THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1964


Table of Contents

PREFACE

The New Zealand Official Yearbook seeks to present as completely as possible within one volume a wide range of information on the administration and national economy of New Zealand, as well as on social aspects. In the selection and presentation of material there is kept in mind the use of the Official Yearbook not only as a standard reference work by the general public, but also as a source of material for students and research workers. Information on New Zealand is being increasingly sought by administrators and universities overseas, and the Official Yearbook now goes to over 70 countries. This is a natural development as international relationships grow and the Official Yearbook helps present New Zealand to the world in which this country has expanding interests.

In this issue there is a comprehensive section on the arts in New Zealand covering the visual arts, literature, music and opera, drama and ballet, support of the arts, and a select Bibliography. A widespread interest has developed for this information, both within New Zealand and overseas.

The photographic section features pioneer New Zealand with illustrations covering the period from about 1860 to 1914. It supplements other background information in the Yearbook relating to the country's development, which, in a span of 100 years has been fairly dramatic.

Acts of Parliament and the Departments of the Government of New Zealand responsible for their administration are listed in Section 41.

In line with the policy decision of the Department of Statistics to substitute statistical areas for provincial districts, many of the tables show the new classification; the main effect here is to show the former Auckland provincial district as four statistical areas as described on page 60.

I desire to express my appreciation to officers of this and other Government Departments for their assistance in preparing material and to the Government Printer and his staff for cooperation in the printing of this volume. My thanks for their comprehensive contribution to the production of the Yearbook are extended to Mr J. B. McKinney, M.A., ADMIN. PROF., Editor of Publications, and members of the Editorial Branch and Statistical Draughting Unit of the Department of Statistics.

GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN

Department of Statistics, Wellington, 15 July 1964.

MAPS AND DIAGRAMS

Table of Contents

  • Maps

  • General Map of New Zealand and Island Territories Inside Back Cover

  • Geology – North Island 10

  • South Island 11

  • Mean Annual Rainfall 18

  • Mineral Resources 483

  • Factory Production – North Island 502

  • South Island 503

  • Electric Power Stations and Transmission System – North Island 574

  • South Island 575

  • Diagrams

  • Seasonal Temperature Pattern 22

  • Population 59

  • Vital Statistics 91

  • Principal Causes of Deaths 114

  • Infant Death Rate 119

  • Total School Population 220

  • Railways 336

  • Motor Vehicles Licensed and Motor Spirits Consumption 345

  • Civil Aviation 361

  • Gross Farming Income 407

  • Butterfat Production 411

  • Meat Production 413

  • Wool Production 416

  • Area and Yields of Wheat for Threshing 431

  • Production Rough Sawn Timber 468

  • Pulp and Paper Industry 470

  • Factory Production 524

  • Building Permits 562

  • Electricity Generation 580

  • Prices and Sales of Butter in United Kingdom 599

  • Prices and Sales of Cheese in United Kingdom 599

  • Retail Trade 624

  • Direction of External Trade 631

  • Value of External Trade with Individual Countries 638

  • Principal Exports – New Zealand Produce 648

  • Retail Prices Index Numbers 714

  • Share Prices 731

  • Final Expenditures 745

  • Distribution of Private Outlay 746

  • Balance of Payments by Monetary Areas 775

  • Changes in Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand 777

  • Revenue from Taxation 796

  • Banking – Deposits and Advances 872

  • Trading Bank Advances 875

  • Notes in Circulation 878

  • Net Overseas Assets 880

  • New Mortgages 912

  • Life Assurance – New Business 930

  • Life Assurance – Total Assets 937

  • Membership of Industrial Unions of Workers 1006

  • Industrial Accidents 1028

  • Arrivals and Departures by Sea and Air 1060

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

  • - nil or zero

  • .. figures not available

  • not yet available = space left blank

  • … not applicable

  • - - amount too small to be expressed

  • x revised

VALUES

All values are shown in New Zealand currency.

MEASURES

Unless otherwise stated, a ton is a long ton (2,240 lb).

ROUNDING

On occasions figures are rounded off to the nearest thousand or some other convenient unit. This may result in a total disagreeing slightly with the total of the individual items as shown in tables. Where figures are rounded the unit is in general expressed in words below the table headings, but where space does not allow this the unit may be shown as 000 for thousand, etc.

FISCAL YEARS

Figures for fiscal years ended 31 March (the fiscal year) are indicated in the text and headings of tables; otherwise figures are mainly for calendar years.

ABBREVIATIONS

bd. ft.board feet
chchains
ctd.continued
cu. ft.cubic feet
cwthundredweight
d.pence
Eeast
ftfeet
ggramme
galgallon
hhour
h.p.horsepower
in.inch
kWkilowatt
kWhkilowatt-hour
lbpound
mmile
minminute
mmmillimetre
Nnorth
n.e.i.not elsewhere included
n.e.c.not elsewhere classified
ozounce
£(000)thousand pounds
£(m)million pounds
s.shillings
Ssouth
sq. ft.square feet
sup. ft.super feet
Wwest
yyard

CORRECTIONS

Page 180, Heading to table – Amend to cover period 1958–59 to 1962–63.

Page 408, Heading to second part of table should be Index Numbers of Volume.

Chapter 1. Section 1 PHYSIOGRAPHY

Table of Contents

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION – The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1,000 miles east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands – North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits – with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 530 statute miles to the east of Lyttelton Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, exclusive of island territories, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 620 statute miles north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 370 statute miles south of Stewart Island.

New Zealand is also responsible for the administration of three island groups in the south-west Pacific – the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Tokelau Islands. These are incorporated within the boundaries of New Zealand. The principal island of the Cook Group, Rarotonga, is 1,870 statute miles north-east of Auckland, and Niue to the west of the Cook Islands is 1,550 statute miles from Auckland. Lying to the north-west of the Cook Islands are the Tokelau Islands. In all, there are 23 islands scattered over a vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean making up New Zealand's island territories. The territorial area reaches to within 8 degrees of the Equator and extends south to the Tropic of Capricorn, while in longitude it covers nearly 20 degrees (156 degrees west to 173 degrees west).

The Ross Dependency, some 1,500 statute miles to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south.

The administrative area of New Zealand can be classified as follows. In this Yearbook, in general, New Zealand refers to the group of islands shown in (a) only, unless it is expressly stated that the other islands as a whole or in part are included.

New Zealand:

*Situated off North Island.

†Situated off South Island.

(a) Exclusive of island territories–Area in Square Miles
    North Island44,281
    South Island58,093
    Stewart Island670
    Chatham Islands372
    Minor islands– 
      Inhabited– 
        Kermadec Islands*13
        Campbell Island44
      Uninhabited (areas in parentheses)263
        Three Kings* (3); Snares (1); Solander (1/2); Antipodes (24); Bounty (1/2); Auckland (234). 
Total New Zealand, exclusive of island territories103,736
(b) Island territories– 
    Tokelau Islands, comprised of –Area in Square Miles
      Fakaofo Island, Nukunono Island, Atafu Island4
    Cook and associated islands, comprised of – 
      Southern Group82
        Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Mangaia, Mauke, Atiu, Takutea, Mitiaro, Manuae and Te-au-o-tu. 
      Northern Group11
        Palmerston, Pukapuka, Penrhyn, Suwarrow, Manihiki, Nassau, Rakahanga. 
      Niue Island100
Total island territories197
(c) Ross Dependency (Estimated)160,000
Total New Zealand, inclusive of island territories and Ross Dependency263,933

The total area of the foregoing groups, exclusive of the Ross Dependency, is 103,933 square miles. Elsewhere in this volume – viz, in the section on land tenure, settlement, etc. – the aggregate area of New Zealand appears as 66,390,700 acres – i.e., 103,736 square miles. The latter area does not include the Cook and associated islands or the Tokelau Islands. (Western Samoa, which had been administered as a trust territory since 1946, became an independent territory from 1 January 1962.)

The relevant Proclamations, defining from time to time the administrative area of New Zealand, are briefly referred to in Section 2.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline–Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 280 miles at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coastline is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use is made and the use of Tauranga harbour is expanding. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have – with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound – little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater construction, etc. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river mouths or by harbour-construction work.

Mountains – The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 650 ft contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft), Ruapehu (9,175 ft), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft), and Tongariro (6,458 ft), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 4,000 ft on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft), while no fewer than 15 peaks exceed 10,000 ft. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

As might be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a greater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps were an effective barrier to communication by land between the east and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaus determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor as extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Owing to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 9,000 ft in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (Feet)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu9,175
Egmont8,260
Ngauruhoe7,515
Tongariro6,458
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges 
  Tapuaenuku9,465
  Alarm9,400
Southern Alps 
  Cook12,349
  Tasman11,475
  Dampier11,287
  Silberhorn10,757
  Lendenfeldt10,450
  David's Dome10,443
  Malte Brun10,421
  Torres10,376
  Teichelmann10,370
  Sefton10,359
  Haast10,294
  Elie de Beaumont10,200
  Douglas Peak10,107
  La Perouse10,101
  Haidinger10,059
  Aspiring9,957
  Hamilton9,915
  Glacier Peak9,865
  De la Beche9,815
  Aiguilles Rouges9,731
  Nazomi9,716
  Darwin9,715
  Chudleigh9,686
  Annan9,667
  Low9,653
  Haeckel9,649
  Le Receveur9,562
  Goldsmith9,532
  Big Mac9,511
  Conway Peak9,510
  Bristol Top9,508
  Walter9,507
  Grey9,490
  Green9,307
  Hutton9,297
  D'Archiac9,279
  Ronald Adair9,276
  Hochstetter Dome9,258
  Earnslaw9,250
  Nathan9,200
  Barnicoat9,183
  Sibbald9,181
  Arrowsmith9,171
  Spencer9,167
  The Footstool9,073
  Rudolf9,039
  The Dwarf9,025
Darran Range 
  Tutoko9,042

Glaciers – In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 1 1/4 miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley (8 miles), and the Hooker (7 1/4 miles), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 9 3/4 miles and 8 1/2 miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft and 690 ft.

As will be realised, these glaciers are an important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilised for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers – Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago where the rivers are so utilised.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

NORTH ISLAND

RiverLength (Miles)

*Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern points of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.

NORTH ISLAND 
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
  Piako65
  Waihou (or Thames)95
  Rangitiki95
  Whakanane65
  Waiapu (from source, Mata River)75
  Waipaoa (from source, Waipapa Stream)70
  Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)85
  Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)95
  Ngaruroro90
  Tukituki70
Flowing into Cook Strait* 
  Ruamahanga90
  Hutt35
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
  Otaki30
  Manawatu120
  Rangitikei130
  Turakina70
  Wangaehu100
  Wanganui180
  Waitotara55
  Patea75
  Waitara85
  Mokau85
  Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)270
  Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)115
  Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)45

SOUTH ISLAND

RiverLength (Miles)
SOUTH ISLAND 
Flowing into Cook Strait 
  Pelorus40
  Wairau105
  Awatere70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
  Clarence130
  Conway30
  Waiau-uha (or Waiau)105
  Hurunui90
  Waipara40
  Ashley60
  Waimakariri100
  Selwyn50
  Rakaia90
  Ashburton70
  Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)75
  Opihi50
  Pareora35
  Waihao45
  Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)135
  Kakanui40
  Shag45
  Taieri175
  Clutha (from source, Makarora River)210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait 
  Mataura140
  Oreti120
  Aparima (Jacobs River)70
  Waiau (from source, Clinton River)135
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
  Hollyford50
  Cascade40
  Arawhata45
  Haast60
  Karangarua25
  Cook25
  Waiho (from source, Callery River)20
  Whataroa35
  Wanganui35
  Waitaha25
  Hokitika40
  Arahura35
  Taramakau50
  Grey75
  Buller (from source, Travers River)110
  Mokihinui35
  Karamea50
  Heaphy25
  Aorere (from source, Spee River)45
  Takaka (from source, Cobb River)45
  Motueka70
  Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)30

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means, but the amount of gold now extracted is comparatively small.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes – In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Owing to the excellence of their fishing, the North Island lakes possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength in MilesGreatest Breadth, in MilesArea, in Square MilesDrainage Area, in Square MilesApproximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Feet (Range in Brackets)*Greatest Depth, in Feet

*The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

NORTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Taupo25172341,2704,4901,172 (5)522
Rotorua7 1/2631203..920 (2)84
Rotoiti10313248852916 (2)230
Tarawera75 1/21472273981 (2)285
Rotoaira31 3/45502401,852 (3)..
Waikaremoana126211656232,015 (45)840
Wairarapa124311,236..564
Rotoehu32317..968 (4)..
Rotoma3 1/42 1/44 1/212..1,036 (6)..
Okataina43425..1,018 (9)..
Okareka1 1/21 1/41 1/48..1,160 (4)..
Rotomahana413 1/227..1,116 (22)..
Rerewhakaitu2 1/21 3/43....1,441 (4)..
Tikitapu13/41/2....1,364..
Rotokakahi2 1/211 3/411401,298..
Artificial       
Ohakuri211/45 1/21,8505,540942..
Atiamuri41/41/21,9805,830826..
Whakamaru13 1/21/232,1556,160742..
Maraetai4 1/21/21 1/22,3906,730618..
Waipapa61/41/22,5007,010417..
Arapuni101/252,6557,310363 (2)..
Karapiro151/432,8807,820176..
Whakamarino1/21/41/10....900..
SOUTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Rotoiti91 1/24714402,020 (6)250
Rotoroa5 1/2291459601,462 (5)499
Brunner5 1/25 1/215160..280357
Kaniere61 1/4611..429646
Coleridge11214216..1,672680
Sumner61 1/25 1/2130......
Tekapo113 1/2375503,0602,347 (25)620
Pukaki9 1/25325234,5201,640 (30)..
Ohau113234602,3101,730 (9)..
Hawea195465672,2401,133 (53)1,285
Wanaka283749827,150915 (14)..
Wakatipu4831131,1506,1601,017 (7)1,239
Te Anau3861331,2759,730686 (15)906
Manapouri185551,78513,630608 (21)1,455
Monowai12111105495643 (13)..
Hauroko221 1/227 1/22251,100513 (6)..
Poteriteri181 1/2181601,05096..
Waihola41 1/432,200..(Tidal)52
Ellesmere14870745..(Tidal)7
Artificial       
Cobb31/43/4281982,650 (50)..
Waitaki31/22 1/23,75012,150753..
Roxburgh201/42 1/46,01217,270430..
Mahinirangi9181202301,282..

GEOLOGY – The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt; this is a region where volcanoes are active and where the earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata; earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata are in many places tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over New Zealand many times, and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale); their age is revealed by the shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old – they were formed at depth in the earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the “roots” of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of feet thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed when huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines) were formed, in which tens of thousands of feet thickness of sediments accumulated; when these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have been intruded into the outer crust in molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary10 thousand
Pleistocene1 million
Pliocene11 million
MioceneTertiary25 million
Oligocene20 million
Eocene60 million
Paleocene70 million
MesozoicCretaceous 135 million
Jurassic 180 million
Triassic 225 million
PaleozoicPermian 270 million
Carboniferous 350 million
Devonian 400 million
Silurian 400 million
Ordovician 500 million
Cambrian 600 million

Geological History – Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks; this suggests that a large land mass existed at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood; for a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period – probably until the early Cretaceous period – an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place: although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand, the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous landmass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand Geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country; it embraces roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others: in the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white, foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated, in swamps on the surface of the old land; these became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered, remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: “The pattern of folds, welts and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic … the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds. … we can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago. … a kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margin seems to have gone on …*” The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era – in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods – one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of feet; it must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each of a few inches or feet. The blocks adjacent to “transcurrent” faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps – steep faces hundreds or even thousands of feet high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements have built, carving the detailed landscape pattern of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other constructional forms; at the coast, waves have driven back the headlands, and built beaches, spits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range.

*“New Zealand Biogeography” by Charles A Fleming. Tuatara Vol. 10, No. 2, June 1962, pp. 53–108.

Volcanic activity of the past few millions of years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island; Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, achieved much of its growth then, too. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe; more than 2,000 cubic miles of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau.

The Geological Survey, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has built up this body of geological knowledge.

Geological Maps – The geological maps show the present distribution of major rock groups in New Zealand, brought about by the events and processes that have been summarised in previous paragraphs. (These maps were originally prepared for the New Zealand Encyclopaedia.)

South Island

Older Rocks – Much of the late Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rock that once must have covered a large part of the South Island has been worn off by erosion since the Kaikoura Orogeny, and the “undermass” of old rocks has been exposed.

The oldest of these rocks lie to west: Fiordland is made up mainly of metamorphic diorite, granite, and coarse schist, gneiss, and marble, with Ordovician graptolite-bearing slates in its southwest extremity; greywackes and argillites of possibly pre-Cambrian age occur in Westland and southwest Nelson, and further north in Nelson there are large areas of complexly folded Cambrian and Ordovician sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Large granitic masses, hundreds of square miles in area, occur in Westland, Nelson, and Stewart Island.

These ancient rocks terminate with an abrupt boundary (which shows clearly even on this small-scale map) extending from Milford Sound along the western margin of the Southern Alps. This boundary is the Alpine Fault, a great fracture that divides the South Island into two areas of dissimilar geological structure: to the west of it, and in Fiordland, are the granites and other ancient rocks just described; to the east, the undermass rocks are predominantly the sedimentary and marine volcanic rocks of the New Zealand Geosyncline, and their metamorphosed forms, of later Paleozoic and Mesozoic age. From Marlborough, through Canterbury to North Otago, the map shows an almost continuous expanse of these rocks; here they are mainly sparsely fossiliferous greywackes and argillite strata of Triassic and Jurassic age. On the Western flanks of the Southern Alps, and in Otago, these sedimentary rocks merge gradually with schist and gneiss. Those of the Southern Alps show on the map as a very narrow belt, cut off by the Alpine Fault, but the southern schists form a belt some 60 miles wide extending for about 150 miles across Otago. To the south, also, this schist mass merges gradually with sedimentary rocks of the New Zealand Geosyncline, here of Permian age: these strata, mainly tuffs and tuffaceous greywackes forming a belt that stretches across Southland, are the northern limb of a major downfold or syncline; Triassic and Jurassic strata occupy its core, making up much hill country of Southland. The southern limb rocks include much marine volcanic rock, and in the core of the syncline in western Southland a belt of dunite and serpentine is intruded and is well exposed in the Olivine and Red Hill ranges.

A sequence of rocks very like that of Southland is found also in eastern Nelson; here, fossiliferous Triassic rocks and Permian sedimentary and volcanic rocks closely resembling those of Southland are found, and a belt of dunite and serpentine (the Nelson “mineral belt”) intrudes them. It has been suggested that the Nelson and Southland rocks, which terminate abruptly at the Alpine Fault and its continuation as the Wairau Fault, were originally joined, and have been displaced some 300 miles by lateral movement at the fault.

Younger Rocks – On the eastern side of the South Island, upper Cretaceous and Tertiary strata survive only as small patches, the remnants of a once fairly complete cover of younger rocks. Thick geosynclinal Cretaceous strata are found in the Clarence and Awatere Valleys of Marlborough, but elsewhere in the eastern South Island the upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary strata are thin. They include foraminiferal limestone, greensands, sandstones, and other shell deposits formed during slow transgression by the sea. Oligocene limestone remnants mark the period of maximum transgression.

On the western side of the South Island the younger rocks are more widespread, and include some thick sequences that were formed in rapidly sinking basins. The oldest are the coal measures, mainly Eocene in age. They are overlain in some areas by thick lower Tertiary marine strata. In Southland, thick Tertiary strata occupy the Waiau Syncline, between Lake Te Anau and Foveaux Strait.

The map shows some large areas of Pleistocene to Recent terrestrial deposits in the South Island. The largest forms the Canterbury Plains, and consists of old shingle deposits of unknown thickness washed from the Southern Alps during the Pleistocene glaciation. Others occupy the Moutere depression of Nelson, and form Southland Plains, and intermontane basins, such as the McKenzie Plains, in the main mountain chains. Thick Pleistocene moraines form the main surface rocks of South Westland.

Banks Peninsula is the only large mass of young volcanic rocks in the South Island; there are smaller areas at Timaru, Oamaru, and in the Dunedin district.

North Island

Older Rocks – Unlike the South Island, the North Island has no large expanses of granite or of metamorphic rocks: the undermass rocks are almost wholly complexly folded and faulted greywackes and argillites of the New Zealand Geosyncline, predominantly Mesozoic in age.

The largest expanse of these hard rocks forms the main mountain backbone of the North Island, extending from Cook Strait to the East Cape area. Smaller areas of them are exposed between north Taranaki and Auckland; they include the richly fossiliferous strata of the Kawhia Syncline, a major downfold of the undermass rocks.

In North Auckland, deeply weathered undermass rocks, in part of Permian age, form low hill country in the east, particularly between Whangaroa and Whangarei harbours.

Younger Rocks – Over most of the North Island the older rocks are hidden by Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary sedimentary rocks and by young volcanic rocks. In some areas the younger sedimentary rocks are thin and patchy; in others they are many thousands of feet thick over hundreds of square miles. The bulk of them are poorly consolidated sandstones, and grey mudstones to which the colloquial name “papa rock” is often applied.

The main areas with thick sequences of these young strata are the Taranaki - Wanganui - Rangitikei district, and the region east of the main ranges, including most of the Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, and Wairarapa districts. In both areas intensive oil prospecting of recent years has greatly added to knowledge of the structure.

In the Taranaki - Wanganui - Rangitikei district the strata dip gently south, so that increasingly young rocks are exposed in this direction, the lower Tertiary being seen only in the north. However, recent oil bores drilled to depths of about 13,000 ft at Kapuni in Taranaki, passed through a full sequence of strata from Pleistocene through all Tertiary stages, finally reaching Eocene coal measures.

In the eastern North Island the structure of the younger rocks is much more complex than in the western area. Upper Cretaceous strata are followed by Tertiary in many sedimentary basins large and small, with many unconformities. The southern part of the region is broken by many transcurrent faults, and hard lower Cretaceous greywacke piercement bodies project from the younger rocks.

Younger rocks of South Auckland do not form such large basins as those just described. The oldest of these strata are the Eocene coal measures of the Waikato region. Upper Cretaceous strata, mainly mudstones, are the most widespread of the younger rocks of North Auckland.

Young volcanic rocks are widespread in the North Island. The largest area of them is the Central Volcanic District: north of the three great andesite volcanoes, Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro, lies the “volcanic plateau”, an expanse of some 10,000 square miles made up of several thousand cubic miles of ignimbrite, rhyolite lava, and pumice. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world. Most of it has been erupted in late Pliocene and Pleistocene times. The belt of most recent activity in the Central Volcanic District is known as the Taupo Volcanic Zone; it contains all this country's active volcanoes, many inactive ones, and all the geysers and boiling springs.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition; the largest is Pirongia, some 3,000 ft high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; many small scoria cones are seen at Auckland city. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young scoria cones.

A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand contains geological maps of New Zealand and summaries of New Zealand's geology and landscape development. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 66, The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000, is a lengthier summary with a more detailed geological map and cross sections.

G.C.S.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background – Earthquakes are geographically associated with active volcanoes and with major earth movements such as mountain building; these three types of disturbance are confined, for the most part, to certain limited regions of the world. Such disturbed regions, of which New Zealand is one, are evidently the site of some kind of development affecting the outer shell of the Earth. Little is yet known about the internal processes that give rise to these geophysical disturbances, nor are the relations connecting them understood in any detail.

Formerly earthquakes were believed to be caused by volcanic activity, but it is now recognised that volcanic earthquakes are restricted to small shocks in the immediate vicinity of the volcanism. In New Zealand, tremors of this kind are experienced in the zone of active volcanism that extends from Mount Ruapehu to White Island.

In some places geological faulting at the surface gives visible evidence that a major earth movement has occurred. Occasionally movement on a fault has been observed to occur simultaneously with an earthquake in the same vicinity. New Zealand provided one of the earliest examples of this to become generally known, when movement took place on the Wairarapa Fault at the time of the great Wellington earthquake of 1855. Such events as this have led to the idea that earthquakes in general are caused by fault movements, but it has proved difficult to find convincing evidence in support of this theory. It is noteworthy that there seems to be little earthquake activity along much of the Alpine Fault, which has been traced for 300 miles from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti and is classed by geologists as one of the largest and most active faults in the world. The nature of the connection between earthquakes and faulting is still somewhat obscure.

The great majority of the world's earthquakes occur at depths of less than 40 miles, and in many earthquake zones there are no shocks at any greater depth. A moderate number of New Zealand earthquakes are classed as intermediate in depth, i.e., originating at between 40 miles and 190 miles deep. The two deepest New Zealand earthquakes recorded so far occurred four and a half minutes apart on 23 March 1960, with a common focus 370 miles deep under north Taranaki; this is about 80 miles shallower than the deepest earthquake known.

It is difficult to compare the degree of earthquake activity in New Zealand with that in other regions because of the many differences that arise in earthquake type and mode of occurrence. New Zealand and California are often regarded as roughly similar, with an activity very much less than, for example, Japan or Chile.

Regional Distribution – There are two separate regions of earthquake activity in New Zealand. The larger, northern region may be roughly defined as lying between latitude 36 1/2°S and 43 1/2°S. It thus includes the northern half of the South Island, and all the North Island apart from the North Auckland peninsula; but the area from Kaipara Harbour to the lower Waikato River should be excluded. The southern active region lies to the west of longitude 169 1/2°E, and incorporates Southland, western Otago, and southern Westland. Earthquakes have only occasionally been located in the parts of New Zealand lying outside these two regions.

Within the active regions the occurrence of shallow earthquakes is widely scattered. There has been a tendency, however, for the larger shallow earthquakes to lie towards the Pacific side of the northern active region and towards the Tasman side of the southern active region. Earthquakes with deeper foci are mostly confined to a narrow belt in the northern region, extending from the Bay of Plenty south-westwards to Tasman Bay.

The historical record is too brief to support a quantitative assessment of the frequency with which one might expect earthquakes to be felt at a given intensity in various parts of New Zealand. Considering the distances to which major earthquakes can be effective, in relation to the size of New Zealand, it would be imprudent to regard any part of the country as permanently exempt from the possibility of earthquake damage.

Outside the active regions there are many areas, however, where no damaging intensity has actually been experienced in historical times. Moreover, since the major shallow earthquakes on record have been rather widely distributed within the active regions, there appears to be no particular area of markedly intense seismicity.

The Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931 resulted directly or indirectly in 255 deaths. The total of deaths that have been recorded as due to other earthquakes since 1848 is 29.

Seismological Observatory – Earthquake recorders are operated continuously at the following stations by the Seismological Observatory, Wellington: Apia and Afiamalu (Samoa); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Suva (Fiji); Onerahi, Auckland, Karapiro, Tuai, Gisborne, Wairakei, Tarata, Tongariro, Bunnythorpe, and Wellington (North Island); Cobb, Kaimata, Gebbies Pass, Roxburgh, and Monowai (South Island); Hallett Station and Scott Base (Antarctica). The installations at the following stations include instruments for recording distant earthquakes: Afiamalu, Suva, Auckland, Wellington, Roxburgh, Hallett, Scott Base. At the Samoan and Antarctic stations preliminary readings are made locally and notified by radiogram. The analysis of records from all stations is carried out at the Observatory in Wellington.

The Observatory publishes regular reports of all significant earthquakes occurring in the New Zealand region; in a normal year there are about 200 such earthquakes, and about 100 of these are reported felt. The analysis involves using observations from stations in other countries as well as those from the local network, and the Observatory likewise contributes data to the international seismological agencies about distant earthquakes as well as large local ones. Details of tremors felt in New Zealand are supplied to the public and the press. In the study of felt earthquakes the instrumental results are augmented by “felt reports”; these are supplied by a large number of voluntary observers throughout New Zealand in response to a standard questionnaire issued by the Observatory.

Earthquake data are used by the Observatory for studying the fundamental characteristics of the Earth's crust in New Zealand, Antarctica, and the neighbouring oceanic regions, and also for contributing to geophysical knowledge of the Earth's deep interior.

Principal Earthquakes During the Year 1963 – The largest earthquake of the year, of magnitude 6.0 (Richter scale), occurred on 12 April 1963, in the Huiarau Range between Lake Taupo and Lake Waikaremoana. This earthquake was felt widely in the central parts of the North Island and caused slight damage at Minginui and Tarawera.

On 15 July a deep earthquake was felt extensively in the southern part of the North Island, and the northern part of the South Island; it originated in Southern Taranaki at a depth of 100 miles, and had a magnitude of 5.9.

Two earthquakes of exceptional interest occurred late in the year in the far north of New Zealand. Centred near Mangonui, 70 miles north of Whangarei, they are the only earthquakes known to have originated in Northland except for a series of minor shocks in the Bay of Islands in 1919. The first earthquake, of magnitude 3.2, took place on 17 November and was felt at various places out to 20 miles from Mangonui. The second was of magnitude 5.2 and took place on 23 December. This shock was felt over almost the entire peninsula north of Kaikohe and damage was done to chimneys, water tanks and house foundations over an area some ten miles across, including Peria, Oruaiti, Otangaroa and Totara North.

A number of large earthquakes took place during the year near the Kermadec Islands to the north of New Zealand, the largest having a magnitude of about 7. Several of these shocks were felt at Raoul Island during the last week of March.

WEATHER INFORMATION – The collection of weather information and the provision of weather forecasts and climatic data for diverse interests in aviation, shipping, agriculture, Government Departments, and the general public are functions of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. By arrangement with the administrations concerned the Service performs similar functions for British territories in the Pacific.

Weather reports for use in forecasting are made at about 110 places within New Zealand and 50 in Pacific islands and collected by telegraph and radio, along with measurements of winds at upper levels made at eight radar wind-measuring stations and of temperatures made at seven radiosonde stations. Daily observations are made for climatological purposes at about 180 places in New Zealand and 60 in the islands. Rainfall measurements are made at a total of about 1,400 places within New Zealand and 110 outside the country.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually in the Meteorological Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in a climatological table included in the New Zealand Gazette.

CLIMATE – Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the broad belt of strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 60°S.

In the Australasian region there is no semipermanent anticyclone, as exists in subtropical latitudes in the Indian and eastern Pacific Oceans. Instead, a continual eastward migration of anticyclones takes place, roughly at weekly intervals. Most of the centres pass over or to the north of the North Island. The low-pressure troughs which separate successive anticyclones are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A period of disturbed weather accompanies the trough with a change to cold southerly or south-westerly winds as it advances north-eastwards over New Zealand. Conditions improve again with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. While this simple progression dominates the day-to-day weather, the situation frequently becomes much more complex. The troughs are unstable systems where depressions commonly form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that travel south-eastwards across New Zealand.

The anticyclones themselves continually vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their tracks are furthest north in the spring, on the average, and reach their southern limit in late summer or early autumn when most of the centres cross central or southern New Zealand. At this time of the year, too, northern and eastern districts of the North Island occasionally come under the influence of deep cyclones of tropical origin.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Australia, the nearest continent, is 1,000 miles to the west; Antarctica is 1,400 miles to the south. Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer, or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the oceans, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 80 miles from the sea.

Winds – Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the flow from the west turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the southeast. This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and a predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 20 miles or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast the wind comes most frequently from the north-east, partly because there is a persistent sea breeze from this quarter, but south of Dunedin south-westerlies predominate. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the south-east as well as the north-west. This “funnel” effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more from the south-west, and there is a noticeable reduction in windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These were all obtained by the use of Dines pressure-tube anemometers at well exposed sites, mostly aerodromes.

StationAverage Number of Days With Gusts ReachingYears of Data
40 m.p.h. or More60 m.p.h. or More
Nov–AprMay–OctYearNov–AprMay–OctYear
NOTE – These are all aerodromes, with the exception of Auckland (Mechanics Bay) and Wellington (Kelburn).
Kaitaia923320.61.11.78
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)2230520.81.62.419
Rotorua67130.20.10.316
Hamilton913220.00.60.68
Gisborne1724410.20.70.916
New Plymouth3549842.75.38.019
Palmerston North2523480.70.81.512
Wellington (Kelburn)787315117.411.228.68
Nelson2115360.50.20.718
Blenheim (Woodbourne)2417410.70.91.612
Hokitika1619351.51.73.214
Christchurch3126571.71.63.316
Taieri3126571.61.22.818
Invercargill5140915.24.49.614

Rainfall – The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 13 in. in a small area of Central Otago to over 300 in. in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 25 and 60 in., a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 25 in. are found in the South Island, to the east of the main ranges. These include most of Central and North Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 30–40 in. a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 60 in. Over a sizeable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 100 in. a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year, although its effectiveness in summer is, of course, much reduced. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island rain can be measured on at least 150 days a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places, fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 25 in. generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 per cent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (0.10 in. or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there are only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 22 in., which occurred at Milford Sound where the mean annual rainfall is 250 in. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in north-eastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 3 in. are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (INCHES) (1921–50)

StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Te Paki, Te Hapua3.33.63.35.66.57.27.35.64.53.83.03.156.8
Auckland3.34.12.84.34.85.55.54.33.84.23.23.148.9
Tauranga Airport3.53.53.85.04.95.65.04.83.84.63.33.451.2
Ruakura, Hamilton3.33.22.94.04.34.94.64.13.74.33.72.945.9
Rotorua4.43.93.44.65.55.54.64.84.44.93.93.853.7
Gisborne Airport2.83.23.03.45.03.94.93.92.92.62.22.039.8
Lake Waikaremoana6.26.16.06.78.67.37.77.06.05.45.24.776.9
New Plymouth4.74.13.75.05.36.46.25.94.85.84.54.861.2
Napier2.62.82.22.73.83.13.52.81.91.91.92.031.2
Wanganui2.73.02.22.83.13.42.93.02.53.22.72.934.4
Palmerston North3.03.02.43.33.53.93.13.52.93.83.33.339.0
Masterton2.52.72.22.74.14.03.94.23.13.12.62.938.0
Wellington (Kelburn)2.83.53.03.64.54.64.95.13.74.63.14.147.5
Nelson Airport2.72.32.63.03.43.12.93.62.93.62.73.135.9
Blenheim2.01.91.61.92.62.32.42.52.42.51.81.925.8
Hanmer3.53.73.33.44.83.53.74.04.04.33.33.845.3
Hokitika9.88.68.48.89.08.08.39.38.310.99.59.9108.8
Lake Coleridge2.62.42.12.82.82.63.13.13.13.22.42.833.0
Christchurch2.21.81.71.83.02.72.42.32.02.02.02.426.3
Timaru2.52.51.81.81.71.61.51.41.82.11.92.923.5
Milford Sound25.523.122.321.821.614.714.717.319.826.023.123.4253.3
Queenstown3.22.53.02.92.62.22.22.52.63.02.52.431.6
Alexandra1.81.51.21.30.90.80.70.60.81.21.11.313.2
Dunedin(Musselburgh)2.82.52.52.52.62.92.52.32.22.52.82.931.0
Invercargill Airport3.63.84.33.83.73.92.83.03.33.43.63.642.8

Thunderstorms – Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail – Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about five days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature – Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 59°F in the far north to 54° about Cook Strait, then to 49° in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 3° per 1,000 ft. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature, are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they rise to the nineties on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 101° at Ashburton and – 3° at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 15°F. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 17°–19°. Further inland it exceeds 20° in places, reaching a maximum of 25° in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Frost – It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these “Katabatic” drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (4 ft above the ground) has registered below 32°F only once in nearly 50 years, yet across the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as 10° are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow – The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above about 8,000 ft on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 2,000 ft even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 7,000 ft in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 1,000 ft of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 1,000 ft, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain permanently below 3,000 ft.

Relative Humidity – Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 per cent in coastal areas and about 10 per cent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 per cent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
  per cent 
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne89629072
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch87618973
Hokitika95789375
Invercargill90729178

Very low humidities – between 20 and 30 per cent or lower – occur at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry “Canterbury Norwester” is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 85°. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine – The sunniest areas are to be found locally near Blenheim, Nelson, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2,400 hours per annum. Napier and the rest of the Bay of Plenty are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1,800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to 1,700 hours per annum, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours per annum. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations have been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

 SummerWinter
per cent
Auckland5749
Hamilton5244
New Plymouth5347
Napier5752
Wellington5242
Nelson5857
Hokitika4344
Christchurch4645
Dunedin4143
Invercargill4235

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages – The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAltitudeAnnual AveragesAir Temperature (Degrees Fahrenheit)
Rain Days (0.01 in. or More)Wet Days (0.10 in. or More)Bright SunshineDays of Screen Frost (min. air temp. less than 32°F)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaxmiumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum

NOTE: (1) Averages of rain days and wet days 1950–59; sunshine 1935–60; mean temperature 1931–60; other temperature data and days of screen frost, various periods – all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

 ft.  hours        
Te Paki, Te Hapua1901871122,140259.3736057467830
Auckland1601731002,090059.5735760468137
Tauranga Airport12152912,320957.2755755408529
Ruakura, Hamilton131168991,9802955.4745652378523
Rotorua1,006151962,0002653.7745452368724
Gisborne Airport13158832,210856.8765755409128
Lake Waikaremoana2,110196132..551.7684852378330
New Plymouth1601661132,110156.1695556437832
Napier5124622,280857.1745557398929
Wanganui72146872,120456.1715456418330
Palmerston North110172941,8101655.0715355398227
Masterton340172922,0603053.9745351368925
Wellington (Kelburn)415158972,010054.3685155427934
Nelson Airport6125742,4104453.2715354348223
Blenheim14108592,4303354.5745552368923
Hanmer1,270143891,9108849.6734848288915
Hokitika121941401,8601951.6665351367627
Lake Coleridge1,19511871..6950.0714849308818
Christchurch22116591,9903752.6705053349025
Timaru56112571,9103951.9705051339024
Milford Sound16193163..3150.4654950347727
Queenstown1,080132751,9805450.1714649318623
Alexandra520100392,0808950.9744551289018
Dunedin (Musselburgh)5167781,7301251.6675052378628
Invercargill Airport01991091,6605349.1654948338222

Normal Seasonal Temperature Pattern – A feature of the seasonal pattern of temperature for New Zealand is the near symmetry about either the hottest summer months or the coldest winter months. In other words the summer-winter decline is an almost identical reversal of the winter-summer rise. This shows up clearly when temperatures for 100 climatological stations are averaged month by month. The first two months of the calendar year, the summer months of January and February, display the same average temperature, that of 61.3°F. This temperature is the highest average for any month, being approached by only the December average of 59.2°F. Once February is past a decline sets in, the estimated average New Zealand temperature falling by 2.5°F from February to March to give a March average of 58.8°F. Thereafter, successive inter-monthly temperature drops of 4.4°, 5.4°, 4.2°, and 1.2°F finally produce a July average of 43.6°F, which makes this month the coldest of the year. Progressing through and past July the temperature steadily rises, the increments being successively, 1.80, 3.4°, 3.8°, 3.2°, 3.4°, and 2.1°F, finally returning to the January mark of 61.3°F.

ESTIMATED NORMAL NEW ZEALAND TEMPERATURE (°F)*

Calendar MonthMean TemperatureCalendar MonthMean Temperature

*Based on temperature normals for 100 climatological stations.

January61.3July43.6
February61.3August45.4
March58.8September48.8
April54.4October52.6
May49.0November55.8
June44.8December59.2

The following diagram illustrates the seasonal temperature pattern.

Brief Review of 1963:Year – Rainfall in the North Island was mainly 20 per cent below average However, in parts of central and northern Hawke's Bay it was somewhat above average. In the South Island rainfall was close to average, except in Canterbury and some adjacent areas in Marlborough and Nelson, where it was 25 per cent above average.

For the country as a whole temperatures were close to average – half a degree above in the North Island and half a degree below in the South Island. This was the first year since 1952 that temperatures had not been at least half a degree above average over the whole country; February 1963 was the end of a particularly warm spell which had commenced in October 1961.

Sunshine was mainly below average by about 100 hours. However, inland Canterbury, inland Marlborough, parts of Nelson and the Waikato-Taupo area were favoured with a surplus of up to 90 hours.

Seasonal Notes – January and February were both considerably warmer than normal. January was also drier than usual in most districts; in the Auckland provincial district dairy production was adversely affected. February was cloudy, with very low rainfall in Gisborne and Hawke's Bay. However, Nelson, Marlborough and South Canterbury received some good rains. A tropical storm crossed the North Island during 20–21 February.

In the autumn months of March to May temperatures were mainly below average. These months were also predominantly drier than normal, especially April, when rainfall was less than a quarter of the average in the Bay of Plenty and Nelson. Dairy production suffered again in the Auckland provincial district and there was also a shortage of feed and fresh water for stock in parts of Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa. April was a month with a high frequency of southerly to easterly winds and considerable rain in Canterbury, three-quarters of which fell in the three days 18–20 April.

The winter of 1963 was in marked contrast to the mild winter of 1962. Except, in Northland, temperatures were below average: in some inland districts of the South Island it was the most severe winter since 1943, causing losses of sheep. June was notable especially for the Hawke's Bay flood of the 3rd and the severe storm which caused it, with southeasterly gales in Taranaki and Cook Strait and snow in the South Island high country. July was a very cloudy month, with an unusually high frequency of winds from the east and northeast bringing excessive rain to Canterbury. An easterly storm raged over the country from 12 to 16 July, with gales in parts of the Auckland provincial district and flooding in Marlborough, Canterbury and Otago. However, lambing commenced with few losses. August was marked by an unusually high frequency of winds from a southerly quarter, with rainfall well above average in eastern districts of the South Island. These districts and Southland reported snow to low levels in the two coldest spells, 6–14 August and 18–23 August.

September and October were both warmer than average, and September was also unusually cloudy. October was exceptionally dry – rainfall was less than one-tenth of the average in several areas in the North Island and in parts of Nelson and Marlborough. Pasture growth was retarded; and at the same time many farmers in the Auckland provincial district were troubled by cattle bloat.

November and December were cooler than normal, especially in the South Island. They were also predominantly drier than average – over most of Northland December was the third successive dry month, causing poor pasture growth and a decline in dairy production. Strong gales buffeted the country from Auckland to Nelson and Marlborough on 8 November, and damage was reported in many districts.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1963 – The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1963 were taken at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e., 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationRainfallRain Days (.01 in. or More)Bright SunshineDays of Screen Frost*Air Temperatures (Degrees Fahrenheit)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily Minimum1963 Extremes
JanJulJanJulMaximum Mimimum

*Minimum air temperature less than 32°F.

 in. hours        
Te Paki, Te Hapua44.441612,106258.9746057497831
Auckland37.871492,116059.7755960478037
Tauranga50.221372,233956.9745656428024
Ruakura, Hamilton34.761442,0412255.6755357408324
Whakarewarewa, Rotorua50.251301,9412254.3745353388027
Gisborne, Airport33.281452,120856.7765656418730
Lake Waikaremoana74.5618......704753378328
New Plymouth44.331552,117056.3715556448034
Napier31.8512,110457.2755458428928
Wanganui25.97192,020955.9725456398530
Palmerston North34.811491,730954.9735355408428
Waingawa, Masterton31.501731,9691953.5755151388926
Kelburn, Wellington41.081562,036054.2695651427735
Nelson Airport37.731082,4953653.7735455348324
Blenheim25.16992,4553254.6755354358925
Hanmer Forest45.091481,99610249.3754447299018
Hokitika103.451831,8382451.5685553347524
Lake Coleridge40.77120..8049.5734650288620
Christchurch28.591291,8973752.7744954369726
Timaru31.911271,7394551.8734753338225
Milford Sound225.10207..2150.1665053367427
Alexandra11.081031,9649150.2774254269018
Queenstown28.691221,8306349.2744452318824
Musselburgh, Dunedin32.591801,5561150.8684653388127
Invercargill Airport39.142121,5496348.6674750328922

For 1963 the mean sea-level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland 1017.0; Kelburn, Wellington 1015.1; Nelson Airport 1015.4; Hokitika 1015.7; Christchurch 1014.3; and Dunedin 1013.5.

Chapter 2. Section 2 HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND GOVERNMENT

Table of Contents

EARLY HISTORY: General – When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands at least 300 years previously. It is generally accepted that the Maoris came originally from South-East Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia the ancestors of the Maori sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand and these voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of late tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal fare was common, and as individuals they displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

The immediate effect of European contacts on the Maoris was the outburst of a series of tribal wars waged with greater ferocity and a vastly greater loss of life than was customary in pre-European tribal engagements. The high mortality could, of course, be credited to the acquisition of a more lethal weapon, the musket. The advantage lay originally with the coastal tribes as a result of their earlier contact with Europeans, the wars continuing until all tribes were equally well armed. These wars were later followed by wars against the colonists, but after 1870 the story has been one of unbroken peace between Maoris and Europeans.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing.

Other island groups, such as the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Tokelau Islands, had also long been inhabited by Polynesians from various successive migrations extending over considerable periods prior to their discovery by Europeans.

Discovery by Europeans – On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land. His exploration was of necessity very cursory, for having explored only part of one coast he had no knowledge of the country's extent or shape.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain Cook sighted land on 6 October 1769, at Young Nick's Head, near Gisborne. On his first voyage Cook spent six months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can be best described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on the map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the truculent Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned M. de Surville 1769, M. Marion du Fresne 1772, Captains Vancouver and Broughton 1791, Captain Raven 1792–93, Alejandro Malaspina and Jose de Bustamente y Guerra 1793, and Lieutenant Hanson 1793.

The European discovery of many of the islands of the Cook Group was made by Captain Cook in 1773. Rarotonga and Mauke were not officially discovered for another 50 years, although there were records of earlier visits by the Bounty under the control of the mutineers in 1789 and later, in 1814, by the Cumberland. Niue Island was discovered by Cook in 1774. The first recorded discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by Quiros in 1606. Of the remaining islands of the group, Atafu was discovered in 1765, Nukunono in 1791, and Fakaofa in the 1840s.

European Settlement and Colonisation – So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven of the Britannia landed a sealing party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over 12 months before being called for.

In the years that followed, whaling stations sprang up along the coast, and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. Attracted to New Zealand were deserters from whaling vessels and escaped convicts from Australia, who, in the absence of any jurisdiction, soon became notorious for their extreme lawlessness. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, obtained permission to send two of his protégés, Kendall and Hall, to the Bay of Islands to consider the desirability of establishing a mission station. Later they returned to Sydney for Marsden, who arrived in New Zealand to preach his first sermon at the Bay of Islands on Christmas Day, 1814. Of the many admirable activities undertaken by the missionaries, their action in having the Maori language “reduced to a rational orthography” deserves special mention.

