. Cigarettes not exceeding 2 ½ lb per 1,000: British preferential tariff and most-favoured-nation tariff, 76s. per 1,000; general tariff, 78s. 3d. per 1,000. Cigarettes exceeding 2 ½ lb per 1,000 pay 30s. 8d. per pound under the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, and 31s. 8d. per pound under the general tariff. Cigars and cheroots pay 23s. per pound under the British preferential tariff, 25s. per pound under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 27s. per pound under the general tariff. In each case these rates of duty on cigars are plus 12 ½ per cent plus 6s. per pound. Unmanufactured tobacco imported for manufacturing in a bonded tobacco factory into cigarettes, tobacco, or snuff pays 3s. 4d. per pound under all three tariffs. The excise duties on tobacco, etc., made in New Zealand are shown later under Excise Duties.

Alcoholic Beverages-There are specific rates for alcoholic beverages which vary according to the type of beverage imported. These rates are set out in full in the tariff.

Motor Vehicles-Motor vehicles imported in an unassembled or completely knocked-down condition pay 6 ¼ per cent duty under the British preferential tariff, 45 per cent under the most favoured-nation tariff, and 65 per cent under the general tariff. Under the Canadian Trade Agreement motor vehicles imported unassembled from Canada pay from 13 per cent to 45 per cent, depending on the percentage of Canadian materials and labour involved. Motor vehicles imported in an assembled condition pay 20 per cent duty under the British preferential tariff, 55 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 75 per cent under the general tariff. Vehicles from Canada pay from 33 1/3 per cent to 55 per cent. Motor cycles, autocycles, and scooters pay 12 ½ per cent under the British preferential tariff, 32 ½ per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 50 per cent under the general tariff.

Motor Spirits-Under the Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961 the rate of duty on motor spirits is 1s. 5 d. per gallon, and is payable by wholesale distributors under a procedure similar to that used for the collection of sales tax. Since 1 April 1964 the whole of this amount has been paid to the credit of the National Roads Fund.

IMPORT CONTROL-Import licensing applies to virtually all private imports and is explained in Section 22A.

EXCISE DUTIES:Beer-As from 22 August 1947 the excise duty on beer became 3s. per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,036, increased by 1d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on beer was increased to 6s. a gallon where the specific gravity does not exceed 1,036, advancing by 2d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Tobacco-From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on tobacco was increased to the following amounts: tobacco, cut, 22s. 9d. per pound; tobacco, plug, 22s. 9d. per pound; cigars and snuff, 12s. per pound; cigarettes not exceeding 2 ½ lb weight for 1,000, 70s. per 1,000; cigarettes exceeding 2 ½ lb per 1,000, 28s. per pound. From 22 July 1960 the duty was reduced, on both cut and plug tobaccos, by 2s. 6d. per pound, on cigarettes not exceeding 2 ½ lb weight for 1,000, by 6s. per 1,000, and on other cigarettes, by 2s. 4d. per pound. An excise duty of ½ d. is levied on each 60 cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

Sugar-There is an excise duty of 1d. per pound on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Alcohol-Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: on alcohol used in the manufacture of: perfumed spirits, 36s. per proof gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per proof gallon. In similar medicinal preparations containing not more than 50 per cent, the alcohol used is duty free.

CUSTOMS REVENUE-In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties represented a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it has in recent years when it has generally been less than one-fifth of total taxation. The figures for the last 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TaxationCustoms and Excise DutiesYear Ended 31 MarchTotal TaxationCustoms and Excise Duties
AmountPercentage of Total TaxationAmountPercentage of Total Taxation
 £(000)£(000)per cent £(000)£(000)per cent
1954206,80232,17715.561960297,28856,79019.10
1955234,76634,17714.561961334,46358,21417.43
1956244,82936,63314.961962358,20356,88815.82
1957252,85235,69114.121963342,01454,47015.92
1958244,88239,00315.931964371,17258,50115.76
1959305,24351,29016.80    

Tyre tax and motor-spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund have been excluded from Customs duties. Such taxation is, however, included in total taxation. From 27 June 1958 until 31 March 1964 the increased duty on motor spirits was paid into the Consolidated Fund and this portion of the motor-spirits tax collected was included in the totals of Customs and excise duties for this period as well as being included in the total taxation figures.

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY-The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw material and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured raw materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British Commonwealth countries, the products of which are admissible under the British preferential tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Tea to be free of duty must have been grown in some part of the British Commonwealth, and the final process of manufacture must also have been performed in some country of the British Commonwealth.

Under the reciprocal trade agreements with Australia and Canada discussed hereunder, the duties on certain items are sometimes higher than the corresponding duties under the British preferential tariff and in a few cases lower.

Reciprocity With United Kingdom-Under the Ottawa Agreement New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods where the margin of preference did not exceed 20 per cent, and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom.

In 1958 New Zealand sought new arrangements with the United Kingdom and on 25 November 1958 the two Governments signed Heads of Agreement. This provided the basis for a new agreement to give New Zealand the right to reduce the margins of preference applied to United Kingdom goods entering New Zealand to 5 per cent on certain imports essential for industry, to 7 ½ per cent on an extensive list of welfare and producer goods, and to 10 per cent on all other goods. The formal text of the new New Zealand-United Kingdom Trade Agreement was signed in Wellington on 12 August 1959.

Reciprocity With Australia-An agreement, completed in April 1933 and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act of that year, came into operation on 1 December 1933, and remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the agreement each country grants to the goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods, enumerated in the Schedules to the agreement, on which special rates are fixed.

The agreement provides for lower duties than those prescribed under Australia's British preferential tariff on many classes of New Zealand products entering Australia, including fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Minor modifications have been made to the Schedules of the agreement from time to time, but they remain substantially the same as originally negotiated.

The setting up of an Australian-New Zealand Consultative Committee on Trade was agreed on by the Australian and New Zealand Governments in August 1960.

Reciprocity With Canada-Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at rates of duty lower than the British preferential tariff.

Reciprocity With Malaysia-A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country will accord preferential rates of duty to the other for an initial period of three years. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Other Trade Arrangements-New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth. In some earlier cases New Zealand automatically became a party to arrangements concluded by the United Kingdom; in others she became a party by signifying her willingness to adhere to such arrangements. Other arrangements again resulted from direct negotiations between New Zealand and the countries concerned. In practice many of these arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) are superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. However, some remain separately in force, and, in addition to those countries which are contracting parties to the General Agreement, New Zealand grants most-favoured-nation tariff treatment to China, Egypt, Liberia, Yugoslavia, and Somalia.

Most-favoured-nation tariff treatment on certain items is extended to Switzerland as a result of a trade arrangement between Switzerland and New Zealand dating from 1938, under which New Zealand receives general most-favoured-nation tariff treatment and a guaranteed import quota for apples and pears. Since 1957 the arrangement has been extended also to Liechtenstein.