In 1825 three separate, but abortive, attempts were made to found colonies; however for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling stations, although a number of Europeans gradually penetrated inland and resided there permanently, many marrying Maori women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived in Port Nicholson in January 1840, there to found the town of Wellington, just one week before Captain William Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty (see later). These settlers were brought out from England by the New Zealand Company, whose moving spirit was Edward Gibbon Wakefield.

It was hoped that, by producing a proper balance of capitalists and artisans, self-contained communities could be successfully established. However, owing to the unsatisfactory nature of the land purchases, considerable difficulty was experienced in these initial settlements, and friction grew up not only between the settlers and the Maoris, but also between the Governor and the settlers. Before his death in 1842 Governor Hobson had transferred his capital from Russell to Auckland, but this transfer was of little assistance to the colonists, who had extended their settlements to Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson.

Following the death of Hobson, the existence of the colony became precarious, for, through lack of funds and weak administration, Maori aggression became a real menace. To cope with the situation, the Colonial Office appointed Captain George Grey as Governor. Being well equipped with troops and funds, as well as being a man of vigour and perception, Grey soon restored order and won the confidence of both the settlers and the Maoris. During Grey's term two further organised settlements were made. In cooperation with the New Zealand Company the Free Church of Scotland sponsored the Dunedin Settlement of 1848, and the Church of England the Canterbury Settlement of 1850. These settlements, owing to their more favoured situations, their satisfactory land-purchase agreements, and their freedom from trouble with the Maoris, achieved a greater measure of success in carrying out the company's avowed aims.

After Grey's departure the question of relationship with the Maoris again came to the fore through the land-purchasing activities of the settlers – a situation aggravated by subsequent lack of consideration for the Maori system of land tenure. Following an incident at Waitara in the Taranaki district, where a dispute arose concerning land titles, war broke out in 1860 and lasted spasmodically till 1870. The recall of Grey did not solve the problem, as Grey, an autocrat, could not work with the elected Ministers, nor did his presence prevent the confiscation of land belonging to the Maoris, whether friendly or hostile. It was under the sympathetic administration of Sir Donald McLean as Minister for Maori Affairs that the dispute finally died down.

These hostilities were confined to the North Island; and, in the meantime, in 1861, large alluvial deposits of gold had been discovered in the South Island – leading to a tremendous influx of population and an alteration of the economic structure of the country.

No organised form of European colonisation has at any time taken place in the Cook Islands, Niue Island, or the Tokelau Islands.

SUBSEQUENT HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT (1870 ONWARDS) – The discovery of gold, by increasing the wealth of the South Island, allowed it to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion, especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally, but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool, which it has maintained to the present day.

These factors, together with freedom from strife with the Maori population, led after 1870 to a quickening in political activities. Under the leadership of Sir Julius Vogel a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction was begun. The provincial system, which really commenced in 1853, had largely outlived its usefulness; in fact, the parochialism of the provincial assemblies had frequently proved obstructive, and in consequence the system was abolished in 1875, local administration being provided for by the Counties Act and the Municipal Corporations Act of 1876.

Of great social significance was the passing in 1877 of the Education Act, making education free, compulsory, and secular, while the laying during that decade of the first cable between Australia and New Zealand was a major advance in communications. At this time party politics began to enter into the parliamentary system, and the slump conditions which prevailed in the eighties (due to a fall in the world price level) intensified the political atmosphere. By the abolition of plural voting in 1889, and the introduction of female suffrage in 1893, the way was opened for a practical expression of political convictions by all adult members of the community.

In 1891 Ballance, as Leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier, to be followed on his death in 1893 by Seddon, and during the next decade the legislative essays of this party evoked world-wide interest. The main aim of the legislation was social justice, and its principal manifestations were in land division, the establishment of the Court of Arbitration, and the introduction of old-age pensions. The policy of land division aimed at closer land settlement, and it was achieved by the compulsory subdivision of large estates, with subsequent loans to small independent farmers wishing to establish themselves. In inaugurating the Court of Arbitration the object was to eliminate strikes by giving labour a recognised bargaining status; and the enactment was in accord with the enlightened code of labour legislation passed at that time.

With the commencement of the refrigerated trade in 1882, the policy of closer settlement progressed rapidly, since the production of frozen meat and dairy produce for export encouraged more intensive farming. There thus arose a new farming class which in 1911, some five years after Seddon's death, was mainly responsible for the overthrow of the Liberal regime.

The policy of the succeeding Reform Party under Massey was one favouring agricultural production. Farming interests were given constant encouragement by a series of enactments of which the extension of rural credit was typical. Three years after the advent of the Reform Party the First World War, 1914–18, broke out, leading to the formation of a Coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports. War activities were marked by heavy casualty lists, in proportion to the population, and by enhanced cordiality in Imperial relations. One noteworthy outcome of the war commandeer was the precedent given for the establishment, after the war, of control boards to regulate the export of pastoral products.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reductions, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and from the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways.

Owing to the encouragement given to farming, pastoral production constantly expanded, so that New Zealand became one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. As a consequence, her national income was extremely sensitive to price fluctuations of these products; so that, with the advent of the depression in 1930, her economic position became extremely vulnerable. In order to produce balanced budgets, both public and private, various legislative remedies were attempted. In particular, enactments were provided for unemployment relief, for the suspension, in effect, of compulsory arbitration, for the establishment of a Reserve Bank, for a mortgage moratorium, for raising the exchange rate, and for reduction in interest rates and wages. With the recovery in price levels and consequent general economic revival, amendments were made to several of these Acts, removing the more stringent measures. The election of a Labour Government in 1935 led to a change in administrative policy, the preoccupation being mainly with social problems. Further amendments were made to the depression legislation, certain restrictive measures were removed, and other temporary adjustments made permanent.

The general climate of opinion and gradual maturity of outlook furnish the background in which certain distinctive trends appear in legislation passed since 1936.

The first major influence was a humanitarian attitude reinforced by a progressive economic policy. Evidence of this is implicit in the provision for a basic wage, and later for a minimum wage, employment-promotion legislation, amendments to workers' compensation, industrial conciliation and arbitration, mining, etc., legislation, the system of guaranteed prices for certain primary produce, the creation of farm industry reserves, and the rationalisation of production and marketing by the establishment of boards for certain items of primary produce.

The second major influence on legislation was conditioned by the outbreak of the Second World War, 1939–45. A vast body of legislation was placed on the statute book during the war period dealing with the control of manpower and materials, stabilisation of prices, wages, and rents, conditions of employment and suspension of certain peacetime features of industrial activity, discouragement of some industries and diversion to or encouragement of other industries, provision for rehabilitation, etc.

A third dominant trend was the acceptance of the principle that society should take active steps towards the improvement of the working, living, and social circumstances of its members. Foremost in this category was the Social Security Act and its later extensions providing for monetary benefits such as age, superannuation, family allowances, sickness, and unemployment, and by the provision of a system of medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Other legislative enactments under this heading include the provision for paid annual holidays, reduction of working hours, extension of workers' compensation insurance, improvement in safety and health and welfare conditions in industry, and extension of educational facilities and opportunities.

A fourth approach to law making resulting from maturity of outlook has been the increased participation by New Zealand in international affairs consequent on its acceptance of responsibility in the wider issues of the present era. Legislation authorising participation in United Nations activities generally and in particular emergencies, such as military service in Korea, Malaya, and elsewhere; the extension of New Zealand representation in overseas countries and with the United Nations; the greater frequency of Commonwealth consultation; extension of aid to less developed countries, e.g., participation in the Colombo Plan, all bear witness to this change in outlook.

Another influence on legislation presents some parallels to that last mentioned, but is more concerned with the domestic sphere. It is exemplified in the increasing interest taken in welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of New Zealand's island territories, such as the Cook Islands.

Contemporaneously with the expansion of the field of legislative interest, the economic and industrial development of the country has proceeded with marked impetus in recent years. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries have provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force. At the same time the basic industries of the country, those concerned with primary production, have increased output, assisted by the rapid application of technological improvements and research findings.

The history of New Zealand's island territories has been largely one of wise paternal oversight, particularly in the earlier periods, by the New Zealand Government and by the various missions established in the islands. More recently, successive Governments have in various ways encouraged the inhabitants to take an increasing share in the administration of their communities, thus paving the way for some form of self-government. Much attention has been paid to combating tropical diseases and to health problems generally; such island industries as citrus fruit and banana growing have been fostered and encouraged in various ways, with outlets being found for produce available for export. By and large, however, their economy is necessarily one of a subsistence type only, with financial and other assistance provided from Government sources for the expansion of educational facilities and opportunities, public works such as roading, conservation of water supplies by reservoir construction, communication facilities, etc.

Owing to limitations of space, the foregoing is but a brief résumé of New Zealand history. For detailed information, reference should be made to the many excellent books dealing with the subject, of which the more recent ones are listed in the Select Bibliography appearing in Appendix (c) of this Yearbook, and others in earlier issues.

SOVEREIGNTY – Following representations from Maori chiefs for protection from the prevailing turmoil and lawlessness caused by tribal warfare and the rough element around the whaling stations, the New South Wales Government appointed, in 1832, Mr James Busby as British Resident at Russell. Owing to the failure to supply him with any means of exerting authority, his appointment was largely ineffective. Finally the disorder, and the friction between the two races, became so intolerable that even the missionaries, who were opposed to annexation, made representations for British sovereignty.

On 29 January 1840, Captain William Hobson, RN, arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Maoris, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30 January 1840, and on 6 February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred by Hobson from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

With the gradual development of the country's economy, the acquisition of political and administrative experience, and the increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, the degree of self-government became more complete. In recognition of this and of a nascent sense of nationality, New Zealand was given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony, the new title taking effect on 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931 was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth Legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. In other words, its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the Legislatures of those countries. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminster.

As far as the island territories are concerned, the Cook Islands were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888, and in 1901 were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895. Niue Island is part of the Cook Islands, though separately administered, and became part of New Zealand in 1901 with the extension of boundaries to include the Cook Islands. The Tokelau Islands were placed under the protection of Great Britain in 1877, formally annexed at the inhabitants' request in 1916, and from 1925 were administered by New Zealand at the request of the United Kingdom Government. From 1949 they became part of New Zealand by virtue of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948.

NEW ZEALAND'S INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES – Though in the nineteenth century Sir Julius Vogel and the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon had original views about the policy which Britain and New Zealand should pursue in the Pacific area – views which they announced with vigour – New Zealand did not acquire the right to conduct an independent foreign policy until the end of the First World War when the full nationhood of the “Dominions” was recognised. For some years after this, however, successive New Zealand Governments chose not to exercise this right and (pursuing a passive role in the League of Nations and refraining from establishing diplomatic relations with foreign Governments, or with other members of the Commonwealth apart from Britain) preferred to make known any views on matters of foreign affairs only to the British Government and through the confidential channels of intra-Commonwealth consultation.

Few pressures existed in the 1920s and early 1930s to impel New Zealand towards enunciating an independent foreign policy. The population was mainly British in composition and comparatively few were concerned to distinguish between New Zealand's interests and those of Britain. Nor had they much cause to do so: New Zealand had established a fruitful economic partnership with Britain, upon which country nearly all her material and cultural links were centred; and New Zealand's surest protector against dangers which it was incapable of meeting alone was the Royal Navy. It was, moreover, realised that New Zealand in her own right could make little impact on world affairs, whereas Britain was a great power capable of affecting the pattern of world events. New Zealand “foreign policy” therefore consisted chiefly in seeking to modify British policy in those few cases where New Zealand had a strong interest or a viewpoint rather different from that of Britain. A standing opportunity was provided by the system of confidential intra-Commonwealth consultation whereby Britain provided full information to the Dominions and sought their comments upon issues of international policy as they arose. In this way New Zealand tended to prefer a share of great power status to “independence” of foreign policy; this sufficed until the middle of the 1930s.

In practice, during the first 16 years after the First World War the New Zealand Government on only a few occasions thought it necessary to make significant efforts to bring about a modification of British policy. This situation resulted chiefly from the factors earlier outlined which made for an identity of interest and viewpoint between Britain and New Zealand. In part also it arose because few problems directly affecting New Zealand remained to be settled; in part it was because of a considered reluctance to give advice when the main consequences of accepting that advice fell upon Britain, not New Zealand; in part it was because New Zealand Governments tended to approach problems pragmatically rather than on grounds of principle, and were conscious of having no expert New Zealand Department organised to collect and appraise the facts on equal terms with the British Foreign Office; in part it was because New Zealand Governments, supplied by the Foreign Office with very much the same information as that on which the United Kingdom Cabinet based its judgments, viewed problems from a similar standpoint to that of the British Government. In short, most New Zealanders thought of external affairs in terms of Imperial unity and relied on British leadership of the Empire.

The emergence of an independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually held to date from 1935. Some Ministers in the new Government were deeply interested in world affairs in general, and the Government's approach was influenced by theory and principle. In particular, they held strong views on the principle of collective security and upon the League of Nations as the embodiment of that principle. In its method of championing the principles of collective security, pressing for the restoration of the authority of the League of Nations and, at a time when the United Kingdom Government was pursuing the policy which came to be known as appeasement, urging positive League action over Abyssinia, Spain, and China, the Government came to depart from the pattern of the previous 16 years: for, in addition to making its views known in confidential communications to the United Kingdom Government, it also stated them with vigour in the international forum of the Council and the Assembly of the League of Nations.

There was, however, no fundamental departure from the traditional policy of association with Britain. Moreover, the course that would be followed in the event of war was never in doubt. As early as 16 May 1938 a leading member of the Government had said, “If the Old Country is attacked, we are too … we will assist her to the fullest extent possible.” When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms that were as true in 1939 as they would have been in 1914:

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear behind Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we are one and all a band of brothers, and we march forward with a union of hearts and wills to a common destiny.”

But the Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world and made it necessary for New Zealand gradually to revise its foreign policy and its method of implementing that policy. Even though the basic attachment of New Zealanders to Britain was little affected, the fact became manifest that Britain was no longer a power able to determine events on a world scale and that, since New Zealand interests could no longer be protected by British actions alone, it did not suffice to confine New Zealand foreign policy to occasional attempts to persuade the British Government to take note of New Zealand views. Japanese aggression and, later, the rise of Communist China forced New Zealand to face the reality of its geographical location in the Pacific and to develop an additional relationship with the only other friendly power capable of protecting New Zealand – the United States of America – with the least possible prejudice to its association with the United Kingdom. To contribute to Anglo-American harmony is therefore a major preoccupation of New Zealand foreign policy.

To be woven into any post-war policy was the now traditional New Zealand belief in the principle of collective security and international justice, especially as symbolised by, though not yet embodied in, the United Nations. This was by no means an easy task in a world where the divisions of the cold war were reflected in competing regional alliances. There had to be a place, too, for belief in the ability of international cooperation to control armaments and to eliminate poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

During the war years New Zealand was admitted to the councils of the Allies and was expected to advance informed views. The Government honoured its responsibility and, having established in wartime the habit of participating in the making of international decisions, accepted it as natural that New Zealand should continue to participate in the development of a post-war world order and in subsequent international consultations. To this end New Zealand established (in effect from 1943) a professional Department of External Affairs and a career foreign service, and proceeded slowly to establish diplomatic missions in countries where New Zealand's interests merited protection. In particular, New Zealand sought increasingly to make its individual contribution to fostering good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and to increasing the measure of security and welfare in this area.

The threat to New Zealand's security, posed by the entry of Japan into the war at a time when the United Kingdom was fully committed in Europe, brought New Zealand into the closest relations with two of her Pacific neighbours, Australia and the United States. Recognition of the need for a greater measure of collaboration with Australia resulted in the signing in 1944 of the Canberra Pact which provided machinery for continuing consultation between the two Governments. Upon the entry of Japan into the war both New Zealand and Australia looked principally to the United States for protection. Relations among the three countries thus entered a new phase. The close association of wartime found expression in peacetime in the Anzus Treaty, in which, for the first time, New Zealand and Australia entered into a treaty of alliance and mutual defence with a foreign country. While neither Australia nor New Zealand was in favour of a vindictive or onerously restrictive peace settlement with Japan, they both made clear during the negotiation of the Japanese Peace Treaty their apprehension at the possibility of future aggression in the Pacific. The Anzus Treaty, which came into force in April 1952, was designed to allay these fears at the same time as it achieved the aim of both countries to enter into a close relationship with the major Pacific power. The treaty gives an assurance of United States support in the event of an armed attack from any quarter in the Pacific and so constitutes New Zealand's major safeguard from aggression in the area.

Since the signature of the Anzus Treaty, New Zealand has become a member of another regional defence system, the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation, SEATO. In joining SEATO, a body made necessary by the failure of the Great Powers to cooperate in carrying out the security functions entrusted to them by the United Nations Charter, New Zealand demonstrated further its new awareness of the international and strategic implications of its position in the South Pacific. In 1955, the Minister of External Affairs, the Hon. T. L. Macdonald, discussing New Zealand's foreign policy, said that the only possible threat to New Zealand's security could come from Asia, and in particular from the spread of Communist power in South-East Asia. “New Zealand's foreign policy grows,” he said, “from the need to reconcile geography and history, economic fact and strategic fact. In practical terms at present this means that, without weakening the many links which bind us to Britain and the whole Atlantic community, we must increase our concern with South-East Asia.”

This regional approach implied no weakening of the belief in the pre-eminent value of collective security organised on a world basis. New Zealand continued to place special importance upon its membership of the United Nations. It has been an active participant in the work of the General Assembly, has been a member of all Councils of the Organisation, has provided troops to the United Nations Force in Korea and military observers in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon, and has endeavoured to assist all efforts to attain the political and social objectives outlined in the Charter.

At the time of the formation of SEATO, New Zealand's interest in South-East Asia had already been expressed in social and economic terms. In 1950, New Zealand, along with a group of other Commonwealth countries, became a member of the Colombo Plan established to assist the countries of South-East Asia to improve their standards of living. To New Zealand, a pioneer in the field of social legislation and a country where wealth is spread throughout all levels of the population, the Colombo Plan has a special significance and contributions, large by New Zealand standards (if small when measured against the potential need), have been made to it. Despite this new concentration on South-East Asia, New Zealand continued and developed its efforts (as will be seen later) to promote action on a world scale to deal with social and economic problems.

New Zealand's geographical position and that of its island territories, the Cook, Niue and Tokelau Islands, also gives this country a direct interest in political, social, and economic developments in the South Pacific. This is reflected not only in New Zealand's membership of such regional organisations as the South Pacific Commission, but also in a wide and growing range of contacts with island people and an increased sense of involvement in their problems. The evolution of self-government and nationalism in the South Pacific reached a new stage when Western Samoa became the first independent Polynesian state on 1 January 1962. New Zealand's own colonial past and her liberal tradition of friendship for emergent peoples, together with the large number of Polynesian people who have settled in this country, mean that the islanders tend to look to New Zealand for leadership and encouragement. In particular, Western Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji already look to New Zealand as an important export market and as a source of administrative and technical assistance. Inevitably, New Zealand is going to be increasingly affected by what happens in the South Pacific region.

If, since the war, the facts of geography have had an important influence on New Zealand's attitudes towards foreign affairs, history and tradition continue nevertheless to mould its outlook. The historic links with the United Kingdom and with Western Europe and North America remain as strong as ever; and the economic links with the United Kingdom, New Zealand's best customer, remain strong. No situation is, however, constant. One of the key problems of external political and economic policy now presented to New Zealand arises out of the movement towards political and economic integration in Europe and the continuing possibility of Britain's membership of the European Economic Community. New Zealand must expand the volume and value of its exports of primary products if the standard of living of its rapidly increasing population is to be maintained and improved. In recent years it has become increasingly apparent, however, that the United Kingdom market is capable of only a limited expansion. The development of new markets in Asia and other less developed countries is hindered by low income levels as well as by consumption patterns in which the type of foodstuff exported by New Zealand does not figure prominently. New Zealand's foreign policy is likely to continue the endeavour to reconcile geography and history, economic fact and strategic fact.

Department of External Affairs — The External Affairs Act 1943 made provision for the appointment of a Minister of External Affairs charged generally with the administration of external and foreign affairs, including relations with other countries, communications with other Governments, representation abroad, and representation of other countries in New Zealand. The Act also authorised the appointment of a Secretary of External Affairs and (superseding the High Commissioner Act of 1908) dealt with the appointment of High Commissioners and of overseas representatives.

The functions of the Department were defined at its inception as follows:

  1. To act as a channel of communication between the Government and other Commonwealth and foreign Governments on matters relating to external affairs.

  2. To assist in negotiating treaties and international agreements.

  3. To direct New Zealand's overseas diplomatic posts.

  4. To deal with foreign diplomats, and to issue exequaturs to foreign consuls.

The Act thus established the Ministry of External Affairs as the normal channel of communication with the Governments of other countries. As, however, the new Department was in fact still a part of the Prime Minister's Department, no change in procedure, apart from the use of the changed nomenclature, was necessary.

Dealings with overseas Governments usually involve considerable interdepartmental coordination. Since the Prime Minister's Department has always been regarded primarily as a department of coordination, an intimate relationship has existed between the two Departments. The Prime Minister has for three periods found it appropriate to assume the portfolio of External Affairs and the Departments have in any case been run as a unit. The staff is held in common and, though some officers are engaged on work peculiar to one Department, the work of the majority involves both Departments. The Secretary of External Affairs is also Permanent Head of the Prime Minister's Department. In defence matters the two Departments have been closely associated. During the war, the Permanent Head was also Secretary of the War Cabinet. In that period the responsibility of the Prime Minister's Department for defence coordination was extended and developed; in discharging this responsibility the Permanent Head is now assisted by the Defence Secretariat of the Prime Minister's Department. This Secretariat works closely with the Defence Division of the Department of External Affairs, and the head of that Division is chairman of the body which coordinates military and civilian intelligence.

In the formulation and application of external affairs policy, close association with other Government Departments is necessary. Defence planning, for example, entails close liaison with the Ministry of Defence, participation in the Colombo Plan with the Treasury and with the many Departments which supply experts and training facilities, consular questions with the Department of Labour, and legal questions with the Department of Justice. Moreover, the Department is a clearing house for a wide variety of material provided by overseas posts for other Departments. As well as fulfilling its major function of acting as a channel of communication with other Governments, the Department thus acts as a coordinating centre for other Government Departments. The Department and its network of posts overseas also perform numerous services on behalf of Departments which are without overseas representatives of their own.

In the Official Section at the end of the Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representatives overseas are listed, as well as the official representatives of other countries in New Zealand.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth — Despite the new emphasis in New Zealand's approach to international affairs resulting from its consciousness of the realities of its geographical position in the South Pacific, membership of the Commonwealth remains the central feature of its policy. Intimate association with the United Kingdom is the historical basis, and remains an important principle of New Zealand's external relations. The ties between New Zealand and the United Kingdom are embodied in the close association of the Commonwealth, membership of which has given New Zealand an international status that such a small and isolated community could not otherwise claim.

Although one of the oldest members, New Zealand, unlike some of its fellow members, did not seek to hasten the process of constitutional transition within the Commonwealth. At the Imperial Conference in 1930 the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. G. W. Forbes, stated that “We have felt that all times within recent years we have had ample scope for our national aspirations and ample freedom to carry out in their entirety such measures as have seemed to us to be desirable”. There was little interest in the adoption of the relevant provisions of the Statute of Westminster enacted in 1931 to give legal endorsement to the transformation that had taken place in the relationship between Britain and the Dominions. It was not, in fact, until 1947 that the necessary formalities were completed in New Zealand by the passing of the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act.

Since that time there have been many changes in the Commonwealth association both in constitutional respects and in numbers. Whereas at the beginning of the war there were only five members, (of whom one, South Africa, withdrew from the association in 1961), there are now 18 and it is expected that more will join within the next few years. With the entry of India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Malaysia, Ghana, Nigeria, Cyprus, Sierra Leone, Tanganyika, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Uganda, the Commonwealth has become an entity embracing several continents and its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. New Zealand, itself a country where two races live side by side, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multiracial cooperation and understanding.

New Zealand has as yet exchanged representatives with only the following members of the Commonwealth: Australia, Canada, India,* Malaysia, and Britain.

The importance New Zealand attaches to the Commonwealth association has been given practical expression in its membership of a number of Commonwealth organisations, including the Commonwealth Air Transport Council, the Commonwealth Telecommunications Board, the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, the Imperial War Graves Commission, the Commonwealth Institute, the Commonwealth Economic Consultative Council, the Commonwealth Scientific Office, and the Commonwealth Education Liaison Committee.

New Zealand and the South Pacific — It is not without significance that the first area of the world towards which New Zealanders developed a distinct and characteristic attitude should have been the South Pacific. This is New Zealand's immediate environment, its Polynesian peoples close kin to the New Zealand Maori, its islands nearest and most important in the lines of communication which link New Zealand with America and Europe. New Zealand is, moreover, the largest community in the area and cannot escape either a concern or a responsibility for what goes on there.

* The New Zealand High Commissioner in India is also appointed High Commissioner in Ceylon.

Within a decade of New Zealand's establishment as a British colony Bishop Selwyn had made it the base for Anglican missions in the South Pacific and Sir George Grey as Governor had begun to advocate a policy of expansion in the area. The increasing involvement of other powers and a desire to develop trade led Sir Julius Vogel in the 1870s to take up Grey's idea and to put forward various schemes for political and commercial expansion, which, however, found no favour in London. In the 1880s New Zealand joined the Australian colonies in an effort to preserve “Oceania for the Anglo-Saxons”, and soon after the movement reached its peak in the robust opposition of Richard John Seddon to the bargaining away of Samoa in 1899.

The meagre fruit of half a century's agitation was the annexation in 1901 of the Cook Islands and their inclusion within the boundaries of New Zealand. Thereafter New Zealand's interest in the South Pacific declined as its trade and its thoughts came to centre more and more on Great Britain. But though declining, the tradition was still strong enough to provide support for the Imperial Federation movement in the first decade of the twentieth century and, more practically, to inspire New Zealand on the outbreak of war in 1914 to occupy Germany's colony of Western Samoa.

At the end of the war Western Samoa, like other former German possessions, was retained by the occupying power under a League of Nations Mandate. New Zealand embarked on its new responsibility with greater enthusiasm than it had shown in the Cook Islands and much effort was devoted to solving the problems of the territory. The rate of change thus created, however, proved too rapid for the tradition-loving Samoans. In the late 1920s a series of unfortunate incidents occurred and, for some time afterwards, the pace slackened. The opening up in the late 1930s of air routes across the Pacific led New Zealand, along with other countries, to take an increased interest in some of the more remote islands in the area, but it was the outbreak of the Second World War which forcibly reminded the country of its situation.

Overnight half-forgotten islands became strategic points for the defence of New Zealand and its allies, and New Zealanders again became aware of the need to prevent them from falling into unfriendly hands. Accordingly, New Zealand joined with Australia in seeking ways to guarantee the future security of the area, and there emerged first the Canberra Pact of 1944 and later the 1947 Agreement to establish the South Pacific Commission.

Through the Commission the Governments administering territories in the South Pacific — the United States, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, and (formerly) the Netherlands have made a concerted effort to promote the economic and social development of the area and its peoples. In the 17 years of its existence the Commission has, though working within narrow budgetary limits, done much valuable work particularly in bringing the islanders together and developing a sense of community among them. New Zealand has played a full and active part in the Commission's work and its territories have benefited along with others.

But New Zealand has not been content with promoting progress in the economic and social spheres. At the San Francisco Conference in 1945 it took a leading part in working out the trusteeship system embodied in the UN Charter and subsequently the League of Nations Mandate for Western Samoa was replaced by a trusteeship agreement. In accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people a programme of political and constitutional development was launched which continued throughout the 1950s and culminated in the establishment of the Independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. The transfer of sovereignty did not, however, terminate the close and friendly relationship which had grown up between Western Samoa and New Zealand and this was confirmed in a Treaty of Friendship between the two countries signed in August 1962. Under this New Zealand will continue to give Western Samoa assistance in the educational and other fields, and in the 1963–64 financial year this will amount to nearly £140,000.

While Western Samoa was moving rapidly towards independence the process of constitutional development was begun in New Zealand's other island territories. Following expert surveys a programme of economic and social development for the Cook Islands was formulated in 1955 and legislative assemblies for the Cook Islands and for Niue Island were set up in 1957. In 1962 the New Zealand Government decided to hand over to these bodies full responsibility for allocating the substantial subsidies granted by New Zealand each year, and later it announced a plan for the establishment of full internal self-government in the territories by 1965. This plan was communicated to the UN General Assembly at its seventeenth regular session.

The independence of Western Samoa and the progress of the remaining New Zealand territories presage a broad change in the South Pacific. Economic, social and educational development has made the peoples of the area more self-conscious and desirous of managing their own affairs. At the same time developments in New Guinea have attracted international attention, and the intensification of interest in colonial questions in the UN is likely to bring the South Pacific into yet greater prominence. In the light of these changes New Zealand has taken the lead in proposing that the organisation and functions of the South Pacific Commission be revised so as to bring its work more into line with the needs and aspirations of the islands' peoples, and to enable them to participate more directly. At the same time consultations are going on among the Governments administering territories in the South Pacific with a view to accelerating the development of the area and maintaining its stability. In these and other ways New Zealand is actively striving to fulfil its special responsibility as a Pacific country for the peace and progress of this part of the world.

New Zealand in the United Nations — It has been noted earlier that the first significant expression of an independent New Zealand foreign policy occurred in the League of Nations and was directed to supporting the principle of collective security. Support for this principle later and through the United Nations has remained a cornerstone of New Zealand's foreign policy.

The purposes which motivated the policy in 1935 were strongly held beliefs, rather than a set of principles developed from any careful assessments by a national foreign service. The beliefs were nevertheless a reflection of widely held concern over world events, a concern which the succeeding years were to reinforce. It was, therefore, perhaps understandable that at San Francisco in 1945 New Zealand should argue so forcibly, if unsuccessfully, to eliminate the veto and to strengthen the collective security provisions of the United Nations Charter.

Despite its physical isolation New Zealand has felt unable to regard with unconcern the fate of other small countries helpless to defend themselves against a powerful aggressor and thus liable to be picked off one by one.

The United Nations does not, it is true, offer a complete guarantee of New Zealand's or any other small country's security against aggression. Nor has it yet achieved agreement on disarmament; but New Zealand Governments have acted upon the conviction that the United Nations, and it alone, contains the rudiments of a universal collective security system, and that it is through the United Nations, and not through its abandonment in favour of some alternative, that an effective and comprehensive collective security system may eventually be developed and agreement on disarmament achieved.

New Zealand has recognised that this objective must be a long-term one, and that the United Nations in its present form must be buttressed by regional defensive alliances. It has not taken the view that all multilateral diplomacy must be conducted within the United Nations. In general, however, New Zealand has regarded the United Nations as the natural centre of international diplomacy unless there were, in special cases, good reasons to work outside it.

Within the United Nations the expression of this policy has taken several forms. New Zealand has sought to remove the causes which might produce the need for recourse to collective security action. Its representatives have urged that the Assembly be used as a place for harmonising relations between nations: they have voiced the need for restraint in the pursuit of national objectives; they have consistently sought and supported responsible action in aid of an effective international organisation; they have reiterated the need for the early adoption of a broad programme of supervised disarmament.

New Zealand has at the same time advocated adequate and timely preparations in case aggression should occur. When occasion has arisen New Zealand has been prepared to play its part: troops were supplied to the United Nations Force in Korea and military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon. New Zealand representatives in the United Nations have also strongly supported the principle that all members must bear an equitable share of the cost of international action to meet aggression, e.g., the cost of supporting the United Nations Emergency Force in the Middle East and the United Nations' operation in the Congo.

To maintain the peace is the primary purpose of the United Nations, and for New Zealand the search for effective guarantees of international peace and security continues to be the first object of membership. It is not, however, the only object, nor is a system of collective security (or disarmament) the only means of giving effect to it.

The state of economic, social, and general political relations goes far to determine the urgency of the need for a collective security system. For New Zealand, geographically isolated and with limited direct diplomatic relations, the United Nations is inevitably one of the most important forums available, not only to influence the course of international events, but also to secure the friendship and understanding of the world community. For any country, its international reputation is a valuable asset. If New Zealand is better known and commands more influence in international affairs than some other small States similarly situated, this is in some measure, at least, due to New Zealand's record of active participation in the United Nations.

Economic and Social Council — New Zealand's interest in economic and social questions — as well as the recognition by other countries that New Zealand has special experience to offer — is illustrated by its membership of the Economic and Social Council (an elective body of 18 members of the United Nations) from 1947 to 1949 and its re-election in 1958 for a further term for the period 1959 to 1961. New Zealand is a member of the Commission on International Commodity Trade, and in 1963 became a full regional member of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), a body of which it had previously been a nonregional member. In the past New Zealand has also designated representatives on the Technical Assistance Committee and on the Statistical, Social, and Fiscal Commissions and the Commission on the Status of Women.

In undertaking these responsibilities New Zealand may to some extent be regarded as “taking its turn”. In few cases, however, are the considerations in favour of representation so simple. New Zealand certainly shares with others an interest in ensuring that economic and social conditions are such as to permit ordered political progress. It is concerned to ensure that, where political principles are in issue, the beliefs which New Zealanders hold as essential should be recognised and, if possible, accepted by the world community. Sometimes there are strong reasons of self-interest; the weight of advantage received, in terms of professional benefit, and the contribution made are evenly balanced in the case of technical bodies such as the Statistical Commission. On the other hand some organs which were first designed to meet the emergency of post-war conditions, such as UNICEF, have developed programmes, e.g., the supply of milk powder and fish-liver oil, which are of economic interest to New Zealand.

The biggest single task now facing the Economic and Social Council is to promote and direct programmes for economic development in underdeveloped countries. New Zealand has always recognised the need for economic development and made its contributions to the appropriate funds, e.g., the Expanded Programme for Technical Assistance and the Special Fund. It has been concerned to ensure that international programmes in this field should be effective and realistic.

At present New Zealand representatives in the United Nations are called upon to deal with questions of economic development in three different fields. One is in the Economic Committee of the General Assembly, where the economic work of the Organisation is subject to general review; the second arises out of New Zealand's membership of ECAFE. In this setting, the detailed study of development programmes is closely related to the work of the Colombo Plan, and provides a significant counterpart to New Zealand's growing political interest in Asia. Finally, as a member of the Technical Assistance Committee of the Economic and Social Council, New Zealand is associated with activities affecting the lives and welfare of a considerable proportion of the world's population.

Specialised Agencies — It is the responsibility of the Economic and Social Council under the Charter to coordinate the activities of the Specialised Agencies through consultations and recommendations. New Zealand is a member of all the Agencies except the International Development Association. As a contributor to their budgets, it is concerned to ensure that activities are not duplicated and that the Secretariats of the United Nations and of the Agencies work closely together on matters of common interest. New Zealand has also been concerned to ensure that on political and administrative matters the policies of the Agencies are adjusted to those of the United Nations. As in the case of the different organs and subsidiary bodies of the United Nations, so with the Specialised Agencies, New Zealand's reasons for membership have ranged from motives of self-interest to its conviction of the value of international cooperation. In some cases non-membership would place New Zealand at a distinct disadvantage. Membership of the Universal Postal Union is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country. Similarly the International Telecommunications Union regulates international radio, telephone, and telegraphic traffic, and the need to belong to this body is universally accepted. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for setting standards and encouraging the free interchange of meteorological information. Wartime experience emphasised the fact that few countries have as direct an interest in international civil aviation as New Zealand; New Zealand is closely concerned with the efforts of the International Civil Aviation Organisation to foster the planning and development of international air transport and to ensure proper standards for the development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities.

No clear line can, however, be drawn between the “technical” Agencies and others, and some degree of technical advantage is to be derived from membership of all the Specialised Agencies. Although its own health standards are high, New Zealand has nevertheless drawn benefits, particularly in its island territories, from its membership of the World Health Organisation. Each in its own field — the Food and Agriculture Organisation, the International Labour Organisation, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation, and the International Atomic Energy Agency — constitutes an important international medium for the free interchange of knowledge and experience.

On occasion the Specialised Agencies provide the forum for advancement of a New Zealand interest. The FAO has played a prominent part in the formulation of measures to encourage the establishment of a stable international market for agricultural commodities, particularly in the enunciation of principles to govern the disposal of surplus commodities. The FAO's interest in the disposal of surplus foodstuffs was increased in December 1961 when the United Nations approved the establishment of a World Food Programme to be administered jointly by FAO and the United Nations. New Zealand has been elected to the inter-Governmental Committee charged with the responsibility of supervising the Programme and in 1962 announced its intention of contributing over the next three years $75,000 in cash and $425,000 in commodities.

New Zealand's accession to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation not only allows this country to participate in measures designed to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital.

As well as the Commonwealth organisations mentioned earlier some regional organisations, particularly the South Pacific Commission, are of particular importance to New Zealand. Since the establishment of the Commission in 1947, New Zealand's island territories have derived much benefit from its work on fisheries, cooperatives, control of the rhinoceros beetle, and research upon filariasis.

New Zealand and the South-East Asia Collective Defence Treaty — When, in the years following 1945, it became clear that there were serious obstacles to the effective implementation of those provisions of the United Nations Charter which were designed to establish a universal system of collective security, the alternative of regional arrangements was further developed. In South-East Asia, a few years after NATO was established, the South-East Asia Collective Defence Treaty (also known as the Manila Treaty or Pact) was negotiated.

The idea of such a treaty had been canvassed during the early 1950s. In the early part of 1954, however, a number of governments became greatly concerned at the progress of the war in Indochina and the deteriorating situation in South-East Asia, and on 29 March the United States called for “united action” to resist further Communist expansion. Shortly thereafter the United Kingdom and France agreed that consideration should be given to the establishment as soon as possible of a collective security system in the area. The New Zealand Minister of External Affairs stated on 19 April that his Government welcomed this proposal and was prepared to participate.

The Geneva Agreements for Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia (which were completed on 21 July 1954) were an achievement of considerable importance and value, but they fellshort of a fully guaranteed settlement. After a period of consultation eight governments — Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States — agreed to attend a conference to consider a system of collective defence for South-East Asia. On 8 September in Manila they signed the South-East Asia Collective Defence Treaty. At the same time they proclaimed the Pacific Charter, in which they set out principles on which they undertook to base their policies for the maintenance of peace and stability. The treaty was ratified by New Zealand on 19 February 1955.

The first meeting of the Council envisaged by the Treaty, comprising the Foreign Ministers of all the allied governments, was held in Bangkok in February 1955. Since then the Council has met on seven occasions: at Karachi in 1956, Canberra in 1957, Manila in 1958, Wellington in 1959, Washington in 1960, Bangkok in 1961, and Paris in 1963. The Council has overall control of the activities of the alliance. (The name “South-East Asia Treaty Organisation” was derived by analogy with NATO and CENTO: in practice it refers to the joint activity of the eight allies.)

At that first meeting the Council established a body known as the Council Representatives to carry on its functions between Council meetings. Council Representatives are generally the heads of their countries' diplomatic missions in Bangkok; New Zealand is at present represented by its Ambassador in Thailand, Sir Stephen Weir. From time to time various expert committees and study groups have been convened to give collective advice to Council Representatives.

In 1957 a Secretary-General was appointed, Mr Pote Sarasin, of Thailand. A permanent civil Secretariat was established in Bangkok, with an international staff of 43 officers, including four New Zealanders.

The Council also agreed in February 1955 that the Military Advisers to the Ministers should meet as a group to advise it on measures for common defence. Subsequently in 1957 a Military Planning Office was established in Bangkok and from 1958–60 the position of Chief of this Office was held by a New Zealander, Brigadier (now Major-General) L. W. Thornton. Joint military exercises, in which units of the sea, land, and air forces of all member countries participate are regularly organised.

SEATO is a defensive alliance. Neither in concept nor in structure is it fitted for a major role in the fields of economic, social, or cultural development, for which purpose other well-established and experienced organisations exist. But the signatories to the Manila Treaty did give explicit recognition to the fact that the security and well being of a nation depend on more than the ability to repel an aggressor. Economic and social as well as military objectives were written into the Treaty. These provisions, and the activities which have stemmed from them, reflect an awareness of the true nature of the challenge in South-East Asia. They confirm and reinforce the essentially peaceful intent of the allies, and demonstrate that the cooperation between them is based on wider considerations than the need to take steps to meet the threat of overt aggression. Accordingly SEATO has developed a range of fairly significant economic, cultural, and educational activities.

In all SEATO economic projects the principle of assistance on a bilateral basis has been followed, but projects have generally attracted support from most of the member governments.

All members have, for example, contributed to the SEATO Graduate School of Engineering which was established in Bangkok in September 1959. New Zealand has provided the Professor of Hydrology and made an annual payment of approximately £1,200 to the scholarship fund. As part of the SEATO Skilled Labour Programme New Zealand made 25 awards available annually for the training in New Zealand military establishments of service personnel from the Asian member countries. New Zealand has contributed a mobile medical unit headed by a New Zealand doctor to the Thai-SEATO Community Development Project which has been set up in North-east Thailand.

An exchange programme provides for research fellowships, post-graduate and under-graduate scholarships. In 1958 a South-East Asian Round Table enabled eminent scholars from the member countries and also India, Japan, Sarawak, and South Vietnam to meet together in Bangkok and discuss the impact of Western technology on Asian traditional cultures. In 1961 SEATO sponsored a Conference in Karachi of Heads of Universities, at which many of the problems facing higher education in South-East Asia were usefully explored. New Zealand took part in both.

The Manila Treaty speaks not only of maintaining and developing individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack but also preventing and countering “subversive activities directed from without” against the territorial integrity and political stability of member countries. With the passage of years it has become clear that the principal threat to the Treaty Area at the present time is from such indirect aggression; subversion by foreign agents developing perhaps into wide-scale insurgency. This is the problem that the allies have to face. In addition, therefore, to stepping up their economic and social development – which is the best defence against this form of offensive – member governments have found it useful and indeed necessary to take more direct measures against the danger of subversion. These are primarily a national responsibility. Council Representatives make it their business, however, to identify subversion in its various forms, to assess the nature of the threat which it poses, and to suggest ways in which that threat may be met.

Two seminars on countering Communist subversion have been held, one in Baguio in the Philippines in 1958, and one in Lahore in 1960: at both of these New Zealand was represented.

In May 1962, following a serious violation of the ceasefire in Laos by the Communist-directed Pathet Lao and in response to an invitation by the Thai Government, the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand despatched forces to Thailand. Each of them made it clear that this was a precautionary move, taken in accordance with their obligations under the Manila Treaty, to enable them to come more speedily to the defence of Thailand should the need arise.

When he announced the decision of the New Zealand Government to send to Thailand a detachment of Special Air Service Troops of the New Zealand Army and transport aircraft of the RNZAF, the Prime Minister pointed out that sending even a token military contribution was a serious step for New Zealand to take. It was, nevertheless, a measure of New Zealanders' growing recognition of the responsibilities they owed towards South-East Asia, of their involvement in the affairs of South-East Asia and, ultimately, of the importance of South-East Asia for their own defence. All the nations of this part of the world, he said, must support each other militarily and economically if they were to withstand aggression and the threat of aggression, whatever form it might take.

The Special Air Service Troops were withdrawn in September 1962, and the transport aircraft in December. The Secretary-General of the United Nations was informed of their deployment in Thailand and subsequently of their withdrawal.

In January 1963 two RNZAF transport aircraft were sent to Thailand to provide air transport support for various assistance programmes under way to help develop logistic facilities in that country.

New Zealand and the Colombo Plan – Under the Colombo Plan, New Zealand, with Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America, has joined with the countries of South and South-East Asia to help them improve their standards of living. The Colombo Plan is not a single plan, but a series of separate plans drawn up and administered by each country in the region; the external assistance required and made available to help implement these plans is negotiated on a bilateral basis. The Plan had its origin in, and took its name from, a meeting of Commonwealth Foreign Ministers held in January 1950 in Colombo to exchange views on world problems, particularly on the economic needs of the countries of South and South-East Asia. The meeting established a Consultative Committee to “… survey the needs, to assess the resources available and required, to focus world attention on the development problems of the area, and to provide a framework within which an international cooperative effort could be promoted to assist the countries of the area to raise their living standards”. Since then the Consultative Committee has met consecutively in Sydney, London, Colombo, Karachi, New Delhi, Ottawa, Singapore, Wellington (1956), Saigon, Seattle, Jogjakarta, Tokyo, Kuala Lumpur, and Melbourne. The 1963 meeting was held in Bangkok.

A foundation member of the Plan and an active participant at every meeting, New Zealand has done its utmost, within the scope of its limited resources, to make significant grants of capital and technical assistance to the countries of the area.

Capital Assistance – By 30 June 1963 New Zealand had appropriated a total of £12,144,064 for capital and technical assistance under the Colombo Plan. Of this, at 30 June 1963, £7,178,537 in capital aid had been transferred to the governments concerned or used at their request to buy equipment. Most of New Zealand's capital aid has been given in the form of direct transfers of overseas funds, but in appropriate cases it has been possible to supply equipment manufactured in New Zealand.

Among the capital aid grants negotiated or made during 1963 was £100,000 for milk tankers for the Bombay-Anand Milk Schemes to which New Zealand has already made grants totalling £193,000. Approval was also obtained for a programme including a grant of £70,000 to India for dairy schemes at Dehra Dun and Dhulia. A sum of £200,000 was remitted to Pakistan to assist in establishing a sugar mill at Jaipur Hat. Sarawak and Sabah received £14,000 during the year to establish a joint survey school and £10,000 was used to establish a chemical engineering section for the Singapore Industrial Research Unit which New Zealand established in 1962 at a cost of £30,000. A grant of £125,000 has also been set aside for an Agricultural Faculty at Khon Kaen University in North-east Thailand. A grant of £30,000 for trades training equipment for secondary schools in the Philippines was made during 1963, bringing New Zealand's total contribution to this project so far to £80,000. New Zealand has assisted regional projects in providing £61,400 for the Mekong River Development Scheme, as well as equipment for the Tonle Sap tributary project and is giving £100,000 annually for 10 years to the Indus Water Scheme in India and Pakistan.

Technical Assistance – By 30 June 1963 New Zealand had spent a total of £2,849,471 on technical assistance, and 1,345 students had come to New Zealand. The number of students studying in New Zealand at the end of June had risen to 457, the largest number ever here at any one time. At 30 June 1963 there were 45 New Zealanders on assignment overseas as experts, in many cases associated with the capital aid projects mentioned above.

Commonwealth Aid Schemes – New Zealand participates in two cooperative aid programmes for Commonwealth members. Under the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan New Zealand offers each year 15 two-year scholarships for post-graduate or undergraduate study, three administrative fellowships, and three prestige fellowships for scholars of high academic standing. The New Zealand annual contribution of £50,000 to the Special Commonwealth Aid to Africa Plan, under which Commonwealth countries outside Africa provide bilateral assistance to African members, will enable up to 80 Africans to study in New Zealand, and several New Zealand experts to work in Africa, as well as providing for small capital or equipment grants in appropriate cases.

General Aims – It is clear that, as New Zealand has assumed the international responsibilities appropriate to an independent country, its foreign policy has changed in emphasis and scope. The foundations of New Zealand's pre-war position in international affairs – its identification with Britain and its membership of the Commonwealth – have been modified and extended to meet the demands of an international situation greatly changed from that of 1939. As a country of predominantly European settlement, New Zealand retains its traditional loyalties to the United Kingdom and a sense of identity with Europe and of involvement in its destiny. As a Pacific power, it has sought security in friendship and formal defensive arrangements with Australia and the United States of America. New Zealand's growing involvement in the problems of the South Pacific region and its close ties with the island peoples are giving rise to a new recognition of the importance of the role it will have to play in this area in the future. New Zealand is in a unique position to encourage the growth of a regional consciousness in the South Pacific which is essential if the problems of the area are to be seen and tackled as a whole. At the same time it has developed its association with Asian countries. As a country concerned with the preservation of world peace and the organisation of defence against aggression it has placed prime importance upon development of the United Nations as an agency for peaceful settlement of international disputes and for the achievement of collective security. Pending the establishment of a broadly based United Nations security system, however, New Zealand has been prepared, in respect of South-East Asia, to participate in a protective grouping concerned with the defence of a single area. Moreover, while it sees aggressive Communism as the greatest threat to individual liberty at the present time, it is well aware of the powerful stirrings of other forces – the yearning for political emancipation, the antagonism to systems of racial discrimination, the demand of underprivileged countries for a greater share of the world's prosperity, for social advancement and opportunity. New Zealand's actions in the international field are designed to take account of these forces and, where possible, to assist the people of other countries in their striving for a better life. The limits of what it is able to do are those imposed by its size and capacity; its disposition is towards peaceful and friendly relations with all nations and (whatever the modifications which the needs of national security may impose) it is to that ultimate goal that its foreign policy is directed.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General – New Zealand is a monarchical State; it is also a constituent member of the Commonwealth. It is in this context that the preamble to the Royal Titles Act 1953 is significant “… whereas it is expedient that the style and titles at present appertaining to the Crown should be altered so as to reflect more clearly the existing relationships of the Members of the Commonwealth to one another and their recognition of the Crown as the Symbol of their free association and of the Sovereign as the Head of the Commonwealth …”

Constitutional elements besides that of the titular head, the Monarch, can be reviewed under the categories of legislative authority, the executive and administrative structure, and the judiciary. This division is a convenient one, even though there is no absolute line of demarcation between the three phases (e.g., legislation may and often does arise through the day-to-day experience of those responsible for administration and execution of policy, or through difficulties or anomalies made explicit in the course of dispensing justice or interpreting law). Conversely, in the exercise of the powers and functions of industrial and other tribunals, commissions, authorities, etc., both administrative and judicial elements may be discerned.

THE MONARCH – The New Zealand Parliament in the Royal Titles Act 1953 gave its assent to the use of the Royal style and titles as follows: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

While the seat of the Monarch is normally in the United Kingdom, the Queen is represented in New Zealand by the Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of Her New Zealand Ministers. The Governor-General has, however, an official existence, even in the country to which he has been appointed, only in the absence of the Queen from that country. In the island territories the Crown is represented by the Resident Commissioner or Resident Agent. These officials carry out the constitutional functions of the Crown, but they also possess in varying degree certain executive and legislative powers, being responsible to the New Zealand Government for the administration and good government of the islands concerned.

Many powers held by the Monarch (or her representative) comprise but the means of giving effect to the public will. In New Zealand the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Ministers, which cannot constitutionally be ignored. Despite the long-term trend for powers to be assigned directly to Ministers without any necessity for vice-regal consultation, there are still many phases of Government which require Royal participation.

The Queen (in her absence the Governor-General) gives consent or approval prior to a Minister taking office or the formation of a Ministry; summons and prorogues Parliament; delivers the Speech from the Throne at the opening of a session; gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed all stages in the House of Representatives, without which they have not the force of laws; makes appointments to most important State offices; confers knighthoods and other honours, etc.; and also provides that background of stability, continuity, and experience in many facets of government which is so desirable whenever there are sweeping changes in the dominance of political parties.

Besides those duties associated with the constitutional role, the Royal personage or representative makes an important contribution to the ceremonial life of the nation. This was particularly well illustrated during the sojourn of the Royal visitors in New Zealand in 1953–54 and in 1963. Both as the symbol of the nation and in virtue of her identification with the life and interests of her people, the Queen becomes the focus for all State occasions, as does the Governor-General in her absence.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY – The supreme law-making body with power to legislate for the whole country is the General Assembly, which now consists of the Governor-General and the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since the close of 1950.

The powers of Parliament to make laws are legally untrammelled. This was not always so, for prior to the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 there was incapacity to make laws on certain matters which conflicted with United Kingdom statutes extending to New Zealand. There was also some doubt as to New Zealand's power to make laws possessing extra-territorial effect.

Although they do not limit the legal powers of Parliament as stated above, the provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 creating reserved sections in that Act are of great constitutional significance. The Act provides that certain of its sections may not be repealed except by a 75 per cent majority of the House of Representatives or following a referendum. These sections are those relating to:

  1. The constitution and order of reference of the Representation Commission.

  2. The number of European electoral districts and the basing of their boundaries on the total population.

  3. The fixing of the tolerance within which the Commission must work at 5 per cent.

  4. The age of voting.

  5. The secret ballot.

  6. The duration of Parliament.

This innovation is not legally effective in the sense that it does not prevent a subsequent Parliament from repealing it, since one Parliament cannot bind its successors. It should not be thought, however, that the provision is a mere gesture. It records the unanimous agreement of both parties represented in Parliament that certain provisions have a fundamental character in the system of Government and should not be altered at the whim of a bare majority. Considered in this light the provision creating reserved sections introduces something in the nature of a formal convention which could not constitutionally be ignored.

While the law-making function is the prerogative of Parliament, it must be remembered that, as in most democracies, laws are passed because of their acceptability to the majority party in Parliament – i.e., the Government party. Furthermore the initial acceptance will have probab been made in the deliberations of Cabinet.

With the increasing range and complexity of the statutory field, the multifarious concerns of a modern twentieth century government, and the necessity of conserving time for consideration of more important issues, much of the detailed procedural steps and other amplifying matter must become the subject of regulations made by Order in Council under the authority of some statute, rather than being incorporated in the statute itself. The power to make such regulations lies with the Executive Council which comprises those senior members of the majority party in Parliament who are appointed thereto, together with the Governor-General. Regulations, though originating in Cabinet and becoming effective in the formal proceedings of the Executive Council, rest fundamentally on the will of Parliament as a whole and are now subject to its supervisory jurisdiction. A general provision contained in the Regulations Amendment Act 1962 requires all such regulations to be laid before Parliament, though most empowering Acts contained a similar provision prior to that date. An amendment to the Standing Orders of the House of Representatives, also passed in 1962, enables the House or any member thereof to refer any regulation to the Statutes Revision Committee, a Select Committee of the House, which is empowered to consider the regulation and to determine whether the special attention of the House should be drawn to it on any of the following grounds: (a) That it trespasses unduly on personal rights and liberties: (b) That it appears to make some unusual or unexpected use of the powers conferred by the statute under which it is made: (c) That for any special reason its form or purport calls for elucidation.

Meeting of Parliament – Parliament is summoned, prorogued, or dissolved by Proclamation issued by the Governor-General. A session is that period between the summoning of Parliament and its prorogation. Its length varies, but it usually occupies the months from June to November. When Parliament is prorogued all the business on hand lapses, and if this is to be proceeded with in the next session it must be re-introduced.

The course of a session may be interrupted by an adjournment.

Parliamentary Privileges – While in session these include freedom of speech and freedom from arrest in civil cases, and also the right to engage in secret debate, if required, etc.

The Party System – There are two political parties represented in Parliament in New Zealand at present: National and Labour. At any general election these parties, together with any other political parties which may be desirous of so doing and also those candidates standing as independents, state their respective policies before the electors. Each party normally puts forward one candidate for each of the 80 electorates into which the country is divided. The party which wins the majority of seats, although not necessarily the majority of votes, at the general election forms the Government. The leader of the elected members of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister, who makes Ministerial appointments from elected members of his party. The leader of the minority party in Parliament becomes the Leader of the Opposition. The effectiveness of the party system relies largely on the general agreement that the majority party is to govern and the minority is to criticise – so that there is ample time allocated for debate on Government measures in Parliament. While party control is exercised by national and local organisations outside Parliament, within the latter it is maintained by the respective party Whips.

Parliamentary Procedure – The House of Representatives has its Standing Orders, which govern its procedure and which are administered by Mr Speaker in the exercise of his control of the House. Mr Speaker's rulings on interpretation of the Standing Orders are followed in a similar manner to judicial decisions in the ordinary Courts of law. The main means by which Parliament does its work is through the system of debate and Committees. The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

Parliamentary Functions and Control – The Parliament controls the Government in power in the last resort by its power to pass a resolution of no confidence in the Government, or to reject a proposal which the Government considers so necessary that it is made a matter of confidence, and thus force the Government to resign.

Financial control is exercised by the fact that expenditure of public money must be authorised by the House of Representatives in the form of an Appropriation Act, which authorises or grants money to the Government for the purposes approved. The authority for the raising of revenue by taxation or borrowing must also be given by Parliament. The functions of Parliament are, of course, the passing of legislation and taking action to make available finances or funds as required for State expenditure, while it also controls the Government. Legislation can be initiated by any member of Parliament, but in practice almost all Bills are introduced by the Government in-power as a result of policy decisions taken in Cabinet, sometimes at the instigation of those Government Departments which will be responsible for their administration when the Bills become law. The chief exceptions are private Bills, which are designed for the particular interest or benefit of a person or body of persons, whether incorporated or not, and local Bills which relate largely to matters of local (as distinct from central) government business. The process of passing a public Bill is as follows: it receives a formal first reading on introduction, is then printed, and after some time it is given a second reading as a result of a debate on its general merits or principles. It may then be referred to one of the Select Committees, for consideration in the closest detail, before being considered by the whole House sitting in Committee. During these stages members have opportunities to suggest amendments which may be incorporated in the Bill if the majority so decide. The Bill is then reported to the House, and later read a third time, debate rarely occurs at these stages. The final stage is to send the Bill to the Governor-General for the Royal Assent and, unless provision is made for commencement on another date, it then becomes law. Bills providing for receipt of moneys, such as the Finance Bill, and expenditure of moneys, such as the Appropriation Bill, are introduced only by a Minister of the Crown, normally the Minister of Finance. No Bill involving an appropriation of public moneys or affecting the rights of the Crown can be passed without the recommendation of the Crown, which is given by Message from the Governor-General.

Duration of Parliaments – Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act 1942 extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but with a proviso for a motion to be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. During the 1943 session a motion in favour of dissolution was carried, and Parliament was dissolved on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliaments has been of three years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved after the expiration of approximately 20 months. The three-year limit was reenacted in the Electoral Act 1956, this being one of the reserved provisions referred to earlier.

Number of Representatives – The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is 80 – 76 Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “members of Parliament”. The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than 42 and not less than 24, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of 40 members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at 41; in 1860, at 53; in 1862, at 57; in 1865, at 70; in 1867, at 72; in 1870, at 74; in 1875, at 84; in 1881, at 91; in 1887, at 70; and in 1900, at 76. Since 1867 there have been four Maori representatives, and provision for this number was retained in the Electoral Act 1956. In 1952 the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, which had remained unaltered since 1867, were changed by Proclamation so as to give a greater degree of equality of population among the four districts (in effect the Southern Maori Electoral District now includes a considerable area of the North Island).

Qualifications of Members – Under the Electoral Act 1956 every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under “Franchise” later); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a contractor to the Public Service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £200 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Although women have had the vote since 1893, they were not eligible as Parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act 1919. Prior to 1936 a public servant was prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition was removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1936. The present law is that if a public servant is elected to Parliament he vacates his office forthwith and he cannot resume employment in the Public Service within 12 months of ceasing to be a member of Parliament unless he had previously been a public servant for at least five years.

Salaries, etc. – Section 27 of the Civil List Act 1950 provides that on the recommendation of a Royal Commission the Governor-General may from time to time, by Order in Council, fix the salaries and allowances to be paid to the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Crown or members of the Executive Council, to Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, and to the Speaker and Chairman of Committees and other members of the House of Representatives, and that a Royal Commission shall be appointed for this purpose within three months after the date of every general election of members of Parliament.

In accordance with the recommendations contained in the report (issued in 1961) of the Royal Commission upon Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances, the Prime Minister's salary, as from 1 July 1961, was increased to £4,750 with a tax-free allowance of £1,600 for the expenses of his office and a Ministerial residence. In addition, while travelling on official business he receives £4 4s. per day to meet expenses, and by virtue of his office is entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. The Deputy Prime Minister's salary is £3,350 with a tax-free expense allowance of £600. The salary of each other Minister holding a portfolio is £3,150 with a tax-free expense allowance of £550, and that of each Minister without portfolio £2,500, with £450 tax-free expense allowance. Where the office of Minister of External Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister the expense allowance is increased to £730. Any Minister not occupying a Ministerial residence receives an allowance in lieu at the rate of £300 a year. This allowance, or the assessed value of the residence where one is provided, is subject to income tax. Previously Ministers did not receive an expense allowance as such, but the Commissioner of Inland Revenue allowed a deduction from salary of £250 as an expense allowance. Ministers also receive an allowance of £4 4s. per day when travelling on official business within New Zealand, and in addition are entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage.

The Civil List Amendment Act 1936 made provision for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, an innovation in executive control in New Zealand. The rate of salary attachable to such position is now £2,250, with the same house provision or allowances, and travel allowance while on official business, as for Ministers. An expense allowance of £450 is also payable. After the general election of November 1954 no appointments were made until 1960, when two Parliamentary Under-Secretaries were appointed.

The basic salary paid to members of the House of Representatives is now £1,550 a year. European members are also paid an allowance to provide for expenses incurred in connection with parliamentary duties ranging from £370 to £550 a year subject to the classification of their electorates by the Representation Commission into the four classes of (a) a wholly urban electorate, or (b) a substantially urban electorate, or (c) a partially urban and partially rural electorate, or (d) a predominantly rural electorate. An expense allowance of £675 a year is paid to the member for Southern Maori, and an expense allowance of £600 to the members representing the other three Maori Electorates. A sessional accommodation allowance is paid at the rate of £2 10s. for each day on which a member is in Wellington and attends the sittings of Parliament, or of a Select Committee of Parliament of which he is a member. The sessional accommodation allowance is not payable to any member representing a Wellington urban electorate. (For full details see Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1961 and Section 3 of the Finance Act 1962.) Payment to members is subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. In addition to the salary and allowances, members are entitled to certain privileges in respect of railway and other forms of travel, a stamp allowance of £5 a month, and certain other concessions regarding telegrams and telephone services. If a member is defeated at an election he continues to receive salary only to the end of the month following the month in which the election took place.

Part V of the Superannuation Act 1947, as amended by the Superannuation Amendment Act 1955, consolidated in 1956 and amended in 1961, introduced a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives. The scheme now provides that a retiring allowance shall be payable to a member after nine years' service and the attainment of 50 years of age, and shall be calculated at the rate of one thirty-second of the basic salary for a member as at the date of his ceasing to be a member, for each year of service with a maximum of two-thirds of that basic salary, or alternatively the member may elect to take a variable retiring allowance so as to secure a level income, or he may elect to receive a refund of his contributions. The annual contribution is 10 per cent of an ordinary member's salary, and the Government subsidises the fund by an equal amount. In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of half of the retiring allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired aged 50 years at the time of his death, or £130 a year, whichever is the greater.

Both the Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £2,700 a year in addition to which he receives an expense allowance of £675 a year and residential quarters in Parliament House. The salary of the Chairman of Committees is £2,100 a year. In addition he receives the electoral and sessional allowances appropriate to his electorate, increased by the sum of £100, and is provided with sessional accommodation.

The Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary of £2,600 a year with an expense allowance of £550 a year. In addition, a secretary, an assistant secretary, and a typist are provided by the State, and an allowance of £215 is payable for travel outside his electorate. His stamp allowance is £12 10s. per month. In addition, the Leader of the Opposition is entitled to an official residence on the same basis as a Minister, or to an allowance of £300 a year in lieu thereof. The Deputy Leader of the Opposition receives a salary of £1,700 a year in addition to his appropriate electorate allowance and the sessional accommodation allowance where this is payable.

The Chief Whip of each party receives a salary of £1,625 a year, and the Junior Whip of each party receives a salary of £1,600 a year, together with the appropriate expense allowance in each case in accordance with the classification of his electorate and where applicable a sessional accommodation allowance.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY – After the election of a new Parliament, the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the majority party in the elected members, is given the task of selecting the members of the Executive Council (i.e., the New Ministry). Each of those members of Parliament to form the Government is normally entrusted by the Prime Minister with responsibility for administration of a specified field or aspect of government. This field is entitled a portfolio, e.g., all relevant matters relating to Customs would be allocated to one member, who is henceforth known as the Minister of Customs. He may also have other portfolios and the supervision of one or more Government Departments in which the activities carried out, though important, either do not rank as portfolios or are subsidiary aspects of the field – in these cases the Minister's responsibility will extend to being in charge of the named Department. One or other of the appointed Ministers in this way is responsible for the direction of activities and executive acts of each of the Government Departments and offices, etc., embracing the entire range of State activities. Thus arises the concept of Ministerial responsibility. Occasionally a Minister is appointed without portfolio.

Executive Council – In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers, together with the Governor-General, comprise the Executive Council. The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

A point of interest is that the Civil List Act 1950, in section 6, provided that no person shall be appointed a Minister or a member of the Executive Council unless he is a member of Parliament and that a person who ceases to be a member of Parliament cannot continue to be a Minister or a member of the Executive Council for more than 21 days. This gave statutory recognition for the first time to what had long been the convention.

At January 1964 the Executive Council consisted of 17 members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act 1950 and its amendments, His Excellency the Governor-General receives a salary of £7,500 per annum, and an allowance of £5,500 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his personal establishment, plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet – There is a close relationship between the Executive Council and the Cabinet. There are, however, significant differences in membership and functions.

The Council consists of all Ministers and is presided over by the Governor-General. Cabinet may or may not comprise all the Ministers, including a Minister without portfolio; the Governor-General is not a member. The Council is one of the instruments for giving the imprint of legal form to policy determined by Cabinet which had been recognised only by constitutional convention until legislative reference to Cabinet was made in the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962.

Cabinet has been described as the directing body of national policy whose nature is more easily explained by analogy than by definition. It determines the policy to be submitted to Parliament. In it is vested the supreme control of national policy within the limits of Parliamentary approval. It coordinates and delineates the activities of the several Departments of State.

The juridical acts which are necessary to give legal force to certain of the decisions of Cabinet are taken by others – the Crown, the Executive Council, a Minister of the Crown, a Statutory Commission and the like. The preliminary review of proposed policy or of current administrative developments, which takes place in the informal atmosphere of Cabinet meetings, implies both deliberative or selective and administrative procedures on the part of this body.

Cabinet discussions are informal and confidential, anonymity being maintained as to the individual advocacy or opposition to particular proposals. The Cabinet system enables general agreement to be reached on any line of action proposed by either an individual Minister or by the Government as a whole. As a result the Executive Council confirmation can proceed smoothly and expeditiously. In Parliament a Minister can be confident that his legislative or other proposals will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have been apparent before general agreement was reached in Cabinet. A consistent and agreed course of action on any particular issue can be determined. The work of Cabinet thus exemplifies the concept of the collective responsibility of the Government.

Certain questions are considered by committees of Cabinet composed of those Ministers primarily concerned. Some executive action may be undertaken by these committees within the lines of established Government policy. Their work is subject to periodical report to, and overall supervision by, the entire Cabinet. On occasions, ad hoc committees may be established to review or investigate particular questions and to present their conclusions and recommendations to Cabinet.

The Cabinet Secretariat is responsible for the servicing of Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning. It is its purpose also to assist in the coordination and review of the work of the Departments of State.

Government Departments – The Minister as the political head of a Department of State may in fact have several Departments under his control. There are however some 40 different Departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these has a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the Department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the Department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the ministerial policy and directions communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day-to-day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing subgroup, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's, External Affairs, Printing Office, Law Drafting, Valuation, Statistics, and Audit; the finance subgroup – Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory subgroup – State Services Commission, Internal Affairs, Island Territories, Labour, Marine; the defence and law and order subgroup – Ministry of Defence, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the publicity and research subgroup – Tourist and Publicity, Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications subgroup, such as Transport, Civil Aviation, Post Office, and Railways; the developmental – Ministry of Works, Agriculture, Lands and Survey, Forest Service, Mines, Electricity, Maori Affairs, and Industries and Commerce; the commercial – Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Advances Corporation, and State Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Security Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate the field of the dominant activity or purpose of the particular Department. Most Departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions, and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government Departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that the Governor or Board of Directors is to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to the bank from time to time by the Minister of Finance.

Further instances of this principle are shown by the National Airways Corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained, and by the Tourist Hotel Corporation. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such is the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet makes use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organisations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, Licensing Control Commission, and Local Government Commission.

JUDICIARY – The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Court. Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are other Courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category are the Court of Arbitration, concerned with awards and general orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry; the Compensation Court dealing with workers' compensation; and the Land Valuation Court, which settles land valuation disputes and compensation claims where land is taken for public works. For further details refer to Section 8 (Justice) of this issue.

ELECTORAL PROVISIONS – The law on these matters is now contained in the Electoral Act 1956. Following each population census, which is normally taken every five years, New Zealand is divided anew into 76 European electorates. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering a portion of the North Island together with the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time by Proclamation alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, and, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census. The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is defined in section 2 (1) of the Electoral Act 1956.

The term “European population” means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris:

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise:

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel:

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station, or establishment:

  5. Persons residing as patients or inmates in any hospital:

  6. Persons in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1911 are in force:

  7. Persons detained pursuant to convictions in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new electoral districts for Europeans. The Commission is constituted by virtue of section 15 of the Electoral Act 1956 and comprises seven members. Four of these, the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Director-General of the Post Office, are official members. Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government, and one to represent the Opposition. The seventh member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the Commission or a majority of them, to be the Chairman of the Commission. The Chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The Commission determines the number of electoral districts in the North and South Islands so that the number of districts in the North Island bears, as nearly as possible, the same proportion to the number of districts in the South Island as the European population of the North Island bears to the European population of the South Island. Once this is done the next step is to determine the population quota for electoral districts in each Island by dividing the European population of each Island by the number of districts in that Island. In applying the quota, provision exists for an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of 5 per cent of the quota where districts containing the exact quota cannot be formed consistently with consideration of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of one month is given thereafter in which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then become the new electoral districts.

In addition to determining new European electoral districts the Representation Commission is also charged with the responsibility of classifying them for the purpose of allowances as provided by section 14 of the Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1959. Under this section provision is made for an allowance based on the size, topography, and transport facilities of the electorate, the nature of its roads, the distribution of its population, and all other considerations that the Commission deems relevant.

The Act provides that all general elections and by-elections shall be held on a Saturday and for both European and Maori elections to be held on the same day. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

The Act provides that, if at any time Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the main and supplementary rolls used in the previous general election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if in the opinion of the Chief Electoral Officer it is impracticable to print new main rolls. The same rolls, together with a further supplementary roll, are to be used for any by-election occurring before the next following general election.

Provision is made for the voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen serving overseas, who are or will be of, or over the age of, 21 years before the date of the election or poll, whether or not registered as electors of any electoral district. Each such serviceman shall be qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he last resided before he left New Zealand.

FRANCHISE – Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893, every person 21 years of age or over (with certain obvious exceptions) has had the right to exercise one vote and one vote only in the election of members of the House of Representatives. Some of the more important provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 are now given.

Qualification for Registration as Elector – To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 21 years and must (a) be a British subject or Irish citizen, (b) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (c) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (d) except in special cases have resided continuously for three months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for three months or more in any other electoral district.

The Act defines what is meant by the term “ordinarily resident”. To be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, a person must be or have been actually resident in New Zealand with the intention of residing there indefinitely. If he is absent from New Zealand he must have had, ever since he left New Zealand, an intention to return to reside there indefinitely, and (except in the case of a public servant or the wife or husband of a public servant) must not have been absent from New Zealand for more than three years.

This new requirement that an elector must be ordinarily resident in New Zealand is an important departure from the previous position. Prior to 1957 any British subject who had been in New Zealand for a year was entitled to register and to vote, even though his residence might have been of a temporary nature and although he did not associate himself with the New Zealand community. Conversely, a New Zealander absent from New Zealand for more than a year lost the right to vote. Broadly speaking, the new qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents, the test laid down being similar to the legal concept of domicile.

The following persons are disqualified from registration as electors: (a) Those in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1911 are in force, (b) those detained pursuant to a conviction in any penal institution, and (c) those whose names are on the Corrupt Practices List for any district.

These qualifications and disqualifications apply alike to Maoris and Europeans.

Registration of Electors – A system of compulsory registration of electors has been in operation in respect of Europeans since 1924 and was introduced in respect of Maoris in 1948. Every person qualified to be registered as an elector of any district must, if he is in New Zealand, apply for registration within one month after the date on which he first becomes qualified to be registered as an elector. He must also apply for registration within three months after the issue of every Proclamation proclaiming the names and boundaries of electoral districts or within such later period as may be provided by Order in Council. Qualified electors who are outside New Zealand may apply for registration if they wish.

A European is not entitled to be registered as an elector of a Maori district and a Maori (other than a half-caste) is not entitled to be registered as an elector of a European district. A half-caste Maori may choose to be registered either for a Maori or European district, and special rules are laid down to govern a change from one to the other.

Voting at Elections – Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot, a method which was first introduced in New Zealand in 1870. Recognition of the fundamental character which the secret ballot has attained in New Zealand was given in the Electoral Act 1956, which included the section providing for this method of voting among the reserved sections which may be repealed only by a 75 per cent majority vote of all the members of the House of Representatives or following a referendum.

In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election. The following classes of persons whose names are not on the roll are however entitled to vote:

  1. Those who have applied for registration between writ day and polling day and have satisfied the Registrar that they became qualified for registration not earlier than one month before writ day.

  2. Those who are qualified for registration and were at the last preceding election registered in that district or, where boundary changes have intervened, in some other district in which their then residence within the first-mentioned district was then situated.

  3. Those who are qualified for registration and have since the last election and before 6 p.m. on writ day applied for registration in that district, or where boundary changes have intervened, in some other district in which their then residence within the first-mentioned district was then situated.

  4. Servicemen outside New Zealand, if they are or will be 21 years of age or more on polling day and their place of residence before they left New Zealand is within the district.

Special Voters – A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his district or by post, in the following cases:

  1. If his name does not appear on the main roll, or any supplementary roll for the district, or has been wrongly deleted from the roll.

  2. If he will be outside New Zealand on polling day.

  3. If he is or will be absent from the district on polling day.

  4. If he will not be within 2 miles by the nearest practicable route of any polling place in the district during the hours of polling.

  5. If he will be travelling during the hours of polling under conditions which will preclude him from voting at a polling place in the district.

  6. If he is ill or infirm.

  7. If, in the case of a woman, she is precluded from attending at a polling place by reason of approaching or recent maternity.

  8. If he is a lighthouse keeper or a member of a lighthouse keeper's staff, or if she is the wife of a lighthouse keeper or of one of his staff.

  9. If he has a religious objection to voting on the day of the week on which polling day falls.

  10. If he satisfies the Returning Officer or Deputy Returning Officer that on any other ground he cannot vote at a polling place in the district without hardship or undue inconvenience.

These latter conditions replace the former classes of absentee, postal, and declaration voters, including servicemen outside New Zealand.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT – In 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, local government assumed the form it still basically retains. The Counties Act of 1876 divided the country into 63 counties, with provision for administration by elective councils having powers considerably less than those enjoyed by the Provincial Councils. In the same year the Municipal Corporations Act provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs.

A description of the development of counties, boroughs, and town districts follows.

Counties – Counties are now constituted under the Counties Act 1956, which consolidated earlier legislation relating to counties and road districts. In general, the county organisation makes provision for the primary needs of a scattered population within a large area. With increasing settlement the original 63 counties were gradually subdivided until in 1920 the maximum of 129 was reached, although the number of councils formed and actively functioning never exceeded 126. The number of counties has been reduced by amalgamations and mergers by the Local Government Commission. At April 1963 there were 119 counties constituted, of which 117 were actively functioning, Sounds and Fiord being the two sparsely populated counties in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force. The Local Government Commission operates under the Local Government Commission Act 1961.

County councils may, under the provisions of the Counties Act 1956, declare areas within counties to be county towns. To qualify the areas concerned must have a population of at least 200, with an average density of not less than one person to the acre or not less than 60 houses with an average density of not less than one house to three acres. After the constitution of a county town the county council is required to appoint a county town committee of not less than three nor more than seven members, to advise it on the administration of the county town. Membership is restricted to electors having a ratepayer's or residential qualification in respect of property or an address within the county town, or members of the council for the riding in which the county town is sited.

Boroughs – Dealing with the needs of a concentrated population, the borough organisation is concerned with a wide range of functions of a purely local nature. With the growth and centralisation of population the number of boroughs, despite numerous amalgamations of adjacent boroughs, steadily increased until 1955 when the total was 146. In April 1963 the total was 145.

Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 for the constitution of a borough there must be a population of at least 1,500 with an average density of population of at least one person per acre. A borough containing a population of 20,000 or more may be proclaimed a city, although the corporation remains unaltered.

Town Districts – The town district represents a form of local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population and the presence of interests which, from their purely local nature, cannot be satisfactorily met by the county organisation. In its early stages a town district usually remained subject to county control, although such control was practically confined to the main and county roads in the town district; in such circumstances it was known as a dependent town district. The Town Boards Amendment Act 1908 enabled town districts on reaching a population of more than 500 to become independent. On attaining its independence a town district becomes in all respects a separate entity, and, apart from its smaller population, is not essentially different from a borough. The constitution and powers of town districts have been brought into closer relationship to boroughs over the years, and independent town districts are now constituted under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Act required that the area should not be more than 2 square miles, within which no two points are more than 4 miles distant and with a density of population of not less than one person to the acre. No new dependent town districts can be constituted. The number of town districts in April 1963 was 23 (14 independent and 9 dependent).

General Powers – Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. In addition to legislation providing for particular types of local authority or for individual local authorities, there are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1953 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. For most harbour boards, there is in addition to the general Harbours Act a special Act for each board, which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority – urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority – derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

Local authorities have general powers of entering into contracts for any of the purposes for which they are constituted; of selling and leasing land; and of taking or purchasing any land which may be necessary or convenient for any public work.

Number of Local Authorities—The number of local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1963 was 948 made up as follows: County councils, 117; borough (including city) councils, 145; town councils (independent), 14; town councils (dependent), 9; road boards, 3; river boards (2 boards also have the power of land-drainage boards), 10; catchment boards, 13; land-drainage boards, 38; electric power boards, 40; water-supply board, 1; urban drainage boards, 5; transport boards, 2; local railway board, 1; electric power and gas boards, 2; milk boards (including 33 where the board is a borough council), 44; nassella tussock boards, 2; harbour bridge authority, 1; road tunnel authority, 1; valley authority, 1; plantation board, 1; underground water authorities, 3; rabbit boards, 181; fire boards (including 178 where the board is a borough or county council, etc.), 238; harbour boards (including 17 where the board is a borough or county council, etc.), 39; and hospital boards, 37. In addition, there were 21 district councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1954. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the areas of the several counties, are regarded as separate entities. From an administrative point of view, therefore, the fundamental districts are counties, boroughs, and independent town districts. Upon this foundation a considerable superstructure of districts of other types has been erected. These overlapping districts may be divided into two broad classes, viz: (1) Districts formed from parts of counties, e.g., road districts; and (2) those which are composed of a group of adjacent districts of other types united for a common purpose, e.g., electric power districts.

Local Government Commission – The Local Government Commission Act 1961, which replaced the Local Government Commission Act 1953, set up a Local Government Commission which is a permanent institution deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908.

The Act provides that the Commission shall consist of a Chairman who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of New Zealand and two other members having a special knowledge of local government.

The functions of the Commission are to carry out investigations, prepare reorganisation schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any locality will best provide for the needs and continued development of the locality, that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities, and that the provisions of the Act and of other Acts in relation to local government are effectively implemented. Reorganisation schemes may provide for the union of adjoining districts, the merger, constitution, or abolition of districts, the alteration of boundaries, the conversion of a district into one of a different kind, the transfer of functions of one local authority to another or the dissolution of a local authority.

The Act provides for the appointment of a Local Government Appeal Authority whose function is to sit as a judicial authority to determine appeals made from decisions of the Commission. Any decision finally approving a scheme of reorganisation of districts may be appealed against only by the following parties:

  1. The local authority of any district to which the scheme relates;

  2. Any person or body having statutory authority to make decisions or recommendations in respect of the union, merger, constitution, alteration, or abolition of any district to which the scheme relates; and

  3. The Minister, in any case where the scheme affects only one local authority, or only one local authority and an adjoining area that does not form part of a district, or does not affect any local authority.

Franchise – The franchise in local government is a variable one, differing materially in certain respects as between urban and country districts. Prior to the passing of the Local Elections and Polls Amendment Act 1941 the county franchise was based solely on property qualification, with a differential voting power according to the value of property possessed, whereas in boroughs and town districts every adult possessing the necessary residential qualifications was entitled to be enrolled as an elector for the election of the local-governing authority. On any proposal relating to loans or rates, however, a ratepaying or a freehold qualification was, and still is, necessary.

An amendment passed in 1944 extended the franchise in counties and road districts to include a residential qualification on the same lines as for boroughs, but did not interfere with the multiple voting power conferred by a property qualification. One vote only is allowed in boroughs and town districts, but it is possible, by virtue of property qualification, to have a vote in more than one district. The 1944 amendment introduced compulsory registration of electors for boroughs and town districts, all adult persons not entitled to enrolment by virtue of a property qualification being required to make application for enrolment within a prescribed time. The Act also removed the disability which prevented persons in the employ of local authorities from becoming members thereof. The Local Elections and Polls Amendment Act 1946 provided that all general elections of local authorities were to be held on the third Wednesday in November of the year in which such elections were due, instead of in May as previously. The 1950 amendment altered this to the third Saturday in November. It also abolished the provisions of the 1946 amendment that any person could be entered on the local authority roll whose name appeared on the parliamentary roll with an address in that authority's district provided he or she had a residential qualification, and that, if not so entered, he or she could vote by declaration. The Local Elections and Polls Act 1953, which consolidated and amended previous Acts and amendments, provided that future elections were to be held on the third Saturday in November, commencing 1956, and every third year thereafter. The 1961 amendment has altered this to the second Saturday in October 1962 and on the same date in every third year thereafter. The 1953 Act also extends the compulsory enrolment of residential electors to counties and road districts in addition to boroughs and town districts (for which provision had been made in 1944). Power is also given to make regulations to give full effect to the Act. Details of the franchise as it affects each type of local district are now given.

Counties – Any person of 21 years of age and over who possesses either of the following qualifications is entitled to be enrolled on the county electors roll:

  1. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within a riding of the county. One vote is allowed where the rateable value does not exceed £1,000, two votes where the value is greater than £1,000 but not in excess of £2,000, and three votes where the value exceeds £2,000.

  2. Residential qualification, which may be held by a person who is or has the status of a British subject or is an Irish citizen, and who has resided for one year in New Zealand and has had permanent residence of not less than three months in the riding of the county to which the roll relates.

Boroughs – Any person of 21 years of age and over who possesses any of the following qualifications is entitled to enrolment:

  1. Freehold qualification – meaning the beneficial and duly registered ownership of a freehold estate in land of a capital value of not less than £25 situated in the borough, notwithstanding that any other person is the occupier thereof.

  2. Rating qualification, which may be held by any person whose name appears in the valuation roll as the occupier of any rateable property within the borough.

  3. Residential qualification, which may be held by a person who is or has the status of a British subject or is an Irish citizen, and who has resided for one year in New Zealand and who has had permanent residence during the last three months in the borough to which the roll relates.

Town Districts – The franchise is the same as for boroughs, except that for county electoral purposes in dependent town districts the county qualification is necessary.

Rabbit Districts – Where the rates of the district are based on the acreage and rateable value of land occupied by the ratepayer, the franchise is the same as that exercised for county council elections. Where the franchise is based on stock ownership, from one to five votes are allowed according to the number of stock units owned.

Other Districts – Road districts, river districts, land-drainage districts, water-supply districts, and the local railway district all have a franchise similar to that of counties except that the residential qualification applies to road districts only.

Districts composed of a grouping of districts of other types united for a common purpose have a franchise as for the component districts. Such districts are urban drainage districts, electric power districts, harbour districts, hospital districts, urban transport districts, and catchment districts. In some cases – e.g., the Auckland Metropolitan and Hutt Valley Drainage Boards – the members are appointed or elected by the territorial local authorities included in the district.

In addition to elected members, the constitution of harbour boards provided in most cases for certain nominated or appointed members (representatives of the Government, the waterfront industry, and the payers of harbour dues), but the Harbours Act 1950, which consolidated and amended previous legislation, provides that every harbour board shall now consist of members elected by the electors of constituent local authorities only.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING – The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Regional Planning – Regional Planning Authorities may be established under provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act 1953. As provided in the Act the authorities consist of representatives of the several councils whose districts are wholly or partly within the region. Every local authority within the region, other than the constituent councils, is entitled to be represented by at least one associate member. The Regional Planning Authority may also appoint any person who may be possessed of special knowledge, or representatives of any Department of State, to be associate members. Authorities are now operating in the four main centres and in Whangarei and Marlborough.

Finance for administration purposes is provided for by way of a maximum rate of one-fiftieth of a penny in the pound on the rateable capital value of those portions of the councils' territories inside the regional area. The Act also makes provision whereby any of the constituent councils may enter into and carry out agreements for the execution of combined works.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned, and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the coordination of all such public improvements, utilities, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority. Every regional planning scheme is intended to be a guide to councils engaged in the preparation of district planning schemes and to public authorities and all persons in relation to conservation and development within the region. Regional schemes are required to be reviewed at intervals of not more than ten years.

District Planning – Every district scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the area to which it relates (including where necessary the replanning and reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as will most effectively tend to promote and safeguard the health, safety and convenience, the economic and general welfare of its inhabitants, and the amenities of every part of the area. The council of every city, borough, county, and independent town district must provide and maintain a district scheme whether or not a regional planning scheme including its district has been prepared or become operative.

While a district scheme is being prepared a council may refuse its consent to the carrying out of any development that would be in contravention of the scheme and falls within the definition of a “detrimental work”, but the owner or occupier affected may appeal against such a decision to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board. The Minister can require the council to exercise these powers where the development would or might adversely affect Government works or the public interest, and local authorities have similar rights in respect of their works. Any appeal proceedings lie against the Minister or the local authority concerned.

In the period before a district scheme becomes operative, any change of use of land that detracts or is likely to detract from the amenities of the neighbourhood is required to have the prior consent of the council. Where an application is made to the council for consent, the applicant and every person who claims to be affected by the proposed use has a right to be heard by the council and may appeal to the Appeal Board against the council's decision.

When completed and recommended by the council, copies of a district scheme are submitted to the Minister of Works and to adjoining councils and to local authorities within the area covered by the scheme for consideration, particularly in relation to their public works. When the Minister and each local authority is satisfied that all their respective public works have been properly provided for in the scheme and have certified accordingly the district scheme is publicly notified for inspection for three months. Any owner or occupier of land affected may object to any provision of the scheme, and the Minister, other local authorities, professional, business, sporting or other such organisations, may also object to the scheme on grounds of public interest. In the event of an objection not being sustained by the council the objector may appeal to the Appeal Board whose decision is final.

The Minister of Works may prepare and obtain approval for a district scheme in any case where a local authority under an obligation to prepare such a scheme fails to do so after being notified in writing. The costs and expenses incurred by the Minister are recoverable from the local authority, or they may be deducted from any moneys payable to the local authority by the Crown.

When a district scheme has been finally approved and made operative the council and all local authorities having jurisdiction in the district are bound to observe, and enforce observance of, the requirements of the scheme. The provisions of an operative regional planning scheme are also obligatory, but a constituent council has a right of appeal to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board where a provision of a proposed or operative district scheme conflicts with the regional scheme; the Minister has, incidentally, a similar right of appeal so far as the regional scheme conflicts with the public interest.

Operative district schemes may be altered at any time, and must be reviewed when any part of the scheme has been operative and unchanged for a period of five years. In preparing, recommending, and approving a change or a review of a district scheme a council may follow either the same procedure as that for a new scheme commencing at the point where the scheme is ready to be recommended, or it may adopt an alternative procedure whereby the change or review is publicly notified for inspection by owners and occupiers of property and simultaneously submitted to the Minister, to the Regional Planning Authority, and to the local authorities within the district for their consideration and objection where necessary in the light of their respective public works and other responsibilities.

Once a district scheme has been made operative it cannot be cancelled unless it is replaced at the same time by another operative district scheme. Furthermore, once a proposed change to an operative district scheme has been publicly notified for inspection and objection by owners and occupiers of property, no development work, subdivision, or change of use of land or buildings that would conflict with the proposed change may be carried out without permission by order of the Appeal Board.

Where a district scheme is operative the local authority may take, under the Public Works Act 1928, any land in its district if in accordance with the scheme it considers it is necessary or expedient to do so for the proper development or use of the land, or for the provision or preservation of amenities, or for the improvement of areas that are too closely subdivided or are occupied by decadent buildings.

Of the 276 councils that are under statutory obligation to provide and maintain operative district schemes, 77 councils had fulfilled that obligation by the end of August 1963 and a further 44 councils had progressed beyond the stage of recommending and submitting their district schemes for consideration by the Minister of Works, adjoining councils and the local authorities within the area covered by the scheme.

Chapter 3. Section 3 POPULATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL – Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand, i.e., island territories are omitted except where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Cook Islands, Niue Island, and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately.

Maoris are included in all population data unless the contrary is stated.

PRESENT POPULATION – The most recent census of population was taken on 18 April 1961, at which time the population of New Zealand, excluding island territories, was 2,414,984. A census of the island territories was taken on 25 September 1961.

The following table gives a summary of New Zealand population according to the latest estimates.

TerritoryDateMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes population of the inhabited minor islands, i.e., Kermadec Islands, 9 (males); and Campbell Island, 9 (males).

New Zealand:
  (a) Exclusive of island territories:
    Europeans31 December 19631,199,6171,190,2872,389,904
Maoris31 December 196393,80690,878184,684
Totals, New Zealand (excluding island territories) 1,293,4231,281,1652,574,588
  (b) Island territories:
    Tokelau Islands31 December 19619111,0491,960
    Cook Islands25 September 19619,4548,92418,378
    Niue Island31 December 19632,4652,5815,046
Totals, island territories 12,83012,55425,384
  (c) Ross Dependency31 December 19634242

INCREASE OF POPULATION – Since the commencement of European settlement in New Zealand the European population has in every year shown an increase, though the rate of increase has fluctuated considerably, and the Maori population has increased continuously since 1896. Census records since 1901 are quoted in the succeeding table and include Maoris.

In no fewer than six of the 11 censuses covered by the table the figures are disturbed by the absence overseas of armed forces. Their departure and return affect intercensal increases. Numbers of armed forces personnel overseas at the respective dates were: 1901 2,500 (approx.); 1916, 44,000 (approx.); 1945, 45,381; 1951, 1,894; 1956, 2,162; and 1961, 2,559.

It will be noted that the growth of population has been substantial in each period. The lowest rates are those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, and of 1936–45, which included six years of war.

Date of CensusTotal PopulationIntercensal Numerical IncreaseIntercensal Percentage IncreaseAverage Annual Percentage Increase

*Excludes New Zealand armed forces personnel overseas.

†Includes New Zealand armed forces personnel overseas.

March 1901*815,85372,6469.81.9
April 1906936,304120,45114.82.8
April 19111,058,308122,00413.02.5
October 1916*1,149,22590,9178.61.5
April 19211,271,664122,43910.72.3
April 19261,408,139136,47510.72.1
March 19361,573,810165,67111.81.1
September 1945*1,702,298128,4888.20.8
September 19451,747,679173,86911.01.1
April 1951*1,939,472237,17413.92.4
April 19511,941,366193,68711.11.9
April 1956*2,174,062234,59012.12.3
April 19562,176,224234,85812.12.3
April 1961*2,414,984240,92211.12.1
April 19612,417,543241,31911.12.1

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES – The annual average percentage increases of population during the respective intercensal periods are given in the following table for certain selected countries.

CountryCensus PeriodAverage Annual Percentage Increase
New Zealand1956–612.1
Australia1954–612.3
Canada1956–612.5
Ceylon1946–532.9
England and Wales1951–610.5
Scotland1951–610.2
Northern Ireland1951–610.4
Republic of Ireland1956–61-0.6
Austria1951–610.2
Denmark1955–600.6
France1946–540.9
Germany, West1950–611.1
Hungary1949–600.7
India1951–612.0
Japan1955–600.9
Netherlands1947–601.4
Pakistan1951–612.2
South Africa1951–602.4
Sweden1950–600.6
Switzerland1950–601.4
Thailand1947–603.2
United States of America1950–601.7

INTERCENSAL RECORDS – Intercensal statements of total population are prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration and are relatively accurate. Discrepancies have in fact been so slight that revisions of the intercensal figures between 1951 and 1956 and between 1956 and 1961 were not necessary.