A trade agreement with Japan came into force on 9 September 1958 and from that date the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade has applied to trade between Japan and New Zealand and the arrangement provides a basis of consultation for the quick settlement of any difficulties which might arise in the trade between the two countries.

The Federal Republic of Germany and New Zealand concluded a trade agreement in April 1959. The agreement is designed to facilitate as far as possible the exchange of goods and services between the two countries. New Zealand is granted quotas on certain primary products while for some others New Zealand will be considered as a source of supply for imports into Germany under the import programme. The agreement was concluded following international discussions under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade on problems arising out of the Federal Republic's import restrictions. The circumstances under which the negotiations with the Federal Republic were initiated were thus somewhat different from the usual, and because of this New Zealand is not required under the agreement to make any special arrangements regarding German exports. As contracting parties to the General Agreement the two countries already granted each other most-favoured-nation tariff treatment.

A trade agreement with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics entered into force on 1 August 1963 and it will remain in force initially for four years, and thereafter will continue indefinitely, but subject to three months' notice of termination on either side.

The trade agreement provides for the mutual grant of most-favoured-nation treatment in matters concerning trade and shipping between New Zealand and the Soviet Union. In particular each country has agreed to grant to the other, most-favoured-nation treatment with respect to Customs duties and charges of any kind imposed on the importation or exportation of products from the other country. Similarly most-favoured-nation treatment will apply in relation to prohibitions or restrictions whether in the form of quotas, import or export licences, or other controls.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)-Tariff negotiations took place in Geneva in 1947, and the concessions given by each participating country were embodied in schedules to a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The tariff negotiations themselves were bilateral but all the concessions were applied multilaterally, so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants, and, conversely, New Zealand's concessions apply to all the other countries which took part. Concessions are of two kinds-actual reductions of duties and bindings of duties against increase. The Agreement, which provides for concessions under both the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, was applied provisionally by New Zealand on 26 July 1948.

The foreign countries to whose products the concessional rates (i.e., the most-favoured-nation rates) of duty apply by virtue of their membership in GATT or some special arrangement in GATT are: Algeria, Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Leopoldville), Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dahomey, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Finland, France (including overseas territories), Gabon, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Haiti, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Ivory Coast, Japan, Kuwait, Luxemburg, Malagasy, Mali, Mauritania, Netherlands (including overseas territories), Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Peru, Portugal, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, United States of America, Upper Volta, Uruguay.

The following Commonwealth countries are members of GATT: Australia, Canada, Ceylon, Cyprus, Ghana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malawi, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sierra Leone, Tanganyika, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, and the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland (and dependent territories).

While the reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade has been the principal aim of the General Agreement it has also provided an internationally accepted code of rules in world trade, and its regular sessions have been useful as a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

Developments have tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports reasonably expected to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised countries and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries like New Zealand. This has been due primarily to the growing use of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

Another round of comprehensive trade negotiations, known as the Kennedy Round, commenced formally on 4 May 1964. These negotiations are designed to achieve greater liberalisation in trade in both industrial and agricultural products.

INTERNATIONAL WHEAT AGREEMENT-The first International Wheat Agreement was negotiated in March 1949 and, with minor amendments, was renewed in 1953 and 1956. Following conferences from January to March 1959 the 1956 Agreement, which was due to expire on 31 July 1959, was replaced by a new agreement which differs on some major points from its predecessors.

The objectives of the International Wheat Agreement are to assure supplies of wheat to importing countries, and markets for wheat to exporting countries at equitable and stable prices. Under the terms of the 1956 Agreement New Zealand guaranteed to import 160,000 metric tons (5,878,994 bushels) of wheat annually. The guarantee to purchase became operative only when the price was at the minimum laid down in the agreement, and a similar guarantee to sell by exporters operated only when the price reached the maximum under the agreement. The maximum and minimum prices were $2.00 and $1.50 in Canadian currency based on Manitoba, Northern No. 1 wheat, in bulk, in store, Fort William/Port Arthur.

In the agreement which came into force on 1 August 1959, New Zealand, as a signatory, had a contractual obligation to purchase 90 per cent of its imports under the agreement while the price was between the maximum and minimum prices. The maximum price for the basic wheat was reduced to $1.90, but the minimum remained at $1.50. At the maximum price, importers were released from their obligation to purchase, while exporters were required to supply the average of each importer's purchases over the first five of the previous six years.

In January 1962 the United Nations convened an international conference in Geneva at which was negotiated a new wheat agreement for three years, which came into force on 1 August 1962. The agreement is similar to the previous one but the price limit has increased by 12 ½ cents a bushel, and, at the maximum price, exporters are now required to supply the average of each importer's purchases over the first four of the previous five years. New Zealand has retained its 90 per cent undertaking.

INTERNATIONAL SUGAR AGREEMENT-The International Sugar Agreement of 1958, to which New Zealand acceded on 28 November 1960, came into effect on 1 January 1959. The agreement was negotiated at conferences held in Geneva in October 1958 under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations Organisation. It replaced the agreement negotiated in 1953 which had marked the end of several unsuccessful attempts over a long period from before 1939 to secure international collaboration on sugar matters.

The main objectives of the agreement, which differs little from the previous one, are to assure supplies of sugar to importing countries and markets for sugar exporting countries at equitable and stable prices. Under the agreement, as negotiated in 1958, participating importing countries undertook to restrict quantities of sugar purchased from non-participating exporting countries. When prevailing prices did not exceed 4 cents per lb U.S. currency, exporting countries were restricted in the quantities they might offer on the "free market" and were allocated specific quantities as "basic export tonnages".

Provision was made in the agreement for a review of the price range and of basic export tonnages after three years. Accordingly a United Nations Sugar Conference was held in Geneva in September and again in December 1961, but there was failure to agree on export quotas for 1962 and 1963 and since that time the provisions of the agreement relating to limitation of imports, regulation of exports, and stabilisation of prices, have been inoperative.

The negotiation of a new agreement, re-establishing export, import, and price provisions, was not attempted before the agreement expired on 31 December 1963. Instead, a protocol was negotiated to continue the International Sugar Agreement of 1958 until 31 December 1965 and to keep the International Sugar Council in being as a forum for international cooperation on sugar. The protocol, formally entitled The Protocol for the Prolongation of the International Sugar Agreement of 1958, was signed by New Zealand on 30 September 1963 and entered into force on 1 January 1964.

The articles of the agreement which, with the expiry in 1961 of export quotas, have ceased to have effect, remain inoperative under the agreement as extended by the protocol, which, however, envisages the negotiation of a new agreement as soon as practicable.

New Zealand's annual requirements of raw sugar are now about 125,000 tons. Under a Memorandum of Understanding with the parties to the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement (New Zealand is not a party to the Agreement itself) Commonwealth exporters have agreed to supply 75,000 tons annually. Since 1 January 1957 this quantity has been purchased at the world price plus the margin of tariff preference (£3 15s. per ton) which Commonwealth exporters would otherwise secure by selling in the United Kingdom. The arrangement continues indefinitely, although there is provision in the Memorandum of Understanding for review if circumstances warrant it. The sugar has been supplied by Queensland and Fiji. Much of the remainder of New Zealand's needs has been bought from the same sources, but purchases have sometimes been made from more distant foreign suppliers.

Before 1 January 1957 the guaranteed quantity of 75,000 tons was purchased at the Negotiated Price incorporated in the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement which is set annually after negotiations between the parties to the Agreement. (In 1963 and 1964 it was £46 0s. 10d. a ton.) At times, and especially in 1963 and for part of 1964, world prices were above the Negotiated Price, but over the whole period 1957 to 1964 New Zealand achieved considerable savings by buying under the revised pricing arrangements.

Chapter 23. Section 23 PRICES

PRICE TRIBUNAL-The Control of Prices Act 1947 consolidated the powers and functions formerly exercised mainly under Emergency Regulations issued during the course of the Second World War. It defined the general duties and functions of the Price Tribunal as the fixing of prices for goods and services, the investigation of complaints with respect to prices, maintenance of a survey of the prices of goods or services, the institution of legal proceedings for offences in relation to prices, and the taking of such other steps as in its opinion might be necessary to prevent profiteering or the exploitation of the public. It provided that the sittings of the Tribunal should be open to the public unless the Tribunal determined otherwise.

The Price Tribunal has power to:

  1. Make price orders fixing, in such manner as it thinks fit, the actual or the maximum or the minimum price for any goods sold in a specified market and under specified conditions. Price orders are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and must generally be displayed in any shop where the goods to which they relate are sold.

  2. Authorise selling prices, which may be of general or special application.

Since the passing of the Act the Tribunal has, in the case of many commodities, issued price orders which prescribe that maximum prices are to be calculated by adding specified percentages to costs. In other cases, where there has been a general cost increase resulting from the reduction or removal of subsidies, the raising of freight charges, or a wage increase prescribed by a general order of the Court of Arbitration, the position has sometimes been met by the issue of general price adjustment orders under which most manufacturers have been permitted to recover by means of price increases the whole or a specified part of such increased costs.

Since 1948 a policy of progressive decontrol has been followed: lists of items freed from direct price fixation (although remaining subject to profiteering and other provisions of the Act) were published from time to time, but all goods and services not specifically exempted in this manner remained subject to control. However, in accordance with powers provided under the 1953 amendment to the Act, a noteworthy change in the system of control became effective on the gazetting of the Control of Prices (Positive List) Notice 1955 on 14 March 1955. The system of general control with specified exemptions was thereby replaced by the control of specified items only-all goods or services not on the Positive List being decontrolled. The many additional items subsequently decontrolled outdated the Positive List issued on 14 March 1955, and it was replaced by a new Positive List gazetted on 14 March 1957. Since then further items have been exempted and two, namely, honey and meat, were placed under control again. However, as from 1 December 1961 meat was decontrolled. Accommodation charges in both licensed and private hotels, and all liquor charges were exempted from price control as from 8 December 1961. Hops were decontrolled on 16 March 1962, the remaining items of apparel on 27 July 1962, and poultry mash and prepared poultry food except wheat, bran, and pollard and mixed grains containing wheat on 30 August 1962. Shipping fares and freights were decontrolled on 20 December 1962, as also were dried and canned fruits, semolina, and rice. Motion picture theatre admission charges were decontrolled on 19 July 1963. Milk and cream prices are now fixed by Order in Council under the provisions of section 18 of the Milk Amendment Act 1951 (as amended in 1953) upon the recommendation of the New Zealand Milk Board instead of under the Control of Prices Act 1947.

The Control of Prices Amendment Act 1953 also made provision for the delegation of pricing powers to the Secretary of Industries and Commerce, subject to a right of appeal to the Tribunal.

A further amendment to the Act in October 1956 transferred from the Price Tribunal to the Minister the function of exempting goods or services from price fixation.

It should be observed that certain prices controlled under other legislation do not come within the scope of the Control of Prices Act 1947. For example, the maximum price of motor spirits is fixed by Order in Council (on the recommendation of the Minister of Industries and Commerce) under the Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933; while, in certain circumstances, the Tenancy Act 1955 provides for the fixation, on application, of rents by a Magistrate's Court or by a Rents Officer of the Department of Labour. As a further illustration the Transport Amendment Act 1950 provides that the charges for any transport service may be fixed by the public body operating that service or otherwise by the Commissioner of Transport, subject to a right of appeal to the Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Although the earlier legislation providing for an Economic Stabilisation Commission was repeated in the Economic Stabilisation Act of 1948, there have been no appointed members of the Commission since 1950, following a steady trend since 1947 towards loosening the restraints which had been accepted as part of the wartime stabilisation programme. Fuller references to stabilisation measures are contained in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

TRADE PRACTICES ACT 1958-Under the Trade Practices Act 1958 a Trade Practices and Prices Commission was established, its members being the same as those of the Price Tribunal. An Examiner of Trade Practices and Prices was also appointed. The functions of the Commission are to inquire into trade practices for the purpose of ascertaining whether any such practices are contrary to the public interest and to make orders requiring the amendment, discontinuance, or prohibiting the repetition of any such practices which it finds to be contrary to the public interest. There is a right of appeal to the Trade Practices Appeal Authority.

The Act came into force on 3 October 1958, and trading agreements were required to be registered within three months of that date or of the date they subsequently came into existence. The number of agreements which had been registered before the register was closed was 830. The 1961 Amendment Act repealed the obligation to register agreements and the register has been closed and it is no longer available for public inspection.

The Trade Practices and Prices Commission has conducted 22 inquiries. In 18 of these trade practices, which were held by the Commission to be contrary to the public interest, were collective agreements among traders for the pricing of goods or the submitting of tenders for the supply of goods or services, and concerned glazing, wire netting, phonograph records, aerated waters, wire mattresses, male hairdressing, groceries, funerals, electric lamps, imported books, electrical goods, bread at Masterton, New Zealand sea passage booking agencies, toys, quarry metals and building in the Waikato district, hormone weedkillers, and the retreading of motor tyres.

On electric lamps, the Commission did not order discontinuance of the collective pricing arrangements, but ordered the industry to discontinue its preferential discount scheme and to pass the resultant savings on to consumers. The agreement relating to wire mattresses was abandoned voluntarily and an undertaking given to the Commission that it would not be revived. In the other cases the Commission ordered the discontinuance of the collective agreements.