The following population figures exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPer Cent
Years Ended 31 March
19531,024,4631,013,0902,037,55352,8232.72,009,506
19541,049,9631,037,7772,087,74050,1872.52,061,376
19551,072,0901,058,8372,130,92743,1872.12,105,767
19561,094,2831,081,0902,175,37344,4462.12,150,290
19571,116,6861,104,4832,221,16945,7962.12,194,108
19581,144,6701,130,8452,275,51554,3462.42,246,093
19591,170,0071,156,1222,326,12950,6142.22,298,814
19601,191,3991,178,7672,370,16644,0371.92,345,602
19611,213,3561,200,9402,414,29644,1301.92,388,004
19621,246,1781,231,1192,477,29763,0012.62,442,700
19631,273,3731,260,0462,533,41956,1222.32,502,480
Years Ended 31 December
19521,017,8741,006,6822,024,55654,0342.71,996,149
19531,043,1431,031,6382,074,78150,2252.52,048,826
19541,065,4901,052,9442,118,43443,6532.12,094,910
19551,089,0701,075,6642,164,73446,3002.22,138,946
19561,111,1761,097,9562,209,13244,3982.12,182,833
19571,137,7991,125,0152,262,81453,6822.42,232,591
19581,165,5681,150,3322,315,90053,0862.32,285,852
19591,186,0831,173,6632,359,74643,8461.92,334,617
19601,207,9461,195,6212,403,56743,8211.92,377,010
19611,239,2291,224,0122,463,24159,6742.52,427,366
19621,267,2821,253,3882,520,67057,4292.32,488,287

The figures given in the preceding table are for total population inclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the Maori population.

YearMaori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPer Cent
Years Ended 31 March
195261,13058,158119,2883,7823.3117,397
195363,07460,125123,1993,9113.3121,172
195465,14162,243127,3844,1853.4125,174
195567,56064,405131,9654,5813.6129,611
195669,85666,723136,5794,6143.5134,223
195772,55269,482142,0345,4554.0139,421
195875,00472,114147,1185,0843.6144,550
195977,72374,920152,6435,5253.8149,742
196080,54977,806158,3555,7123.7155,501
196183,44480,735164,1795,8243.7161,226
196288,04485,168173,2129,0335.5169,646
196391,36588,463179,8286,6163.8176,432
Years Ended 31 December
195262,52059,580122,1003,7943.2120,209
195364,50761,639126,1464,0463.3124,146
195466,94663,860130,8064,6603.7128,456
195569,27866,091135,3694,5633.5133,075
195671,87368,750140,6235,2543.9138,081
195774,27471,397145,6715,0483.6143,284
195876,96274,174151,1365,4653.8148,369
195979,83777,002156,8395,7033.8154,074
196082,72379,952162,6755,8363.7159,768
196187,21084,343171,5538,8785.5167,407
196290,42887,482177,9106,3573.7174,810

POPULATION PROJECTIONS – An indication of future population growth, including Maoris, in New Zealand is given by the detailed projections for the period 1965–80 and the less elaborate projections for the five-yearly points 1985–2000 set out in the following table.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels, coupled with the difficulty of accurately forecasting the future course of the factors which are known to affect these components of population change. It should be understood, therefore, that these projections merely show the effect of the assumptions stated below the table on the future growth of the existing population. The assumptions, however, have been adopted only after careful studies of trends in the patterns of fertility, mortality, and migration and, in the light of available current information, are regarded as those most likely to produce realistic projections over the length of the projection period.

PROJECTED NEW ZEALAND POPULATION

As at 31 MarchAssuming Net Immigration of
5,000 per Year10,000 per Year
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
(thousand)
19651,3191,3042,6231,3241,3092,633
19661,3441,3262,6701,3531,3352,688
19671,3701,3512,7211,3811,3602,741
19681,3951,3752,7701,4091,3872,796
19691,4201,3992,8191,4391,4152,854
19701,4471,4262,8731,4691,4462,915
19711,4751,4532,9281,5011,4772,978
19721,5051,4812,9861,5341,5083,042
19731,5351,5083,0431,5691,5393,108
19741,5661,5403,1061,6041,5723,176
19751,5991,5733,1721,6391,6063,245
19761,6331,6053,2381,6751,6413,316
19771,6681,6383,3061,7131,6783,391
19781,7031,6713,3741,7521,7143,466
19791,7401,7073,4471,7921,7523,544
19801,7751,7423,5171,8331,7933,626
1985....3,816....3,958
1990....4,137....4,316
1995....4,484....4,702
2,000....4,857....5,118

Assumptions – The two projections are linked to actual population numbers as at 31 March 1963. The assumptions on which the more detailed projections for 1965–80 depend are as follows:

  1. Birthrates for each quinquennial age and marital status (“married” and “not married”) group of females will continue at the average 1952–56 level.

  2. The proportion of married females in each quinquennial age group will, in the future, vary in accordance with the rate of variation in the 1951–56 intercensal period.

  3. Mortality rates for each quinquennial age group, male and female, will be maintained at the level shown by the New Zealand Life Tables, 1950–52.

  4. Future net immigration will be at the rates of either 5,000 or 10,000 persons per annum, the age and sex distribution being based on the average 1937–58 pattern.

The long-term projections for 1985–2000 are linked to the earlier projections. They are based on the following assumptions:

  • The rate of natural increase of population, excess of births over deaths, for the period 1980–2000 will be 15 persons per 1,000 living.

  • Net immigration will be as assumed for the period 1965–80.

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1880 to 1963 and projections through to 2000.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION – Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census. Final figures for the 1961 census for statistical areas, urban areas, counties, cities, boroughs, town districts, county towns, extra-county islands, and shipping have been published in Volume 1, Increase and Location of Population, of the 1961 Population Census.

North and South Islands – In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population, excluding Maoris, of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census YearPopulation (Excluding Maoris)Percentages
North IslandSouth IslandTotalNorth IslandSouth Island
1901388,626381,678770,30450.549.5
1906474,605411,390885,99553.646.4
1911561,281444,3041,005,58555.844.2
1916648,439447,7891,096,22859.240.8
1921741,255477,6581,218,91360.839.2
1926831,813512,6561,344,46961.938.1
1936938,939552,5451,491,48463.037.0
19451,050,984552,5701,603,55465.534.5
19511,202,357621,4391,823,79665.934.1
19561,365,470671,4412,036,91167.033.0
19611,524,839723,0592,247,89867.832.2

The natural increase of European population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the North Island during the 1956–61 intercensal period was 121,852, and the total net increase 159,369. For the South Island the natural increase was 50,101, and the total net increase 51,618. The population of the North Island increased at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island between the 1956 and 1961 censuses. Inclusive of Maoris, the North Island increase was 187,421, or 12.5 per cent, and the South Island increase 53,501, or 7.9 per cent.

At the 1961 census the North Island population was 1,684,785, inclusive of 159,946 Maoris, and the South Island population 730,199, inclusive of 7,140 Maoris.

Statistical Areas – Statistical areas are now being used in preference to provincial districts. Auckland Provincial District has been split into four areas; Northland comprises the northern counties from Mangonui to Otamatea; central Auckland, the counties from Rodney to Franklin (including islands in the Hauraki Gulf); East Coast, the area north of Wairoa; while South Auckland - Bay of Plenty comprises the remainder of the provincial district. Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, and Wellington statistical areas are the same as the provincial districts of the same names.

In the South Island only minor changes have been made in the provincial district boundaries to give better statistical areas. These are the transfer of Amuri and Cheviot counties from Nelson to Canterbury statistical area, and the transfer of all that area of Grey county north of Grey River from Nelson to Westland.

It is ultimately intended to drop statistics for provincial districts completely.

In the table following, the approximate areas and the estimated total populations as at 1 April 1963 of the statistical areas are shown.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Miles)Estimated Total Population 1 April 1963
Northland4,88088,900
Central Auckland2,150551,546
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty14,187370,100
East Coast4,20047,100
Hawke's Bay4,260120,200
Taranaki3,750102,400
Wellington10,870494,900
Totals, North Island44,2971,775,146
Marlborough4,22028,800
Nelson6,91065,500
Westland6,01024,800
Canterbury16,769359,873
Otago14,070181,300
Southland11,46098,000
Totals, South Island59,439758,273
Totals, New Zealand103,7362,533,419

Urban Areas – These are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. In addition to the central city or borough, they include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population.

Urban areas were defined in 1917 and, except for two additions and one deletion, remained unaltered until 1951, when a revision of boundaries was made and the new areas used in the 1951 census. From census records and maps, revised population figures were prepared on the basis of the new boundaries. In the case of European population the figures were revised for each census back to 1911, and on the basis of population including Maoris the revision was possible back to the 1926 census. The most significant change resulting from this revision was the division of the former Wellington Urban Area, plus additional areas to the north, into the two adjacent urban areas of Hutt and Wellington. The two areas in a sense form a single centre of population and it is preferable at times to treat them as such. However, the extent and pattern of development in the Hutt Valley have been such as to establish it as a centre complementary to Wellington. In Auckland the boundaries were extended considerably, but in most other cases it was found that little change was necessary. For the 1961 Census, three new urban areas were defined at Whangarei, Tauranga, and Rotorua and comparable figures have been compiled for past years.

Urban AreaTotal PopulationPopulation Increase 1956–61
1945195119561961NumericalPercentage
Whangarei12,24815,43118,36921,7903,42118.6
Auckland286,767329,123381,063448,36567,30217.7
Hamilton27,31933,13740,64650,5059,85924.3
Tauranga8,34213,01018,72424,6595,93531.7
Rotorua10,41714,69319,00425,0686,06431.9
Gisborne16,99519,77422,62225,0652,44310.8
Napier20,74124,53827,50732,7165,20918.9
Hastings20,30623,79727,78732,4904,70316.9
New Plymouth21,05724,92328,29232,3874,09514.5
Wanganui26,26229,71732,10035,6943,59411.2
Palmerston North27,82032,90837,77543,1855,41014.3
Hutt55,78674,87886,05398,98812,93515.0
Wellington132,305133,414138,297150,54412,2478.9
Nelson16,52320,49722,50325,3212,81812.5
Christchurch151,068174,221193,367220,51027,14314.0
Timaru19,67222,85124,69426,4241,7307.0
Dunedin87,58795,45799,370105,0035,6335.7
Invercargill27,75531,61335,10741,0885,98117.0
Totals968,9701,113,9821,253,2801,439,802186,52214.9

In the period covered by the table all urban areas have consistently recorded increases in population. In the years 1956–61 Auckland had the greatest numerical growth, while Rotorua, Tauranga, and Hamilton had the highest proportionate increases.

The lowest percentage increase was recorded by Dunedin (5.7 per cent) which, with eight of the other 17 urban areas, had a percentage increase lower than the average for the 18 urban areas together.

Auckland Urban Area, with a total population of 448,365, took well over a third of the total increase in population in the 18 urban areas.

Wellington and Hutt Urban Areas together had slightly under 250,000 population.

The next table contains the estimated total population of the 18 urban areas as at 1 April 1963. The component parts of the five largest centres of population are given in detail, while for the remaining 13 areas totals only are quoted. In most of the 13 cases the urban area comprises the central city or borough plus the urban portion of the adjoining county. At 1 April 1963 the five largest urban areas had a total population of 1,083,400, this being equivalent to 42.8 per cent of the New Zealand total. The total for all urban areas at the same date was 1,529,900, or 60.4 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

Urban AreaEstimated Total Population 1 April 1963
Auckland 
Auckland city146,200
East Coast Bays borough10,400
Takapuna city21,400
Devonport borough10,950
Northcote borough6,280
Birkenhead borough8,630
Henderson borough4,580
Glen Eden borough5,620
New Lynn borough9,280
Newmarket borough1,780
Mt. Albert borough26,100
Mt. Eden borough18,300
Mt. Roskill borough32,200
Onehunga borough16,350
One Tree Hill borough12,900
Ellerslie borough4,430
Mt. Wellington borough17,250
Howick borough7,390
Otahuhu borough8,810
Papatoetoe borough19,400
Manurewa borough13,550
Papakura borough9,490
Remainder of urban area71,010
Total482,300
Hutt 
Lower Hutt city54,900
Upper Hutt borough18,100
Petone borough9,860
Eastbourne borough2,640
Remainder of urban area20,100
Total105,600
Wellington 
Wellington city125,200
Tawa borough7,950
Porirua borough4,200
Remainder of urban area1,050
Total155,400
Christchurch 
Christchurch city155,200
Riccarton borough7,340
Lyttelton borough3,380
Heathcote county6,920
Remainder of urban area59,860
Total232,700
Dunedin 
Dunedin city74,400
Port Chalmers borough3,120
West Harbour borough2,250
St. Kilda borough6,640
Green Island borough5,430
Mosgiel borough7,110
Remainder of urban area8,450
Total107,400
Whangarei23,700
Hamilton55,600
Tauranga27,900
Rotorua28,100
Gisborne25,900
Napier35,100
Hastings35,000
New Plymouth34,100
Wanganui37,200
Palmerston North45,800
Nelson26,900
Timaru27,300
Invercargill43,900

Counties – The following table gives the estimated total population of individual counties at 1 April 1963, together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “Administrative Counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include town districts and county towns which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Total Population 1 April 1963Approximate Area, in Square Miles
North Island:
  Mangonui7,580958
  Whangaroa2,260240
  Hokianga5,820613
  Bay of Islands13,020823
  Whangarei13,9001,039
  Hobson6,370745
  Otamatea6,930421
  Rodney6,920477
  Waitemata62,600600
  Great Barrier Island240110
  Manukau36,000237
  Franklin18,500551
  Raglan12,050931
  Waikato15,780639
  Waipa15,390436
  Otorohanga8,290762
  Waitomo8,7501,297
  Taumarunui8,8601,873
  Coromandel2,790439
  Thames3,260419
  Hauraki Plains5,690233
  Ohinemuri4,150241
  Piako12,600451
  Matamata24,300987
  Tauranga15,950711
  Rotorua15,2501,035
  Taupo11,8502,852
  Whakatane18,1001,671
  Opotiki4,8801,324
  Matakaoa1,820295
  Waiapu5,600792
  Uawa1,700262
  Waikohu3,5001,012
  Cook8,400848
  Wairoa7,6301,395
  Hawke's Bay21,3001,873
  Waipawa4,050520
  Patangata3,430655
  Waipukurau1,300128
  Dannevirke4,570546
  Woodville1,720156
  Clifton2,560454
  Taranaki8,210227
  Inglewood3,270199
  Stratford6,000835
  Egmont6,250240
  Eltham3,600207
  Waimate West2,86083
  Hawera5,410190
  Patea3,820591
  Waimarino2,260829
  Waitotara3,310468
  Wanganui3,460460
  Rangitikei14,7501,730
  Kiwitea2,340359
  Pohangina1,180259
  Oroua4,560190
  Manawatu7,310265
  Kairanga6,290184
  Horowhenua11,100544
  Hutt36,400527
  Pahiatua2,730286
  Akitio1,180321
  Eketahuna1,800318
  Mauriceville460115
  Masterton4,010808
  Wairarapa South3,080440
  Featherston3,660954
Totals, North Is. counties584,96043,680
South Island:
  Sounds840457
  Marlborough8,1301,946
  Awatere1,7901,030
  Kaikoura3,120905
  Golden Bay3,6501,011
  Waimea14,2501,533
  Buller4,0401,885
  Murchison1,4501,372
  Inangahua3,070942
  Grey4,7401,579
  Westland4,4104,410
  Amuri2,9702,285
  Cheviot1,540327
  Waipara2,960937
  Kowai2,280157
  Ashley670309
  Rangiora3,84096
  Eyre1,950175
  Oxford1,600318
  Tawera770942
  Malvern5,440980
  Paparua17,200133
  Waimairi46,00043
  Heathcote6,92012
  Halswell3,34039
  Mt. Herbert65066
  Akaroa1,820170
  Chatham Islands500372
  Wairewa770170
  Springs2,71092
  Ellesmere4,320351
  Ashburton11,8002,564
  Geraldine5,120578
  Levels5,450262
  Mackenzie3,3402,852
  Waimate6,0201,383
  Waitaki12,0002,412
  Waihemo990338
  Waikouaiti3,740316
  Peninsula3,64040
  Taieri8,150901
  Bruce3,990520
  Clutha6,1401,045
  Tuapeka4,8501,388
  Maniototo2,8101,340
  Vincent3,9302,922
  Lake1,8503,871
  Southland26,6203,701
  Wallace10,2503,728
  Fiord503,035
  Stewart Island540670
Totals, South Island counties279,02058,910
Grand totals, all counties863,980102,590

Waitemata county, with a population of 62,600, has the largest county population, followed by Waimairi county with 46,000. Most of those counties showing considerable gains of population are adjacent to large cities.

Boroughs – Similar information as in the case of counties is now given for cities and boroughs.

BoroughEstimated Total Population 1 April 1963Approximate Area, in Acres
North Island:
  Kaitaia2,8201,310
  Kaikohe3,0501,342
  Whangarei19,2006,510
  Dargaville3,8402,800
  Helensville1,2401,315
  East Coast Bays10,4003,850
  Takapuna (city)21,4003,280
  Devonport10,9501,100
  Northcote6,2801,196
  Birkenhead8,6303,084
  Henderson4,5801,278
  Glen Eden5,6201,244
  New Lynn9,2801,393
  Auckland (city)146,20018,498
  Newmarket1,780182
  Mt. Albert26,1002,430
  Mt. Eden18,3001,477
  Mt. Roskill32,2004,604
  Onehunga16,3501,876
  One Tree Hill12,9002,430
  Ellerslie4,430745
  Mt. Wellington17,2504,075
  Howick7,3901,534
  Otahuhu8,8101,345
  Papatoetoe19,4002,241
  Manurewa13,5501,803
  Papakura9,4902,022
  Pukekohe6,3003,471
  Waiuku1,6501,465
  Tuakau1,6001,091
  Huntly5,0201,936
  Cambridge5,5102,646
  Ngaruawahia3,5201,112
  Hamilton (city)55,30013,726
  Te Awamutu6,7101,762
  Otorohanga2,030560
  Te Kuiti4,7801,668
  Taumarunui5,2403,234
  Thames5,4202,712
  Paeroa2,9101,419
  Waihi3,2201,330
  Te Aroha3,1202,783
  Morrinsville4,2801,177
  Matamata3,590934
  Putaruru3,840975
  Mt. Maunganui6,1403,475
  Tauranga (city)20,4006,576
  Te Puke2,4501,047
  Rotorua (city)21,7006,557
  Taupo6,1202,501
  Whakatane7,8201,975
  Kawerau5,0001,718
  Murupara1,900530
  Opotiki2,700772
  Gisborne (city)23,3004,012
  Wairoa4,5101,603
  Napier (city)26,4004,361
  Taradale5,5501,003
  Hastings (city)25,4003,327
  Havelock North4,4001,165
  Waipawa1,7501,710
  Waipukurau3,380971
  Dannevirke5,5901,300
  Woodville1,5601,054
  Waitara4,6201,587
  New Plymouth (city)30,9005,722
  Inglewood2,050703
  Stratford5,4402,016
  Eltham2,3101,599
  Hawera7,7901,270
  Patea2,0301,420
  Ohakune1,5302,079
  Raetihi1,380958
  Wanganui (city)34,8006,403
  Taihape2,7801,923
  Marton4,5001,415
  Feilding8,7002,031
  Foxton2,660757
  Palmerston N. (city)43,6007,190
  Shannon1,500844
  Levin8,5801,332
  Otaki3,3001,639
  Porirua18,0508,226
  Upper Hutt18,1002,165
  Lower Hutt (city)54,90011,004
  Petone9,8602,575
  Eastbourne2,6401,546
  Tawa7,9501,208
  Wellington (city)125,20018,329
  Pahiatua2,680720
  Eketahuna770948
  Masterton16,0003,152
  Carterton3,2501,265
  Greytown1,6501,093
  Featherston1,590759
  Martinborough1,4501,070
Totals, North Island cities and boroughs1,174,110259,570
South Island:
  Picton2,3901,052
  Blenheim12,7502,502
  Nelson (city)25,6008,419
  Richmond4,1002,600
  Motueka3,5102,523
  Westport5,470760
  Runanga1,7301,204
  Greymouth8,8902,594
  Brunner1,0605,700
  Kumara430842
  Hokitika3,020674
  Ross5003,800
  Rangiora3,690877
  Kaiapoi3,270786
  Riccarton7,340728
  Christchurch (city)155,20026,178
  Lyttelton3,3802,560
  Ashburton12,2502,601
  Geraldine1,900745
  Temuka2,540795
  Timaru (city)26,0004,325
  Waimate3,380771
  Oamaru13,0502,811
  Hampden300630
  Palmerston880900
  Waikouaiti7201,958
  Port Chalmers3,1201,012
  West Harbour2,2501,531
  Dunedin (city)74,40013,942
  St. Kilda6,640616
  Green Island5,4301,818
  Mosgiel7,110970
  Milton1,930315
  Kaitangata1,2401,280
  Balclutha4,2401,258
  Tapanui800300
  Lawrence610615
  Roxburgh780515
  Naseby160188
  Alexandra2,5901,116
  Cromwell970972
  Arrowtown170457
  Queenstown1,370998
  Gore7,5602,338
  Mataura2,2401,272
  Winton1,560505
  Invercargill (city)41,60010,489
  Bluff3,2002,141
  Riverton1,250997
Totals, South Island cities and boroughs474,570124,980
Grand totals, all cities and boroughs1,648,680384,550

Naseby, with an estimated population of 160, is the smallest borough in New Zealand, while Christchurch city, with a population of 155,200, retains its place as the city with the greatest population within city council boundaries.

Town Districts – As stated earlier, the population of independent town districts – i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table – is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts – section (b) – is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town DistrictEstimated Total Population 1 April 1963Approximate Area, in Acres

*Parent county shown in parentheses.

(a) Town Districts Not Forming Parts of Counties
North Island:
  Kawakawa1,020280
  Hikurangi990960
  Kamo2,050852
  Nightcaps710285
  Warkworth1,0601,427
  Ohura680815
  Manunui9701,251
  Manaia860510
  Waverley900484
  Mangaweka310955
  Hunterville600791
Totals, North Island9,4408,325
South Island:
  Lumsden6901,264
  Wyndham700680
  Otautau820490
Totals, South Island2,9202,719
Grand totals12,36011,044
(b) Town Districts Forming Parts of Counties*
North Island:
  Kohukohu (Hokianga)1901,020
  Russell (Bay of Islands)5701,066
  Te Kauwhata (Waikato)7801,290
  Ohaupo (Waipa)3301,281
  Kihikihi (Waipa)1,110523
  Patutahi (Cook)2301,275
  Kaponga (Eltham)520558
  Normanby (Hawera)540260
Totals, North Island4,2707,273
South Island:
  Edendale (Southland)620696
Totals, South Island620696
Grand totals4,8907,969

County Towns – The following table lists those county towns with populations of 1,000 or more at the time of the 1961 census, giving the populations as estimated at 1 April 1963. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of county towns are included in the administrative county populations given previously.

County TownEstimated Total Population 1 April 1963Approximate Area in Acres
North Island:
  Wellsford (Rodney)1,2201,368
  Green Bay (Waitemata)1,300471
  Kelston West (Waitemata)3,650974
  Titirangi (Waitemata)4,7702,299
  Glenfield (Waitemata)7,2304,642
  Bucklands and Eastern Beaches (Manukau)2,110426
  Manger Bridge (Manukau)4,4701,360
  Mangere Eat (Manukau)5,6201,152
  Pakuranga (Manukau)2,3401,358
  Raglan (Raglan)1,040919
  Tokoroa (Matamata)8,3001,057
  Ngongotaha (Rotorua)1,7501,242
  Bulls (Rangitikei)1,440995
  Waikanae (Horowhenua)1,2302,418
  Paekakariki (Hutt)1,7701,518
  Plimmerton-Paremata (Hutt)3,300670
  Wainuiomata (Hutt)10,4003,553
South Island:
  Kaikoura (Kaikoura)1,370700
  Hornby (Paparua)5,8201,214
  Sockburn (Paparua)5,3402,673

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population – In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised a total of 8,399 people as estimated at 1 April 1963.

Of the islands concerned, Waiheke, with a population of 2,060, was the only one of any size.

Urban and Rural Population – The increasing urbanisation of the New Zealand population is most clearly illustrated by the increases in urban area population, since the figures refer to the same areas at each census and are thus directly comparable. (Three additional urban areas – Whangarei, Tauranga, and Rotorua – were defined at the 1961 Census, but census records were used to compile comparable figures for these areas at previous censuses.). Population figures for individual urban areas from 1945 to 1961 are shown earlier. The population of the 18 urban areas rose from 739,243 in 1926 to 1,439,802 in 1961, an increase of 700,559, or almost 95 per cent, in 35 years. Over the same period the total population of New Zealand rose by almost 72 per cent.

The population of urban areas represents a large proportion of the total urban population, but by no means all. In the following table of urban-rural population the urban population has been defined as urban area population plus that of all boroughs, town districts, townships, and (for 1961) county towns with populations of 1,000 or over. County towns are included for 1961 but figures are not available for prior censuses. They would in most cases, before 1961, be known as townships and hence be included with the figures for such. Rural means the remainder of the population except persons on shipboard, who are omitted from the tabulation.

CensusUrbanRural
NumbersPer CentNumbersPer Cent
1926888,58563.4512,41636.6
19511,345,29269.6588,30230.4
19561,535,95170.8633,66329.2
19611,779,75473.9629,66526.1

This definition of urban and rural population was broadly true in earlier years, but the rapid growth of the chief centres of population in recent years, with the consequent spilling over of their populations into the surrounding counties, has rendered this definition increasingly unrealistic. Many thousands of county population now live within urban areas, and it is significant that eight out of the 10 counties with the highest percentage increases of population between 1956 and 1961 were partly within urban areas. However, the table does serve to illustrate the change in emphasis from rural to urban as boroughs and cities extend their boundaries, acquire new industries, and attract additional population both from the rural districts and through overseas immigration; and small townships within the counties grow to attain borough status and become urbanised.

A longer period is covered in the following table in which, under the earlier concepts, urban population means the population in cities and boroughs, while rural population covers counties, all town districts, and extra-county islands.

CensusPopulationPercentage of Total
RuralUrbanShipboardRuralUrbanShipboard

*Figures exclude military and internment camps.

†Figures exclude members of the United States forces present in New Zealand and also enemy prisoners of war.

‡Inclusive of Maori half-castes (3,221 in 1916 and 4,236 in 1921) living as Europeans, as they cannot be distinguished separately for these two censuses.

Excluding Maoris:
1901416,701349,8423,76154.145.40.5
1906457,297424,2514,44751.647.90.5
1911495,577505,0035,00549.350.20.5
1916*501,956585,3063,46346.053.70.3
1921531,694681,9885,23143.656.00.4
1926552,344785,0407,08541.158.40.5
1936602,519884,2934,67240.459.30.3
1945591,8551,008,5343,16536.962.90.2
1951654,9211,163,0905,78535.963.80.3
1956704,5361,327,9964,37934.665.20.2
1961761,4171,480,9705,51133.965.90.2
Total Population:
1926610,446790,5557,13843.456.10.5
1936677,087892,0244,69943.056.70.3
1945674,8211,024,2923,18539.660.20.2
1951748,9221,184,6725,87838.661.10.3
1956809,2671,360,3474,44837.262.60.2
1961872,7681,536,6515,56536.263.60.2

Another conception of urban and rural population is presented in the next table. For this purpose urban population has been taken as that enumerated in cities, boroughs, or town districts with a minimum population of 1,000. Shipboard population is excluded. The numbers of towns making up the populations shown are given in parentheses after the populations.

Size of CentreTotal Population
192619561961

*Figures in parentheses are the numbers of towns included in each category.

 Numbers*
Borough and town district with population of–
1,000–2,499-104,360 (63)65,931 (40)56,117(33)
2,500–2,99986,408 (23)158,605 (47)136,605 (39)
5,000–9,99982,644 (11)133,600 (19)197,180 (29)
10,000–24,999186,545 (12)297,699 (19)361,023 (21)
25,000 or over338,213 (4)701,948 (11)782,956 (12)
Totals, urban798,170(113)1,357,783 (136)1,533,881 (134)
rural602,831811,831875,538
Totals, New Zealand (excluding shipboard)1,401,0012,169,6142,409,419
 Percentages
1,000–2,4997.53.02.3
2,500–4,9996.27.35.7
5,000–9,9995.96.28.2
10,000–24,99913.313.715.0
25,000 or over24.132.432.5
Totals, urban57.062.663.7
rural43.037.436.3
Totals New Zealand100.00100.00100.00

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island.

AGE DISTRIBUTION – The following table shows the estimated age distribution of the population at 31 December 1961 and of the mean population for the year 1961. The figures are based on the 1961 census data (as shown on pages 86–87) and brought up to date from statistics of births, ages of persons dying, and ages of persons arriving in or departing from New Zealand.

Age Group in YearsTotal PopulationMaoris
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
As at 31 December 1961
0–4152,299146,282298,58117,32017,03334,353
5–9136,310130,210266,52014,11013,61027,720
10–14126,570120,930247,50011,47011,03022,500
15–1999,86094,760194,6208,0607,96016,020
20–2485,36081,640167,0007,2607,24014,500
25–2974,67070,900145,5706,2706,30012,570
30–3482,13075,970158,1005,1305,17010,300
35–3982,02077,790159,8104,1204,0908,210
40–4473,42074,020147,4403,3203,2206,540
45–4971,59071,230142,8202,8902,7305,620
50–5465,42063,300128,7202,4202,0004,420
55–5954,62052,810107,4301,7201,4103,130
60–6443,05045,42088,4701,2501,0202,270
65–6931,86040,10071,9608607001,560
70–7425,82532,74558,570485375860
75–7918,95524,26543,220305235540
80 and over15,27021,64036,910220220440
Totals1,239,2291,224,0122,463,24187,21084,343171,553
Totals:
  Under 14390,089373,302763,39140,81039,65380,463
  Under 16438,909420,082858,99144,83043,53388,363
  Under 21534,379510,5121,044,89152,50051,163103,663
  21 and over704,850713,5001,418,35034,71033,18067,890
  16 and under 2195,47090,430185,9007,6707,63015,300
  65 and over91,910118,750210,6601,8701,5303,400
Mean Population for Year 1961
0–4149,930143,936293,86616,93116,70633,637
5–9134,340128,390262,73013,74013,19026,930
10–14125,270119,770245,04011,17010,77021,940
15–1997,10092,420189,5207,8007,72015,520
20–2482,32079,410161,7307,1207,11014,230
25–2973,72070,250143,9706,1206,15012,270
30–3481,70075,640157,3405,0005,04010,040
35–3981,14077,410158,5504,0404,0108,050
40–4471,99073,090145,0803,1903,0906,280
45–4970,99070,400141,3902,8902,7005,590
50–5464,58062,240126,8202,3801,9404,320
55–5953,77051,870105,6401,6701,3703,040
60–6442,14044,81086,9501,2401,0102,250
65–6931,52039,56071,0808206601,480
70–7425,75032,51558,265480375855
75–7918,91523,95542,870305225530
80 and over15,12021,40536,52520225445
Totals1,220,2951,207,0712,427,36685,11682,291167,407
Totals:
  Under 14384,790368,336753,12639,79138,70678,497
  Under 16431,910413,526845,43643,61142,39686,007
  Under 21525,550502,5561,028,10651,15149,926101,077
  21 and over694,745704,5151,399,26033,96532,36566,330
  16 and under 2193,64089,030182,6707,5407,53015,070
  65 and over91,305117,435208,7401,8251,4853,310

SEX PROPORTIONS – The figures for the census of 18 April 1961 show that males outnumber females by 8,914 in the European population, 2,854 in the Maori population, and 11,768 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males were: European, 992; Maori, 966; total population, 990. The high proportion of males, common to all newly developed countries and attributable mainly to a male preponderance among immigrants, has declined throughout most of this century. During the past hundred years there has been an annual predominance of male babies born in New Zealand, but this has been more than offset by the higher male death rate, particularly during the first year of life. Females per 1,000 males at the last five censuses have been:

*Including armed forces abroad.

19369701956989
19451,0441956*987
1945*9911961990
19519911961*988
1951*989  

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand. The following observations relate to the census of 1961 and give the number of females per 1,000 males.

In the aggregate of cities and boroughs the ratio was 1,049; in town districts, 963; and in counties, 905. For the statistical areas ratios were:

Central Auckland1,017Taranaki987
Otago1,015Northland957
Hawke's Bay1,011Marlborough-949
Canterbury-1,011South Auckland - Bay of Plenty947
Nelson993  
East Coast991Southland934
Wellington989Westland926

Female preponderance in towns does not appear to have a direct relation to the size of the towns. Of the 18 urban areas which comprise the largest centres of population, 10 had ratios higher than the average for all cities and boroughs, but 8 were below the average, and of these Hutt, fifth largest urban area, even had an excess of males.

Timaru1,096Nelson1,051
Gisborne1,088Hamilton1,049
New Plymouth1,077Tauranga1,045
Dunedin1,075Wanganui1,039
Palmerston North1,074Auckland1,036
Hastings1,070Wellington1,024
Napier1,062Invercargill1,019
Whangarei1,061Rotorua1,008
Christchurch1,057Hutt985

DENSITY OF POPULATION – The relation of population to area, which is commonly referred to as “density of population”, is a subject of much interest and a source of serious misconceptions. Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon land utilisation or industrialisation. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, while there are also large areas of water or of broken, swampy, or hilly country which is either incapable of effective use or which can be used profitably only for pastoral purposes, afforestation, or the like.

Most of the land that can still be brought into occupation requires special methods or heavier capital expenditure to develop it. The Departments of Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs are grassing annually quite large areas of what was, until recently regarded as useless land. The development of unimproved land for farming purposes can be expected to continue steadily, but the accompanying growth of mechanisation in farming tends to stabilise the size of the labour force engaged in farming operations.

While industrial development has made very marked growth in New Zealand over the years, and extensive further development appears certain, there are factors unfavourable to the growth of industry to a point where dense populations could be supported – not the least of which are a lack of mineral resources, relative smallness of the home market (even with an expanded population), and distance from export markets.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The North Island, with an area of 44,300 square miles, had a population density of 38.0 persons per square mile at the 1961 census date, and the South Island, with an area of 59,440 square miles, had a population density of 12.3 persons per square mile at the same date.

The following table provides comparative density figures on a statistical area basis from 1926 to 1961 censuses.

Statistical AreaArea, in Square MilesPersons per Square Mile
19261936194519511961
Northland4,88011.213.213.615.417.7
Central Auckland2,150109.6123.4154.0177.3238.8
South Auckland Bay of Plenty14,18710.212.614.417.424.6
East Coast4,2008.0.889.09.911.1
Hawke's Bay4,26016.518.118.621.426.9
Taranaki3,75019.220.720523.226.6
Wellington10,87025.929.132135.943.6
Totals, North Island44,29720.223.025.929.738.0
Marlborough4,2204.54.54.95.46.6
Nelson6,910607.06.88.29.1
Westland6,0103.64.34.04.24.1
Canterbury16,76913.014.214.916.920.5
Otago14,07010.710.810.311.312.5
Southland11,4605.96.46.36.88.2
Totals, South Island59,4398.79.49.410.512.3
Totals, New Zealand103,73613.615.216.518.723.3

MAORI POPULATION – The first official general census of Maoris was taken in 1857–58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy. All persons with half or more of Maori blood are defined as Maoris.

According to census records the Maori population suffered a period of almost unbroken decline from 1858 to 1896. Among the causes of this were the susceptibility of the Maori to tuberculosis, measles, typhoid, and other diseases introduced by the white man; the abandonment in some areas of healthy hilltop villages for low, often swampy sites; low birthrates coupled with high child-mortality rates; heavy losses in warfare following the introduction of firearms; and a feeling of race-despair engendered by loss of land, defeat in war, and the general breakdown in health.

Since 1896, however, the Maori population has increased continuously, at first steadily and of later years at a fairly rapid rate. In fact, the vitality exhibited by the Maori race in recent years is a most outstanding feature. The rate of natural increase of the Maori population is more than double that of the European.

A statement of Maori population is now given for each census from 1901 to 1961.

YearMaori PopulationIntercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase

*Includes members of armed forces overseas at census date.

   Per CentPer Cent
190145,5493,4368.21.6
190650,3094,76010.52.0
191152,7232,4144.81.0
191652,9972740.50.1
192156,9873,9907.51.6
192663,6706,68311.72.2
193682,32618,65629.32.6
194598,74416,41819.91.9
1945*100,04417,71821.52.1
1951115,67616,93217.12.9
1951*115,74015,69615.72.7
1956137,15121,47518.63.5
1956*137,34121,60118.73.5
1961167,08629,93521.84.0
1961*167,39030,04921.94.0

The average annual percentage increase from 1956 to 1961 was 4.03, which is considerably higher than the corresponding figure for the non-Maori population, viz, 1.99 per cent. The natural increase rates for the year 1961 shown below afford a better illustration.

 EuropeanMaori
Birthrate25.5346.41
Death rate9.038.27
Natural-increase rate16.5038.14

Of the 167,086 Maoris at the 1961 census, 159,946 were in the North Island. Maoris have always been resident in rural communities and this is still substantially true. A marked change has, however, taken place during and since the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 census only 8,249 Maoris (10.0 per cent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1961 census the comparative figure was 57,411 (34.4 per cent). The largest concentration is in Auckland Urban Area, where 19,847 Maoris were enumerated.

Numbers of persons wholly or partly of Maori blood as disclosed by the censuses of 1956 and 1961 are set out in the following table.

*This category, first introduced in 1956, covers those cases of “Maori – other races” mixtures where there is half or more Maori blood involved: it accounts for the decline in most classes counted in the population other than Maori.

Counted in the Maori population:
 19561961
  Full Maori88,440103,987
  Maori-Europeans:
    Three-quarter-caste18,62424,115
    Half-caste28,49236,371
    Maori-other Polynesian7751,607
  Maori-other races*8201,006
Totals137,151167,086
Counted in the population other than Maori:
 19561961
  Maori-European quarter-caste-25,10834,984
  Maori-Japanese-95
  Maori-Chinese64191
  Maori-Indian64152
  Maori-Syrian, Lebanese, or Arab2744
  Maori-American Indian313
  Maori-Negro215
  Maori-Filipino11
  Maori-West Indian611
  Maori-Melanesian2333
Totals25,30735,449

In 1961 there were recorded in New Zealand some 202,535 persons wholly or partly of Maori origin, compared with 162,458 in 1956.

EXTERNAL MIGRATION – Statistics of external migration are compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving New Zealand.

Including crews of vessels, 248,154 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1963 which, compared with 1961–62, shows an increase of 3,699. During the same period 234,481 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1961–62, shows an increase of 9,603.

In addition to the figures just quoted there were also 38,732 through passengers and tourists on cruising liners, who called in at New Zealand in the course of their voyages.

The excess of total arrivals over total departures for 1962–63 was 13,673, compared with an excess of 19,577 during 1961–62.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last 11 years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, through passengers, tourists on cruising liners and members of the armed forces, etc., have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
195335,57430,66666,24022,39921,80944,20822,032
195432,26629,57961,84524,17622,22846,40415,441
195532,49629,11461,61028,59325,98754,5807,030
195634,78931,68366,47230,33628,04458,3808,092
195740,83635,21976,05534,51830,04564,56311,492
195842,85936,80779,66634,46429,79464,25815,408
195944,95538,69383,64839,91733,73973,6569,992
196047,89441,48389,37746,46739,69786,1643,213
196157,30648,932106,23856,42348,195104,6181,620
196272,50060,156132,65661,36752,457113,82418,832
196378,61365,259143,87271,86358,370130,23313,639

In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas on business, on pleasure trips, and on working holidays, so that arrivals and departures have both been greatly swollen, and are now in fact about double the numbers they were six years ago, while the net migration gain has not greatly altered. Increases of arrivals in recent years have been 16,861, or 19 per cent, in 1960–61, 26,418 or 25 per cent, in 1961–62, and 11,216, or 8 per cent, in 1962–63. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas.

As regards departures, for 1960–61 there was an increase of 18,454, or 21 per cent, for 1961–62 an increase of 9,206 or 9 per cent, and for 1962–63 an increase of 16,409, or 14 per cent.

In the 10-year period ended 31 March 1963 the net gain from passenger migration was 104,759, while if movement of crews is taken into account this becomes 106,857.

Classes of Arrivals and Departures – The following table gives an analysis of all classes of arrivals during the last five March years, including through passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and crews. In classifying arrivals or departures as permanent the commonly used international rule is applied -i.e., residence or absence of one year or more.

Class1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
Immigrants intending permanent residence24,85220,29421,42432,76932,589
New Zealand residents returning27,62332,52643,89048,19952,398
Visitors–
  Tourists--21,92724,79427,29935,16939,499
  On business3,6554,2414,9635,3976,270
  Theatrical, entertaining, etc.7649431,0918381,229
  Educational purposes233247252338294
  On working holidays8561,4312,4803,6953,562
  Others, officials, etc.2,8193,8763,9865,4027,022
  In transit9191,0258538491,009
Through passengers and tourists on cruising liners26,04535,63736,38638,58738,732
Crews86,77993,860100,190111,799104,282
Totals196,472218,874242,814283,042286,886

The succeeding table gives a similar analysis of departures.

Class1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
New Zealand residents departing–
  Permanently10,98513,42014,84812,69114,454
  Temporarily28,67434,66747,20447,78153,625
Temporary residents departing33,99738,07742,56653,35262,154
Through passengers and tourists on cruising liners26,04535,63736,38638,58738,732
Crews86,44294,27499,863111,054104,248
Totals186,143216,07540,867263,465273,213

Ages – The following table gives the age-distribution of permanent arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1963.

Age, in YearsPermanent ArrivalsPermanent DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalsMalesFemalesTotals
0–143,7203,4977,2171,3901,3882,7784,439
15–244,1914,5488,7392,1002,5044,6044,135
25–344,0303,5177,5471,8901,5783,4684,079
35–442,2631,9744,2379027291,6312,606
45–591,4231,6083,0315986671,2651,766
60 and over6871,1311,8182874217081,110
Totals16,31416,27532,58916,1677,28714,45418,135

Of the permanent arrivals during the year 1962–63, 22 per cent were under 15 years of age, 49 per cent under 25 years, 72 per cent under 35 years, and 85 per cent under 45 years. For a similar age distribution of permanent departures, percentages were 19, 51, 75, and 86 respectively.

Origin – The following table shows for the last three years the birthplaces of immigrants intending permanent residence and of New Zealand residents departing permanently.

Country of BirthImmigrants Intending Permanent ResidenceNew Zealand Residents Departing Permanently
1960–611961–621962–631960–611961–621962–63
Commonwealth Countries      
United Kingdom      
  England and Wales6,98210,73611,5933,4692,7382,931
  Scotland1,5732,3872,386603483540
  Northern Ireland34747549013773132
  Other or undefined15810589814043
Australia2,1784,7874,1569488171,395
Canada44388366880100138
India271315292948488
New Zealand4,2855,8066,2807,9096,9247,371
Cook Islands and Niue507873659352860
Western Samoa158224256454863
Fiji293287303556856
Other Commonwealth countries in the Pacific261127144954156
Other countries within the Commonwealth51261171010492130
Totals, Commonwealth countries17,96827,61628,02613,65511,53613,003
Other Countries      
Austria487787262526
China90123124221837
Denmark598399614951
Germany178233291527461
Greece-8210326315187
Hungary786643311420
Italy708458131730
Indonesia9389107391427
Netherlands1,2181,7291,149235272330
Republic of Ireland291556383155111167
Switzerland6813597372540
United States of America514625663219258328
Yugoslavia209169211161921
Others4541,081988270241306
Totals, other countries3,4525,1534,5631,1911,1551,451
At sea31
Not specified11
Grand totals21,42432,76932,58914,84812,69114,454

Assisted Immigration – Various systems of assisted immigration have operated since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). Assistance to immigrants was largely suspended between 1927 and 1947, and only 50 immigrants received financial assistance during the 10 years ended 31 March 1946.

In July 1947 a comprehensive free and assisted-passage scheme was introduced by the Government. Under this scheme certain categories of immigrants were given free passages to New Zealand provided they had served in the United Kingdom armed forces (including the Merchant Navy) during the Second World War, while others selected under the scheme were required to contribute only £10 towards the cost of their fares. Eligibility was confined to single residents of the United Kingdom (with no dependants) between the ages of 20 and 35 years who were suitable for, and willing to accept employment in, a wide variety of occupations. All assisted immigrants were required to enter into a contract with the New Zealand Government that they would engage in approved employment for two years after their arrival in New Zealand.

A scheme of child migration from the United Kingdom was in operation from June 1949 to May 1953. Arrivals of British children between the ages of five and 17 years totalled 169 in 1949–50, 107 in 1950–51, 99 in 1951–52, 87 in 1952–53, and 68 up to terminating date during 1953–54.

In May 1950 a new immigration policy was announced by the Government, the main changes being as follows:

  1. The existing scheme in regard to unmarried British immigrants, including nominations, to continue, but with an extension of the age limit from 35 to 45 years of age and abolition of the requirement of £10 contribution towards cost of fare.

  2. The extension of the free-passage scheme to certain categories of married British immigrants with up to two children – later extended to up to four dependent children.

  3. The acceptance of a number of single non-British men and women between the ages of 20 and 35 years. Dutch, Danish, Swiss, Austrian, and German nationals were selected.

At the end of 1958, it was decided to cut back assisted immigration by limiting male workers from the United Kingdom to skilled tradesmen, experienced farm workers, and experienced workers required in essential industries. Married workers accepted in these categories were limited to those with not more than two children. At the same time, the recruitment of German, Austrian, Danish, and Swiss migrants was terminated.

In 1960 steps were taken to increase the recruitment of skilled workers required for the expansion of essential industries. These steps included the acceptance of married men in approved categories with up to four dependent children. In March 1961 the Government announced a plan to bring to New Zealand in 1961–62 up to 5,000 assisted immigrants. Changed economic conditions later led to steps being taken to reduce the intake of assisted immigrants.

In August 1963 it was decided, however, to increase assisted immigration from the United Kingdom to 4,500 for the next 12 months and 3,500 per year thereafter.

The numbers of assisted immigrants (exclusive of displaced persons and Hungarian refugees) arriving in New Zealand in the latest 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchBritishDutchAustrianGermanDanishSwissBelgianGreekTotal
19534,8722,7097,581
19545,6116886,299
19553,8804524,332
19564,7323915,123
19574,172252139304,593
19584,0702454469106454,579
19594,343141363592314,678
19602,36090253913222,549
19612,2171222,231
19623,47484141023,584
19634,283423327101374,532

In the preceding migration tables assisted immigrants are included in the totals of “Immigrants intending permanent residence”.

Displaced Persons – Commencing with the year 1949–50 the Government agreed to accept drafts of displaced persons from Europe, who were brought to New Zealand in shipping provided by the International Refugee Organisation. These settlers were chosen by a New Zealand Selection Mission, and arrivals totalled 941 in 1949–50, 978 in 1950–51, and 2,663 in 1951–52, made up of young single men and women, widows with one child, family groups, orphans, and a number of elderly people. This scheme was brought to an end with the arrival in April 1952 of the final two displaced persons accepted by the Government.