Two cases of unjustifiable refusal to admit firms to membership of wholesalers' associations were heard, but the Commission declined to order that the firms be admitted. In one of these cases, however, the Commission ordered the association to discontinue its efforts to dissuade manufacturers from supplying goods to other than members of the association.

There were two cases of unjustifiable refusal to supply goods. In one of these, the Commission did not make an order, because the wholesale firm gave an undertaking to continue supplying the goods (shotgun ammunition) to the complainant retailer. In the other, the Commission ordered a distributor of drugs to resume supplies to the complainant wholesaler.

An application for a revision of the order relating to groceries was refused by the Commission. An appeal was lodged against this, but it was established that an appeal did not, in fact, lie, and it was withdrawn.

The Trade Practices Appeal Authority has heard appeals against the orders relating to wire netting, hairdressing, grocery prices, books, drugs, the sea passage booking agencies, and the retendering rule of the Waikato Master Builders. The appeal was allowed in respect of two of the four grocers' associations, on the basis of the respective degrees of adherence to list prices, and, in respect of imported books, because of special characteristics of the bookselling trade and the importance of books in the fields of education, technology, and culture. The appeal by the distributor of drugs was also allowed on the ground that the public was not adversely affected by the trade practice. The appeal relating to the sea passage booking agencies was also allowed on the ground that in fact the agreement did not unreasonably reduce or limit competition or limit the supply of shipping services to intending passengers within the meaning of the Act.

In addition to the termination or amendment of trade practices by order of the Commission an appreciable number of other trade practices have been terminated or amended following upon negotiations conducted by the Examiner with the parties concerned.

CONSUMER COUNCIL-A Consumer Council, whose functions are to protect and promote the interest of consumers of goods and services, was established under section 8 of the Finance Act 1959. The chairman and members of the Council were appointed by the Minister of Industries and Commerce, who also approved the membership of four district consumer committees on a regional basis corresponding with New Zealand's four university districts. The district committees work in close liaison with the parent body, the Consumer Council.

A conference was held in September 1959 to enlist the support of those organisations interested in consumer welfare. Citizens may become associate members of Consumers Institute on payment of a fee of 10s. a year, which entitles them to receive copies of a quarterly magazine, information broadsheets, newsletters, and other assistance from the organisation. By September 1964, 47,000 persons had joined Consumers Institute. Those associate members who wish to take a more active part in the work may become members of local consumers' associations which have been formed in many centres.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL-A Monetary and Economic Council was established under the Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961 to report on the extent to which stability in prices and other economic objectives are being achieved. In its first reports the Council dealt with the economic situation and the longer-term problems of slow growth and instability, and subsequent reports have dealt with the current economic situation and outlook.

PRICE STATISTICS-Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail and wholesale prices, direct inquiry is made, export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) being mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Commission. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are given in the following table, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics: the chief use made of the prices collected, however, is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

Retail Prices-New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 21 towns) at 15 November 1964 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers' Price Index are shown hereunder.

ItemUnitPrice
  £s.d.
Milk, fresh, deliveredpint004.64
Butterlb0111.95
Cheese, mildlb022.10
Bread28 oz loaf007.54
Flour25 lb bag066.27
Oatmeal5 lb bag058.80
Ricelb0010.24
Sugar6 lb075.75
Honey1 lb carton024.60
Eggs (in carton)dozen049.22
Tealb065.63
Cocoa½ lb packet028.16
Coffee, pure ground, looselb084.44
Jam, raspberry28 oz tin063.69
Salt5 lb bag020.76
Baked beans16 oz tin019.72
Tomato sauce10 oz bottle022.92
Tomato soup11 oz tin013.19
Milk powder, full cream2 ½ lb tin079.47
Aerated water10 oz bottle008.88
Chocolatemedium tablet013
Ice creampint block023.35
Apples -lb012.22
Orangeslb013.01
Cabbagelb008.59
Carrotslb013.17
Peaches, canned30 oz tin043.83
Peas, fresh, frozen10 oz packet019.90
Onionslb007.54
Potatoeslb007.05
Beef -
Sirloinlb0310.46
Prime ribslb036.09
Rump steaklb0411.77
Blade steaklb038.16
Mincelb030.50
Corned silversidelb038.40
Mutton
Leg, shank endlb030.68
Forequarterlb018.54
Chops, middle loinlb0210.78
Pork
Leglb038.41
Loin chopslb0310.08
Tripelb013.73
Sheep's liverlb030.50
Sheep's tongue each-006.58
Sausages, beeflb0111.73
Ham, cooked, slicedlb0810.37
Bacon, sidelb053.53
Tarakihi, filletslb035.41
Groper (Hapuku), pieceslb039.03
Sole or flounder, guttedlb036.43
Smoked fishlb034.91
Herrings, canned-14 oz tin027.75
Men's -
Suit, ready madeeach2356
Sports coat, ready madeeach1310
Overcoat, woollen gabardineeach14130
Overcoat, oilskineach967
Trousers, workingpair165
Trousers, sportspair5710
Shirteach1196
Shirt, workingeach125
Singlet, all wooleach1153
Singlet, cotton, athleticeach082 ½
Pullover, all wooleach11510
Pyjamas, flannelettepair1119
Socks, wool and nylonpair0113
Hat, fur felteach2157
Bathing costume, all wooleach1131
Handkerchiefeach026
ItemUnitPrice
Boys'- £s.d.
Sports Coat, ready madeeach531
Trousers, shorts, tweedpair1177
Raincoat, proofed cottoneach5176
Shirt, grey flanneleach187
Pullover, all wooleach267
¾ bose, schoolpair0116
School capeach01711
Women's-
Costume coat and skirt, ready madeeach1937
Raincoat, woollen gabardineeach15511
Skirt, worstedeach5189
Cardigan, all wooleach415
Household frock, cotton printeach1153
Stockings, fully fashioned nylonpair0109
Underslip, nyloneach2104
Vest, silk and wooleach0147
Panties, interlockpair090
Nightdress, lockniteach1161
Nightdress, winceyetteeach1134
Corseteach476
Brassiereeach166
Girl's-
Gym frock, sergeeach466
Blazer, all wooleach3150
Blouse, cotton, long sleeveseach0194 ½
Pyjamas, winceyettepair159
Bloomers, interlockpair062 ½
Stockings, stretch nylonpair0129
Sockettes, stretch nylonpair063 ½
Beret, schooleach083
Infant's-
Nursery squaresdoz2510
Baby wool1 oz031
Piece goods-
Wool-cotton mixtureyard-0910
Velour coatingyard1119
Figure printyard084
Opaque nylonyard0121 ½
Rayonyard086
Wool, hand knitting1 oz0211
Drapery-
Blankets, Singlepair820
Sheets, singlepair278
Towel, turkisheach0104 ½
Tea towel, lineneach056 ½
Men's-
Boots, heavypair485
Shoes, heavypair3108
Shoes, lightpair555
Sandshoespair01510
Slippers, leatherpair-258
Shoe repairspair155
Boy's-
Football bootspair304
Shoes, heavypair2180
Sandalspair1149
Gumbootspair1151
Shoe repairspair0171
Women's-
Shoes, heavypair4811
Shoes, lightpair4116
Slippers, feltpair176
Shoe repairspair0164
Girls'-
Shoes, schoolpair288
Shoes, lightpair282
Shoe repairspair0129 ½
Infant's shoes, glace kidpair-158
Weekly dwelling renteach dwelling343
Weekly costs of owner-occupancy of dwellings-
Rateseach dwelling0128
Other costseach dwelling4010
Bedstead and rails, 4 ft 6 in.each922
Tallboy, four-drawereach11138
Mattress, 4 ft 6 in. wireeach6117
Mattress, 4 ft 6 in. kapokeach11105
Mattress, 4 ft 6 in. foam rubbereach26178
Pillow, 2 lb kapokeach0161
Child's coteach985
Dining table, drawleafeach15152
Dining chaireach497
Sideboard, leadlighteach2613
Kitchen tableeach475
Kitchen chaireach1172
Suite, upholsteredeach63176
Linoleum, inlaidyard1190
Carpet, Axminster, 27 in.yard298
Feltex, marbled, 5f ftyard2113
Hammer, carpenter'seach181
Spade, gardeneach1190
Forkeach180
Axe, 4 lbeach213
Broom, hair and fibreeach129
Mop, white cottoneach099
Scrubbing brusheach057 ½
Bucket, galvanised, 12 in.each0112
Electric light bulb, 60 watteach018
Pressure cooker, 10 pinteach817
Saucepan, aluminium, 8 in.each-157
Pie dish, enamel, 11 in.each080 ½
Cup and saucer, tea size½ doz-192
Plate 10 in.½ doz11010
Preserving jars, glass, quart sizedoz0168
Knives, table, stainless½ doz256
Forks, table, E.P.N.S. A1½ doz247
Doormat, coireach0137 ½
Soap, laundry2.8 lb bar039
Soap powderstandard packet022
Detergent1 lb packet0210 ½
Starch1 lb packet024
Kerosine26 oz bottle014
Boot polishmedium tin015
Household cleaning pastetin029
Toilet paperroll010
Lunch wrap75 ft in container020
Torch battery, dry celleach012
Coal, domesticton-2711
Cokecwt0128
Firewood (pine)bag062
Electric current (excluding water heating)1st 140 kWh0163
Electric current (including water heating)1st 380 kWh1141
Gas (cooking)1600 cub ft145
Refrigeratoreach99100
Washing machineeach63103
Vacuum cleanereach2676
Radio receiving seteach1833
Electric radiatoreach5124
Electric jugeach340
Electric toastereach3196
Electric ironeach4196
Electric razoreach9176
Lawnmower, hand typeeach9136
Sewing machineeach5536
Bicycle, men's sports roadstereach25103
Bicycle, tyreeach0199
Bicycle, tubeeach093
Perambulatoreach21125
Paint, lead final coatgallon tin364
Wallpaper, Englishroll0139
Tennis racqueteach347
Tennis ballspair063
Meccano seteach2131
Teddy beareach2128
Attache case, fibreeach0196
Watch, wristlet, men'seach8810
Watch, repair feeeach1164
Alarm clockeach1125
Leather satcheleach250
Cinema admissionseat039
Football admissioneach019 ½
Football subscriptioneach0178 ½
Golf green feeseach052
Library subscriptionper book008
Radio licenceeach1100
Dry cleaning, men's suitper suit0115 ½
Laundering, sheeteach010 ½
Hair cut, meneach046
Hair cut, womeneach050
Hair seteach0106

23*

ItemUnitPrice
  £s.d.
Permanent waveeach2115
Optician 6139
Dental extractioneach103
Dental fillingeach01510
Denturesset2758
Medical (excess over Social Security) Private general hospitalper day1180
Union dues (annual subscription)per member233
Face powder, block typeeach036
Vanishing cream2 oz jar043
Lipstickeach046
Baby talcum powdertin026
Bobby pinscard of 10006
Toothbrusheach023
Toothpastelarge tube029
Toilet soapsmall cake009
Hair creamjar040
Razor bladespacket of 10034
Aspirinpacket of 25022
Antiseptic healing creamtin033
Disinfectantbottle030
Popular bookeach050
Dictionaryeach080
Writing padeach016
Envelopespacket of 17010 ½
Camera filmeach030
Developing and printing filmper film060
Tobacco2 oz047
Cigarettespacket of 10013
Petrolgallon033

International Comparisons-The two tables next following provide comparisons of retail and wholesale prices respectively between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices, which relate generally to the month of September 1964, have been converted into New Zealand currency and the Imperial liquid and dry measure has been adopted as a common unit of quantity basis. In the first table prices shown for the United States of America are exclusive of sales tax.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS (At September 1964 in New Zealand Currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 21 Towns)Australia (Sydney)Canada (Dominion Average)Great Britain* (London)South Africa (Cape Town)United States of America (Average 46 Large Cities)

* November 1964.

† 1 ¾ lb.

‡ At price for 3 lb lots.

§ Loose.

∥ September quarter, 1964.

¶ Sirlo. n.

** Cooking quality.

Sources:

Australia: Commonwealth Statistician.

Canada: Dominion Bureau of Statistics.

Great Britain: New Zealand High Commissioner.

South Africa: Bureau of Census and Statistics.

U.S.A.: Monthly Labor Review.

  s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
Bread2 lb07.5413.2024.9313010.80211.66
Flour25 lb66.21150182.54123.92‡107.20206.86
Tealb65.74410.9682.5451173.84..
Coffeelb84.23§..62.387779.3660.77
Sugarlb12.9609.1009.3009.2506010.22
Milk (fresh)quart09.2817.2017.711713.12110.71
Butterlb111.9440.20310.97383650.77
Cheeselb22.2637.5246.1221132.1652.57
Baconlb411.3968.8065.7241410.80411.66
Pruneslb33.06....19.5031.80..
Canned peaches30 oz tin45.4524.6036.2824.2525.52..
Beef, rib roastlb35.6441.2563.024031.3262.23
Mutton, kglb30.04111.8650.95.. 37.56.. 
.Pork
Leglb37.23411.90..3836.84..
Chopslb39.07410.1850.955035.4071.46
Margarinelb*28.9620.1611021.20110.71

Note-Currency conversion basis: Australia, £1 = 16s. (N.Z.); Canada, 1 dollar = 6s. 7d. (N.Z.); Great Britain, £1 = £1 (N.Z.); South Africa, 1 rand = 10s. (N.Z.); United States of America, 1 dollar = 7s. 2d. (N.Z.).