HUNGARIAN REFUGEES – Following the uprising in Hungary, the Government agreed to accept a quota of 1,000 Hungarian refugees. This quota was subsequently increased to 1,300. The first draft arrived by air in December 1956 and a total of 1,117 finally arrived, the last of them reaching New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1959.

OTHER REFUGEES – Apart from displaced persons, New Zealand has accepted and continues to accept refugees from Europe and the mainland of China. In 1958 it was decided to offer resettlement opportunities to 20 “hard core” refugee families from Europe who, because of handicapped persons in each family unit, were unacceptable elsewhere. These families arrived during 1959. In 1959 it was decided to accept a further 100 “hard core” families. These were selected and arrived during 1960. In 1962 a start was made on the selection of a further 100 refugee families. At the end of 1963 not all of the 100 families had been selected.

PASSPORTS – Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch, at Rarotonga by the Resident Commissioner, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at London Washington, New York, San Francisco, Ottawa, Canberra, Paris, The Hague, Brussels, Tokyo, Singapore, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, New Delhi, Djakarta, Geneva, and Apia, United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Entry into New Zealand – Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a British visa.

Persons born in the Cook Islands and the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. They are required to obtain formal exit permission from the Resident Commissioner or Administrator respectively if they wish to proceed to New Zealand.

Departure from New Zealand – Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION – The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act 1908 and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919.

The Immigration Restriction Act is administered by the Department of Labour, while the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act is administered by the Department of Justice.

To obtain permits to enter New Zealand as permanent residents, application must be made by the intending immigrants themselves to the Secretary of Labour, Wellington, except in the case of persons who are of British birth and wholly European, who may travel to New Zealand without prior application. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin, in which country the applicant must have resided for at least 12 months prior to the date of application. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to some period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit may be required in respect of such temporary permit, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit have been complied with. A deed to be entered into by some approved person or persons resident in New Zealand guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom may also be required.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Subject to certain exemptions, the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand.

  1. Idiots or insane persons.

  2. Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.

  3. Persons who have been convicted of an offence for which they have been sentenced to a term of imprisonment or other form of detention for one year or more.

  4. Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the country.

Restricted Immigrants – When persons who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm arrive in New Zealand and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons came to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond of £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for their support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

Declaration by Persons Arriving in New Zealand – Every person of and over the age of 15 years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Immigration, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name, age, marital status, occupation, birthplace, nationality, race, particulars of children under 15 years of age arriving with him, residence, etc.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALISATION – The basic nationality law is the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 as amended. The original Act came into force on 1 January 1949 and was enacted following a conference of nationality experts of Commonwealth countries in February 1947 to discuss the basis of new nationality legislation. The scheme of the legislation accepted by Commonwealth Governments is the “common status” of all British subjects, namely, that in each Commonwealth country all persons are recognised as British subjects who possess citizenship under the citizenship laws of any of the members of the Commonwealth, (NOTE – The Act states that “British subject” and “Commonwealth citizen” have the same meaning.)

Upon the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship was automatically conferred on the following classes of British subjects: (a) those born in New Zealand; (b) those naturalised in New Zealand; (c) those ordinarily resident in New Zealand throughout the whole of the year 1948; (d) those whose fathers were British subjects born or naturalised in New Zealand; and (e) women married before the commencement of the Act to men who become citizens under the various provisions of the Act.

Since the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent; (c) by registration; and (d) by naturalisation.

Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration, aliens by naturalisation.

Before granting New Zealand citizenship to an alien or to a citizen of another Commonwealth country (other than to a woman married to a New Zealand citizen, or to a minor) the Minister is required to be satisfied that the applicant – (a) has resided in New Zealand for the prescribed period, (b) is of full age and capacity, (c) is of good character, (d) has a sufficient knowledge of the English language, and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship, (e) intends to reside in New Zealand, or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government. The residential qualification for naturalisation is five years, for registration three years reducible to one year at the discretion of the Minister.

A British or an alien woman married to a New Zealand citizen, in the first case shall, and in the latter case may be registered as a New Zealand citizen without any residential qualifications. Such an applicant must satisfy the Minister that she is of good character and has a sufficient knowledge of the English language and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship.

Minor children may be registered at the discretion of the Minister.

A British woman marrying an alien does not thereby lose her nationality under the present Act. Naturalisation granted to a married man does not automatically confer New Zealand citizenship on his wife and children nor does the act of marriage of an alien woman to a British subject confer her husband's nationality on her. Such wife and children acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration.

Acquisition of citizenship by naturalisation or registration automatically confers the status of a British subject, and the difference is procedural only.

Alien adults acquiring New Zealand citizenship by naturalisation or registration, and alien minor children over 16 years of age acquiring it by registration, are required to take the oath of allegiance. The Minister may also at his discretion require persons other than aliens acquiring New Zealand citizenship to take the oath of allegiance. Recognising the importance both to this country and to the new settlers themselves of their acquisition of New Zealand citizenship, the Government decided that ceremonies should be held at which applicants should, in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity, take the oath of allegiance to Her Majesty and be presented with their certificates of naturalisation or registration as New Zealand citizens. Local authorities agreed to arrange such ceremonies. The first was presided over by the Mayor of Wellington on 24 May 1955. During the 1962–63 year there were 66 such ceremonies, at which 1,343 persons took the oath of allegiance.

New Zealand citizens are liable at the discretion of the Minister to deprivation of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than marriage; or if they voluntarily exercise the privileges or perform any of the duties of a foreign nationality possessed by them. In addition, persons naturalised or registered as New Zealand citizens are liable to deprivation if citizenship was obtained by fraud, false representation, or the concealment of any material fact.

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS – The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Justice.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at 1 April 1963 was 27,804, comprising 16,702 males and 11,102 females. This is not the complete number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under 16 years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, consuls, or employees of embassies, legations, and consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The numbers of naturalisations, registrations, etc., during the year ended 31 March 1963 were as follows.

Country of BirthCertificates of Naturalisation (Aliens and British-protected Persons)Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen (British Subjects, Irish Citizens, British-protected Persons, and Aliens)Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen—Minor Children (British Subjects and Aliens)
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Austria32122
British Commonwealth127944453
Bulgaria5
Burma3715
China13522611010
Czechoslovakia112
Denmark533
Germany359154
Greece62532
Hungary97950920
Indonesia141361
Italy14161
Latvia924
Lithuania425
Netherlands24981233237
Poland50334
Rumania15163
Russia (U.S.S.R.)52121
South Africa17221415
Switzerland413
Tonga41621
Turkey411
Western Samoa153113
Yugoslavia134511
Other countries10251045
Totals67572153473152158

The certificates of registration granted to adult females included 75 to British wives of New Zealand citizens and 369 to alien wives of New Zealand citizens.

The following table shows the numbers on the register of aliens at 1 April 1962 and 1 April 1963.

Country of Nationality1 April 19621 April 1963
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Austria335115450351126477
Belgium372360533285
Bulgaria8959486591
China1,8381,1693,0071,7061,1422,848
Czechoslovakia93341278326109
Denmark550275825563278841
Estonia324274293867
Finland71541258465149
France70891597592167
Germany371385756404412816
Greece5244841,0085475831,130
Hungary7483991,1476683571,025
Indonesia42135531940
Italy261205466250200450
Japan194867234669
Latvia931031968393176
Lithuania353974312960
Netherlands8,2525,53713,7898,2055,57613,781
Norway1103414410440144
Poland7104951,2056784741,152
Rumania302252282553
Russia (U.S.S.R.)67501177662138
Sweden67411086946115
Switzerland442242684451252703
United States of America9934401,4331,0184991,517
Yugoslavia7514691,2208114971,308
Other countries1747524917080250
Stateless291948251843
Totals16,83310,90627,73916,70211,10227,804

The Number of aliens on the register at 1 April 1963 increased by 65 as compared with 12 months earlier. During the year increases were shown by Greece (122), Yugoslavia (88), United States of America (84), Germany (60), Austria (27), Belgium (25), Finland (24), and U.S.S.R. (21). Decreases were shown by several countries, the largest being China (159), Hungary (122), Poland (53), Czechoslovakia (18), and Latvia (20).

STATISTICS OF THE 1956 AND 1961 CENSUSES – Publications containing the results of the censuses of 17 April 1956 and 18 April 1961 are included in the list on the page preceding the Index of this Yearbook.

The following pages give details for 1961 census relating to Marital Status, Dependent Children, and Religious Professions, Age Distribution, and Racial Origins.

MARITAL STATUS–The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the census of 1961 is summarised in the following tables.

Age (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedNot SpecifiedTotal
Males
16–1973,2098665517074,156
2017,2311,422922718,691
21–2441,06419,921155202616661,352
25–2921,82150,7845099719319673,600
30–3413,80666,48771017556018581,923
35–399,99468,82582230688918881,024
40–447,00061,7187835221,04416571,232
45–496,56561,5867349321,25712971,203
50–545,47555,3986431,3821,28612364,307
55–594,65645,0854742,0201,0909953,424
60–643,78133,8893062,7338075741,573
65–692,83424,3982323,3325514931,396
70–742,32418,5571754,4054234125,925
75–791,77511,8491505,0192362519,054
80–841,0045,369573,7791091810,336
85–893461,425211,9013263,731
90 and over912633663911,030
Totals, 1961212,976527,8425,78827,2918,5151,545783,957
Totals, 1956200,617482,9335,47527,8597,747657725,288
Females
16–1964,6645,839371021070,562
2011,9086,0285689418,013
21–2419,70339,69742573921760,007
25–298,73960,1077632333211070,173
30–346,14567,7999364726101475,976
35–395,70069,1249651,1059401277,846
40–445,44263,1699611,9771,1872872,764
45–495,82858,5319033,5701,4362270,290
50–545,97148,5336965,2601,3512561,836
55–595,47436,7244947,4241,1103251,258
60–644,99827,81335710,6018951844,682
65–694,72620,34526113,3936682039,413
70–743,95712,98519014,9744382132,565
75–793,0396,89210613,5692292023,855
80–841,8382,662409,4311012014,092
85–8974461894,0291755,422
90 and over21013031,479441,830
Totals, 1961159,086526,9967,20287,6089,410282790,584
Totals, 1956151,613482,1436,71479,0208,715225728,430

The percentage distribution of the population aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status19561961
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married27.6920.8227.2220.13
Married66.6466.2167.4666.68
Legally separated0.760.920.740.91
Widowed3.8410.853.4911.09
Divorced1.071.201.091.19
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00

DEPENDENT CHILDREN – Married men, widowers, and widows were asked at the census in 1961 to state the number of their living children under 16 years (including stepchildren and children adopted by them). Married women, divorced and legally separated persons were not asked to supply the information as this would have created the risk of duplication of children counted.

The numbers of persons having dependent children, including Maoris, are shown with comparative figures from the 1956 census. The category “nil” includes those cases where members of the family were 16 years of age and over, as well as those cases where there were no children in the family.

Number of Dependent Children Under 16 Years1956 Census1961 Census
Married MenWidowersWidowsMarried MenWidowersWidows
Nil195,41325,38172,579204,73524,82380,574
186,7301,1393,09490,5241,1673,323
292,8996541,67899,9326011,790
357,93732982468,166329870
428,08016540735,450155459
511,6648422315,24782203
65,25336866,93537114
72,45123413,1662050
81,16415231,6061321
9 and over98812211,317815
Not specified354214476456189
Totals482,93327,85979,020527,84227,29187,608

The numbers of dependent children in each of the three groups in 1961 were: dependent on married men, 802,711, dependent on widowers, 4,932; and dependent on widows, 13,716; a total of 821,359 dependent children out of a 1961 census total of 840,443 children under 16 years of age. The difference is accounted for mainly by the exclusion of children whose parents were legally separated; those whose parents were divorced and had not remarried; children who had lost both parents; and ex-nuptial children (the last two classes excluding cases of adoption).

Comparable numbers of dependent children in the three groups in 1956 were: dependent on married men, 684,846; dependent on widowers, 5,131; and dependent on widows, 12,862; a total of 702,839 out of a total of 720,190 children under 16 years.

Between the 1956 and 1961 censuses the total number of dependent children of married men increased from 684,846 to 802,711, a rise of 17.2 per cent. The number of married men increased by 44,909 or 9.3 per cent. Those recording “nil” dependent children increased by only 4.8 per cent, while those with dependent children increased by 12.2 per cent.

Married men with three children recorded the largest numerical increase, rising from 57,937 to 68,166, this representing a 17.7 per cent increase. The greatest percentage increase, however, was recorded by married men with eight children, this group increasing from 1,164 in 1956 to 1,606 in 1961 a rise of 442 or 38 per cent.

The next table shows within each group, the average number of dependent children, firstly for all persons within the group, and then for persons with dependent children in that group.

Average Number of Dependent Children1956 Census1961 Census
Married men—
  Per person1.421.52
  Per person with dependent children2.382.49
Widowers—
  Per person0.180.18
  Per person with dependent children2.092.04
Widows—
  Per person0.160.16
  Per person with dependent children2.012.00

The most significant point from the table is the marked rise in the average number of dependent children of married men. This is a reflection of the sharp increases recorded, since 1956, in the numbers of married men having two or more dependent children.

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS – The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1961 census.

Religious ProfessionNumber of Adherents, 1961 Census
Church of England835,434
Presbyterian539,459
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)364,098
Methodist173,838
Protestant (undefined)45,100
Baptist40,886
Brethren25,764
Ratana23,126
Salvation Army15,454
Latter Day Saints17,978
Church of Christ10,485
Christian (undefined)12,130
Congregational9,377
Seventh Day Adventist8,220
Ringatu5,377
Lutheran4,817
Christian Scientist3,719
Jehovah's Witness5,944
Hebrew4,006
Eastern Orthodox3,328
Undenominational1,514
Undenominational Christian2,170
Agnostic2,288
Hindu2,074
Christadelphian1,498
Rationalist956
Apostolic Church1,399
Dutch Reformed Church644
Commonwealth Covenant Church875
Spiritualist683
Assemblies of God1,060
Society of Friends790
Non-conformist626
Pentecostal659
Missions410
Unitarian437
Liberal Catholic367
Confucian166
Theosophist256
No religion (so returned)17,486
All other religious professions8,473
Object to state204,056
Not specified14,198
Totals2,414,984

The four main churches – Church of England, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic, and Methodist – retained the adherence of the great bulk of the population, although their combined proportion fell from 79.9 per cent of the total population in 1956 to 79.2 per cent in 1961. All four churches increased in numbers, though only the Roman Catholic church increased its ratio to total population – 14.3 per cent in 1956 to 15.1 per cent in 1961.

The category recorded as “Object to state” represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. The proportion of the population in this class increased from 8.0 per cent in 1956 to 8.5 per cent in 1961. It is probable that the “not specified” group includes a number of persons objecting to the question.

The percentage distribution according to number of adherents is as shown below.

Religious ProfessionPercentage of Total Population
19561961
Church of England35.934.6
Presbyterian22.322.3
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)14.315.1
Methodist7.47.2
Protestant (undefined)2.21.9
Baptist1.61.7
Brethren1.01.1
Ratana0.91.0
Salvation Army0.60.6
Latter Day Saints0.60.7
Church of Christ0–50–4
No religion (so returned)0.60.7
Object to state8.08.5
All other (including not specified)4–14.2
Totals100.0100.0

AGE DISTRIBUTION – Age-group figures from the census of 18 April 1961 are shown below with comparable figures from the census of 17 April 1956.

The low birthrates for the years 1932–36 are reflected in the smaller numbers in the age group of 25–29 years at the 1961 census, and the age group 20–24 years in 1956, in the following detailed table.

Excluded from the tables on age groups are members of the armed forces overseas at the dates of the censuses in 1956 and 1961, numbering 2,162 in 1956 and 2,559 in 1961. Maoris are included in the age-group tables.

Age Group (Years)1956 Census1961 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
0–4130,693125,855256,548149,032143,041292,073
5–9123,145117,438240,583133,880127,821261,701
10–1495,13690,991186,127125,339119,829245,168
15–1978,98576,660155,64595,32490,895186,219
20–2469,18066,491135,67180,04378,020158,063
25–2979,52373,502153,02573,60070,173143,773
30–3478,42975,361153,79081,92375,976157,899
35–3970,91372,441143,35481,02477,846158,870
40–4470,47270,170140,64271,23272,764143,996
45–4966,50263,246129,74871,20370,290141,493
50–5455,53552,690108,22564,30761,836126,143
55–5946,65447,39894,05253,42451,258104,682
60–6435,88141,21077,09141,57344,68286,255
65–6933,11637,91871,03431,39639,41370,809
70–7427,14930,69557,84425,92532,56558,490
75–7918,42021,46239,88219,05423,85542,909
80–848,67610,62519,30110,33614,09224,428
85–893,1574,3167,4733,7315,4229,153
90–946671,0681,7358971,5422,439
95–99103188291121265386
100 and over142135122335
Not specified8611,1051,966
Totals1,093,2111,080,8512,174,0621,213,3761,201,6082,414,984

The following table classifies the population in the three broad age groups covering the children (under 15 years) those of working age (15–64 years) and the older age group (65 years and over).

Age Group (Years)1956 Census1961 CensusIncrease 1956–61
NumberPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumberPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumberPer Cent
Under 15683,25831.5798,94233.1115,68416.9
15–641,291,24359.41,407,39358.3116,1509.0
65 and over197,5959.1208,6498.611,0545.6
Not specified1,966-1,966
Totals2,174,062100.02,414,984100.0240,92211.1

Between 1956 and 1961 the population in the working age group of 15 to 64 years decreased from 39.4 to 58.3 per cent of the population, those in the age group of 65 years and over decreased from 9.1 to 8.6 per cent, while the children under 15 years in 1961 comprised 33.1 per cent of the population compared with 31.5 per cent in 1956.

RACIAL ORIGINS – Between the censuses of 1956 and 1961 the Maori population increased by 29,935, or 21.8 per cent, while the European population increased by 200,599, or 9.9 per cent. The “other races” portion of the population showed the highest percentage increase between 1956 and 1961, rising from 20,624 to 31,012, or by 50.4 per cent.

A noticeable feature is that, within the “other races” group the Polynesians again showed a substantial increase from 8,103 to 14,340, immigration from Western Samoa and the Cook Islands contributing fairly large numbers during the period.

Both the Chinese and Indian groups increased substantially in the five years, persons of full blood and mixed blood together showing a 25 per cent rise for Chinese and 30.5 per cent rise for Indians, partly as a result of immigration.

In the following table, F.B. signifies “full blood”, M.B. “mixed blood”, the second race being European, except in the case of “Other races – Others M.B.”.

RaceCensus
19561961
European—
  European1,991,1792,181,902
  European – Maori quarter-caste25,10834,984
Totals, European2,016,2872,216,886
Maori–
  Maori full blood88,440103,987
  Maori – European three-quarter-caste18,62424,115
  Maori – European half-caste28,49236,371
  Maori – Other Polynesian7751,607
  Maori – Other races8201,006
Totals, Maoris137,151167,086
Other Races—
  Polynesian—
    Cook Island MaoriF.B.1,6543,051
 M.B.6661,448
    SamoanF.B.1,4362,945
 M.B.2,3043,536
    NiueanF.B.6741,406
 M.B.174322
    TonganF.B.232207
 M.B.685836
    OtherF.B.124280
 M.B.154309
    Subtotal, PolynesianF.B.4,1207,889
 M.B.3,9836,451
    ChineseF.B.6,1677,697
 M.B.500636
    IndianF.B.2,5303,337
 M.B.557690
    Syrian, Lebanese or ArabF.B.592503
 M.B.463554
    FijianF.B.119154
 M.B.360592
    OthersF.B.337789
 M.B.8961,720
Totals, other racesF.B.13,86520,369
 M.B.6,75910,643
Grand totals 2,174,0622,414,984

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION – The area and estimated population of the continents and some of the principal countries of the world at 1 July 1961 are shown in the following table. (Source: United Nations Population and Vital Statistics Report for July 1963 and Demographic Yearbook.)

Continents and CountriesAreaPopulation

*1960 Estimate.

†Former Belgian Congo.

‡Includes Alaska and Hawaii as 49th and 50th States of the Union.

 sq. miles 
 (000)(000)
Continents  
Europe1,903430,000
Asia10,4801,721,000
U.S.S.R.8,650218,000
Africa11,670261,000
North America9,359273,000
South America6,870149,000
Oceania3,30417,000
Totals, world52,2363,069,000
Selected Countries  
Europe—
  United Kingdom9452,925
  Republic of Ireland272,815
  Belgium129,184
  Denmark174,617
  France21345,983
  Germany, West9654,027
  Germany, East4116,061
  Italy11649,455
  Netherlands1311,637
  Norway1253,611
  Spain19430,559
  Sweden1747,520
  Switzerland165,496
Oceania—
  Australia2,97510,508
  New Zealand1042,420
Asia—
  China3,769686,400*
  India1,267441,631
  Japan14394,050
  Pakistan36594,547
  Malaya517,137
  Indonesia57695,655
Africa—
  South Africa47216,236
  Congo (Leopoldville)90514,464
  Ghana926,943
  Federation of Nigeria33935,752
  Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland4848,520
  United Arab Republic45726,593
North America—
  United States of America3,615183,742
  Canada3,85118,269
South America—
  Argentina1,07321,079
  Brazil3,28773,088

Chapter 4. Section 4 VITAL STATISTICS

4 A – NATURAL INCREASE

The rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) is important to national planning. In recent years the rate of natural increase in New Zealand has been higher than for most other countries. The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 11 years, and emphasises the high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisRates per 100 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
195351,94318,35433,5895,5291,3454,18416.3933.70
195454,13118,87635,2555,7001,2094,49116.8334.96
195555,67619,22536,4515,8071,2724,53517.0434.08
195656,59319,69636,8976,1631,2934,87016.9035.28
195758,48420,86237,6226,6321,4515,18116.8536.16
195860,63520,30140,3346,8611,2875,57417.6537.57
195961,86921,12840,7417,1301,3145,81617.4537.75
196062,85020,89241,9587,4151,3686,04717.6537.85
196165,47621,78243,6947,7701,3856,38518.0038.14
196265,12722,08143,0467,6641,2246,44017.3036.84
196364,67322,41642,2578,1271,1986,92916.6238.20

In the 10 years to 31 December 1963 New Zealand has gained by natural increase of population a total of 398,811.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES–An international comparison of birth and natural-increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, which are the average of the five years 1958–62, are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

CountryRate per 1,000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
Mexico45.311.433.9
Chile35.012.122.9
Israel26.25.820.4
Canada26.67.818.8
New Zealand26.68.917.7
United States23.69.414.2
Australia22.58.613.9
Yugoslavia23.19.613.5
Portugal24.410.913.5
Netherlands21.07.613.4
Spain21.68.912.7
Japan17.47.59.9
Finland18.59.19.4
Ireland, Republic21.311.99.4
Italy18.39.48.9
Norway17.59.18.4
Switzerland17.99.68.3
Denmark16.69.47.2
France18.011.26.8
Germany, Western17.811.06.8
United Kingdom17.511.85.7
Austria17.912.45.5
Belgium17.111.95.1
Sweden14.09.84.2

The following diagram shows birth and death rates and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase.

4 B – BIRTHS

REGISTRATION – The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. Under the 1961 Amendment Act which came into force on 1 January 1962 European and Maori births are no longer registered separately. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within two months without fee. After two months and within six months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration of the particulars required to be registered has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of the prescribed fee. A birth may be registered after six months only upon the direction of the Registrar-General, who may authorise registration in any case within two years after the date of birth.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES – The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the last 11 years.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
195351,9435,52925.3544.54
195454,1315,70025.8444.37
195555,6765,80726.0343.64
195656,5936,16325.9344.64
195758,4846,63226.2046.29
195860,6356,86126.5346.24
195961,8697,13026.5046.28
196062,8507,41526.4446.41
196165,4757,77026.9746.41
196265,1277,66426.1743.84
196364,6738,12725.4344.81

REFINED BIRTH RATE – “Crude” rates of the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the legitimate birthrate per 1,000 married women of 15–44 years of age, or the total birthrate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for each census year (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) from 1926 to 1961 together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Census YearBirthrate per 1,000 Women 15–44 Years“Crude” Birthrate
Married WomenTotal Women
1926176.992.121.23
1936155.179.018.07
1945186.5106.524.58
1951190.8123.025.62
1956191.7130.225.93
1961199.3147.026.97

The percentage of married women in the child-bearing ages was 70.0 in 1961 compared with 43.3 in 1901 but a study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birthrate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

REPRODUCTION INDEX – The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates a stationary population, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during the latest five years were as follows.

YearGross RateNet RateYearGross RateNet Rate
19581.9311.85919612.0281.964
19591.9501.87819621.9701.908
19601.9681.905   

It must be remembered that, in New Zealand, population growth has two important components – natural increase and net migration – and that the reproduction index takes into account only natural increase. Statistics of external migration in recent years are included in the section on “Population”.

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN – Figures taken out some years ago prove that the masculinity rate for first births is distinctly higher than for subsequent births. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923. Statistics for the latest five years are given in the following table.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female, Births
MalesFemale
195931,74230,1271,054
196032,24030,6101,053
196133,52131,9551,049
196233,35631,7711,050
196333,27531,3981,060

MULTIPLE BIRTHS – The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (live births only) during the latest five years are shown in the following table.

YearTotal BirthsTotal CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsMultiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases

* Includes two cases where triplets would have been recorded had not one child been still-born.

†Includes one case of quadruplets.

195961,86961,026831*613.71
196062,85062,137699711.36
196165,47664,722743511.56
196265,12764,453662610.47
196364,67363,984681510.72

The total number of confinements resulting in live births was 63,786, and on the average one mother in every 95 gave birth to twins (or triplets) in 1962. When still births are taken into account, the total number of confinements for the year 1962 was increased to 64,589, and the number of cases of multiple births to 710. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 91.

YearCases of TwinsCases of TripletsTotal Multiple CasesRate per 1,000 Confinements
Both Born AliveOne Born Alive, One Still BornBoth Still BornTotalAll Born AliveOne Born Alive, Two Still BornTwo Born Alive, One Still BornAll Still BornTotal
195870221107339974212.4
1959831418880612988914.6
19606994787547776112.3
1961743291078251678812.2
19626633297046671011.1
Average of five years7283497716- -- -777812.5

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still born.

YearStill-birth Cases per 100 of Total Cases (Including Still Births)
Single CasesMultiple Cases
19581.534.18
19591.525.84
19601.417.23
19611.275.08
19621.315.77
Average of five years1.415.77

The six cases of triplets in 1962 comprised four of two males and one female, and two of three males.

AGES OF PARENTS – Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1962 is shown in the following table for the total population.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father, in Years
Under 2121–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–6465 and OverTotal Cases

*Including 32 cases where twins would have been registered had not one child been still-born.

†Including six cases of triplets.

Single Births
Under 211,2153,4331,36826366966,360
21–242595,5288,3902,320442862413617,068
25–2967147,5176,8751,766352843314117,362
30–343428274,8543,6011,0132348628510,693
35–396856592,3161,5355031545035,311
40–4415542656404421455931,614
45 and over118195226154126
Totals1,4839,72418,19315,0268,4643,6541,3454571721658,534*
Multiple Births
Under 216248745
21–2435471142144
25–29472822182189
30–342360371921142
35–39940257182
40–44674320
45 and over11
Totals9821741721065915411623
Grand totals1,4929,80618,36715,1988,5703,7131,3604611731759,157

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS – The following table gives for 1962 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Legitimate Cases
0123456–910–1415 and Over

*This number represents 58,534 single cases and 623 multiple cases.

Under 214,5711,4573224966,405
21–247,3535,6952,732994329931617,212
25–293,1324,7994,7002,6631,244571433917,551
30–341,1461,7692,5562,2441,3457099818510,835
35–394986478851,01979751382919785,393
40–44144144229253228180317124151,634
45 and over1212131320923205127
Totals16,85614,52311,4377,2353,9692,0752,5994352859,157*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1962.

Age of Mother, in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 216,4058,7221.36
21–2417,21233,3741.94
25–2917,55150,6792.89
30–3410,83541,2493.81
35–395,39324,8424.61
40–441,6348,7125.33
45 and over1278216.46
Totals59,157168,3992.85

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be – viz, the average number of children (including those registered in 1962) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years were as follows: 1957, 2.60; 1958, 2.62; 1959, 2.63; 1960, 2.67, and 1961, 2.69. In 1915, the earliest year for which reliable comparative figures are available, the average issue was 3.11.

FIRST BIRTHS – Statistics of first births indicate that the proportion occurring within one year after marriage is gradually increasing. In the following table statistics prior to 1962 are for Europeans only.

YearTotal Legitimate CasesTotal Legitimate First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst Cases Within One Year After MarriageFirst Cases Within Two Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
   per cent per cent per cent
195748,77214,40229.536,31443.8410,60073.60
195850,48714,86229.446,67844.9310,93473.57
195951,26615,09229.446,73844.6511,12473.71
196051,91514,82828.566,81545.9611,18875.45
196153,74815,28928.457,31947.8711,63376.09
196259,88516,85628.498,34949.5313,06977.53

The following table illustrates the movement in the duration-of-marriage factor in first births. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern Europeans only.

Duration of Marriage in YearsPercentage of Total First Births
193419441954196019611962
Under 146.2538.4742.6445.9647.8749.53
126.7926.3030.5629.4928.2228.00
210.2411.2811.5610.5811.0010.09
36.167.885.955.494.844.70
43.967.183.303.062.752.49
5–95.497.365.054.424.244.15
10 and over1.111.530.941.001.081.04
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

For the years covered by the foregoing table the average duration of marriage before the birth of the first child was: 1934, 1.85 years; 1944, 2.22 years; 1954, 1.87 years; 1960, 1.75 years; 1961, 1.78 years; and 1962, 1.49 years.

In the following table European first births occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first births.

FIRST BIRTHS, BY AGE OF MOTHER

Age of Mother, in YearsFirst Births, Percentage at Each Age Group to Total First Births
193419441954196019611962
Under 208.907.339.0813.7014.7016.51
20–2440.3941.7947.7151.3452.5954.23
25–2932.7929.5427.7921.9920.1318.58
30–3413.1014.6110.398.178.136.80
35–393.795.363.923.783.442.95
40–440.991.341.020.930.940.86
45 and over0.040.030.090.090.070.07
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1960, 24.50; 1961, 24.29.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS – The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 12 years, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Statistics prior to 1962 concern Europeans only.

YearNumberPercentage of Total Births
19522,1044.53
19531,9974.30
19542,1004.34
19552,2644.54
19562,3104.58
19572,5494.92
19582,6895.00
19592,7925.10
19602,9115.25
19613,3325.77
19625,2428.05
19635,6988.81

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of European ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women – i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women – at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census year from 1911 to 1961 are as follows.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15–44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birthrate per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911120,7781,0788.93
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926148,5511,4739.92
1936167,7811,1266.71
1945156,3261,82411.67
1951130,3431,93514.85
1956129,8772,31017.79
1961122,3013,33227.24

Included in the total of 5,242 ex-nuptial births in 1962, were 44 cases of twins, and one case of triplets, the number of confinements being thus 5,197. From the following table it will be seen that of the 5,197 mothers 2,132, or 41 per cent, were under 21 years of age.

AgeCases
1310
1420
15108
16207
17383
18459
19480
20465
21442
22346
23303
24–291,045
30–34508
35–39301
40–4498
45 and over11
Not known11
Total5,197

The Legitimation Act – The Legitimation Act 1939 stipulates that every ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

The numbers of legitimations registered in each of the latest five years were as follows: 1958, 526; 1959, 620; 1960, 569; 1961, 632; 1962, 851; 1963, 1,133. Prior to 1962 these figures refer to Europeans only.

ADOPTIONS – The Adoption Act 1955 sets out the provisions regarding the adoption of children. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, so amended in 1961, contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The adoption of a Maori child is required to be registered in the same manner as that of a European child. The Adoption Act 1955 requires interim orders to be made in the first instance, and for these to remain in force for six months before adoption orders become effective.

The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during the latest five years.

YearNumber
MalesFemalesTotal
19591,1361,1662,302
19601,1481,0942,242
19611,3611,2182,579
19621,3691,2762,645
19631,4221,4212,843

Of the 2,645 adoptions registered in 1962, 1,151 were children under the age of one year, 927 were aged one to four years, 300 were aged five to nine years, and 267 were aged 10 years or over. In 1963 the figures were 1,296, 1,011, 280, and 256 respectively.

STILL BIRTHS – Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at the confinement where a still birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still birth. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate of 1.26 per 100 total births in 1963 is the lowest rate recorded since the registration of still births was made compulsory in 1913.

The registrations of still births during each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearMalesFemalesTotalMale Still Births per 1,000 Female Still BirthsPercentage of Still Births to—
Living BirthsAll Births
19594934499421,0981.521.50
19604694188871,1221.411.39
19614564539091,0061.391.37
19624473968431,1181.291.28
19634313938241,0971.271.26

Masculinity is in general much higher among still births than among living births, and the rate for still births in 1962 was 1,118 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,050 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptials among still-born infants was in 1962, 11.02 and among infants born alive, 8.04.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1962, 28 per cent were first births, while of legitimate still births 31 per cent were first births. Statistics over many years indicate that there is a considerably greater probability of still births occurring to mothers having their first confinement than to those having subsequent confinements. In addition to the 726 European still births in 1962, there were 117 Maori still births registered, comprising 73 males and 44 females.

FOETAL DEATHS – The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates that in the case of a foetal death where the child has issued from its mother after the twentieth week, and up to and including the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy, a medical practitioner or a midwife who was in attendance at the confinement shall sign and supply a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the foetal death, and such other particulars as may be required by the Registrar-General. A foetal death is not required to be registered as in the case of a still-born child.

4 C – DEATHS

REGISTRATION – The law as to registration of deaths is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. Deaths of Maoris were recorded separately up to the end of 1961, but under the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1961 the procedure has been the same as for Europeans from 1 January 1962. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more of Maori blood and the term Europeans covers all other persons.) Particulars required in the registration of a death include date, place of residence and domicile, name, occupation, sex, age, cause of death, birthplace, duration of residence in New Zealand, marital status, living issue of married persons, degree of Maori blood (if any), medical attendant by whom certified, particulars as to burial, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The principal Act stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still birth.

It is incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death of any deceased person to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the funeral director in charge of the burial). The practitioner is required to report forthwith to the Coroner any case where, in his opinion, there are any suspicious circumstances.

Deaths of Members of the Forces While Overseas – The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 requires the Registrar-General to compile a register containing particulars of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any Commonwealth force within the meaning of the Army Act 1950 and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand. Deaths registered in the War Deaths Register from 1940 onwards were not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths in New Zealand, nor were deaths of visiting overseas servicemen or prisoners of war in New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand servicemen which occurred in New Zealand were, however, included.

NUMBERS AND RATES – New Zealand has had for many years a favourable death rate in its European population. Despite the ageing of population, the European crude death rate has remained low and this is undoubtedly due to the introduction of antibiotics and new medical techniques as well as to the expansion of health services. There has, for example, been for some years a low incidence of serious outbreaks of epidemic disease, a reduction in tuberculosis mortality, and a remarkably low European infant-mortality rate.

The general trend of the crude European death rate in New Zealand was downward over a long period of years, reaching its lowest level during the early thirties. After that an upward trend was in evidence for some years, the figures recorded during the war years being the highest for a long time. Some of the increase over this period can be attributed to population changes in that numbers of the healthiest of the young male adult population were absent overseas, but on the other hand the strains of wartime did exact a toll on the elderly which was shown in the sharp rise in deaths resulting from diseases of the heart and nervous system. For four years following 1945 a downward trend was in evidence, but due mainly to the increase in the proportion of persons at older ages the crude rates have shown no significant improvement in recent years.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1,000 of mean population over the latest 21 years.

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population
EuropeanMaoriTotalEuropeanMaoriTotal
194315,4471,67517,12210.0417.2710.47
194415,3631,68617,0499.8716.9510.30
194516,0511,63517,68610.0716.2310.44
194616,0931,62717,7209.7116.0010.07
194715,9041,53817,4429.3914.639.70
194815,8121,47317,2859.1613.669.42
194916,0121,56617,5789.0914.179.39
195016,7151,36918,0849.3112.099.47
195117,5121,32418,8369.5611.379.67
195217,4131,48318,8969.2812.349.47
195317,0091,34518,3548.3410.848.96
195417,6671,20918,8768.989.419.01
195517,9531,27219,2258.959.568.99
195618,4031,29319,6969.009.369.02
195719,4111,45120,8629.2910.139.34
195819,0141,28720,3018.908.678.88
195919,8141,31421,1289.098.539.05
196019,5241,36820,8928.818.568.79
196120,3971,38521,7829.038.278.97
196220,8571,22422,0819.017.008.87
196321,2181,19822,4168.986.608.81

Maori crude death rates have dropped steadily over the 21-year period surveyed and as a result of the very slight fall in the crude European rate the Maori figure has become lower than the European figure over the last three years. Crude death rates do not reflect the true levels of mortality which exist in populations which have different age structures. The Maori population has a very much higher proportion of those at younger ages who do not contribute many deaths to the total and conversely relatively few persons at older ages where the rate of dying is high. The effect of this is to produce a very deflated crude rate.

Simple arithmetic can be employed to produce a figure for the Maori which compares directly with the European crude rate. By applying the Maori death rates at each age to the European population of this age it is possible to total these and arrive at the number of deaths which would have occurred in the European population had the Maori rates of dying applied. This figure divided by the total European population produces a Maori rate which is adjusted to the age structure of the European in that particular year and which is directly comparable with the European crude rate. The adjusted Maori rates computed on this system are entered in the following table for 1962 and show in a true comparison Maori mortality to be approximately twice that of the European. In addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the two races in each sex. At no age up to 65 years is the Maori rate less than twice the European and, for females of adolescent and working years (15–24 years) the Maori rate is three times the European. It is at these ages that accidents exact a heavy toll among Maori women. At all higher ages the Maori excess is higher among females than among males.

RaceAll Ages Rates per 10,000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to European PopulationUnder 5 Years5–14 Years15–24 Years25–44 Years45–64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori77.7139.5119.011.523.639.6193.6925.9
European99.354.24.913.018.5118.5802.6
Females
Maori62.1149.293.65.514.240.3188.8782.1
European80.938.03.64.312.167.6574.4
Both Sexes
Maori70.0141.8106.48.618.939.9191.4860.9
European90.246.34.28.815.493.1673.1

In both the European and Maori races the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the respective crude rates for each sex separately for the latest 11 years in the total population.

YearDeaths per 1,000 of Mean PopulationMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
MalesFemalesTotal
19539.947.978.96126
19549.998.029.01126
19559.888.098.99124
195610.008.049.02126
195710.398.289.34127
19589.728.038.88123
19599.928.179.05123
19609.667.908.79124
19619.758.198.97120
19629.787.968.87124
19639.727.908.81124

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR – An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the period 1953–62 gives the following averages: March quarter, 5,080; June quarter, 5,038; September quarter, 6,138; and December quarter, 4,980.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1962 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were June, July, and September, with totals of 2,233, 2,320, and 1,972 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January) February had the least number of deaths, 1,499, followed by January and March with 1,627 and 1,615 respectively.

AGES AT DEATH – Deaths registered during the year 1962 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 17765551,331
1–4173102275
5–97555130
10–147141112
15–1912650176
20–2413844182
25–298463147
30–3413580215
35–39183129312
40–44218145363
45–49408279687
50–54590343933
55–598014341,235
60–641,0666231,689
65–691,2278812,108
70–741,5631,2062,769
75–791,7831,6373,420
80–841,5451,5973,142
85–899081,0591,967
90–94298418716
95–996391154
100 and over71118
Totals12,2389,84322,081

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the European and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of Maori deaths which take place at various ages to the proportions of European deaths at various ages. Thus it follows that there is a considerable difference in the proportion of Maori deaths in the total of deaths at various ages, and whereas at preschool, school, adolescent, and early working ages the Maori contributes substantially to the total of all deaths, in old age the Maori percentage is almost insignificant. The following table illustrates these points.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths
EuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaori
Under 51,2363705.9330.2323.04
5–14198440.953.5918.18
15–24299591.434.8216.48
25–448841534.2412.5014.75
45–644,24330120.3424.606.62
65 and over13,99729767.1124.262.07
Totals20,8571,224100.00100.005.54

Considerable changes have taken place over the last 30 years in the age distribution of persons dying. The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age groups is very striking. The results of three main factors are illustrated, viz, health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; the fluctuations in the European birthrate over the period; and the great increase in the proportion of old people in the community.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total
19321942195219621932194219521962
Under 19491,3881,4751,3317.537.667.816.03
1–43325263652752.632.901.931.25
5–92222101391301.761.160.740.59
10–141831771061121.450.970.560.51
15–192632701351762.091.490.710.80
20–243393601941822.691.991.030.82
25–292863122221472.271.721.170.67
30–343373362202152.671.851.160.97
35–393243683303122.572.051.751.41
40–444374393993633.472.422.111.64
45–496386145826875.063.393.083.11
50–548329018499336.614.974.494.23
55–598731,3101,0471,2356.937.235.545.59
60–641,0251,7241,5441,6898.139.528.177.64
65–691,1542,0072,2292,1089.1611.0811.809.55
70–741,2582,1912,7092,7699.9812.0914.3412.54
75–791,3062,0632,6853,42010.3611.3914.2115.49
80 and over1,8452,9213,6665,99714.6416.1219.4027.16
Totals12,60318,11718,89622,081100.00100.00100.00100.00

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In more recent years, however, there has been a tendency for the male rates at ages over 65 years to be static or show a slight increase. Of special significance are the low rates recorded in infancy and childhood and in the early adult life age groups in recent years despite the inclusion of Maori figures, which are considerably higher than the European. The female rate for the various age groups is now lower than the male rate in all instances. The increase in the death rate at successive age groups from 15 years onward is well exemplified.

YearUnder 1*1–45–1415–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475 and Over

*Per 1,000 live births in this case.

*†European figures only as Maori deaths at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1,000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
191163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22130.58
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
193138.212.831.352.282.774.648.6918.2544.18130.57
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
195131.691.870.751.821.953.157.5720.4647.52121.66
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
196223.261.400.731.261.402.527.2418.4248.25134.50
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44119.60
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
193125.672.470.971.853.203.816.8415.3636.83122.87
1941375.73.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
195123.091.590.540.891.302.275.6713.8532.80109.79
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
196217.470.860.370.500.911.794.4810.4338.69102.04
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74126.13
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
193132.152.651.172.072.984.227.8016.8840.56126.87
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
195127.541.730.651.361.632.716.6717.0339.93115.26
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
196220.441.140.460.941.192.125.9014.5037.14115.69

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of European persons of each sex at 10-yearly intervals since 1901 and during each of the latest four years is as follows:

YearMalesFemales
age (years)
190141.6437.68
191146.1742.37
192148.4546.97
193154.1455.48
194158.6559.60
195161.5865.25
195963.9567.54
196063.0667.66
196163.8067.32
196263.8568.27

There has been a striking upward movement in the average age at death of Europeans since 1901. A noticeable feature is that in the earlier years the age for females was considerably lower than that for males, the margin gradually narrowing until virtual equality was reached in 1927–28, since when the female average age at death has been higher than the male.

The average age at death of Maoris in 1961 was 35.02 and 35.74 years for males and females respectively. The great disparity between Maori figures and those for Europeans quoted in the above table is of course due in the main to the small numbers of persons at older ages in the Maori population and the comparatively large numbers at younger ages. This factor combined with high death rates in infancy and childhood produces a low average age at death.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE – Life tables depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population have been constructed at various times since 1880. The most recent tables are based on the 1956 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1955–57. As the pattern of mortality among non-Maoris has stabilised in recent years, these latest life tables give an accurate statistical summary of current mortality experience.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the “expectation of life”. The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident, as is the improvement in life expectancy once the first year of life is survived.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR NON-MAORI POPULATION, SELECTED AGES

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
068.8873.88
169.4774.17
268.6073.29
367.6972.38
466.7671.44
565.8170.49
1060.9865.60
1556.1260.72
2051.4455.87
2546.8751.02
3042.1946.17
4032.8436.65
5023.9327.53
6016.1919.16
7010.0811.91
805.716.47
902.863.09
1001.181.19

Improvement in non-Maori life expectancy since 1880, for both sexes, has been most striking for the younger ages, but has been relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality among infants and children from infectious diseases; on the other hand, diseases of middle and old age are less amenable to control. It is unlikely, therefore, that increases in life expectancy in the future will occur on the scale of the past, but will be quite small and will happen very slowly. The next table displays the life expectancy revealed by each life table compiled since 1880 for the three exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

IMPROVEMENT IN NON-MAORI LIFE EXPECTANCY SINCE 1880

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1880–9254.4444.5514.9557.2646.3916.39
1891–9555.2945.4715.0658.0947.1916.55
1896–190057.3746.3415.3359.9547.9116.54
1901–0558.0946.7415.4060.5548.2316.64
1906–1059.1747.2015.5161.7648.7716.77
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. In all cases the expectancies are the most recent available.

LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH, SELECTED COUNTRIES

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales

*White population.

New Zealand1955–5768.2073.00
Australia1953–5567.1472.75
Canada1955–5767.6172.92
Denmark1951–5569.7972.60
England and Wales196068.374.1
France196067.273.8
Netherlands1953–5571.073.9
Norway1951–5571.1174.70
Sweden195971.6975.24
South Africa*1950–5264.5770.08
United States of America195966.573.0
U.S.S.R.1958–596472

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown below. These expectations are taken from Maori Life Tables, 1955–57.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR MAORI POPULATION, SELECTED AGES

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
057.2358.68
160.3060.80
259.8960.35
359.1759.63
458.3658.80
557.5257.91
1053.1553.24
2044.1244.14
3035.5735.20
4027.3126.55
5019.4319.28
6013.0313.38
708.849.12
805.445.75

Life expectancy at birth for a Maori male increased by 3.18 years in the interval 1950–52 to 1955–57, with that for females increasing by 2.80 years. This was a substantial increase in a short period and is evidence that, although Maori life expectancy is relatively low, it is improving at a fast rate. In this interval between the construction of the first and second sets of Maori life tables the improvement was not so spectacular at higher ages, however.

The expectation of life of Maoris is much shorter than that of the European population. A comparison at age 0 shows a life expectation which is 11.65 years longer for European males and 15.20 years longer for European females.