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES
ItemUnitNew Zealand, August 1964*Canada, September 1964Great Britain, September 1964United States of America, September 1964

* Priced once each quarter.

† Price excluding tax (including tax the price ranges from 1s. 9.1d. to 2s. 0.17d. according to the State).

  £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
Wheatbushel013601340107.5001210.29
Oatsbushel086064.32070.64064.07
Flourshort ton11144501664071.7240105.14
Sugarcwt6210307.454063104.80
Butterlb0110.50037.560211.89045.40
Cheeselb019.38..023.86032.23
Motor spiritsgallon0210.50..0410010.18
Sources:
Canada: Prices and Price Indexes-Dominion Bureau of Statistics.
Great Britain: The Economist-Intelligence Unit.
U.S.A.: Survey of Current Business.

RETAIL PRICES INDEX NUMBERS-An historical survey of retail prices in New Zealand will be found on pages 1007-1016 of the 1947-49 Yearbook, including an account of the various series of official index numbers of retail prices in New Zealand which had been current up to 1949, while pages 998-1003 of the same volume provide a brief description of the original Consumers' Price Index initiated in that year. For fuller details, however, reference should be made to the Special Supplement to the October-November 1949 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics entitled "Retail Prices in New Zealand with Special Reference to the Consumers' Price Index". This index was completely revised in 1955-56 and a full description of the revision was published as a special supplement to the November 1956 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title "Consumers' Price Index, 1955 Revision". Extracts from that publication were also reprinted as an appendix to the 1957 Yearbook (pages 1214-37). For the complete regimen however (i.e., the schedule of items included along with comparative weights) as well as for a continuation up to 1955 of the historical survey of retail prices, direct reference should be made to the 1956 special supplement.

Consumers' Price Index-A brief summary of the salient features of the index is as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates primarily to urban dwellers living as families.

  3. About 85 per cent of personal expenditure is covered.

  4. The number of items regularly priced is 375.

  5. The base is: 1952-53 consumption costed at 1955 prices.

  6. Sources of group and commodity weights were (1) the Census of Distribution 1952-53; (2) an analysis of household budgets collected privately in 1952-53; and (3) an extension of regularly compiled statistics of consumable goods. Where considered desirable the base weight assigned to selected items is broadened to allow for expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  7. Prices are collected by field officers in 23 towns, including two combined areas.

  8. A scientific sample of rented houses and flats has been selected.

  9. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits, vegetables and eggs, and for transport charges.

  10. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its subgroups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and subgroups at quarterly intervals.

  11. Individual town index numbers are published for 21 towns, showing each town both on a common base and on its own base.

  12. To provide a continuous series the prerevision all-groups index has been converted to a 1955 base.

Costs of the following items are, for various reasons, outside the scope of the index: hotel accommodation, licensed and private; long-distance rail and bus transport; all sea and air transport; legal fees, commissions on sales, etc.; gambling; church and charitable donations; private and boarding school fees; music, elocution, dancing, etc., tuition fees; installment credit interest and similar financial charges; personal accident insurance; funeral directors' charges; photographers' charges; wages of domestic servants, jobbing gardeners, etc.; fees to chiropractors, herbalists, chiropodists, etc.; sundry licences (marriage, dog, etc.); direct taxation; savings, including amortisations of capital debts, investments, and life insurance; spirits and wine; jewellery and florists' goods; durable goods other than replacements; private holiday transport; cost of removal to another locality.

In general the index assumes a constant pattern of expenditure for all towns, whether large cities or provincial centres, whether with warm or cool climates, etc. In transportation, however, the index compromises by setting up a constant base expenditure on transport for all towns, but allowing a varying dissection between the various modes of transport from town to town, according to local circumstances. Consequently there are no true "each on all" indices for transportation, but "each on each" indices can be used to produce "all on all" indices. ("Each on all" means an index for an individual town which uses as base the average for all towns, etc.)

Long-term Linked Series-The table immediately following provides a long-term linked series of retail price (all groups) index numbers combining the present Consumers' Price Index with its predecessors back to 1907, the whole being placed on a uniform base, i.e., the calendar year 1955.

RETAIL PRICES INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)LONG-TERM LINKED SERIES Base: Calendar year 1955 (= 1000)
YearIndex Number
1907308
1908309
1909305
1910308
1911306
1912315
1913322
1914332
1915357
1916382
1917415
1918449
1919482
1920538
1921546
1922503
1923507
1924520
1925530
1926533
1927529
1928531
1929530
1930518
1931479
1932443
1933420
1934427
1935442
1936456
1937488
1938502
1939523
1940547
1941567
1942586
1943599
1944610
1945618
1946623
1947643
1948694
1949706
1950745
1951828
1952892
1953933
1954976
19551000
19561035
19571057
19581104
19591146
19601154
19611175
19621206
19631230
19641273

The following diagram shows the movement in retail prices index numbers, the data being drawn from the figures given in the preceding table (long-term linked series) and the quarterly table following.