DEATHS BY CAUSES – All tables of causes of death cover both the European and the Maori sections of New Zealand's population. The incidence of different diseases as causes of death varies considerably as between the two races and this is illustrated in one table which follows. Because the Maori population is small in comparison with the European population there is very little effect on the overall death rate for any particular disease from the inclusion of Maoris. An exception to this is tuberculosis, a disease which is discussed under a separate heading.

The objection to the combining of the figures of causes of death for the two races in past years has been the lower quality of Maori cause-of-death statistics. For a number of years now all deaths of Maoris have been certified by a medical practitioner or by a Coroner who has available medical evidence furnished by a medical practitioner.

The accuracy of death data even in medically certified deaths will be affected by two factors – the proportion of deaths in hospitals where diagnostic equipment is available and the proportion of deaths in which a post-mortem report is available for reference. In 1962, 62 per cent of deaths of Europeans and 57 per cent of deaths of Maoris took place in a hospital, and in 28 per cent of European and 25 per cent of Maori deaths a post-mortem was held. The Maori figure of post-mortems held is a little misleading as deaths from accident and violence form a much higher proportion of Maori deaths and in these circumstances a post-mortem is ordered to be held in almost every case. The lower proportion of deaths followed by an autopsy in Maoris is due to the traditional resistance to interference with a body after death, as well as to the high proportion of Maoris who live in rural areas where the services of a pathologist are not available to conduct post-mortem examinations.

The Seventh (1955) Revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death has been in use in New Zealand since 1958. The assignment of the cause of death is to the underlying cause. This is defined as (a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury. Both the terminal or immediate cause of death and the underlying cause are furnished on the death certificate, and the responsibility is on the physician or surgeon signing the medical certificate to indicate the train of events.

Total deaths and the rates per million of total population for the years 1959–62, classified according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes for Tabulation of Mortality, are contained in the following table. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria) are not listed in the table as there were no deaths from these causes in the years shown. Detailed tabulations of causes of death by age and sex for both Europeans and Maoris separately are available in the Annual Report on the Medical Statistics of New Zealand. Certain causes of death of special significance and interest are discussed later in this subsection. These are tuberculosis, cancer, heart disease, puerperal causes, and violence, while the causes of infant mortality are surveyed in considerable detail.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
19591960196119621959196019611962
Tuberculosis of respiratory system1189711711551414846
Tuberculosis, other forms191717208778
Syphilis and its sequelae171411107654
Typhoid fever11- -- -
Dysentery, all forms1541- -22
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat11- -- -
Diphtheria111- -- -- -
Whooping cough83323111
Meningococcal infections111112165556
Acute poliomyelitis17- -3
Measles1613357512
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic1161061038250444233
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues3,3393,2903,5413,5971,4301,3841,4591,446
Benign and unspecified neoplasms3440414015171716
Diabetes mellitus240280299277103118123111
Anaemias4855566321232325
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system2,5702,5372,7382,7291,1011,0671,1281,097
Non-meningococcal meningitis5042444521181818
Rheumatic fever861183353
Chronic rheumatic heart disease234214220243100909198
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease5,6155,7796,0296,1192,4052,4312,4832,459
Other diseases of the heart922827861845395348355340
Hypertension with heart disease470407402394201171166158
Hypertension without mention of heart12310912110053465040
Influenza190283519181121477
Pneumonia1,0591,0021,0661,219454421439490
Bronchitis560497594580240209245233
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum17715915114976676260
Appendicitis363423271514911
Intestinal obstruction and hernia14615816714263666957
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn15214115712965596552
Cirrhosis of liver6154456326231925
Nephritis and nephrosis11912812114451545058
Hyperplasia of prostate13714010211759594247
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium362425191510108
Congenital malformations343353364348147149150140
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis294336308270126141127109
Infections of the newborn6152494126222016
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy and immaturity unqualified373377402359160159166144
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill defined, and unknown causes11817312712251735249
All other diseases2,0302,0352,0322,061870856837828
Motor-vehicle accidents362356405420155150167169
All other accidents683736737738293310304297
Suicide and self-inflicted injury20423020420887978484
Homicide and operations of war252526221111119
Totals21,12820,89221,78222,0819,0508,7898,9748,874

In a variety of conditions and in external causes of death the mortality rate for Maoris is very much higher than the European experience. Much of this disparity is concealed, however, by crude rates which are calculated by dividing the total population into the number of deaths from any particular disease or circumstance. With two populations so very dissimilar in age structure as are the two races in New Zealand (at ages under five years Europeans are eight times more numerous than Maoris, but at ages 75 years and upward they are 81 times as numerous), it is necessary to resort to an adjustment of Maori rates so that the figures for any condition become directly comparable in any particular year. This has been done in the following table for the two years 1961 and 1962 by firstly calculating age-specific rates for the Maori and then applying these to the European population, age group to age group. This computation provides an “expected” number of Maori deaths in each age group and these added together and then divided by the European total population give an adjusted rate. In addition to the rates expressed per million of population the absolute numbers of deaths in the two races are furnished for the same 50 causes.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRates per Million of Population (European: Crude Rate – Maori: Adjusted Rate)
1961196219611962
EuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaori
Tuberculosis of respiratory system853279363842434479
Tuberculosis, other forms1079114454108
Syphilis and its sequelae92104134
Dysentery, all forms311143
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat1- -
Diphtheria11- -- -
Whooping cough211114- -3
Meningococcal infections48115229517
Acute poliomyelitis73
Measles3231110
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic83206616371522997
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues3,4121293,4761211,5102,0321,5031,910
Benign neoplasms and neoplasms of unspecified nature38336417141661
Diabetes mellitus2801926314124346114231
Anaemias551612245266
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system2,680582,672571,1861,2441,1551,187
Non-meningococcal meningitis202427189961260
Rheumatic fever4735229121
Chronic rheumatic heart disease16060195487172784426
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease5,8871425,9631562,6053,2532,5783,353
Other diseases of heart80160794513541,4383431,073
Hypertension with heart disease3792337519168455162386
Hypertension without mention of heart1165964511004151
Influenza314184714858089
Pneumonia9201461,0891304071,1124711,329
Bronchitis5405454337239884235549
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum14471463641066362
Appendicitis2032439191015
Intestinal obstruction and hernia155121357698958103
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn1114687424919838157
Cirrhosis of liver43261219182629
Nephritis and nephrosis113813014509366124
Hyperplasia of prostate1011116145395019
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium196109842458
Congenital malformations3164831533140188136116
Birth injuries, postnatal asphyxia, and atelectasis2486023139110210100129
Infections of the newborn3613291216461340
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified3396330554150221132179
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill defined and unknown causes120711665325150211
All other diseases1,8971351,9401218391,7348391,810
Motor-vehicle accidents3396636357150416157468
All other accidents6548367266289553290423
Suicide and self-inflicted injury19311204485708823
Homicide and operations of war188175858727
Totals20,3971,38520,8571,2249,02516,8429,01515,442

Age-specific rates and Maori age-adjusted rates have been published for a comprehensive list of diseases in Maori-European Standards of Health, one of a series of special reports issued by the Department of Health. The comparison in this report is for the period 1954–58.

The comparatively poor state of health of the Maori is shown by the excess in the Maori adjusted rates for most diseases. As can be seen in the table, the absolute numbers of Maoris dying from any cause of death is small. This is because relative to the European the Maori population has a high proportion of young people, and most diseases which cause death develop at the older ages.

The susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and communicable disease is well known. Again there is a Maori excess mortality in cancer, diabetes, and in vascular diseases of the brain. The disparity is even more marked in acute rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease; in certain other forms of degenerative heart disease and hypertension; in both acute and chronic chest conditions, and in gastro-intestinal and kidney infections. Recent health surveys have indicated that an inclination towards overnutrition, combined with a racial predisposition to excess weight, may underlie the early development of degenerative conditions and the high incidence of metabolic disorders.

In addition to the greater susceptibility to disease processes, the Maori shows much higher accident and homicide rates. Especially accident prone is the Maori child and young adult, while proportionately many more Maoris are involved in road fatalities.

Tuberculosis – While there has been a remarkable reduction in tuberculosis mortality in recent years due to the introduction of modern drug treatment, this disease is far from eradicated and still exacts a heavy toll of life.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths from tuberculosis in 1962 by race, sex, and age groups. The disease has almost entirely disappeared as a cause of death in European children and 81 per cent of the deaths occurred at ages upward of 45 years. In the Maori on the other hand there is a high proportion of the total deaths from tuberculosis occurring at young ages and in early adult life.

Of the 88 European deaths, 79 were due to respiratory tuberculosis and of the 47 Maori deaths, 36 were from a respiratory form. The principal sites involved in the remaining 20 deaths in both races were meninges and central nervous system, five (three were Maori), bones and joints, six, and genito-urinary organs, three.

Age, in YearsEuropeanMaoriBoth Races
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal
Under 5123336459
5–141111
15–241111
25–34123235358
35–44291141561016
45–5411213641017623
55–64174217613241034
65–74182202220222
75–841321511214317
85 and over22112314
Totals6523882720479243135
All ages, rates per 100,000 of mean population5.62.03.830.423.326.97.43.55.4

The fall in tuberculosis mortality became steep from 1945 onwards. The extent of this decline at various age levels in both numbers and rates is shown in the table which follows. All forms of tuberculosis are included and both sexes have been combined in four triennia since 1950. The figures for 1962 are shown separately.

Age Groups, in YearsAnnual Average Number of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
1950–521953–551956–581959–6119621950–521953–551956–581959–611962
European
Under 5178323783714811
5–14822127642
15–24234319116123
25–441104631131420984562224
45–64121826139343352121488975
65 and over7778613637443415307181178
Totals3562201619288194112774238
Maoris
Under 5281710361,25870335484173
5–14165311483150831520
15–244195211,7743641817732
25–4448281611101,854969515304261
45–6433252012233,0452,1421,5168601,462
65 and over241416768,2294,5305,0662,1851,739
Totals190987036471,615762491224269

Over the 13-year period both the European and the Maori rates have dropped to about one-fifth of the 1950–52 level and in both races there has been the greatest reduction at ages under 25 years, with the Maori record the more impressive. The more chronic forms of tuberculosis remain a problem in middle and old age.

The latest triennial figures available (1959–61) show New Zealand (Europeans only), with a rate of 4.1, to be in third place out of 30 countries from which death rates from all forms of tuberculosis were compiled. With the inclusion of Maoris, New Zealand fell to seventh place. The countries with lower rates than New Zealand were Iceland 2.9; Netherlands 3.0; Denmark 4.2; Israel 4.7; Australia 4.8; Canada 4.8. The New Zealand rate of 5.4 was a little lower than the rate for the United States of America which was 5.9. The rate for England and Wales was 7.7, and for Scotland 10.0.

Cancer – A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand was issued in 1958 by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. This report covers mortality from cancer from 1941 to 1955, and also surveys all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society. In addition to discussion of the total cancer picture in New Zealand, an analysis is made by specific sites broken down under the following subheadings: the age and sex of new cases registered, incidence, survival experience, treatment stage of disease at time of diagnosis, and period elapsing between first symptoms and diagnosis. Under each of these headings a comparison is made of the New Zealand figures with those available from registries in some other countries, while in the principal sites the New Zealand mortality is contrasted with that of some 24 other countries of the world.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant disease. This classification was introduced in New Zealand in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than any other cause other than diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, cancer is a leading cause of death at all ages, even among children and adolescents.

In 1962 there were 3,597 deaths from cancer, of which 121 were of Maoris. While the 1962 European crude cancer death rate of 150 was more than twice as high as the Maori crude rate of 69.2 (both per 100,000 of population), these figures are misleading as a measure of the incidence of malignant disease in the two races. When allowance is made for the comparatively few persons in the Maori population at older ages where cancer is most frequently diagnosed, it is seen that Maori cancer mortality is markedly higher than European cancer mortality. This fact is no indication at all that in general the Maori is more prone to cancer (in cancers of the intestines in both sexes and in two sites in the Maori female, the cervix and the lung, the incidence appears to be higher), but that there is more delay in reporting the symptoms of cancer by Maoris and that more cancer in Maoris goes untreated.

A summary for the latest 11 years in numbers and in rates, both crude and standardised, is provided in the following table:

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Death Rate per 100,000*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Death Rate per 100,000*

*Standard population used for standardised rates – England and Wales, 1901.

  Males Females  
19521,486148.194.31,419142.987.9
19531,553150.897.81,336131.281.8
19541,565148.697.91,401134.583.8
19551,660154.3102.41,511142.286.7
19561,684153.4105.71,471135.683.4
19571,752156.1103.21,461131.681.3
19581,743151.6101.51,554136.885.8
19591,811154.2103.41,528131.782.5
19601,724144.397.61,566132.581.3
19611,870153.2104.81,671138.485.9
19621,936154.7107.51,661134.383.2

There has been a considerable increase in the numbers of persons dying from cancer in both sexes over the period. While the crude male rate has shown no significant movement, the crude female rate has undoubtedly declined.

Standardised rates are adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age constitution of the population. The standardised rate for males has risen from 101.4 in the five years 1953–57 to 102.9 in 1958–62. This would indicate that there has been a real increase in the death toll in the male sex and this, as is discussed later, is attributable to the rise in lung cancer. The average standardised figure for females over 1953–57 was 83.4 and compares with 83.7 in 1958–62, indicating that there has been a slight rise in the death rates during the 10-year period.

A classification of cancer deaths according to age subdivisions, race, and sex is now given. Ninety-one per cent of the deaths from cancer during 1962 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 57 per cent were at ages 65 years and upwards.

Age Group, in YearsRaceMalesFemales
NumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at AgesProportion of Total Deaths at AgesNumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at AgesProportion of Total Deaths at Ages

*All ages crude rate.

Under 5European139.51.8107.72.0
 Maori15.70.5211.61.2
5–14European2410.020.7177.420.7
 Maori27.66.727.914.3
15–24European2413.710.6127.216.7
 Maori425.818.2
25–44European9933.618.211440.633.5
 Maori841.710.5947.111.7
45–64European579253.821.4563247.136.5
 Maori32380.019.627369.419.6
65 and overEuropean1,1341,260.815.7887751.713.1
 Maori201,058.211.414897.411.5
Totals, all agesEuropean1,873161.1*16.21,603139.3*17.2
 Maori6370.9*9.15867.5*10.9

Maori rates specific to age are in general higher than the European equivalent, and especially is this so at ages between 45 and 64 years. These differences are concealed by the all ages or crude rate which is the lower in the Maori.

Cancer contributes substantially to the total of European deaths at all ages. At school ages of five to 14 years one European death in every five is due to cancer (mainly leukaemia and tumours of the brain), while in the European female from 25 to 64 years over one death in three is a cancer death.

For Maoris the proportions of cancer to total deaths are very much lower than the proportions for Europeans, by reason that the competing risks from other diseases are so very much higher. Whereas in the European easily the highest numbers of cancer deaths occur at ages upwards of 65 years, the highest numbers in the Maori are at ages from 45 to 64 years. This is because of the lower expectation of life which results in few Maoris coming through to old age.

A summary of all cancer deaths occurring in New Zealand during 1962 by location of the disease is shown in the table which follows. Figures by site for Maoris have not been separated as the numbers are so small for most sites. Rates for Maoris tend to be higher in cancers involving the digestive tract, the respiratory organs, and the female genital organs.

CANCER DEATHS 1962

Site of DiseaseNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Buccal cavity and pharynx392766312227
Oesophagus422769342228
Stomach247164411197133165
Intestine, except rectum173247420138200169
Rectum9778175776370
Larynx1717147
Lung, bronchus, and trachea4396350235151202
Breast13073081248124
Cervix uteri81816533
Other and unspecified parts of uterus62625025
Prostate19619615779
Skin373067302427
Bone and connective tissue251641201316
All other and unspecified sites452410862361331346
Leukaemia and aleukaemia8875163706165
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic system8374157666063
Totals1,9361,6613,5971,5471,3431,446

There is considerable variation in the numbers and rates for different sites in both males and females. The site principally involved in the male is the lung and bronchus and one male cancer death in every four is of this site. Cancer of the stomach is very much more common in the male than the female but the position is reversed in cancer involving the intestines. The leading site in the female is the breast, which also contributes one-fifth to the total female cancer deaths.

The world-wide phenomenal increase over the last 30 years in cancer of the lung and bronchus (excluding trachea and pleura) is accepted as being associated with cigarette smoking and atmospheric pollution. The following table shows the increase in deaths from cancers of this site in each race and in each sex over the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Deaths from Cancer of Lung and BronchusCrude Rate per 100,000 of Mean Population
EuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaori
MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale
1952234398224.84.213.03.4
1953236357224.43.711.03.3
1954254309325.73.113.74.8
19552863613128.43.619.11.5
19563035411629.55.315.68.9
19573453912732.93.816.410.0
1958330528430.74.910.65.5
19593505313331.94.916.64.0
196032852141129.54.717.214.0
19613867018534.06.221.16.1
19624225817536.35.019.15.8

The crude rates for the Maori conceal the true relative incidence of lung cancer. Adjusted to the European population structure, the Maori rates exceed the European rates, the greatest margin being in the female.

While cancer is undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence it is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. The following table shows the movement in the standardised death rates per 100,000 of population in selected sites averaged over three quinquennia from 1946 and for the years 1961–62. The standard population employed is that of England and Wales, 1901.

Site1946–501951–551956–601961–621946–501951–551956–601961–62
 MaleFemale
Buccal cavity and pharynx3.52.52.52.41.11.11.21.3
Oesophagus3.32.92.52.61.41.61.21.2
Stomach18.516.013.813.210.09.47.36.5
Large intestine10.09.28.58.912.811.310.310.9
Rectum5.55.35.85.54.23.73.84.1
Biliary passages and liver1.42.02.12.21.82.32.32.4
Pancreas5.14.85.15.43.33.22.82.8
Larynx1.51.51.10.90.30.30.20.1
Trachea, lung, bronchus10.816.520.623.41.72.32.83.4
Breast0.10.217.717.616.217.8
Uterus, all parts9.79.08.27.3
Ovary, Fallopian tube6.05.46.15.5
Prostate8.79.59.08.9
Kidney2.22.32.72.61.41.51.51.2
Bladder, urinary organs2.73.03.34.31.11.01.11.1
Skin (including melanoma)2.62.42.32.21.61.51.72.0
Brain, nervous system3.23.64.04.72.22.63.02.9
Lymphosarcoma and reticulosarcoma2.12.63.22.71.21.51.72.2
Hodgkin's disease1.51.41.41.50.70.90.91.2
Leukaemia and aleukaemia4.95.35.45.63.63.74.54.3
All sites95.198.6102.3106.286.586.382.884.6

The upward trend in the total male cancer death toll can be ascribed chiefly to the steep rise in lung and bronchus cancer, already commented upon. The total female rate has shown a declining tendency in more recent years although this trend may change as a result of the rise in female lung cancer.

Stomach cancer is clearly on the decline in both sexes and this is in accordance with the experience in several other countries. Some changes in the conditions of living are thought to underlie this drop in incidence.

The large intestine, another leading site, shows declining rates in both sexes. There is also a downward movement in the rates for the uterus. There is a tendency for cancer such as leukaemia and lymphosarcoma to increase slightly and again there has been evidence of this in other parts of the world.

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATHS ANNUAL RATES PER 10,000 OF MEAN TOTAL POPULATION

Heart Disease – Diseases of the heart are the leading killer in New Zealand, accounting for 36 per cent of all male deaths and 33 per cent of all female deaths in 1962. In accordance with the increasing numbers of the population in the older age groups, the total numbers of deaths from heart disease have steadily increased. However, when allowance is made for the general ageing of the population by employing standardised rates, it becomes evident that there has been very little increase in the male rate of loss from heart conditions, and in fact in the female sex, there has been a slight fall of 4 per cent in the rates for 1958–62 as against those in 1953–57.

A disease phenomenon of recent years has been the rapid increase in deaths assigned to coronary heart disease, and in 1962 no less than 23 per cent of all deaths were due to this single disease entity. Comparing standardised rates for 1953–57 with those for the latest quinquennium of 1958–62 the rise in the toll from male deaths assigned to coronary conditions has been 18 per cent, with a higher increase still in the female of 27 per cent. It is a matter of conjecture as to whether the real incidence of coronary heart disease in the community has risen to this extent or whether it is due in part at least to increased recognition of the condition.

The numbers and death rates for heart disease excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations for the last 11 years are shown in the following table, males and females separately.

YearAll Forms of Heart DiseaseCoronary Heart Disease
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of PopulationNumberStandardised Rate per 100,000 of Population
19523,6002182,8111421,9161231,04056
19533,7362192,6731292,1531341,06455
19543,7292142,7471282,1771331,06146
19553,7952152,7691232,2481351,14255
19563,9232142,7901172,4501421,18855
19574,0062142,9341202,5401441,34760
19583,9582102,8871162,6441481,38461
19594,1542173,0881202,8121581,61567
19604,1722203,0551182,9831651,68170
19614,2892233,2231213,1751721,78574
19624,2542253,0731153,1241711,77671

In a short and select list of 10 countries whose crude death rates from all forms of heart diseases are reasonably comparable, New Zealand ranked in fifth position on 1960 and 1961 figures. Countries with the lowest recorded rates per 100,000 of population were Netherlands 211, South Africa 219, and Canada 274. The New Zealand rate was 310, close to the Australian figure of 304. The highest death rates from heart conditions were Scotland 425, Northern Ireland 414, England and Wales 389, the United States of America 362, and Sweden 338.

Coronary heart disease is predominantly a disease of old age in both sexes, although in the male sex there are appreciable numbers of deaths which occur in middle age. There are marked differences in the mortality from the disease both between the sexes and between the two races at various age periods.

The following table averages both the numbers and the age-specific rates for coronary heart disease in both European and Maori over the latest five years 1958–62.

RaceAge 35 to 44 YearsAges 45 to 54 YearsAges 55 to 64 YearsAges 65 Years and Over
Average Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Males
European725.031224.465071.71,851206.4
Maori22.91326.21967.130169.4
Females
European120.8645.120521.91,334117.7
Maori34.01022.81355.916109.8

For Europeans at ages 35 to 44 years male coronary heart disease rates exceed female rates by close to 6 to 1, the ratio decreasing as age advances to a ratio of under 2 to 1 at ages 65 years and upwards.

The absolute numbers of Maori deaths from the disease are small but when related to the population at risk produce rates fairly similar to the European population in the male sex.

Maori women have a very much greater chance of dying from a coronary condition than European women, the risk being five times greater at ages 35 to 44 years, four times greater at ages 45 to 54, and two and a half times greater risk at ages 55 to 64 years. Hypertensive forms of heart disease are also very much more common in Maori women in middle age while both sexes in the Maori have a higher mortality from rheumatic valvular heart disease.

INFANT MORTALITY – Over a long period of years New Zealand has been renowned for the low rate of infant mortality in its European population, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, etc., and partly to legislative and educative measures – the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organisations (one of the most important of these is the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children which was founded in 1907).

The trend in infant and peri-natal mortality in New Zealand up to the year 1961 and comparisons in causes with the rates of other countries who show improved figures on New Zealand's are contained in a recent issue of one of the Special Report Series issued by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health.

The infant-mortality rate of the European population of New Zealand is among the world's lowest, and recently has declined to a particularly low level. The Maori rate has shown a noticeable improvement in recent years. European, Maori, and total infant-mortality figures are given in the next table.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Live Births
EuropeanMaoriTotalEuropeanMaoriTotal
19409903721,36230.2187.2236.78
19451,0364131,44927.9988.9334.79
19501,0083561,36422.7569.7427.60
19551,0023631,36520.0962.5124.52
19581,0433731,41619.4054.3723.35
19591,0893881,47719.8954.4223.87
19601,0903301,42019.6644.5022.59
19611,1043861,49019.1349.6822.76
19621,0342971,33117.9938.7520.44

Male rates of infant loss are about 28 per cent above female rates and this tends to counter-balance the male excess in births.

In the following table New Zealand's infant mortality rates for the European and Maori populations separately and for both races combined are shown in comparison with the rates for other countries. The figures are averaged over the latest five years for which figures are available and the data have been extracted from the United Nations Demographic Yearbook, 1962.

It is interesting to observe that the Netherlands and Sweden have the apparent distinction on 1962 figures of having the lowest infant death rate in the world at 15.3 per 1,000 live births while New Zealand's European rate was 18.0 for that year. It is well to be aware that while both Sweden and the Netherlands do produce lower rates of infant loss than New Zealand, the gap is not as wide as appears from the published rates. Up until the year 1960 the Swedish figures were based on local definitions of foetal death, livebirth, and infant death which would result in the rates being an understatement in a comparison with New Zealand's.

Similarly the Netherlands has a different reporting practice from New Zealand for deaths of some infants who die before registration, which results in a rate perhaps two points lower than one compiled according to the New Zealand regulations. These differences in definitions and practices exist also among some other countries. Iceland is a very small country and consequently its rates are subject to wider variations.

CountryQuinquenniumDeaths Under 1 Year Per 1,000 Live Births
Sweden1958–6216
Netherlands1958–6216
Iceland1956–6017
New Zealand (European)1958–6219
Norway1957–6120
Australia1957–6121
England and Wales1958–6222
Switzerland1957–6122
Finland1958–6222
New Zealand (European and Maori)1958–6225
Denmark1956–6025
Czechoslovakia1958–6223
United States (white)1958–6226
Scotland1958–6227
Northern Ireland1958–6228
France1958–6228
South Africa (white)1958–6229
Canada1957–6129
Cyprus1958–6230
Belgium1958–6230
Republic of Ireland1958–6250
China (Taiwan)1957–6133
Japan1957–6134
West Germany1958–6235
Austria1958–6237
Greece1958–6240
Italy1958–6244
Hong Kong1958–6244
New Zealand (Maori)1958–6248
Hungary1958–6250
Bulgaria1957–6152
Argentine1957–6162
Poland1958–6262
Malaya1956–6073
Mexico1958–6273
Rumania1957–6175
Portugal1958–6284
Yugoslavia1958–6286
Guatemala1957–6194
Chile1957–61120

In the quinquennium 1958–62 New Zealand's infant mortality rate for both races combined was tenth lowest out of the 38 countries listed. With the exclusion of the Maori population New Zealand is promoted to forth place below Sweden, the Netherlands, and Iceland.

One out of every four infant deaths is a Maori infant death and the Maori rate of loss is more than twice that of the European. The excess in the Maori rate is very largely due to infants who die between the end of the fourth week of life and the first birthday. This is illustrated in the following table showing numbers and rates by race and age for the year 1962.

RaceUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 DaysTotal Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 MonthsTotal Under 1 Year
European358285707133211,034
Maori514519115182297
Both races409330898285031,331
Rates per 1,000 Live Births
European6.25.01.212.45.618.0
Maori6.65.92.515.023.838.8
Both races6.35.11.312.77.720.4

Maori rates are the higher at all ages and contribute substantially to the total loss of infant life in each age division but with the highest number and proportion at ages after the first month.

Two-thirds of the European deaths occur in the first fortnight of life but in the Maori approximately this same proportion takes place between the twenty-eighth day and the end of the first year. The explanation of this is the susceptibility of the Maori baby in its generally inferior home environment to forms of infection such as gastro-enteritis and pneumonia.

The rates per 1,000 live births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last 11 years, European and Maori separately.

YearUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 MonthsUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 Months
 EuropeanMaori
19526.32.44.32.16.79.78.43.54.258.6
19535.92.14.12.25.811.08.02.75.146.3
19546.02.44.21.85.710.05.82.12.138.6
19556.41.93.52.36.08.44.34.02.143.7
19566.51.53.61.86.09.92.94.72.434.4
19576.92.33.11.56.19.23.34.43.537.5
19586.81.83.02.05.810.83.54.23.532.4
19597.11.83.31.86.08.83.42.94.135.2
19607.52.23.21.65.29.82.62.62.327.2
19616.92.03.31.65.39.83.14.23.129.5
19626.22.03.01.25.66.63.42.52.523.8

There has been a reduction in the rates in both races for deaths under one day, the greater fall being in the Maori rate.

Infants who die in the first year of life may be grouped into two parts, viz, those dying in the first few weeks of life and those surviving the first month but dying before the first anniversary of their birth. Deaths among the first group called neonatal deaths are due principally to prematurity, birth injuries, asphyxia, and malformations, most of which trace to pre-natal and natal circumstances.

Maori infant death figures have been available since 1922 but in those times were of doubtful reliability. European rates were known in the eighties, and in the 40-year period between 1881 and 1921 the neonatal rate continued at a level of close to 30 per 1,000 liveborn. However the European post-neonatal rate declined 75 per cent during the same period from a loss of 61 children out of every 1,000 to a figure of 15.

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates.

INFANT DEATHS UNDER 12 MONTHS AVERAGE RATE PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS

The next table shows the movement in the rates for both races since 1922 in eight quinquennia. Figures for 1962 are shown separately.

PeriodNeonatal Mortality (Under 28 Days)Post-neonatal Mortality (28 Days and Under 12 Months)Infant Mortality (Under 1 Year)
EuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaoriEuropeanMaori
1922–2626.4326.7014.70104.3041.13131.00
1927–3124.2625.6410.9086.9235.16112.56
1932–3622.2521.289.3876.8631.6398.14
1937–4121.9426.719.5186.1331.45112.84
1942–4619.7920.998.8871.6728.6792.66
1947–5116.7326.116.5348.4823.2674.59
1952–5614.2322.166.0244.0320.2566.19
1957–6113.9219.775.6832.2019.6051.97
196212.4115.015.5923.7517.9938.75

Principally due to the small numbers involved there has been some fluctuation in the Maori neonatal rate, but there has been some improvement in the latest quinquennium with a sharp drop in 1962. There has been a major reduction of 47 per cent in the European neonatal rate over the 30 year period with a further fall in 1962. In each of the three conditions, prematurity, birth injury, and postnatal asphyxia which together contribute about two-thirds to the total neonatal deaths, the Maori rates are half as high again as the European rates. Factors which underlie this disparity are the higher proportion of Maori confinements outside of hospitals, more frequent child bearing, a reluctance to seek and heed antenatal advice, and inferior physique.

In post-neonatal mortality while European rates have dropped 61 per cent during the period 1922–26 to 1957–61, the Maori reduction has been steeper at 69 per cent with a further spectacular fall in 1962. Nevertheless the Maori rate of loss after the first month of life is still four times the European rate. The sharp drop in the rates for both races in the post-war years reflects the general availability of antibiotics from then onwards. It is the Maori infant who survives the first month of life who is especially susceptible to respiratory infections such as influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis, and to gastro-intestinal disorders. Environmental factors and circumstances peculiar to the Maori way of life underlie the onset of these diseases, such as unsatisfactory feeding associated with failure to seek and act upon skilled advice from Plunket and district nurses on matters such as feeding and in many instances overcrowding and poor housing and sanitary conditions.

Causes of Infant Mortality – In the following table are shown the absolute numbers and the rates per 1,000 live births of the principal causes of infant mortality over the last three years in European and Maori and in both races combined.

Causes of DeathRaceNumber of DeathsRate per 1,000 Live Births
196019611962196019611962
Tuberculosis all formsE1- -
 M130.10.4
 T23- -- -
Congenital syphilisE1- -
 M10.1
 T11- - 
Enteric fever and other Salmonella infectionsE1 - -- -
 M10.1
 T2- -
Dysentery, all formsE1- -
 M10.1
 T11- -- -
Whooping coughE12- -- -
 M2110.30.10.1
 T331- -- -- -
Meningococcal infectionsE222- -- -- -
 M4130.60.10.4
 T6350.1- -0.1
TetanusE
 M1- -
 T1- -
MeaslesE410.1- -
 M220.30.3
 T630.1- -
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of lifeE7088841.31.51.5
 M851098111.514.110.6
 T1551971652.53.02.5
Pneumonia of newbornE2925220.50.40.4
 M6890.81.01.2
 T3533310.60.50.5
Gastro-enteritis after first four weeks of lifeE614140.10.20.3
 M4335325.84.54.2
 T4949460.80.70.7
Diarrhoea of new bornE121- -- -- -
 M4210.60.30.1
 T5420.10.1- -
Congenital malformationsE2262302234.14.03.9
 M2739283.65.03.7
 T2532692514.04.13.8
Birth injuryE1511111262.81.92.2
 M2731213.64.02.8
 T1781421472.92.22.3
Asphyxia and atelectasisE1351371052.42.41.8
 M2329183.13.72.3
 T1581661232.52.61.9
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)E3239350.60.80.6
 M1210.10.30.1
 T3341360.50.60.6
Immaturity unqualifiedE1641401383.02.42.4
 M2736233.64.63.0
 T1911761613.02.72.5
AccidentsE2130290.40.50.5
 M61350.81.70.7
 T2743340.40.70.5
Other and undefined causesE2442842544.45.04.4
 M7176709.69.89.1
 T3153603245.15.65.0
TotalsE1,0901,1041,03419.719.118.0
 M33038629744.549.738.8
 T1,4201,4901,33122.622.820.4

The heavy contribution of Maori infant deaths to the total of each cause is very obvious in the table of absolute numbers and the disproportionate incidence in almost all conditions and in accidents is revealed by the comparison in the rates. There has, however, been a considerable saving of life in Maori babies in almost all the leading causes over the last 10 years.

CAUSES OF STILL BIRTH – A still-born child or late foetal death is defined in New Zealand as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. A certificate of the cause of death is required to be furnished for each still birth and also for cases of intermediate foetal deaths – i.e., deaths after the end of the twentieth but before the end of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy. The certificates of causes of still birth and foetal death provide for both maternal and foetal causes to be entered.

As different recording certificates and different classifications are applied to babies born dead and babies born alive which succumb soon after birth it is not at present possible to compile tables of causes of perinatal mortality. However a code has been evolved which combines the causes of still births and early neonatal deaths and more satisfactory results should come about from the use of this classification.

The following table sets down the 726 European still births registered during 1962 classified (a) according to maternal causes and (b) according to foetal causes.

Causes of Still BirthNumber of Cases
MalesFemalesTotal
Maternal Causes   
Chronic disease in mother10616
Acute disease in mother6410
Diseases and conditions of pregnancy and childbirth7276148
Difficulties in labour171633
Other causes in mother448
Totals109106215
Foetal Causes   
Placental and cord conditions130119249
Birth injury7310
Congenital malformations of foetus4162103
Diseases of foetus and ill defined causes8069149
Totals258253511
Totals, all causes367359726

PERINATAL MORTALITY – It is necessary to consider still births and deaths in the first few days of life together, as they are largely the result of common causes. The combined group is termed perinatal mortality. The term is particularly appropriate when we consider how deaths in the new born crowd closely towards the day of birth. The perinatal rate provides a better indication of the full extent of pregnancy wastage. It also has the advantage that it is less complicated by differences in definitions and in the reporting requirements for “still birth”. Still births, deaths in the first week of life, and perinatal deaths (still births plus deaths in the first week) are shown in the following table for each race separately and for both races combined. The still births and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1,000 total births (still births plus live births), while the death rate for the first week of life is calculated per 1,000 live births.

YearRaceStill BirthsDeaths Under 1 WeekPerinatal Mortality
NumberRateNumberRateNumberRate
1957E83415.8363812.301,47227.94
 M10215.1511216.8921431.78
 T93615.7575012.821,68628.37
1958E81915.0062411.601,44326.43
 M11316.2012718.5124034.42
 T93215.1475112.391,68327.34
1959E80514.4966312.111,46826.43
 M13718.8510815.1524533.71
 T94215.0077112.461,71327.27
1960E80614.3371312.861,51927.01
 M8110.8111114.9719225.61
 T88713.9282413.111,71126.84
1961E80213.7170312.181,50525.72
 M10713.5813317.1224030.47
 T90913.6983612.771,74526.29
1962E72612.4864311.191,36923.53
 M11715.049612.5321327.37
 T84312.7873911.351,58223.98

Over the whole six-year period the Maori rate was 4 per cent higher than the European rate in still births and 32 per cent higher in deaths in the first week of life; in perinatal mortality the Maori excess was 17 per cent.

The perinatal rate in both races has shown some slight improvement due principally to the reduction in the still-birth rate. It is observed that a considerable proportion of the live-born babies who would previously have been still births would be delicate, immature infants with a high risk of dying in the first few days of life. Consequently the death rate for the first week has not changed noticeably, although the mark drop in 1962.

PUERPERAL CAUSES – Improvements in the standard of antenatal care and obstetrical skill, as well as advances in medical science, have reduced the numbers of deaths from septic abortion, puerperal sepsis, and toxaemia, and deaths from complications of childbirth are few. A summary of maternal mortality from all puerperal causes, in triennial periods since 1935, is given in the following table. Figures for 1962 are shown separately.

Cause of Death1938–401941–431944–461947–491950–521953–551956–581959–611962
European
Puerperal sepsis503917741231
Eclampsia and other toxaemias88597538332824101
Septic abortion646642221498123
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality11010612682533443405
Total maternal mortality31227026014910472776510
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion248204218127906369537
Maori
Puerperal sepsis15683321
Eclampsia and other toxaemias486753251
Septic abortion583332
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality36243027202124158
Total maternal mortality60464737312929209
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion55384437282627209
Both Races
Puerperal sepsis6545251073331
Eclampsia and other toxaemias92678145383126152
Septic abortion69744522171210123
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality1461301561097355675513
Total maternal mortality3723163071861351011068519
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion30324226216411889967316

The following table shows the progressive reduction that has been achieved in the rates of deaths due to puerperal causes.

YearRate per 1,000 Live Births
EuropeanMaoriTotal Population
19422.534.602.77
19432.212.252.22
19442.713.262.77
19452.241.902.20
19462.054.772.33
19471.072.211.18
19481.261.821.32
19491.023.461.27
19500.902.351.05
19510.690.760.70
19520.712.560.91
19530.541.450.64
19540.511.580.63
19550.442.070.61
19560.401.780.55
19570.671.350.75
19580.411.310.51
19590.491.260.58
19600.340.670.38
19610.330.770.38
19620.171.170.29

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES – Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 5 per cent of the total deaths and again the Maori rate is higher than the European. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the three latest years classified according to the Intermediate List of the 1955 Revision of the International Classification. In this table falls on board ship and from horseback are included as transport fatalities.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
196019611962196019611962
Motor-vehicle accidents356405420150167169
Other transport accidents383447161419
Accidental poisoning433646181519
Accidental falls295282308124116124
Accidents caused by machinery403727171511
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material283341121416
Accidents caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation111311554
Accidents caused by firearms19156862
Accidental drowning and submersion143126142605257
All other accidental causes119161110506644
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)25261910118
Totals1,1171,1681,177470481473

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1962 was 1,158 corresponding to a rate of 4.65 per 10,000 of population.

Drownings are a leading cause of accidental death in New Zealand. Included in the preceding table for 1962 are 35 deaths from drowning due to the capsize of small boats and 6 deaths involving principally the larger type of boat. The year 1962 shows a slight fall in the death rate from external causes.

Transport Accidents – In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway trains and electric tram cars with motor vehicles, the death is assigned to the railway train or electric tram car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. For 1962 there were 12 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor vehicle was involved up to 420. The corresponding figure for 1961 was 405. In the case of collisions between motor vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles, the death is assigned to the motor vehicle.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearDeaths Due to AccidentRate per 10,000 of Mean Population
RailwayTramwayMotor VehicleAircraftRailwayTramwayMotor VehicleAircraft
1952393281140.200.021.410.07
1953292308280.140.011.500.14
19541874323160.890.021.540.08
195546234590.220.011.610.04
1956233320100.110.011.470.05
1957352389220.160.011.740.10
1958361393230.16- -1.720.10
195928134890.12- -1.490.04
1960321340100.13- -1.430.04
1961262393130.110.011.620.05
196227-408110.11- -1.640.04

Deaths occurring as a result of the Tangiwai railway disaster were not registered till 1954, and consequently were not included in the 1953 totals. These deaths numbered 154, and of course account for the large increase in the number of deaths due to railway accidents shown for 1954. Of this number one was a Maori, and seven were registered as unidentified bodies.

In recent years the wide use of aircraft in agricultural operations such as aerial topdressing has resulted in a number of deaths from aircraft accidents.

Since the war the number of fatalities from motor-vehicle accidents progressively increased up to 1958, with the exception of small declines in 1952 and again in 1956. The year 1958 was a particularly bad year from the accident point of view, especially those involving motor vehicles, but there were improvements in 1959 and 1960. Unfortunately, the motor vehicle accident rate rose sharply again in 1961.

Non-transport Accidents – The 1955 Revision of the International List makes provision for non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for each of the three years 1960, 1961, and 1962 according to this classification.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
196019611962196019611962
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)287305296121125119
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)485441202216
Mine and quarry259124
Industrial place and premises37261815117
Place for recreation and sport1259524
Street and highway211116956
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)71819378
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)866594362738
Other specified places111100118474147
Place not specified28332212149
Totals639622642269256258

One in every two fatal non-traffic accidents occurs in or about the home.

Falls are the chief cause of home fatalities, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. This is clearly illustrated in a special report on domestic accidents issued by the Department of Health in 1960. The second important cause of death in the home is asphyxia from regurgitation of food and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes; this is the principal hazard of the first six months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed respiratory infection. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between one and two years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the vicinity of the home.

Twenty-one of the 41 accidental deaths on farms in 1962 were caused by farm machinery (usually tractors). Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

Suicide – There were 204 suicidal deaths of Europeans in 1962 – 140 males and 64 females – the death rates per 100,000 of population being 12.0 for males and 5.6 for females. For Maoris there were four suicidal deaths in 1962 – two males and two females, the death rates per 100,000 of population being 2.3 for males and 2.3 for females.

Rates per 100,000 of population showing the age distributions, averaged over the years 1960, 1961, and 1962 are shown next for the total population.

Sex10/1415/1920/2425/2930/3435/3940/4445/4950/5455/5960/6465/6970/7475/7980+
Males0.33.78.918.213.518.624.823.620.729.125.926.334.637.424.4
Females1.43.03.34.06.910.011.98.515.210.312.015.24.26.4

These figures show the typical increase in the suicide rates with increasing age and the fall in the female rate after the age of 75 years.

The next table presents the average, over three-yearly periods since 1921, of standardised European suicide rates per 100,000 of mean population.

Annual Average DuringMalesFemales
1921–2318.04.5
1924–2617.54.5
1927–2920.55.4
1930–3220.64.6
1933–3515.34.7
1936–3813.44.9
1939–4113.04.3
1942–4410.94.9
1945–4710.54.5
1948–5011.14.6
1951–5311.84.1
1954–5610.64.2
1957–5911.83.9
1960–6211.64.3

The male rate fell sharply after the depression years, while the female rate has remained fairly constant.

The following table provides an international comparison of suicide rates for various countries. The figures have been calculated from material in the United Nations Demographic Yearbooks.

CountryTrienniumRate per 100,000 of Population
Mexico1957–581.8
Guatemala1959–612.9
Republic of Ireland1959–612.9
South Africa (coloured)1958–603.4
Northern Ireland1959–614.5
Spain1956–595.3
Italy1959–616.3
Netherlands1959–616.7
Norway1958–607.2
Canada1959–617.5
South Africa (Asiatic)1958–607.5
Bulgaria1958–607.9
Scotland1959–618.1
Ceylon1958–608.8
New Zealand (European and Maori)1958–609.4
United States of America (all races)1959–6110.6
Australia1959–6111.2
England and Wales1959–6111.3
South Africa (white)1958–6013.0
Belgium1958–6014.2
France1959–6116.2
Sweden1958–6017.6
Switzerland1958–5919.8
Finland1959–6120.3
Denmark1958–6020.8
Japan1959–6121.1
Austria1959–6123.2
Hungary1959–6125.3
West Germany1958–6035.5

4 D – MARRIAGES

GENERAL – Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. A licence must be obtained from a Registrar of Marriages before a marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnised. Marriage by an officiating minister may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage. In the case of a person under 21 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

The system of notice and licence has operated in New Zealand since 15. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages solemnised, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registration lists of notices received. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made with a view to obtaining the return if the marriage has been solemnised.

Marriage is forbidden between persons within certain degrees of relationship, any such marriage being declared void. The prohibition applies whether the relationship is by the whole blood or by the half-blood, and whether the relationship is nuptial or ex-nuptial. The present law on this matter is contained in the Marriage Act 1955.

Section 34 of this Act provides that proxy marriages may be authorised by a Magistrate in New Zealand of any person who is resident in New Zealand to any person who is outside New Zealand, if the Magistrate is satisfied that the person who is outside the country is unable to come to New Zealand by reason of the existence of a state of war or armed conflict, or by reason of the conditions of his service as a member of the armed forces of any Commonwealth country, or of any country for the time being allied with any Commonwealth country.

Any New Zealand citizen who intends to be married in a country other than New Zealand according to the law of that country, and who desires to obtain a certificate for the purpose of complying with the law of that country, may give notice to the Registrar-General who, upon receiving the notice, shall make such searches and inquiries and give such notices as may be prescribed under the Act. If no caveat is entered within 14 days of the receipt by the Registrar-General, a certificate may be issued, after proper notices have been given that no lawful impediment to the marriage has been shown to the Registrar-General to exist.

Any New Zealand representative who has attended the marriage of a New Zealand citizen in a country other than New Zealand, and is satisfied that the marriage has been solemnised in accordance with the formalities of the law of that other country, may give a certificate and forward a duplicate copy to the Registrar-General, who shall bind the duplicate in a special register kept by him for the purpose.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a European.

Marriage statistics from 1952, therefore, apply to the total population, whereas previously they were limited to Europeans.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES – The movement of the marriage rate over a lengthy period of time may be observed from the statistical summary appearing towards the end of this Yearbook. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last 20 years are here given.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Population

*Prior to 1952 the figures are for Europeans only.

1944*13,1258.43
1945*16,16010.14
1946*20,53512.39
1947*18,52510.94
1948*17,1929.96
1949*16,7859.53
1950*16,5049.19
1951*16,3598.93
195217,0618.55
195317,2248.41
195417,5578.38
195517,7958.32
195617,5318.03
195717,6147.89
195818,3058.01
195918,3157.84
196018,9097.96
196119,4268.00
196219,5727.86
196319,8577.81

The high marriage rates from 1945 to 1947 were due to the return of many thousands of men from overseas war service.

Comparison with Other Countries – Marriage rates for certain countries for 1962 are given below (these particulars have been taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, issued by the Statistical Office of the United Nations).