Consumers' Price Index Numbers-The tables which now follow relate to the current Consumers' Price Index only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 21 towns combined in respect of the calendar years 1956-64 and for each of the four quarters of the years 1958-64. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX-QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS) TWENTY-ONE TOWNS COMBINED Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)
 FoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups-
Percentages of base expenditure32.2615.4010.6015.438.7617.55100.00
Calendar year-
19551000100010001000100010001000
1956105710551013999101610301035
19571054111810381005107610551057
19581071117910741022116011601104
19591077123610941041124012731146
19601092128611071063121312321154
19611102134411181086121612521175
19621109143611441106124012941206
19631130149711541115126313121230
19641195155311761131131113381273
Quarter ended-
1958-31 March1057115510491012109510631069
30 June1069116910741019111410651080
30 September1072118910861025120612641130
31 December1085120310881031122612501137
1959-31 March1075122010901030123412631139
30 June1070123110901038123912741142
30 September1078124110971045124413041154
31 December1086125111011050124412501150
1960-31 March1071126611081056122312371145
30 June1068128111071061122312391147
30 September1102129211051064120512261157
31 December1128130411071069120212281168
1961-31 March1098131811091074120412351163
30 June1082132811131086121612391163
30 September1111134311191090122212651181
31 December1118138811291095122512691193
1962-31 March1108140911351097122612851197
30 June1099142711431105123812881201
30 September1110144311451110124713001210
31 December1118146611501112124913011218
1963-31 March1110148211551112125213071219
30 June1117149211521114125313081224
30 September1134150011531116127313141233
31 December1158151511591117127413161245
1964-31 March1160153411631119128013211250
30 June1175154511691128130213231261
30 September121015591171113413113461280
31 December1233157212021143135313631301
CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX-QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)
 FoodHousingHousehold Operation
Meat and FishFruits, Vegetables, and EggsOther FoodsRentHome OwnershipFuel and LightHome FurnishingsDomestic Supplies and Services
Subgroups-
Percentages of base expenditure-8.248.0315.994.6610.743.204.702.70
Calendar year-
195510001000100010001000100010001000
19569951231100210481058101510101016
195710541105102910981126104210221059
195811521067103011431195110410551073
195911711073103111971253112910731091
196011761109104112321309112810881114
196111811126105013001363113311031125
196211831137105615041407117711171150
196312371109108515961454119711191166
196413261144115216731500121411371201
Quarter ended-
1958-
31 March11011066102911161172104410421067
30 June11511061103011251187110810521071
30 September11731047103211621202113210601076
31 December11831094103011671218113310641079
1959-
31 March11811059102911861235113410661079
30 June11601058102911961247113310661083
30 September11631083103112021258112810771093
31 December11811091103412031272112010831109
1960-
31 March11671042103712141289113310881113
30 June11441045104012301303113010891114
30 September11751149104112421314112410861114
31 December12201201104412421331112410911114
1961-
31 March11851112104712501347112910901118
30 June11651063105012591357113010991118
30 September11711167105112841368113111101121
31 December12051161105214061381114411121143
1962-
31 March11821141105414481392115511181141
30 June11801102105614881401117911171147
30 September11801143105715211410118411151152
31 December11901163105915601426118911181161
1963-
31 March12021108106415811439119511231162
30 June12051094108415911448119611161161
30 September12461103109115991457119411161167
31 December12961132110016111473120211201174
1964-
31 March12761102112916411488120411281176
30 June12871100115616611495121011351181
30 September13491159116316881504120911361186
31 December13921216116017011516123211491260
CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX-QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)
 ApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups-
Percentages of base expenditure13.062.372.486.288.534.904.12100.00
Calendar year
195510001000100010001000100010001000
19569921039100710201010103510661035
19579921078112210581014106411311057
195810051115114011681196108311801104
195910181164117512661396110612161146
196010301242120312171285113012451154
196110511282121812161272115313281175
196210661327123412421281117714591206
196310731346125112681287121914711230
196410881370128013241287126515311273
Quarter ended-
1958-
31 March9961099114010771014107711471069
30 June10031108114011031014107911541080
30 September10071123114012321394108512081130
31 December10131130114212591361108912121137
1959-
31 March10121129114312701384109312151139
30 June10191141117112661406110612021142
30 September10191183118612671458111012141154
31 December10231203119912611335111612351150
1960-
31 March10271215120112311298112312451145
30 June10281243120112311298113012451147
30 September10301251120612051272113012461157
31 December10341260120412011272113812451168
1961-
31 March10391266120412031272114112711163
30 June10521276121112171271115412711163
30 September10541287122412211272115713801181
31 December10581300123412221273116113881193
1962-
31 March10581310123412221273116314561197
30 June10661320123412391276116514591201
30 September10691338123412521286118814611210
31 December10701340123412551287119114601218
1963-
31 March10701344123612581287120814661219
30 June10731344125412521287121214661224
30 September10741348125612801287122214801233
31 December10751349125912801287123514731245
1964-
31 March10771351126312861287124114851250
30 June10851366126113181287125214811261
30 September10911370126113291287127215531280
31 December10981394133413611287129416031301

In the table which follows, monthly figures for the food group are shown for all index towns combined.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX-MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS (FOOD), TWENTY-ONE TOWNS COMBINED Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)
PeriodMeat and FishFruits, Vegetables, and EggsOther FoodsAll Food
Calendar year-
19551000100010001000
Month
1963 - January1190114510611115
February1207109110641107
March1208108810661108
April1206108610731110
May1204110610801118
June1205109010991124
July1219106210881115
August1245110610911134
September1274114210941152
October1300114110981160
November1296113711011160
December1291111811011154
1964-January1282113211021155
February1280108611401162
March1267108711461162
April1277106911501162
May1287111011571179
June1297112111601185
July1326110011611188
August1353117011631213
September1368120711651228
October1386116711691224
November1398124111721247
December1393124011381229

The following tables distinguish individual towns and groupings of towns, but the subgroup indices are omitted; the periods covered are the calendar years 1955, 1963, and 1964 and the separate quarters of 1964. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first place current prices in each town are compared with prices in the same town during the base period; in the second, current prices in each town are compared with average prices over all the 21 towns in the base period. Where the base is the individual town, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective towns, not relative current price levels.

In the second method, where the base is average prices over the 21 towns, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one town or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one town than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all towns, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX-GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TOWNS AND GROUPINGS OF TOWNS
Base: Weighted average each town, and grouping, separately, 1955 (= 1000)
TownFoodHousing
Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964
Auckland10001147115311781229127412091000152715691584161016201595
Wellington-Hutt10001122115611841222124012001000151415481563157515941570
Christchurch10001140120411981203121412051000147715041516152815381521
Dunedin10001150121411981216122912141000141314341442144214531443
Four chief centres10001140117111861221124812061000150115361549156615791557
Hamilton10001088110011231159117711401000162416481651166616731659
Gisborne10001100111111471201121411681000149715511561155115741559
Napier-Hastings10001115112111651192121111701000146215031515152315441521
New Plymouth10001123114411671203122411841000147414891473147815011485
Wanganui10001104113411471186120911691000151415161525153515151523
Palmerston North10001100112311381178119811591000147515271535153915501538
Nelson10001113113911671195119711741000145414941503151015231508
Timaru10001128119511891206120811991000156416071617165016451629
Invercargill10001148122412141226124512271000135615001497152115281511
Nine provincial towns10001111113911561190120711731000149615411545155615651552
Whangarei10001115114011571184120711721000150215281533154415631542
Tauranga10001115113511511197122011761000151415461562157015821565
Rotorua10001118113211471185120411671000148415251518153815571534
Masterton10001104111811471183120011621000144714751487149315231495
Blenheim10001125115611761205120611861000150815221573155215621552
Greymouth10001121117311681183119511791000138914241429143914581438
Ashburton10001128117911751201121311921000152915581569157915811572
Oamaru10001133119211851226123012081000147614931510152515441518
  Eight other towns10001118114911601192120711771000147415041514152315411521
  Twenty-one towns combined10001130116011751210123311951000149715341545155915721553
TownHousehold OperationApparel
Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1961Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964
Auckland10001143115211561153118311611000108610931102110611151104
Wellington-Hutt10001173118011901189121811941000113111291142115811611148
Christchurch10001172117911921199122611991000113611421151115411701154
Dunedin10001208123412351240129012501000112811271139114211511140
 Four chief centres10001164117311811181121211871000111211151126113211411128
Hamilton10001139114011451149119511571000112811331139114611511142
Gisborne10001103110411041107112911111000114211441152116111691156
Napier-Hastings10001164117411701169119711781000111611191122112511371126
New Plymouth10001137114111411140116811471000111911121121112811321123
Wanganui10001125113511381140116811451000115011571172117511901174
Palmerston North10001124113011301132116611401000110811051119112511321120
Nelson10001108112011301136116411371000112711281148115711621149
Timaru10001198122512391244127612461000111111091114111911271117
Invercargill10001152115911701174121311791000110211121121112911331124
Nine provincial towns10001140114811511154118711601000112111231132113811451135
Whangarei10001131113611321144118511491000109210981099110711241107
Tauranga10001109111011361138116411371000109911181130113511481133
Rotorua10001146114411501153117811561000119311951189119112041195
Masterton10001157116111581163118411661000111911231122112811361127
Blenheim10001115111711261128115211311000108310841091111011141100
Greymouth10001150115511611170119611721000111811351141114411591145
Ashburton10001129113511521154118511571000111711261123112611371128
Oamaru10001136114711521156119111611000114011381148115411601150
  Eight other towns10001137114011481152118111551000112311301133113911511138
  Twenty-one towns combined10001154116311691171120211761000111511191128113411431131
CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX-GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TOWNS AND GROUPINGS OF TOWNS-
Base: Weighted average each town, and grouping, separately, 1955 (= 1000)
TownTransportationMiscellaneous
Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964
Auckland10001274128713051312136813181000131113221321134213571336
Wellington-Hutt10001283129513151322139513311000131213201324135213711342
Christchurch10001242126012781286131112841000130613081311133113461324
Dunedin10001284130113211331135713271000131613281335135313751348
Four chief centres10001271128513041311136213161000131013191321134313611336
Hamilton10001251126212881298132512931000131413271326134613621340
Gisborne10001239125612841294132112891000130713151319134713661337
Napier-Hastings10001250127613041314134113081000131613241328135613761346
New Plymouth10001250126712941303132912981000131613251328135613751346
Wanganui10001247128013081317134413121000131613241329135713761346
Palmerston North10001256127313011311135813111000131613241325135613751345
Nelson10001252126812941303132912981000131013121316133613511329
Timaru10001253126412921302133012971000131113151318133813541331
Invercargill10001247126912971307134413041000131613281335135313751348
Nine provincial towns10001250126912961306133713021000131413231326135113691342
Whangarei10001256128813141324135013191000131913311330135113671345
Tauranga10001266128413131324135413191000131413261325134513611339
Rotorua10001223123812621271129612671000131913311330135113661345
Masterton10001257128013091320134913141000131613241329135711731346
Blenheim10001235126312901300132712951000131513171320134013551333
Greymouth10001224127312971306133713031000130613081311133113461324
Ashburton10001261128013101326135713181000131113131316133613511329
Oamaru10001270128813181329135913241000131513281335135313751348
  Eight other towns10001247127313001310133913051000131413231324134513621339
  Twenty-one towns combined10001263128013021310135313111000131213211323134613631338
Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)
TownFoodHousing
Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964
Auckland9981145115111761227127212071018155415971612163916491624
Wellington-Hutt10121136117011981237125512151047158416201636164816691643
Christchurch9901129119211861191120211931000147715041516152815381522
Dunedin977112411871171118812011187984139114121419141914311420
  Four chief centres9981137116811831218124612041018152715631577159416071585
Hamilton1023111211261149118512051166958155515791581159616021589
Gisborne997109711071144119712101164952142514761486147614981484
Napier-Hastings958106810741116114211591120940137414121424143214511430
New Plymouth987110911301152118712081169972143314481432143714591444
Wanganui1014112011491163120212251185932141014131421143014121419
Palmerston North1019112111441159120012201181984145015021510151415251513
Nelson985109611211149117611791156997144914901499150615181503
Timaru987111411791173119011921183970151615581568160015951580
Invercargill10131162124012301242126112431006136515091507153015381521
Nine provincial towns999111011381155118912061172966144614891493150415131500
Whangarei1044116411901207123612601223981147314991504151415331512
Tauranga10281146116711841231125412091014153515681584159316051587
Rotorua1043116611811197123712561217982145714971490150915281506
Masterton1005110911241153118912061168981141914461459146414941466
Blenheim974109611261146117411751155966145714691519149815081499
Greymouth1007112911811176119112031188975135413881393140214211401
Ashburton1004113311841180120612181197944144314711481149014921484
Oamaru983111411721166120612101188940138714031419143314511427
  Eight other towns1017113711691180121212271197977144014691479148815051485
  Twenty-one towns combined10001130116011751210123311951000149715341545155915721553
CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX-GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TOWNS AND GROUPINGS OF TOWNS-
Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)
TownHousehold OperationApparel
Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964Annual 1955Annual 1963First Quarter 1964Second Quarter 1964Third Quarter 1964Fourth Quarter 1964Annual 1964
Auckland10051149115811621159118911671032112011281137114011501139
Wellington-Hutt994116511721183118212101187985111411121125114011441130
Christchurch988115811651178118512121185971110311091118112011361121
Dunedin937113111561157116212081171999112711271138114111501139
Four chief centres9911153116311701170120111761004111611201130113611461133
Hamilton975111111121117112111661129975110011041111111711231114
Gisborne1114122912301230123412581238998114311411149115811671154
Napier-Hastings1049122212311228122612561236997111211151119112111331122
New Plymouth1005114211461146114511731153989110611001108111611191111
Wanganui1022114911601164116511941171993114211501164116711821166
Palmerston North1021114711541154115611901163997110511021116112311291117
Nelson1006111511271137114311711145985111011111130113911441131
Timaru9731166119212061211124212131016112911271132113711451135
Invercargill10281185119212031207124812131011111511251134114211461136
Nine provincial towns1017116011671171117312071180994111411161125113111391128
Whangarei10201154115911551167120911721009110211081109111711341117
Tauranga925102510261050105210761051993109111101122112711401125
Rotorua1033118311811187119012161194946112811301124112611381130
Masterton10361199120312001205122712091000111811221122112811361127
Blenheim10351155115711661168119311711060114711491157117611811166
Greymouth976112311271138114311681144988110511211127113111451131
Ashburton1070120712141232123412681237984109911071105110711181109
Oamaru1047118912011207121112471216972110811071116112211281118
  Eight other towns1011114911531161116511951168990111111191122112811391127
  Twenty-one