CountryRate per 1,000 Mean Population
Australia7.4
Austria8.4
Belgium6.7
Canada6.8
Chile7.3
Denmark8.1
Finland7.5
France6.7
Germany, West9.2
Ireland, Republic5.5
Israel7.2
Italy8.1
Netherlands7.9
New Zealand7.9
Norway6.5
Portugal7.9
Spain7.7
Switzerland8.0
Sweden7.1
United Kingdom7.5
United States of America8.3
Yugoslavia8.7

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE – The total number of persons married during the year 1962 was 39,144, of whom 35,075 were single, 1,545 widowed, and 2,524 divorced. The figures for the latest five years, showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
195816,19816,2268107891,2971,29036,610
195916,26416,2068117921,2401,31736,630
196016,77316,7629158641,2211,28337,818
196117,36817,3468578811,2011,19938,852
196217,52917,5467817641,2621,26239,144

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
SingleWidowedDivorcedSingleWidowedDivorced
per cent
195888.484.437.0988.644.317.05
195988.804.436.7788.494.327.19
196088.704.846.4688.644.576.79
196189.414.416.1889.294.546.17
196289.563.996.4589.653.906.45

Divorce statistics at the end of this subsection show the numbers of decrees granted in recent years, the numbers varying from 1,400 to 1,800 a year. Widowed persons remarrying constituted 40 per 1,000 persons married in 1962.

The marital status of persons prior to marriage for each of the latest five years is next given.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
195815,191273734310346154725170402
195915,228303733300329182678160402
196015,782298693293426196687140394
196116,404306658290400167652175374
196216,615257657271346164660161441

The relative proportions of divorced men and divorced women remarrying during the last three years has changed but little compared with 20 years earlier. During the three years 1938–40 the number of male divorcees remarrying was 2,066, as compared with 2,169 females, which gives a rate of 95 males for every 100 females. In 1960–62 the respective numbers were 3,684 males and 3,744 females, and the corresponding rate 98 males for every 100 females. In the case of widowed persons remarrying, however, there has been a marked change in the figures. In the three-year period 1938–40, 2,420 widowers remarried but only 1,619 widows, whereas in 1960–62 there were 2,553 widowers and 2,509 widows who remarried, the number of widowers per 100 widows being 149 in the former period and 102 in the latter period.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED – Of the 39,144 persons married in 1962, 10,042, or 26 per cent were under 21 years of age; 15,219, or 39 per cent, were returned as 21–24 years; 6,451, or 16 per cent, as 25–29 years; 4,115, or 11 per cent, as 30–39 years; and 3,317, or 8 per cent, as 40 years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1962.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2121–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over
Under 211,8863231232,224
21–244,2783,63835125918,302
25–291,3312,16377816044934,488
30–3424357349927311831151,752
35–39611652001981726446906
40–44835671011079971488
45 and over112056951521888901,412
Total brides7,8186,9171,9638556023921,02519,572

The recent trend is for persons to marry at younger ages. The following table shows since 1925 the proportions of men and women married at each age group to every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 2121–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotals

*Periods prior to 1950 are for Europeans only.

Males
1925–29*3.4928.0434.4914.337.704.487.47100.00
1930–34*3.4627.2837.0215.146.103.617.39100.00
1935–39*2.6825.9138.2616.466.753.226.72100.00
1950–545.0535.4231.2110.955.863.567.95100.00
1955–597.1836.6829.4411.214.812.977.71100.00
19609.4539.1225.8910.204.812.717.82100.00
196110.7640.9423.969.654.462.497.76100.00
196211.3642.4222.938.954.632.497.22100.00
Females
1925–29*18.6137.8823.678.934.652.823.44100.00
1930–34*18.6738.5124.798.223.852.403.56100.00
1935–39*17.1038.2626.308.863.912.023.55100.00
1950–5425.7838.6516.856.964.122.595.05100.00
1955–5932.9935.7113.766.113.652.495.29100.00
196037.7234.3111.485.093.542.395.47100.00
196139.8634.319.944.833.102.255.71100.00
196239.9435.3410.034.373.082.005.24100.00

The average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females has decreased fairly steadily in recent years. The figures for each of the latest 11 years are as follows.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
Years
195229.5226.19
195329.3125.90
195429.2025.85
195528.9925.67
195629.0725.59
195728.9725.48
195828.7625.30
195928.7025.26
196028.5625.11
196128.2924.90
196227.4324.11

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest five years according to marital status were as shown below.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Years
195826.4041.3755.8023.2036.9449.38
195926.3241.8256.3523.1037.4549.03
196026.1041.6756.1022.9037.7949.13
196125.8842.2957.4522.6938.5149.85
196225.1141.6856.5022.0437.5349.34

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides (21) has remained unchanged for very many years, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for recent years it has been 21 to 24.

Marriages of Minors – Of every 1,000 men married in 1962, 113 were under 21 years of age, while 399 in every 1,000 brides were under 21.

In 1,886 marriages in 1962 both parties were given as under 21 years of age, in 7,818 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 338 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last five years.

YearAge, in YearsTotals
1617181920NumberRate per 100 Marriages
Bridegrooms
19587582234337581,4798.08
19595732284977751,5788.62
196010582725838641,7879.45
19618982845931,1072,09010.76
196271083486231,1382,22411.36
Brides
19582816721,3191,9752,2196,46635.32
19592716691,3162,0702,3566,68236.48
19603027121,4022,1772,5407,13337.72
19614117951,4572,2912,7887,74239.86
19624019651,5862,0722,7947,81839.94

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES – Of the 19,572 marriages performed in 1962, Church of England clergymen officiated at 4,963, Presbyterians at 4,804, Roman Catholics at 2,898, Methodists at 1,562, and clergymen of other churches at 1,529, while 3,816 marriages were solemnised by Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the seven latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
1956195719581959196019611962
Church of England25.8824.6325.1224.3725.2425.0325.36
Presbyterian25.3226.2425.0825.3925.8024.6024.55
Roman Catholic14.8415.1915.1215.2914.9315.1114.81
Methodist8.358.317.788.008.208.407.98
Others6.796.827.287.247.517.707.80
Before Registrars18.8218.8119.6219.7118.3219.1619.50
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the general census of 1961, 34.6 per cent were recorded as adherents of the Church of England, 22.3 per cent Presbyterian, 15.1 per cent Roman Catholic, 7.2 per cent Methodist, and 20.8 per cent of other religions or of no religion, or who objected to state their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS – The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was (January 1963) 3,553, and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church799
Church of England619
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand555
Methodist Church of New Zealand360
Ratana Church of New Zealand167
Salvation Army183
Baptist174
Latter Day Saints123
Brethren73
Ringatu Church48
Associated Churches of Christ50
Congregational Independent35
Seventh Day Adventist41
Assemblies of God25
Jehovah's Witness28
Apostolic Church24
Commonwealth Covenant Church20
Liberal Catholic Church16
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference13
Evangelistic Church of Christ10
Church of God11
Churches of Christ11
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi11
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand6
Hebrew Congregations5
United Maori Mission5
Others141
Total3,553

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organisations.

DISSOLUTION OF MARRIAGE AND NULLITY – From 1 January 1965 the Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963 replaces the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928.

Divorce – A petition for divorce may be presented to the Supreme Court on one or more of 15 grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than three years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than three years, and the parties living apart for seven years and not likely to be reconciled. Only a very small percentage of divorces each year are concerned with the other 10 grounds not listed, as a subsequent table shows. Where the parties are separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least two years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage – Proceedings for the dissolution of a voidable marriage may be instituted by a person domiciled in New Zealand or a person whose spouse is domiciled in New Zealand on any of the following grounds, namely, that at the time of the marriage one of the parties was mentally defective, that the respondent was at that time suffering from communicable venereal disease, that the woman was then pregnant by some man other than the petitioner, or that some woman other than the petitioner was then pregnant by the respondent, or that the marriage has not been consummated because of the incapacity of either party or the respondent's wilful refusal. A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage put an end to the marriage from the date of the decree.

Nullity – In certain circumstances a marriage is void, that is it is of no effect whether or not proceedings in respect of it are taken in the Courts. A decree of nullity in respect of a void marriage may, however. be obtained if either party is domiciled or resident in New Zealand or the marriage was solemnised here. The grounds on which a marriage governed by New Zealand law is void are that at the time of the ceremony one of the parties was already married or did not give consent, that the parties were within the prohibited degree of relationship or that the marriage was not solemnised in due form. Any children of a void marriage are legitimate unless at the time of the conception of the child or at the time of the marriage (whichever was later) both parties knew the marriage was void.

Petitions filed and decrees granted by the Supreme Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearDissolution or Nullity of MarriageJudicial Separation
Petitions FiledDecrees NisiDecrees AbsolutePetitions FiledDecrees for Separation
19521,9601,7271,684158
19531,8971,6431,540103
19541,8861,4791,536123
19551,7991,3791,472143
19561,8911,5681,44985
19571,9981,7191,4002110
19582,0841,8051,7511913
19591,9121,6481,639216
19602,0581,6271,64895
19612,2231,8241,733233
19622,1861,7901,755206

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petitions and decrees during 1961 and 1962.

GroundsPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19611962196119621961196219611962
Adultery445416207265276336162161
Desertion149151102791291228967
Drunkenness with cruelty, failure to maintain, etc.136131236
Attempted murder1
Insanity53215422
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights7115
Separation by agreement for not less than three years485453601603351351420422
Separation by Court order or decree for not less than three years221148681
Living apart for not less than seven years10291938588928083
Presumption of death1
Sodomy, etc.1
Nullity41321
Non-consummation77666172
Bigamy122111
Totals1,1991,1321,0241,054881930852825

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year.

Over the five-year period 1958–62 inclusive, the average percentage of decrees absolute granted on wives' petitions (84.9), was greater than the percentage granted on husbands' petitions (78.4). It is of interest to point out that 1962 was only the third year since 1952 in which the number of of decrees absolute granted on husbands' petitions was greater than the total granted on wives' petitions.

In 464 of the 1,755 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1962 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was one in 399 cases, two in 405 cases, three in 272 cases, and four or more in 215 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which decrees absolute were granted in the five years 1958 to 1962.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsHusbands' Decrees Absolute GrantedWives' Decrees Absolute Granted
1958195919601961196219581959196019611962
Under 576656366785448605055
5–9228233237238237275245232226202
10–14227207173207225228228241191208
15–19129102111134155134123119153155
20–29153133166168174132151150174158
30 and over64584968615146475847
Totals877798799881930874841849852825

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1958, 2,737; 1959, 2,655; 1960, 2,678; 1961, 3,052; and 1962, 3,041.

Chapter 5. Section 5 PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

5 A – PUBLIC HEALTH

DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES IN NEW ZEALAND – The Public Health Act 1900 placed public health administration in New Zealand on an efficient basis. A separate Department of Public Health was set up under its own Minister; the country was divided into a number of health districts, and properly trained and qualified staff were appointed to administer the Act. In the years following the establishment of the Department steady progress was made in the building up of a public health organisation. Acts were passed dealing with the sale of food and drugs; the registration of medical practitioners, pharmacists, nurses and midwives, plumbers; the prevention of quackery; and the control of venereal disease. Sanatoria were established to help in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. Attention was given to problems of maternal welfare. Medical supervision of school children came into operation, at first under the control of the Department of Education, then after 1921 under the Department of Health.

In 1909 a closer link between curative and preventive medicine was forged by merging the Hospitals and Charitable Aid Department into the Department of Public Health's organisation.

During the years 1900 to 1920 there was an increasing public interest taken in health matters. As a result a number of voluntary health organisations were established with the objects of diffusing knowledge of infant welfare, first aid, and home nursing.

The 1918–19 influenza epidemic brought to light a number of defects in the public health organisation, particularly the need for a simplification of existing health legislation and the need for a clear definition of the duties of local authorities, hospital boards, and the Department of Public Health. The result of this experience was the passing of the Health Act 1920 under which, with its amendments, the Department of Health operated until 1956.

Following the passing of the 1920 Act new health districts were created and the existing activities of the Department were expanded. Among the more important of the new activities of the Department were the establishment of a School Dental Service in 1920, the building up of health education work, and, in 1937, the institution of the Medical Research Council. Registration was widened to include dentists, opticians, and physiotherapists.

Developments since the Second World War included a more positive attack on tuberculosis marked by the passing of the Tuberculosis Act 1948, the establishment as a Government agency of the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory existing at Christchurch, and the creation of the National Health Institute in Wellington. At the end of 1947 the Mental Hospitals Department ceased to be a separate Government Department, and became the Division of Mental Health of the Department of Health, Occupational therapists and dietitians are further professional classes with legislation providing for national registration.

The Health Act 1956 consolidated and amended the law relating to public health.

A more detailed outline of the development of public health services in New Zealand up to 1939 will be found in the annual report of the Department of Health for that year.

PRESENT ORGANISATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICESLocal Authorities: Part II of the Health Act 1956 lays definite obligations on local authorities in regard to public health. Each local authority must either appoint its own health inspectors or contribute to the salary of an inspector of the Department of Health. Each inspector must hold a certificate of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health (or certain equivalents) before he can be appointed. A local authority's responsibility in health matters is wide. It must promote and conserve the public health within its district – a function which includes regular inspections of its district; abatement of nuisances as defined in the Health Act; provision of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; protection and purification of water supplies; closing and demolition of insanitary buildings; registration and regulation of cattle saleyards; and the enforcement of certain minimum sanitary requirements for residences and business premises. It may also make bylaws dealing with public health matters.

Department of Health: The chief administrative officer of the Department is the Director-General of Health. He is assisted by two Deputy Directors-General.

The Department was re-organised in 1962 into the following Divisions: Public Health, Nursing, Hospital (described in Section 5B), Clinical Services, Dental Health, and Mental Health (Section 5C).

New Zealand as a whole is divided into 19 health districts, each under the control of a medical officer of health, a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science.

The Department is required to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and coordination of measures necessary to promote public health. It administers all Acts relating to public health; it advises local authorities on public health; it must do whatever is possible to prevent, limit, or suppress disease; it promotes research into public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease; it conducts health publicity and organises and controls medical, dental, and nursing services paid from public funds. With the authority of the Minister, a medical officer of health may exercise very wide powers in the event of an epidemic or serious outbreak of infectious disease, including the requisitioning of land and buildings, prohibition of public gatherings, and controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease. Certain diseases, mostly infectious, but including some non-communicable, must be notified by medical practitioners. Provisions relating to quarantine are included in the Health Act; and extensive power is given to make regulations relating to the conservation and promotion of public health.

The Department's organisation includes a Board of Health. The Health Act 1956 reconstituted the Board of Health and widened the scope of its functions. While the former Board of Health was principally concerned with water supply and drainage, the new Board, in addition to its responsibilities in relation to local authorities and their sanitary works, has the much wider function of giving the Minister authoritative advice on the broad aspects of public health policy and the relationship between the various health services.

In addition to the Health Act 1956, the following Acts are administered by the Department:

  • Cemeteries Act 1908

  • Dangerous Drugs Act 1927

  • Dentists Act 1936

  • Dietitians Act 1950

  • Food and Drugs Act 1947

  • Hospitals Act 1957

  • King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Act 1953

  • Medical Act 1908 (Part II)

  • Medical Advertisements Act 1942

  • Medical Practitioners Act 1950

  • Medical Research Council Act 1950

  • Mental Health Act 1911

  • Nurses and Midwives Act 1945

  • Occupational Therapy Act 1949

  • Opticians Act 1928

  • Physiotherapy Act 1949

  • Plumbers Registration Act 1953

  • Poisons Act 1960

  • Radioactive Substances Act 1949

  • Social Security Act 1938 (Part III)

  • Tuberculosis Act 1948

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper H. 31).

The net expenditure of the Department (excluding capital expenditure from the Public Works Account) for the years ended 31 March 1962 and 1963 is given in the following table.

Item1961–621962–63Increase
NOTE – Minus sign (–) denotes a decrease.
Vote “Health”–£££
  General health services1,813,2562,042,153228,897
  Dental health1,245,0041,298,17553,171
  Departmental hospitals and institutions (other than mental health)497,119553,66856,549
  Mental health4,965,6995,601,718636,019
  Health education29,63632,5432,907
  Medical Research Council137,873143,1235,250
  Homes for the aged456,692629,480172,788
  Pensioners housing: Local authorities132,589227,76495,175
  Youth hostels11,55251,86240,310
  Plunket Society subsidies142,501167,43224,931
  Miscellaneous grants and subsidies148,424137,156–11,268
  Bursaries47,04970,11223,063
 9,627,39410,955,1861,327,792
Less departmental receipts452,712481,23128,519
Totals9,174,68210,473,9551,299,273
Vote “Public Hospitals”–
Grants to hospital boards20,285,56522,767,7672,482,202
Vote “Medical, Hospital, etc., Benefits”22,967,66523,749,566781,901
Grand totals52,427,91256,991,2884,563,376

Information on hospitals is given in Sections 5B and 5C, while information on medical, hospital, and other related benefits, which are administered by the Department of Health, is given in Section 6A (Social Security).

PUBLIC HEALTH – The Division of Public Health is now responsible for activities under the following headings: Communicable disease and health education, food and drugs (including medical advertisements, poisons, dangerous drugs, nutrition), health protection (including maternal health and child health), environmental health (including food hygiene, plumbing, and drainage), burial and cremation, water supply and sewage, air pollution (including clean air and chemical works), and occupational health.

The Director of the Division is assisted by a Deputy and three Assistant Directors (two medical practitioners and one public health engineer), and a chemical inspector.

Disease: The control of disease is based on a system of notification which has long been in force. The present list of notifiable diseases is as follows.

Notifiable Infectious Diseases:

  • Anthrax

  • Cerebro-spinal fever (cerebro-spinal meningitis)

  • Cholera

  • Cysticercosis

  • Diphtheria

  • Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary)

  • Encephalitis lethargica

  • Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever)

  • Fulminant influenza

  • Infective hepatitis

  • Leprosy

  • Leptospiral infections

  • Ophthalmia neonatorum

  • Ornithosis (psittacosis)

  • Pemphigus neonatorum, impetigo, or pustular lesions of the skin of the newborn infant

  • Plague (bubonic or pneumonic)

  • Pneumonic influenza

  • Poliomyelitis

  • Other Notifiable Diseases:

  • Actinomycosis

  • Anchylostomiasis (hookworm disease)

  • Beriberi

  • Bilharziasis (endemic haematuria, Egyptian haematuria)

  • Chronic lead poisoning

  • Compressed-air illness arising from occupation

  • Damage to eyesight arising from occupation

  • Dengue

  • Diseases of the respiratory system arising from occupation

  • Eclampsia

  • Food poisoning

  • Puerperal infection involving any form of sepsis, either generalised or local, in or arising from the female genital tract within 14 days of childbirth or abortion

  • Relapsing fever

  • Salmonella infections

  • Septicaemic influenza

  • Smallpox (variola, including varioloid and alastrim)

  • Staphylococcal pneumonia of the new-born infant

  • Staphylococcal septicaemia of the new-born infant

  • Taeniasis

  • Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids)

  • Typhus

  • Undulant fever

  • Yellow fever

  • Hydatid disease

  • Impaired hearing arising from occupation

  • Malaria

  • Phosphorus poisoning

  • Poisoning from any insecticide, weedicide, fungicide, or animal poison met with at work

  • Poisoning from any gas, fumigant, or refrigerant met with at work

  • Poisoning from any solvent met with at work

  • Poisoning from any metal or salt of any metal met with at work

  • Skin diseases arising from occupation

  • Tetanus

All forms of tuberculosis are notifiable under the Tuberculosis Act 1948.

Venereal Diseases: Venereal diseases are only notifiable if the patient discontinues treatment before cure is effected. The Venereal Diseases Regulations 1941 give adequate powers for the examination and treatment of persons suspected of suffering from the diseases. Free treatment has been established in the larger cities and treatment is available to seamen at the main ports in accordance with the Brussels Agreement. Restrictions are also placed on the nature of the employment such persons may undertake if they are suffering from the diseases in a communicable form.

In the administration of the regulations, every precaution is taken to ensure the avoidance of publicity.

Environmental Hygiene is concerned with the provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating houses. These matters are primarily the responsibility of the local authorities, but the Department of Health acts in a general advisory capacity. In the case of many of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities.

Food and Drugs: The Food and Drugs Act 1947 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article is proved to be unfit for human consumption penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such goods are manufactured or packed. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food and drugs. Regular sampling of foods, particularly milk, is undertaken by departmental inspectors, and the samples are analysed in the Dominion Laboratory or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether or not it is standardised by regulation. This matter is also covered by the Medical Advertisements Act 1942, which is referred to later.

The definition of “drug” includes medicines used externally or internally by man, anaesthetics, soaps, and disinfectants.

A power contained in the 1947 Act enables any drug to be withheld from the public except when prescribed by a doctor, dentist, or veterinary surgeon.

Dangerous Drugs and Poisons: In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under international conventions relating to addiction-producing drugs, the Dangerous Drugs Act 1927 was enacted. The dealing in and the use of prepared opium, cocaine, and marihuana are prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are restricted to persons licensed by the Director-General of Health. The importation of these drugs is controlled by the Department of Health. Suitable regulations, the Dangerous Drugs Regulations 1951, are in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and are similar to the regulations in the United Kingdom and Australia.

The Poisons Act 1960 controls the distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances. An important provision requires that before importing or putting on the market a new substance which might be toxic a proprietor must notify very full details to the Registrar of Poisons. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. The Act also provides for the control of certain poisonous drugs by preventing their sale to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. There is power to introduce special safeguards for certain dangerous chemicals used in horticulture. Labels for poisons in this “Deadly Poison” group must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in using the poison, the symptoms of poisoning, and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Director-General of Health.

Hydatids Eradication: The Hydatids Act 1959 provides positive methods of attack in the campaign for the eradication of hydatid disease. The Act is administered by the Department of Agriculture and set up a National Hydatids Council on which the Department of Health has representation.

Medical Advertisements Act 1942: This Act came into force in January 1943. Under it the word “advertisement” is defined broadly, but does not include any advertisement or scientific matter distributed only to members of the medical and allied professions.

The Act set up a Medical Advertisements Board, which was given power as a quasi-judicial body to examine statements made in any medical advertisement. The Board may require the claims or statements made or implied to be substantiated to its satisfaction. Subsequent publication of such an advertisement is prohibited until the Board has notified its decision, and the veto on publication becomes permanent if the Board decides the claim or statement has not been proved.

Regulations issued under the Act limit the claims which may be included in any medical advertisement, and include a list of diseases concerning which no advertisement may make a claim to cure.

Cemeteries: The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Cemeteries Act 1908 and its amendments. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946.

Widespread provision for cemeteries has been made in the past by the reservation of areas of Crown land for this purpose, but apart from this the Cemeteries Act makes it clear that local authorities are charged with ensuring that in their districts there exists adequate provision for the disposal of the dead.

In most rural areas and in the smaller centres the local authority either acts as trustee or else has been delegated the power of appointing individual trustees to carry out the provisions of the Act. For some cemeteries established on Crown reserves trustees are appointed by the Governor-General. In the larger centres local authorities have acquired land for the establishment of cemeteries.

The law provides that cremation may be carried out subject to the conditions that the deceased was not known to have left any written direction to the contrary and that the cremation is effected in conformity with the regulations. The latter imposed stringent precautions against cremation being used for any criminal purpose. Crematoria have been established in Auckland (2), Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hastings, Wanganui, Nelson, Palmerston North, and Hamilton.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH – The objective of the occupational health programme is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of the worker.

The Department of Labour which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women and children, etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which the factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment, and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with health hazards, many of them being administered by the two Departments, each in its own sphere.

A somewhat similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government Departments or agencies concerned with particular aspects of workers' health.

Occupational Disease: The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Control of Health Hazards: An increasing number of specific health hazards are coming under formal control, namely lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons, where in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Administration a special rating is required by pilots, and agricultural chemicals. The organisation of radiation protection is dealt with by the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory, while a number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services – Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the Department has developed and is developing industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Workers' Compensation Board in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations: Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

Air Pollution – The air pollution provisions of Part V of the Health Act have been enforced since 1958. A senior chemical inspector is resident in Wellington with a deputy in Auckland.

There are 26 classes of process requiring registration and they include, for the control of odours, supervision of rendering processes. Most registrable processes are governed by the requirement to adopt the best practicable means, but there are limiting standards for lead and acid gases. All new installations or extensions of these registrable processes require approval by the Department of Health.

Air pollution committees in Auckland and Christchurch, in association with the Air Pollution Committee of the Board of Health, have established surveys to determine the extent of air pollution in these cities and the need for further action.

TUBERCULOSIS – The control of tuberculosis in New Zealand is provided for in the Tuberculosis Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Health. The Act provides for notification and registration of tuberculosis cases; compulsory medical examination and hospitalisation of recalcitrant tuberculosis patients; Government financial and housing assistance to tuberculosis patients; worker's compensation to hospital and other institutional employees who contract tuberculosis in the course of their employment.

The Department's programme for control of the disease is based on adequate case-finding and notification procedures, the proper treatment and surveillance of notified cases, investigation and control of contacts. This calls for close coordination of the staff and services of hospital boards (which are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis) and officers of the Department of Health who deal with the social and epidemiological aspects of the disease. The latter involves supervision of tuberculosis families, tracing of contacts, and the maintenance of tuberculosis statistics.

Mass miniature radiography is now an established and important feature of the Department's case-finding programme and during the years 1958 to 1962, 1,166,598 persons were X-rayed in the nine mass X-ray units then operated by the Department. This resulted in the discovery of 1,320 active cases.

B.C.G. vaccination is also undertaken by the Department and, in particular, is offered to the contacts of registered cases, post-primary-school children, and hospital workers partly exposed to infection.

Over the past decade, the results achieved are marked by a steady decrease each year in new notifications together with a marked decrease in mortality.

CHILD HEALTH – The Health Department is responsible for the supervision of all measures for safeguarding the health of pre-school and school children, and also for ensuring a satisfactory environment at school. Priority is given to the health of the pre-school child.

These services are under the direction of the Assistant Director of the Public Health Division, who is a medical practitioner, with a staff of full-time and part-time medical officers. The medical officer of health in charge of a health district is responsible, within the limits of the policy laid down and the instructions he receives, for the direction and control of all child health work in his district.

An effort is being made to have every child examined in infancy and twice more before school entry. The examination of pre-school children is carried out by medical officers of the division in Plunket rooms in conjunction with Plunket nurses, and at kindergartens, day nurseries, and other pre-school organisations assisted by public health nurses.

Efforts are made to give each primary school child three physical examinations during primary-school life. Each infant not recorded as having been examined at a pre-school clinic by a medical officer within the preceding calendar year is examined by the public health nurse, who selects those children who require examination by the medical officer. During the remainder of primary school life two other examinations are carried out by the public health nurse. These are in Standard 2 and Form II. As in the case of new entrants not seen by a medical officer at a pre-school clinic, the nurse refers any departure from normal for a special examination by the medical officer. Special medical examinations by the medical officer are also made whenever parents, teachers, the public health nurse, or the medical officer considers them to be necessary. The children found to be suffering from defects are kept under observation until the necessary treatment is obtained from the private practitioner or the hospital.

Mentally backward and feeble-minded children are given special attention, arrangements being made in conjunction with the Department of Education for their entry into a special school or other institution as may be necessary.

A start has been made on the more detailed medical examination of post-primary-school children. Physically handicapped children enrolled with the Correspondence School are also thoroughly examined.

Throughout the work in this field officers try to secure the interest and cooperation of parents and family doctors, because only in this way can the work be made effective. With this object in view parents are invited to be present at the medical examination of their children, an opportunity of which the majority take advantage.

Prevention of Disease: The activities in this field of Child Health are not confined to the routine medical examination of school children. In addition, certain positive measures are taken to prevent disease and correct physical defects. The more important of these measures are:

  1. Poliomyelitis Vaccination – Immunisation against poliomyelitis has been carried out by the Division's staff since 1956. The vaccine used was an injectable type but in August 1961 an oral vaccine was introduced. This oral vaccine was originally confined to infants under 12 months, but in April 1962 its use was extended to all other children. A mass vaccination campaign was carried out in the period April to June 1962. More than 750,000 children up to school leaving age received the vaccine, this response representing approximately 95 per cent of the child population. Now that mass vaccination has been completed, the protection of three doses of the oral vaccine is available to all infants.

  2. Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, and Tetanus Immunisation – Protection against these diseases is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are three months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with the infant at a departmental clinic. Where necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria and tetanus) are given after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at five-yearly intervals.

  3. Typhoid Inoculations – Maori children in the North Island are inoculated annually against the typhoid group of diseases.

  4. Health Education – Officers give advice whenever possible and give health education talks. They advocate the use of iodised salt and iodine rich foods to control goitre, and the consumption of milk to maintain nutrition standards.

  5. Health Camps are established to which children are admitted for convalescence or correction of malnutrition and emotional disturbances.

Health camps were originally established to cater for the needs of delicate and undernourished children in the age group of five to 12 years. Now children suffering from minor emotional, psychological, and behaviour problems are also helped by the change in their environment which a camp provides. The service selects the children to attend the camps (which are maintained by an independent organisation – the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation) and, as necessary, re-examines them before admission and after discharge. In the camps the children live under an orderly and disciplined routine, they eat plain, well cooked food, and they get plenty of rest, fresh air, and sunshine. In practically all cases a child who attends a health camp benefits both physically and mentally. The opportunity is taken to impart health education by practising healthforliving. There are six permanent and two part-time health camps in New Zealand.

For children with emotional or psychological disturbances and behaviour problems, child health clinics have been established in the larger centres and elsewhere. These are staffed by a team consisting of a pediatrician, psychiatrist, psychologist, play therapist, and social worker. Children are referred to these clinics through the family doctor if there is one.

DENTAL HEALTH – The Division of Dental Health, which was instituted in 1921, is concerned with the administration of the various dental activities of the Government, and in particular – (a) The National Dental Service, which comprises (i) the School Dental Service and (ii) the Adolescent Dental Service; (b) the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations; (c) the Dentists Act 1936 and regulations; (d) dental bursaries; (e) dental research; (f) dental health education.

The Division of Dental Health has at its head a Director (a dental surgeon) and there is also a Deputy Director, an Assistant Director, and a dental research officer. The service is organised in 16 units, each of which is controlled by a senior dental officer, who is directly responsible to the Director. These officers are: the principals of the schools for dental nurses at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the principal dental officers in charge of the 13 dental districts into which New Zealand is divided.

The School Dental Service staffed by 965 trained school dental nurses provided systematic treatment for 419,597 pre-school and primary school children in the year ended 31 March 1963. A further 189,529 children under 16 years of age received regular treatment from private dentists under the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Scheme, and from a limited number of salaried dental officers.

The School Dental Service – Briefly, the functions of the service are to improve the standard of dental health of school children (and of pre-school children) by affording them regular and systematic treatment at six-monthly intervals, commencing from the primer classes (or earlier where possible), and continuing through to the highest class of the primary (or intermediate) school. Thereafter they are eligible for enrolment in the Adolescent Service. There has been a rapid increase in the school population as a result of the high birthrate. Until the number of dental nurses can be increased proportionately, children are being transferred to the “adolescent” service at an earlier stage, in order to enable the dental nurses to maintain six-monthly treatment for the younger children. This is a temporary phase, pending the training of more dental nurses.

Two years are devoted to the theoretical and practical training of school dental nurses. Approximately 400 student dental nurses are in training at the one time. The course is carefully graduated, and is in the hands of a staff of dental surgeons and dental tutor sisters. Private dental practitioners are represented on the examining board for the final examination. During the period of training, student dental nurses reside in hostels owned and controlled by the Department of Health.

On completing her training, a school dental nurse is posted to a school dental clinic, where she becomes responsible to the principal dental officer of her district for the dental treatment of a group of approximately 500 patients. She is visited at intervals by the principal dental officer or one of his staff, who discusses current problems, and assists the dental nurse to maintain a high standard in the conduct of her work.

Dental treatment comprises fillings in both temporary teeth and permanent teeth, cleaning and scaling of the teeth, extractions where necessary, and sodium fluoride treatment. The aim of the service is to promote dental health by conserving the natural teeth and preventing dental decay. Only a small number of teeth have to be extracted as unsavable, less than four for every 100 saved by conservative treatment.

Orthodontic treatment is carried out principally in Wellington, where an orthodontic unit is established at the Children's Dental Clinic, which is associated with the School for Dental Nurses. Dental officers in field clinics undertake a limited amount of orthodontic treatment of a simple nature.

Adolescent Dental Service – Dental care for adolescents is provided by private practitioners as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the practitioners being reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person having undergone regular dental care up to within three months of the time of application, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment of adolescents, which has been available since 1946, is in effect a continuation of the treatment provided by the School Dental Service, and is continued until a patient has reached his sixteenth birthday.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at six-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are indicated in the Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960. Dentists are free to exercise their professional judgment, and, if in their opinion a case demands a form of treatment that is not provided for in the Schedule, there is provision, with certain limitations, for such treatment to be approved as a charge on the Social Security Fund.

Dental Health Education – The dental health education activities of the Department include the production of posters, pamphlets, sound films, filmstrips, radio talks, newspaper advertisements, and all other types of advertising media.

Officers of the service are kept in touch with health education and other matters by means of the School Dental Service Gazette, which is published bi-monthly.

Dental officers and school dental nurses are expected to impress on their patients the necessity of maintaining a high standard of oral health. To further this end every opportunity is taken of distributing health educational literature, displaying posters, and devoting reasonable clinical time to instruction in oral hygiene. Opportunities to address meetings of various kinds are availed of wherever possible.

Dental Research – Dental research is directed by the Dental Research Committee of the Medical Research Council. The staff consisting of a principal dental research officer and a senior dental research officer are primarily engaged in a long-term programme of research in dental problems.

In addition, a dental research officer is employed by the Department to undertake investigations of methods of treatment, materials and equipment, etc., which have a direct bearing on the efficiency and effectiveness of the Division's programme.

Dental Bursaries – The Government grants bursaries each year to selected students to assist them to qualify as dentists. The bursaries are of a value of £100 per annum for the first year, £125 per annum for the second and third years, £150 per annum for the fourth and fifth years, plus tuition fees, and are tenable for five years, subject to satisfactory reports from the university authorities. An additional allowance of £80 per annum is payable to students who have to live away from home in order to pursue their studies. Students who are granted bursaries must enter into an agreement to pursue their studies diligently and, on graduating, to enter the service of the Crown or of a hospital board appointed by the Crown for a specified period not exceeding three years.

HEALTH EDUCATION – The aim is to work with the public and to encourage action that will improve personal, family, and community health. The Health Education Branch is under the control of the Deputy Director, Division of Public Health, who is a medical practitioner with training in health education, a small staff of writers, technicians, and clerks at Head Office, and lay health education officers who are seconded to district offices and are responsible to the Deputy Director through their medical officers of health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a coordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. All the health education officers are women and several hold the diploma in health education issued jointly by Victoria University of Wellington and the Department of Health. All are given special training before taking up their appointments. Various media are used to make the teaching as attractive, as direct, and as acceptable as possible. Daily newspapers and national periodicals carry regular advertisements on health subjects. Radio broadcasts are given at least twice a week and leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics.

The Division also publishes the Department's official bulletin Health which has a circulation of over 62,000 and is issued free to the public four times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the Department's work.

To assist field officers in their health education work, visual aids, displays, and other publicity material is provided and in addition district offices are encouraged to produce their own.

Voluntary organisations, too, are assisted in their work by the supply of teaching aids and other materials and by assistance with their training programmes.

Each district office has a health education committee consisting of senior administrative and professional officers which plans and budgets local health programmes. A central committee at Head Office largely plans and budgets for overall national requirements.

MATERNAL WELFARE – Maternal welfare is the responsibility of an Assistant Director in the Public Health Division. Maternal and infant welfare work in New Zealand is based on cooperation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, the medical and nursing professions, and the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society).

The Assistant Director is a medical practitioner who, while not concerned with the particulars of day-to-day administration of maternity hospitals, is responsible for maternal welfare generally in its broadest sense. She keeps abreast of overseas and local developments and is regarded as a consultant on matters of national significance. For instance, in the event of an outbreak of infection affecting mothers or infants, she conducts and directs any necessary investigations as to causes and remedial measures required, in consultation with such other divisions as may be necessary.

The Assistant Director has the benefit of the advice of the Maternity Services Committee of the Board of Health, of which she is a member. This committee was formed to advise the Minister on matters relating to obstetric and maternal welfare generally.

The medical officers of health, through their staff of nurse inspectors, exercise a general supervision over the work of midwives and closely control the private hospitals throughout the country. All private hospitals are required to be licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957, and the Department of Health sees that standards regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed.

Except in an emergency, no persons other than registered medical practitioners and registered midwives are allowed to conduct confinements, and only registered midwives and registered maternity nurses are permitted to nurse women in childbirth. Approximately 98 per cent of all confinements (European over 99 per cent, Maori over 91 per cent) take place in the various types of maternity hospital – a maternity annex to a public hospital, a State (St. Helens) hospital, or a private maternity hospital.

Important contributions to maternal welfare are made by the Division of Nursing, which includes in its duties the supervision of the training of midwives and maternity nurses, and by the Hospitals Division, which approves plans for accommodation to be provided by the various types of maternity hospital. The work of these two Divisions is surveyed elsewhere in this section.

RADIATION PROTECTION – Under the Radioactive Substances Act 1949 the protection of the population from radiation hazards is solely the responsibility of the Department of Health, and the Department has established the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory to provide the administrative and technical services required, and in addition the educational programme, without which effective cooperation in any safety field is not likely to be achieved. An important feature of the Act was the setting up of the Radiological Advisory Council on whose advice the Minister of Health may take action on radiation problems concerning the welfare of the people. Further legislation by way of regulations followed in 1951 and these include the Radiation Protection Regulations and the Transport of Radioactive Substances Regulations.

The Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory is required to maintain the primary X-ray standard for New Zealand and also reference standards for the accurate measurement of radioactive substances used in clinical work. Control of radiation sources is effectively obtained by licensing operators at each place where ionising sources are used, and the Electrical (X-ray) Wiring Regulations 1944 provide for the compulsory registration of all X-ray plants in the country. The importation and use of radioactive materials is strictly controlled and requests for such materials on overseas suppliers must be authorised by the laboratory, which acts as the procurement agency for most of the radioisotopes required.

The laboratory operates a field service whereby trained physicists regularly visit all places where ionising sources are used. During these visits measurements are taken, protection problems discussed, and everything possible is done to ensure that persons associated with the ionising sources adopt safe working habits. Apart from the obvious groups, e.g., medical and dental users, the laboratory is also concerned with specialised equipment, such as mass X-ray units, X-ray apparatus used in schools, radar and television equipment, X-ray diffraction units, electron microscopes, research accelerators, etc. Good protection, of course, depends not only on careful working habits but also on material protection.

In recent years the Department of Health has undertaken responsibility for the monitoring of air, rainwater, and soil for the incidence of radioactive contamination from fall-out.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE – Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system. Physical medicine is the responsibility of a Deputy Director of the Hospitals Division who is a medical practitioner with special training and experience in the field. He is responsible for the general organisation and development of physiotherapy and occupational therapy services throughout the country.

The centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for the treatment of rheumatic diseases. Clinical research is also carried out there. Use is made of the thermal waters of Rotorua, the chief establishment for hydrotherapy treatment at the moment being the Main Bath House which is administratively combined with the Queen Elizabeth Hospital. A proportion of the inpatients of Queen Elizabeth Hospital receive treatment at the Main Bath House and outpatients can also be referred for treatment. A large number of outpatients referred from all parts of New Zealand are seen every year.

Admission of patients to the hospital is arranged with the Medical Superintendent, who also arranges for outpatient consultations. The investigation of rheumatic patients and the application of specific measures, including physiotherapy for preventing and controlling deformity, have been developed considerably at Queen Elizabeth Hospital. Occupational therapy has been developed to teach people how to live with their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is also situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are coordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. In addition to treatment, post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for advice only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are now operating in Christchurch, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Hutt health districts. These have proved so successful that it is hoped to extend the service to other districts as qualified staff become available.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by education boards under the Department of Education, but close liaison exists between the schools and the Rotorua unit.

The Deputy Director is closely associated with the Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy Boards, and deputises for the Director-General of Health as chairman of these Boards.

The Department offers annually a limited number of bursaries for training at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy which is governed by the Physiotherapy Board and administered by the Otago Hospital Board. Applicants for bursaries, if accepted for the training by the Physiotherapy Council of Otago Hospital Board, are interviewed by the Department's Inspectors of Physiotherapy and selected for award by the Physiotherapy Bursaries Selection Committee. A condition of bursary award is that on qualification the bursar will be required to work for a period of two years in a hospital or institution as directed by the Department.

The training school for occupational therapists is situated at Auckland Mental Hospital and is administered by the Mental Health Division. Trainees are paid a salary while training, and have to agree to work in a departmental or public hospital for two years after qualification.

Rehabilitation of Physically Disabled Civilians – The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped civilians has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand.

Basically, public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate rehabilitation service, with cooperation from governmental and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

A Civilian Rehabilitation Centre has been established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, for the treatment and overall restoration of those injured in employment or road accidents. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, spinal injury centres are proposed at Auckland and Christchurch.

The Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League provides trade and vocational training for disabled civilians recommended by district and national selection panels. These panels consist of representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Security, and Health. For the more severely handicapped, whose productive potential is restricted, the Government has recently approved of a sheltered employment scheme. It is also being operated through the Disabled Servicemen's League and will incorporate a pilot occupational workshop. For both the vocational training and sheltered employment schemes, a measure of Government assistance is provided.

Coordination of the various services connected with civil rehabilitation is achieved by means of the Interdepartmental Committee on Civilian Rehabilitation. In addition to the Departments of Health, Labour, and Social Security, the Workers' Compensation Board, Hospital Boards, and the British Medical Association are represented on this committee. There are also representative district and national panels to select disabled people for training and to advise on the various aspects of rehabilitation.

NURSING DIVISION – Training of nurses commenced in New Zealand in 1886, and registration of nurses was introduced in 1901 and of midwives in 1904. In 1921 the Division of Nursing was set up in the Department of Health and the Nurse Inspector of Hospitals was appointed Director of the Division. In 1928 a post-graduate course for the purpose of providing nurses for executive, teaching, and public health positions was established. Today a block and study day system of organisation of theoretical and practical work operates in all basic nursing schools.

The training of all nurses and midwives is governed by the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945, which is administered by the Nurses and Midwives Board.

The Division is responsible for the maintenance of an adequate and efficient nursing service and the supervision of conditions for nursing staff.

The Nurses and Midwives Board through the Registrar supervises hospitals and nursing schools in all aspects of training, and also the examination and registration of nurses. The nurse inspector who makes a visit to a hospital carries out the dual purpose, therefore, of making reports both to the Director-General of Health through the Nursing Division, and to the Nurses and Midwives Board through the Registrar. This integration of work is a feature which has preserved good relationships in the hospitals, and has enabled the practical and theoretical training of nurses as well as their conditions to be maintained at a uniformly high standard.

The control of the public health nursing services is exercised from the Division, but the specialised infant-welfare and mothercraft work of the Plunket Society is under the control of that organisation; close cooperation with that society is, however, maintained.

Another part of the work is the selection and placement of nurses in the various groups of Pacific islands for which the New Zealand Government is responsible. These nurses for hospital and public health work are seconded from the New Zealand service for periods of two years, pension rights being continuous. The supervision of this service is exercised by regular visits to the islands.

Close liaison exists between the nursing services organised for the armed services and the division, while any organisation for emergency nursing is carried out by the division.

The organisation of refresher courses for all groups is another responsibility, while the postgraduate course is a special feature of its work. As already stated this was organised in 1928 and is controlled by a committee on which the Department of Health, the Universities, Teachers' Colleges, and Hospital Boards Association are represented. Courses are followed in hospital and nursing school administration, public health nursing, medical social work, industrial nursing, and teaching and administration in obstetric nursing. A new course in pediatric nursing for sisters in charge of children's wards was instituted in 1957.

Up to 60 students take the nine months' post-graduate course annually, and with few exceptions they are specially selected and attend on bursaries from the Department of Health, hospital boards, and voluntary organisations, while during recent years there has been an increasing number from overseas countries. The school has its own building, library, classrooms, offices, and hostel. The full-time instructors at the school conduct the refresher courses during the school recess, and also carry out supervision of hospitals, nursing schools, and public health work, thus keeping up to date with the practical needs of the field.

MEDICAL STATISTICS – The Medical Statistics Branch is responsible for the compilation of the statistics included in the Annual Report on the Medical Statistics of New Zealand. The Branch also prepares special statistics for the various Divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation, which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition from time to time special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE – Opened in 1954, the National Health Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the study of public health problems. It contains an Epidemiology Section and Public Health Laboratories.

The Epidemiology Section conducts field research into matters of public health interest and also is responsible for conducting the course of training for the diploma of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health and, in addition, refresher courses for health inspectors.

The Public Health Laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health and hospital laboratories as well as for the other sections of the institute. The institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL – Under the Medical Research Council Act 1950 a Medical Research Council was established as a corporate body with the following functions.

  1. To foster medical research and to prepare and publish such reports on these matters as may in its opinion be necessary or of value to teachers or other persons:

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research.

This Council took over and developed the work of the departmental committee, bearing the same name, which had been in existence since 1938. At the end of 1962 research in the following fields was in progress: clinical medicine; dentistry; endocrinology; hydatids; virus; Island Territories research; microbiology; physiology; nutrition; obstetrics; surgery; pathology.

The Council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by the New Zealand Branch of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society, and medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, and Hawke's Bay.

The Council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of £154,000 is incurred in supporting research projects at the University of Otago, the University of Auckland, and the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington and North Canterbury Hospital Boards.

The Council employs a staff of 60 full-time workers and some 40 associated workers contribute to the activities of the Council. A further 30 workers are employed by the University of Otago under project grants from the Council.

The Council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the Council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL – The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1950, consists of the Director-General of Health, the Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Otago, and five other registered medical practitioners. One of the five members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. The Council may require the holder of a foreign diploma to attend a course and pass an examination in medicine and surgery. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the Council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1963 was 3,713, and, of this number, approximately 2,800 were actively engaged in medical practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDSDentists: The Dentists Act 1936 provides for the constitution of a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists. The Dentists Register is kept by the Director-General of Health.

The number of private dental practitioners holding annual practising certificates at 1 September 1963 was 797, and in addition there were 130 dentists in Government, hospital, and university employment.

Nurses and Midwives: Under the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 is constituted the Nurses and Midwives Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (Chairman), the Director, Division of Mental Health, the Director, Division of Nursing (Registrar), two registered medical practitioners, a representative of the Hospital Boards Association of New Zealand, three registered nurses, one registered midwife, and one registered psychiatric nurse. Members other than official members are appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Health, the nursing personnel being nominated by the New Zealand Registered Nurses Association. The Board controls training courses, conducts examinations, and effects registrations.

Provision is made in the Nurses Registration Regulations 1958 for a three-year course of instruction for nurses classified as general and maternity nurses. A similar training period is specified for male nurses, psychiatric nurses and psychopaedic nurses.

Registration – The Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 requires that the following registers be kept by the Registrar: (a) Nurses, (b) Midwives and Maternity Nurses, (c) Male Nurses, (d) Psychiatric Nurses, (e) Nursing Aids, and (f) Psychopaedic Nurses.

Physiotherapists: Under the Physiotherapy Act 1949 is constituted the New Zealand Physiotherapy Board. The Board is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is three years. Full-time training is conducted at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, administered by the Otago Hospital Board, and eight months of the final year are spent at one of the subsidiary training schools in various parts of New Zealand. All students are required to pass the State final examination in physiotherapy to qualify for registration. Every person registered under the Act and engaged in the practice of physiotherapy must hold an annual practising certificate.

Occupational Therapists: Under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949 is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board. The Board is concerned with the training, examination, registration, and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand. The training period is three years, and is undertaken at the School of Occupational Therapy, Avondale, Auckland.

Every person registered under the Act who is engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand must hold an annual practising certificate.

Dietitians: Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board. The functions of the Board are (a) to advise and make recommendations to the Minister of Health in respect of any matter affecting the profession of dietetics, (b) to determine courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examinations, (c) to approve hospitals and other institutions as training schools, (d) to conduct examinations, and (e) to effect registration.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of New Zealand or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school. In the case of a registered nurse, the training period is two academic years in the School of Home Science, University of Otago, together with two periods totalling 10 months in a hospital training school.

Every practising dietitian must hold an annual practising certificate.

Opticians: The Opticians Act 1928 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes. The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 268 opticians registered, but not all are engaged in active practice as opticians.

Plumbers: The Plumbers Board of New Zealand consists of five members – the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman), the Director of Education, a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand, and both a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The Board is concerned with the examination and registration of plumbers and once registered a plumber is issued with an annual practising certificate which is renewable on March each year while he is engaged in sanitary plumbing.

In many parts of New Zealand, especially the more populous and urban areas, all sanitary plumbing as defined in the Plumbers Registration Act 1953 must be performed only by registered plumbers. This restriction on the personal qualifications of plumbers is additional to specifications and standards of workmanship, etc., which have been prescribed for sanitary plumbing. Disciplinary action can be taken against a registered plumber who does unsatisfactory work.

Pharmaceutical Chemists: There are about 1,800 names on the Register of Pharmaceutical Chemists in New Zealand. All registered pharmaceutical chemists, except those who notify the Registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by the Pharmacy Board constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1939.

The Board consists of 12 members, 11 being chemists, and one a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Nine members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmaceutical chemists who are proprietors or enrolled managers of pharmacies and two by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmaceutical chemist, either in the capacity of proprietor or enrolled manager.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of two years attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Petone, at which the pharmacy professional examination is obtained, followed by two years of apprenticeship before becoming eligible for registration. There is also a four-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Such graduates are required to serve one year's apprenticeship before becoming eligible for registration as chemists.

Any chemist or company in which not less than 75 per cent of the share capital is owned by a chemist or chemists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 per cent of the share capital is chemist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership is subject to the consent of the Authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the Board.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS – Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from public funds. Among the more important of these organisations are the Plunket Society, the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation, St. John Ambulance (N.Z.), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the Crippled Children Society, and the New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations.

The Plunket Society – the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children – is concerned with the welfare of all babies. The society trains its own infant-welfare nurses, conducts infant-welfare clinics, and maintains Karitane hospitals throughout the country for premature babies or difficult feeders. In rural areas where there is no Plunket clinic, public health nurses do infant-welfare work.

The King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation maintains a chain of permanent health camps for delicate and undernourished children. The federation works in close cooperation with the Department of Health. It is the means whereby the voluntary nature of the various organisations is preserved, while ensuring that the available resources are utilised to the best advantage. Much of the finance for the federation's activities is derived from the proceeds of the annual health-stamp appeal.

The St. John Ambulance (N.Z.) has divisions throughout the country carrying out free ambulance work and instruction in first aid and home nursing. It is a branch of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.

The New Zealand Red Cross Society, a part of the International Red Cross Committee, has centres and subcentres throughout the country. It gives training in first aid, home nursing, hygiene and sanitation, and emergency transportation of the injured. Graduates of these classes form voluntary-aid detachments that in peacetime are recruited as aids in hospitals, and in wartime may be recruited for service overseas as well.

The Crippled Children Society keeps a register of all crippled children, helps them to acquire all possible medical treatment, and undertakes vocational training and home education where these are required.

The New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations looks after the interests of patients suffering from tuberculosis. It assists the Department of Health with health education of the public regarding tuberculosis and concerns itself with after-care and vocational training and guidance of patients.

FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR ACCOMMODATION AND SERVICES (Old People's Homes, Youth Hostels, and Short-stay Homes for Intellectually Handicapped Children) – The extent to which Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing accommodation and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need, has increased steadily over the past decade. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for sick and infirm old people. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of care and nursing for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. Religious and welfare organisations at present provide approximately 4,130 home and hospital beds for the elderly, and hospital boards some 2,300 beds.

For the elderly who are ambulant and are able to care for themselves and whose main need is that of housing, local authorities are encouraged and assisted by Government to build specially designed flats or cottages which enable age beneficiaries and those with limited means to retain their independence.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general, the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and Old People's Welfare Councils assisting in various ways.

Old People's Homes – Subject to certain conditions, religious or charitable institutions can be granted 100 per cent of the approved capital cost of providing accommodation for old people. The administration of this policy is a Department of Health responsibility.

During the year 1962–63 subsidies totalling £68,563 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 323 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1963, subsidies totalling £4,873,956 have been approved and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 3,211 old people.

Pensioners' Flats – Since 1950 the Government has encouraged local authorities to undertake the provision of accommodation for age beneficiaries by offering subsidy and loan finance. The present policy is to offer a subsidy of up to 50 per cent of the cost of erecting accommodation such as flats or cottages for old people and to provide the balance from loan moneys at 3 1/2 per cent. The maximum subsidy available for a two-person flat is £850 and for a one-person flat £800. Since the policy was first initiated in 1951 a total of £1,614,772 had been made available as subsidy up to 31 March 1963. As a result 2,897 old people will be provided with suitable accommodation. From a sample survey in 1962 it was estimated that some 5,000 more flats for pensioners are required and that three single flats are required for every double unit constructed.

Youth Hostels – In June 1951 the Government decided that, subject to certain conditions, it would assist religious or welfare organisations to establish hostels for young people by granting subsidies of up to 50 per cent of the cost of erecting or acquiring hostels. The object of this decision is to assist young men and women who are living away from their homes and are having difficulty in finding suitable living accommodation. The Department of Health was made responsible for the administration of this policy.

During the year 1962–63 subsidies of £49,550 were approved to assist in the provision of hostels for 138 young people. Since the policy was approved, subsidies totalling £441,522 had been granted up to 31 March 1963 to assist in the provision of hostel accommodation for 839 young people.

Short-stay Homes for Intellectually Handicapped Children – In 1954 the Government approved the payment, under certain conditions, of a subsidy of up to 50 per cent on the capital cost of approved buildings and furnishings acquired for the purpose of providing short-stay homes for intellectually handicapped children. In 1963 Government also extended the capital subsidy to include hostels built by the Intellectually Handicapped Children's Society for children who were attending Occupation Groups run by the Education Department. In addition a maintenance subsidy of 10s. per day is paid in respect of these children under 16 years of age.

The administration of this policy is the responsibility of the Mental Health Division of the Department of Health.

The total amount expended on capital subsidies for short-stay homes during the year ended 31 March 1963 was £9,837. In addition £2,788 was paid by way of maintenance subsidy during the same period.

PHYSICAL WELFARE AND RECREATION – New Zealand is fortunate in having excellent natural facilities for outdoor pursuits and sports. The climate is temperate and equable. The long coastline and the numerous rivers, lakes, and mountain ranges give full opportunity for yachting and boating, swimming and surfing, and mountaineering and tramping. Outdoor activities such as sea fishing, both by rod and by line, and freshwater fishing, and hunting and shooting introduced game birds and mammals are extremely popular and relatively inexpensive.

Most districts, including the larger cities, are well provided with playing fields for outdoor sports, but even so the available facilities are fully taxed and sometimes overtaxed.

Tennis, cricket, lawn bowls, softball, rowing, and athletics are among the most popular summer games and sports.

Rugby football is probably the leading winter sport, but very many people play hockey, association football, outdoor and indoor basketball, indoor bowls, badminton, and table tennis. Golf is popular both winter and summer. Boxing and wrestling, especially amateur, have considerable followings.

To some extent participation in indoor sports is restricted by inadequate facilities, the position probably being less satisfactory than in respect of outdoor sports. Both the central government and local authorities substantially assist improvement of facilities by providing or subsidising suitable buildings and amenities, or by directly assisting sports bodies.

While some sports, for instance rugby football, attract many spectators, the high proportion of persons who actually take part in various sports and games compared with those who merely watch them is a striking characteristic of New Zealand life. In many sports there is a close association between and an easy transition from school activities and club activities.

The various sports are also generally closely organised for the purposes of administration, discipline, and player selection. The organisational structure normally ascends from the clubs at the base through district groupings to the national association or union, which is the ultimate controlling body within New Zealand. Promising players or performers have ample and equal opportunity on merit to represent first their clubs, then the district or provincial associations, and ultimately New Zealand, in competitive play.

In athletics, while each sport administers its own affairs, competitors to represent New Zealand at Olympic and Empire Games are selected by an Olympic Council, made up of representatives of the various sports associations.

Water Safety Campaigns – The extreme popularity of all water sports in New Zealand justifies and requires special measures to reduce the risk of drowning accidents. The Department of Education each summer conducts “Learn to Swim” campaigns for school children. The Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs, in association with the National Water Safety Council, its member organisations, and swimming and lifesaving organisations conducts a national water safety campaign, which includes general instruction in resuscitation procedures. Over recent years these campaigns have been successful in reducing deaths by drowning.

Financial Assistance – Grants are made under the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 by the Government to national youth organisations. The purpose of the grants is to assist in the extension of sporting and recreational facilities and in promoting leadership training. Grants are not made where projects of these types can be carried out without financial assistance. Sporting and recreational organisations also receive some Government financial assistance from lottery profits.

5 B – HOSPITALS AND MORBIDITY HOSPITALS

HISTORY – The Government in 1846 granted money for the erection of hospitals in each of the four centres – Auckland, Wellington, Wanganui, and Taranaki-for the treatment of sick and destitute Europeans and free treatment for all Maoris. The foundation stone of the Wellington Hospital was laid in November 1846, whilst the Auckland Hospital was founded the following year. The first Dunedin Hospital was built in 1851, and Christchurch was first served by a hospital at Lyttelton known to have been operating in 1853. In 1854 control of public hospitals was vested in the six Provincial Councils of Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago, but in 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, control reverted to the General Government.

Hospitals generally remained under Government control until 1885, when the first Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act was passed. By it New Zealand was divided into 38 hospital districts, each under the control of its own board. The number of districts gradually increased until by 1926 there were 47; amalgamations since that date have reduced the number to 37, at which it now stands.

A Consultative Committee on Hospital Reform was appointed in May 1953 to inquire into and report on matters affecting the administrative control of public hospitals and other services provided by hospital boards and, after taking evidence, it made recommendations to the Government for the reform of the hospital system. A new Hospitals Act passed in 1957 broke new ground in the central principle of its operation. The Act came into force on 1 April 1958. It incorporated as a basic principle the main recommendation of the Consultative Committee on Hospital Reform that the Minister of Health on behalf of the Government should have the responsibility of ensuring the provision by hospital boards of hospital and associated services. The Government assumed complete financial responsibility for hospitals. Consonant with the new responsibilities the Minister was given wide powers of direction and regulation to ensure the establishment of a comprehensive and integrated hospital service for the whole country. Elected boards were retained to manage institutions and administer the services provided under the Act and no reduction was made in the number of boards.

A Hospitals Advisory Council, comprising three departmental members (Health, Treasury, and Works) and three hospital board members, is provided for by the Act. Primarily the function of the Advisory Council is to consider and make recommendations on matters referred to it by the Minister but it may also initiate business on matters covered by the Hospitals Act. Provision is also made for the appointment of technical or advisory committees to assist in the administration of the Act.

CONSTITUTION – A “hospital district” comprises one or more counties and includes boroughs and town districts within the boundaries of the county or counties. Districts vary in size from Auckland, with a population of 540,750, down to Maniototo, which has only 2,960 people.

A board consists of one or more representatives of each constituent district, or combined districts of two or more constituent districts where these do not justify independent representation, the number being fixed by the Governor-General by Order in Council, having regard to the relative populations of the districts. The total number of members of any board must in no case be less than eight or more than 14.

Board members are elected by the electors of the various constituent districts or combined districts in the hospital district, and the term of office is three years. Formerly, electors in counties required a ratepayer's qualification, whereas electors in boroughs and town districts required only a residential qualification, and this applied even though the elected members sat on the same board. Legislation in 1946 made the residential qualification universal.

POWERS – A hospital board has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: hospitals, relief institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, institutions for children, residential or day nurseries, and institutions of any kind which the Governor-General by Order in Council may declare that boards may establish. Power is given to boards to establish preventive health services and to combine for the purpose of establishing institutions or services which a board may establish.

AUTHORITY OF MINISTER OF HEALTH – It is the duty of every hospital board to provide and maintain such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for the reception, relief, care, treatment, isolation, and removal to hospital or “other place” of persons who are suffering from infectious or other disease or from injury and for maternity cases. The Minister is specifically charged with the function of ensuring the provision of these services and of coordinating, guiding, and supervising the activities of hospital boards.

The consent of the Minister of Health is required before a hospital board may:

  1. Borrow money.

  2. Spend more than £500 for capital purposes such as adding to or altering buildings, erecting new buildings, purchasing land or equipment.

  3. Make appointments to certain specified staff positions (but the Minister may veto appointments only on the advice of the Hospitals Advisory Council).

  4. Close an institution or restrict services (subject to a recommendation of the Hospitals Advisory Council).

  5. Make grants to medical or nursing associations or to hospitals, and allied services; grant bursaries or study and conference leave.

  6. Sell or exchange land.

The Minister may issue directions to boards as he considers necessary or expedient for the purposes of the Act; in particular he may direct boards as to the manner in which, and the conditions subject to which, any duty, power, or function is to be exercised. He may fix from time to time the maximum amount a board may expend on any item or class of expenditure and may require a board to amend its financial estimates.

A board must appoint such number of medical practitioners, dentists, nurses, dental nurses, midwives, and other officers as the Minister may from time to time deem necessary for the efficient performance of the functions of the board, whether within an institution under the control of the board or elsewhere within the district.

The Director-General is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

FINANCE – When boards were first established in 1885 they obtained their revenue from the following sources: (a) voluntary contributions and bequests; (b) Government subsidy £1 for £1 on voluntary contributions and bequests; (c) patients' fees; (d) levy on contributory local authorities by rate on the capital value of land; and (e) Government subsidy on levies paid from general taxation.

Voluntary contributions and bequests and subsidy thereon at no time formed an important part of board revenue, and in 1932 the subsidy in this connection was abolished.

In the earliest days public hospitals were meant only for the destitute sick, but as time went on the standard of service was greatly improved and gradually they were availed of by all sections of the community. The hospitals charged a fee which covered cost of maintenance, and patients able to pay were expected to do so. Fees collected were usually found to form about one-third of a board's total revenue.

Until 1923 the subsidy on levy was paid at the rate of £1 for £1 for both capital and maintenance purposes, but in that year the subsidy on account of maintenance was amended to a scale which had relation to the burden of levy on the rates of local authorities; the board with the highest burden was paid 26s. subsidy; the board with the lowest burden was paid 14s. subsidy; the average of all boards remained at 20s. subsidy.

Under the Social Security Act 1938 a charge was made on all salaries and wages and other income, and the proceeds were paid into a special fund named the Social Security Fund. The charge was fixed at 1s. in the pound, and in 1946 it was raised to 1s. 6d. in the pound. The Act was to provide, inter alia, “a system whereby medical and hospital treatment will be made available to persons requiring such treatment”. Hospital benefits for inpatients were inaugurated in 1939. The effect of this change was to transfer the liability for payment of patients' fees from the patient to the Social Security Fund.

In 1943 the proportions of revenue derived from the three main sources of Social Security Fund, levy on local authorities, and Government subsidy from general taxation, were almost even. Rising costs led to increases in the levies on local authorities, and property owners complained that they were being asked to carry an unfair burden as compared with other sections of the community. As a result legislation was passed in 1946 limiting the levy on contributory local authorities to 0.5d. in the pound of rateable capital value, and this had the immediate effect of transferring a substantial portion of boards' cash requirements from levy to the subsidy paid from general taxation. Also it followed that any further increases in cost would fall solely on the subsidy except to the extent that increases in rateable capital value of property increased the amount of levy. In consequence of this development and the increased benefits payments already mentioned, the proportions of revenue derived from the main sources have changed. The approximate position for 1950–5 was: Social Security Fund, 25 per cent; levy, 15 per cent; subsidy, 55 per cent. The Hospitals Amendment Act 1951 provided for the abolition of the levy on contributory local authorities by an annual reduction of the rate of levy during the next five years. The first reduction was made for the year ended 31 March 1953, when the rate was 5/12d. on the capital value. For the final year ended 31 March 1957 the levy was 1/12d. per pound of rateable capital value. In 1962–63 revenue was derived from Government grants, 73 per cent (£22,767,767); Social Security Fund, 23 per cent (£7,342,658); and sundry receipts, 4 per cent (£1,131,924).

From 1 April 1958 the Government assumed complete financial responsibility for the public hospitals, apart from the raising by hospital boards of loans for major capital construction.

Receipts – The following table shows the moneys received by hospital boards and sanatorium committees from Government funds.

YearFrom Government FundsTotal
GrantsSocial Security Benefits
 £££
1958–5915,774,3246,380,65322,154,977
1959–6017,204,7516,516,95923,721,710
1960–6119,561,0856,622,614x26,183,699
1961–6220,285,5657,298,47527,584,040
1962–6322,767,7677,342,65830,110,425

Loans – Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is as under.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*BalanceReducible by Sinking Fund

*Includes payments from Sinking Funds.

 ££££
1958–592,961,7601,056,58119,288,668121,953
1959–607,015,7301,201,56025,102,838205,856
1960–613,705,5201,373,24727,435,111385,814
1961–623,456,399x1,549,24229,342,268649,276
1962–635,006,3601,662,46732,686,161981,960

Payments – Hospital board expenditure is subject to a measure of control by the Minister of Health. Boards are required in the month of April each year to make an estimate of their payments for both capital and maintenance purposes and to have the estimates confirmed at a special meeting of the board. The Minister may, if he thinks it necessary so to do, require the board to amend the estimate submitted. He may also require a board by notice to limit expenditure of whatever kind he may specify. Payments for the two latest years are now given.

Item of Expenditure1961–62x1962–63

*Includes payments to Sinking Funds.

 ££
Institutional maintenance22,108,49123,961,494
Outdoor relief66,06077,532
Grants to private hospitals48,20753,981
Other grants4,7995,395
Transport of patients276,375293,013
District nursing (including grants thereto)267,081309,322
Administration608,473660,277
Superannuation210,249205,665
Miscellaneous312,935343,255
Interest on loans1,286,2811,425,788
Repayment of loans*1,774,7011,995,279
Capital works other than “loan”1,715,0801,871,125
Totals, excluding loans28,678,73231,202,126
Loan works3,951,8964,305,780
Totals32,630,62835,507,906

Institutional Operating Expenditure – The average operating expenditure per occupied bed relating to hospitals of all types and to general hospitals, is shown in the following table.

YearTreatmentInstitutional MaintenanceHeat, Light, Power, and WaterHousehold ExpensesBuildings and GroundsMiscellaneousTotal
All Institutions
 £££££££
1958–59519.398.5119.3531.278.91.41,348.
1959–60572.1107.4127.2562.483.21.51,453.8
1960–61627.4121.3133.0604.487.81.91,575.8
1961–62670.6127.4138.5623.486.92.01,648.8
1962–63755.7135.2140.6653.791.01.81,778.0
General Hospitals
1958–59572.2112.8123.8565.879.41.21,455.2
1959–60626.3122.0130.4595.781.51.51,557.4
1960–61689.8139.8139.4645.590.51.51,706.5
1961–62736.7146.0145.5668.289.41.61,787.4
1962–63832.4154.4149.7700.294.11.61,932.4

Each of these averages includes the direct expenditure of each activity for labour, materials, and incidental expenses, but excludes overheads such as depreciation and interest on capital.

For 1961–62 the average daily expenditure for individual inpatients treated in hospitals classed as general hospitals was £4 17s. 11d. and the average total expenditure for each inpatient was £75 4s.

PATIENTS: Public Institutions – The statistics given in the following table relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, and old people's homes) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health. The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1963 and the average number occupied during the year were as follows.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
General12,6435.09,828.33.9
Maternity2,7111.11,730.90.7
Total hospital beds15,3546.111,559.24.6
Non-hospital beds1,1560.5968.40.4
Totals16,5106.612,527.65.0

In addition to the 15,354 hospital beds in public institutions there were 2,995 (2,651 general and 344 maternity) in the 151 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratios of beds per 1,000 of population become 6.1 for general beds and 1.2 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1,000 of population in hospital districts varies from 3.4 to 9.2. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1963 was 218, comprising 79 general hospitals (6 of which were also old people's homes), 2 homes for cripples, 8 non-acute hospitals, 5 convalescent hospitals, 98 maternity hospitals, 2 tuberculosis sanatoria, a hospital for physical disorders (which is under the control of the Department of Health), 22 old people's homes, and 1 children's home.

The following statistics for the latest two years relate to all institutions:

 1961–621962–63
Number of beds of all descriptions for patients or inmates in all public institutions, including institutions under the control of the Department of Health16,52516,510
Number of such beds per 1,000 of population6.86.6
Average number occupied per 1,000 of population5.15.0
Number of persons who, as inpatients or inmates, availed themselves of institutional services during the year265,089272,592
Number per 1,000 of population who, as inpatients or inmates, availed themselves of institutional services during the year108.5108.8
Number of attendances by outpatients (including attendances for dental treatment) during the year2,224,601x2,397,056
Number per 1,000 of population of attendances (including dental) by outpatients910.7x956.8

The Supplement to the Annual Report of the Director-General of Health on Hospital Statistics contains further detail on public institutions.

General Hospitals – In the following table the figures relate only to general hospitals under the control of hospital boards.

YearInpatients TreatedAverage Number of Occupied Beds per DayAverage Turnover of Patients Treated per Occupied BedAvailable BedsOutpatient Attendances (Including Dental)
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
1958–59200,79587.38,886.23.922.611,5575.01,757,644764.6
1959–60210,45489.79,049.73.923.311,6905.01,792,531764.2
1960–61211,10287.79,076.43.822.311,8294.91,844,490766.3
1961–62219,01689.79,204.83.823.312,0674.92,096,318x855.2x
1962–63228,20691.19,330.03.723.312,3414.92,264,330903.8

Private Hospitals – Private hospitals require to be licensed by the Department of Health. Staffing and other requirements are governed by regulations and all private hospitals are subject to regular inspection by the Department of Health.

The total number of private hospitals licensed in New Zealand at 31 March 1963 was 151, providing 344 maternity, 31 psychiatric, and 2,620 beds for general cases.

The Social Security Act, inter alia, provides for the payment to licensees of private hospitals of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. Particulars are contained in section 6A.

STAFF – The numbers of staff employed in public hospitals and other institutions and activities controlled by hospital boards in the latest two years were as follows.

Category of StaffAt 31 March
19611962

*Includes part-time staff and duplication where persons provide medical services at more than one institution. At 31 March 1963 there were 576 medical officers employed whole time and it is estimated that the hours of 637 visiting officers were the equivalent of the services of 220 whole time officers.

Institutional medical1,389*1,421*
Other professional and technical1,6551,760
Nursing10,43410,845
Other treatment staff391394
Domestic and other institutional staff8,6768,971
Administrative staff525523
District nursing197267
Farm and garden4936
Other non-institutional180211
Totals23,49624,428

MATERNITY SERVICES: Beds – At the end of 1962 available hospital-bed accommodation for maternity cases was 3,062, made up as follows:

Public hospitals2,523
Private hospitals386
State (St. Helens) hospitals133
Alexandra Home (Wellington)20
Total3,062

The total number of confinements in maternity hospitals in 1962 was 64,156, of which 51,267 were in public maternity hospitals, 8,388 in private hospitals, 4,088 in St. Helens Hospitals, and 413 in the Alexandra Home, Wellington. There were 4,049 admissions for ante-natal treatment. All these figures are inclusive of Maoris.

Domiciliary Midwifery Services – Public health nurses and hospital board district nurses carry out some pre-natal work and a limited amount of obstetrical work in back-country areas. In general, however, most of the population is within reach of a maternity hospital, and home deliveries are not encouraged. There remain, however, a few midwives who contract with the Department of Health to give home maternity service under the Social Security Act.

Ante-natal Services – Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. The doctor's attendance, if desired, is supplemented by that of the midwife in charge of an ante-natal clinic. These free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the three St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals or maternity wards, and a number of clinics conducted by the Plunket Society. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for baby's arrival are also being developed and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses, employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses, employed by hospital boards.

The majority of women now realise that ante-natal care is as essential to their welfare as attendance, by a doctor and trained maternity nurse or midwife, during their delivery and lying-in period. The Department has supplemented the service by the free distribution of a pamphlet Suggestions to Expectant Mothers.

Every effort is being made to impress parents with the importance of personal hygiene and systematic ante-natal care throughout pregnancy. Addresses and lectures are delivered by medical officers of the Department of Health to nurses and societies interested in this subject. So that there will be definite cooperation between the midwife and the ante-natal clinic, and in order that the midwife may be informed of the clinical methods adopted by the Department, refresher courses of lectures, particularly on ante-natal work, are available to all registered midwives and maternity nurses.

MORBIDITY

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES – The numbers of all notifiable diseases reported during the calendar year 1962 are shown in the following table; the total figures (including Maoris) are given month by month, with the totals for Maoris being shown in the last column.

DiseaseAll CasesMaoris
JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberTotalsTotals Only
Cerebro-spinal meningitis413723272323611
Diphtheria213231128
Dysentery –
  Amoebic2112118
  Bacillary316714276837365554752041267
Eclampsia443252235112343
Enteric fever –
  Paratyphoid111141
  Typhoid54621146215114842
Food poisoning22236282013812825184628
Hydatids2654185313214113
Infective hepatitis2733012902002532301751832242472611792,816237
Leptospirosis45958343121748301482
Ophthalmia neonatorum857163542311469
Pemphigus neonatorum4623332423325
Poliomyelitis12251
Puerperal infection24224413534343
Salmonellosis71720610103546181066
Staphylococcal pneumonia and septicaemia (of the newborn infant)1121
Tetanus44123231242285
Tuberculosis –
  Pulmonary62589741101101981018387841151,028371
  Other forms20152213272972114313422255115
Undulant fever51521434231311
Actinomycosis112
Anchylostomiasis312713
Beriberi112
Leprosy1113
Malaria718836242125322
Pneumonic influenza3314
Trachoma1–1132
Totals4404894963084876803743834316075604235,678933

Notifications for some of the notifiable diseases for each of the latest five years are shown in the following table. Attention is drawn to the fact that these figures are not considered to be a complete coverage of the incidence of these diseases as medical practitioners frequently overlook the necessity of notifying the Medical Officer of Health.

Disease19581959196019611962
DiphtheriaAll cases16181512
 Maori8718
Typhoid and paratyphoid feverAll cases4466502552
 Maori1448401643
Pulmonary tuberculosisAll cases1,4251,2031,1801,0821,028
 Maori497406393386371
Cerebrospinal meningitisAll cases5387533636
 Maori1421101511
PoliomyelitisAll cases571642145
 Maori51721
Puerperal fever and septic abortionAll cases5835252734
 Maori87223
TetanusAll cases3239272428
 Maori25535
HydatidsAll cases6169714741
 Maori1718301213
Food poisoningAll cases285310162818462
 Maori37477298
Bacillary dysenteryAll cases438679408501412
 Maori7281826567
Undulant feverAll cases3836423931
 Maori74591
Infective hepatitisAll cases1,8931,9733,8953,8702,816
 Maori156134314342237

Poliomyelitis – The wide use of Sabin oral poliomyelitis vaccine has resulted in a dramatic decrease in cases.

Hydatids – The following table gives details of hydatid cases treated in hospital. It can be seen that the number of new cases exceed the notifications in the preceding table.

YearNumber of New Public Hospital CasesPublic Hospital Cases ReadmittedTotal Public Hospital CasesDeaths
1952896915810
19531037818115
1954816214313
1955856214714
1956805913914
195776691458
195875481233
195977671445
196078881669
196169681376

Tuberculosis – The Department of Health is continuing its efforts to reduce further both incidence and mortality. In fact the mortality per 100,000 of population has decreased from 21.1 in 1952 to 5.4 in 1962. The number of public health nurses available for tuberculosis case-finding work has been increased, and hospital clinics in the charge of chest specialists have been provided to give a wide geographical coverage. The responsibilities of the Department of Health in case finding and domiciliary care are coordinated with those of the hospital boards, which are responsible for diagnosis and treatment.

Medical officers of the Department of Health assist the public health nurses in the examination of contacts and arrange tuberculin tests and X-ray examinations. There are at present some 10 mass miniature X-ray units strategically sited throughout the country. In 1962 nine of these carried out a total of 203,455 chest X-ray examinations, and found that 0.83 in every thousand examined required supervision and treatment for tuberculous disease. In addition to tuberculosis, many other conditions of lungs and heart were discovered and, where necessary, were referred to the individual's private doctor for further investigation and follow-up.

As a contribution to prophylaxis, B.C.G. vaccination against tuberculosis, which was commenced on hospital staffs, contacts, and adolescents, is being maintained in these groups. During 1962, vaccinations were performed on 24,035 persons after preliminary Mantoux testing, and the results of this activity should become manifest in the years to come.

The Department of Health maintains a Tuberculosis Register, which classifies all notified cases, and a clearer conception of the type, form, and extent of the disease is being obtained. The number of cases on the Register (inclusive of Maoris) at 31 December 1962 was 10,661, of which 9,689 were respiratory and 972 non-respiratory. The number of new cases notified in 1962 was 1,283 of which 797 were European and 486 Maori. Of the European cases, 657 were respiratory and 140 non-respiratory, and in the Maori cases the figures were 371 and 115 respectively. Some of these cases may have since been proved non-tuberculous and subsequently deregistered.

The total number of European persons on the Register at the end of 1962 amounted to 29 per 10,000 of the European population and the Maori rate was 226 per 10,000 of the Maori population The combined figure was 43 per 10,000.

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS – Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand. After tabulation in accordance with the International Classification of Diseases, this information is published annually in the Department of Health publication Medical Statistics. According to the census of non-psychiatric hospitals conducted by the Department of Health in 1961, patients in public hospitals comprised 82.4 per cent of hospital patients.

Patients Treated – The following table shows the number of patients treated in public hospitals for the latest five years.

YearRemaining on 1 January from Previous YearAdmissionsDischargesDeathsTotal Number of Indoor PatientsRemaining on 31 December

*Does not include 75 psychiatric patients in Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer Springs, previously included in the total remaining on 31 December 1958.

†Includes 49 patients from Buchanan Ward, Greytown, not previously included.

‡Provisional.

§Includes 28 patients from Wilson Home, Auckland, not previously included.

19588,083174,790165,4819,248182,8738,144
19598,069*184,195174,20210,020192,2648,042
19608,042183,743173,9909,768191,7858,027
19618,076186,795176,21510,289194,8718,367
19628,395§195,921185,78910,436204,3168,091

Age and Sex of Patients – The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1961 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year5,0133,6948,707
1 year2,5721,9194,491
2 years2,1481,6033,751
3 years1,7301,3343,064
4 years1,8351,3413,176
5–9 years8,0866,30714,393
10–14 years6,5914,74211,333
15–19 years6,2197,33413,553
20–24 years5,6698,51514,184
25–29 years4,2176,79811,015
30–34 years4,1836,76710,950
35–39 years4,2246,21710,441
40–44 years4,0015,3079,308
45–49 years4,5955,2519,846
50–54 years4,9554,5789,533
55–59 years4,9813,8208,801
60–64 years4,6303,6888,318
65–69 years4,2893,8108,099
70–74 years4,4083,8618,269
75–79 years3,9043,5087,412
80–84 years2,4462,3774,823
85 years and over1,4921,5443,036
Totals92,18894,316186,504

Although there is little overall difference in the totals of males and females, there is a well defined pattern when figures for each sex are compared, age group by age group. In all ages under 15 years there is a preponderance of males. This difference is common to most disease groups but is more marked in diseases of the digestive, genito-urinary, musculoskeletal, and respiratory systems, in congenital malformations, and in accidental injuries. For the ages between 15 and 50 years there are more females than males. This age group covers the child-bearing ages in women, and the higher proportion of female patients is a reflection of this fact. Apart from conditions associated with pregnancy, abortion, delivery, and the puerperium, female patients considerably outnumbered male patients in both malignant and non-malignant tumours, in diseases of the thyroid gland and the genito-urinary system and in symptomatic conditions. In the age groups from 50 years upwards the males once more predominate, particularly in diseases of the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems.

Principal Diseases and Injuries – The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate per cent of total cases treated in public hospitals in 1961. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is published annually in Medical Statistics.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1961

Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Per Cent
Tuberculosis of respiratory system1,706834.9
Tuberculosis, other forms435194.4
Syphilis and its sequelae6334.8
Gonococcal infection and other venereal diseases57
Infectious diseases commonly arising in intestinal tract24583.3
Other bacterial diseases493428.5
Spirochaetal diseases except syphilis73
Diseases attributable to viruses2,084331.6
Malaria16
Other infective or parasitic diseases42581.9
Cancer, malignant disease9,0442,04622.6
Benign neoplasm3,865280.7
Neoplasm of unspecified nature16153.1
Allergic disorders1,450261.8
Diseases of thyroid gland82091.1
Diabetes mellitus1,8331407.6
Diseases of other endocrine glands253124.7
Avitaminoses and other metabolic diseases436112.5
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs961798.2
Psychoses1,570835.3
Psychoneurotic disorders1,35560.4
Disorders of character, behaviour and intelligence1,133141.2
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system3,4451,49743.5
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system5686812.0
Other diseases of central nervous system1,99720610.3
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia38871.8
Inflammatory diseases of eye56310.2
Other diseases and conditions of eye3,20990.3
Diseases of ear and mastoid process1,68250.3
Rheumatic fever689152.2
Chronic rheumatic heart disease3924712.0
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease5,1511,32125.6
Other diseases of heart2,21664429.1
Hypertensive heart disease3689525.8
Other hypertensive disease763314.1
Diseases of arteries1,09721319.4
Diseases of veins and other diseases of circulatory system5,074761.5
Acute upper respiratory infections1,897100.5
Influenza334
Pneumonia5,6835589.8
Bronchitis3,3242056.2
Other diseases of respiratory system11,0241091.0
Diseases of buccal cavity and oesophagus2,047120.6
Diseases of stomach and duodenum2,5991244.8
Appendicitis6,189220.4
Hernia of abdominal cavity4,934501.0
Other diseases of intestines and peritoneum4,6582124.6
Diseases of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas3,2831514.6
Nephritis and nephrosis5528916.1
Other diseases of urinary system2,8151334.7
Diseases of male genital organs2,5791084.2
Diseases of breast, ovary, Fallopian tube, and parametrium1,36420.1
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs7,11780.1
Complications of pregnancy3,0791- -
Abortion5,07940.1
Delivery without mention of complication36910.3
Delivery with specified complication1,22320.2
Complications of the puerperium72640.6
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,54080.2
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1,819181.0
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever2,465773.1
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint3,334250.7
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,51670.3
Congenital malformations2,9342117.2
Birth injuries, asphyxia, and infections of newborn42412028.3
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy1,36915111.0
Symptoms referable to systems and organs9,420420.4
Senility and ill-defined diseases1,64531819.3
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk2,3141165.0
Fracture of upper limb3,53980.2
Fracture of lower limb4,0683087.6
Dislocation without fracture720
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles59610.2
Head injury (excluding skull fracture)5,0571012.0
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis361205.5
Laceration and open wound of face, neck, and trunk1,09640.4
Laceration and open wound of upper limb2,49530.1
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1,087
Laceration and open wounds of multiple location156
Superficial injury260
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface1,23050.4
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice69320.3
Burns1,643221.3
Injury to nerves and spinal cord without bone injury155
Effects of poisons1,902170.9
Effects of weather, exposure, and related conditions3412.9
Other and unspecified injuries and reactions83281.0
Special conditions and examinations without sickness1,778
Admission for convalescent care, plastic treatment, and fitting of prosthetic devices6711.5
Totals186,50410,2895.5

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals – The average duration of stay of patients in public hospitals is shown for selected diseases in the following table.

SUMMARY OF SELECTED DISEASES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS, SHOWING AVERAGE DURATION OF STAY, 1961

Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsAverage Stay (Days)
Respiratory tuberculosis1,70698.0
Non-respiratory tuberculosis43561.5
Infective and parasitic diseases other than tuberculosis3,45620.3
Otitis media and mastoiditis1,04611.3
Rheumatic fever68955.0
Chronic rheumatic heart disease39231.9
Acute upper respiratory infections, influenza, and acute bronchitis3,7458.5
Pneumonia5,68316.4
Chronic or unqualified bronchitis1,81028.4
Hypertrophied tonsils and adenoids, and quinsy8,2144.1
Appendicitis6,1899.6
Gastro-enteritis (acute)1,4599.0
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,54010.1
Osteomyelitis and periostitis92937.3
Malignant neoplasms9,04424.3
Benign tumours of uterus, ovary, and female genital organs1,61011.3
Allergic disorders1,45014.5
Thyrotoxicosis37015.5
Diabetes1,83333.9
Psychoneurotic disorders1,35511.9
Vascular lesions of central nervous system3,44555.9
Arteriosclerotic, hypertensive and degenerative heart disease, and general arteriosclerosis6,58136.8
Varicose veins and phlebitis3,13514.2
Haemorrhoids81611.5
Dental caries and other diseases of teeth and supporting structures1,4482.4
Peptic ulcer2,19021.5
Hernia4,93410.8
Gallbladder disease2,85116.7
Nephritis and nephrosis55239.1
Urinary infections and calculi1,71016.8
Hyperplasia of prostate1,19925.5
Diseases of female genital organs (excluding tumours)7,7928.6
Arthritis2,22355.7
Muscular rheumatism, neuralgia, and neuritis57517.5
Synovitis and other inflammatory diseases of tendons and fas9318.3
Symptoms, senility, and ill-defined conditions11,06422.3
Accidents, poisoning, and violence28,23814.1
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and puerperium10,4767.3
Remainder41,38919.9
Totals186,50418.8

Accident Cases – A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1961.

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAggregate Stay (Days)Average Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport –
  Railway1140.42,54122.30.6
  Motor-vehicle traffic5,46618.180,46314.717.8
  Motor-vehicle non-traffic1430.51,96913.80.4
  Other road vehicles1,6325.414,8829.13.3
  Water1860.62,34612.60.5
  Aircraft180.143924.40.1
Total transport7,55925.0102,64013.622.7
Non-transport –
  Accidental poisoning1,4955.05,4553.71.2
  Accidental falls7,60625.2174,28522.938.6
  Other accidents10,37334.3114,14311.025.3
Total non-transport19,47464.4293,88315.165.1
Complications due to non-therapeutic medical and surgical procedures500.22485.00.1
Therapeutic misadventure and late complications of therapeutic procedures1,7265.731,85018.57.1
Late effects of injury and poisoning5061.713,91527.53.1
Suicide and self-inflicted injury5281.86,49012.31.4
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons3791.32,4596.50.5
Grand totals30,222100.0451,48514.9100.0

Most cases come under the heading “Non-transport – Other accidents”, which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on. Of these most occurred in the home.

The second largest group is “Accidental falls”, which has an aggregate stay greater than any other group. This is due to the long periods spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprise the third largest group, and have the third largest aggregate stay. It is interesting to note that there were over three and a half times as many admissions to hospital and over three and a half times as many beds occupied by people injured in non-transport accidents as there were for motor-vehicle traffic accidents.

Deaths in Public Hospitals – The proportion of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths has increased over the last 11 years. Examination of the following table shows the trend.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsProportion of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths

*Provisional.

19528,11918,89643.0
19537,92618,35443.2
19548,14018,87643.1
19558,41019,22543.7
19568,82419,69644.8
19579,57620,86245.9
19589,24820,30145.6
195910,02021,12847.4
19609,76820,89246.8
196110,28921,78247.2
1962*10,43622,08147.3

5 C – MENTAL HOSPITALS

GENERAL – Mental hospitals are administered under the direction of the Minister of Health by the Mental Health Division of the Department of Health. Hospital boards have no jurisdiction over mental hospitals. There are 11 mental hospitals, four hospitals and training schools for the mentally subnormal, and one hospital for functional nervous disorders.

The newer hospitals are built on the villa system with accommodation provided in pleasant detached units of about 50 beds each. Each villa is surrounded by lawns and gardens and is largely self-contained. There are facilities for recreation and entertainment in addition to provision for modern methods of therapy. Of the older type of hospital multi-ward building, only two remain. One has been extensively modernised and the renovation of the other is at present being undertaken.

Nursing services are provided in the main by trained staff, both male and female. The training involves three-year courses leading to the State-registered qualifications of psychiatric nurse or psychopaedic (mental deficiency) nurse. In addition to the nursing and medical staff, a wide range of ancillary staff is provided. The Division administers and staffs the Occupational Therapy Training School which provides occupational therapists for all hospitals in the country. In addition, the Division employs clinical psychologists, social workers, recreation officers, welfare officers, and, at the special hospitals and training schools for the mentally subnormal, specially qualified training officers and instructors.

Admission to all the mental hospitals, except the Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer, for functional disorders is controlled by the Mental Health Act 1911.

The Mental Health Amendment Act 1961, which came into operation on 1 January 1962, provides for some important and far-reaching changes in procedure for the admission and discharge of mental hospital patients. These changes are directed towards greater flexibility in the use of mental health services in psychiatric treatment, care, and rehabilitation. They allow for the informal admission of voluntary patients, mentally subnormal persons, and minors. Persons who, by reason of mental infirmity arising from age or from deterioration or disease or injury to the brain, require care and treatment, can now be admitted merely on application accompanied by a letter of recommendation by a medical practitioner. The patient may be discharged at any time on application provided the medical superintendent is satisfied that the arrangements for the care of the patient after discharge are appropriate. Mentally subnormal persons and minors can now be admitted informally in a similar way to that for the mentally infirm. Any mentally subnormal person, with the approval of the medical superintendent, may attend the institution as a voluntary outpatient for training and occupational therapy.

A detailed Report on Mental Health Statistics of New Zealand is published annually by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from probation), transfers, discharges, and deaths for each mental hospital. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, etiological factors, country of birth, marital status, race, treatment, response to treatment, and length of stay.

The following statistics refer to mental hospital admissions, discharges, and deaths, and include figures for the mentally subnormal and cases treated at Queen Mary Hospital, Hanmer.

At the end of 1962 there were 10,111 people on the registers of mental hospitals and 1,571 on the registers of hospitals for the mentally subnormal, a total of 11,682. There were 6,772 registrations during the year (excluding transfers) of which 4,080, or 60.2 per cent, were voluntary patients. The average number of occupied beds was 10,267, which was 170 more than for 1961. The average number resident per 100,000 mean population has, however, declined steadily over the last 20 years.

The average number on the registers in 1962 was 1,230 for voluntary patients, and 10,272 for non-voluntary patients. For the previous year the figures were 1,132 for voluntary patients and 10,085 for non-voluntary patients.

In the following table the average number on the registers and the rates per 100,000 mean population are shown for certain years. It can be seen that in spite of the annual increases in the average numbers, the rates have decreased steadily.

YearResidentAbsent on LeaveTotal
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
Voluntary Patients
194229317.920.129518.0
194737620.950.338121.2
195248024.0110.649124.6
195870030.6964.279634.8
195980934.71064.591539.2
196087236.71506.31,02243.0
19611,04242.9903.71,13246.6
19621,11644.81144.61,23049.4
Non-voluntary Patients
19427,633465.545727.98,090493.4
19478,063448.458632.68,649481.0
19528,590430.379639.99,386470.2
19589,159400.784737.110,006437.8
19599,155392.190738.910,062431.0
19609,085382.294239.610,027421.8
19619,055373.01,03042.410,085415.4
19629,151367.81,12145.010,272412.8
All Patients
19427,926483.445928.08,385511.4
19478,439469.359132.99,030502.2
19529,070454.380740.59,877494.8
19589,859431.394341.310,802472.6
19599,964426.81,01343.410,977470.2
19609,957418.91,09245.911,049464.8
196110,097415.91,12046.111,217462.0
196210,267412.61,23549.611,502462.2

FIRST ADMISSIONS – In 1962 there were 4,335 first admissions to mental hospitals. Of these 2,156 were males and 2,179 were females. The number of voluntary patients (2,382) exceeded the number of non-voluntary patients (1,953).

The numbers and rates of first admissions, together with the percentage of first admissions in total admissions and the percentage of voluntary patients in first admissions, are shown in the next tables.

YearsVoluntary PatientsNon-voluntary PatientsAll Patients
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal

*Average over five years.

Numbers
1935–39*115972124814629435965591,155
1940–44*1101262364705269965806521,232
1945–49*2352675025446071,1517798741,653
1950–54*3493847336257461,3719741,1302,104
1955–59*4895771,0666697311,4001,1581,3082,466
19584815871,0686497051,3541,1301,2922,422
19596217461,3676906621,3521,3111,4082,719
19606497811,4306826751,3571,3311,4562,787
19619161,0191,9357807191,4991,6961,7383,434
19621,1481,2342,3821,0089451,9532,1562,1794,335
Rates per 100,000 of Mean Population
1935–39*14.212.413.359.558.959.273.771.372.5
1940–44*13.715.014.458.562.860.872.277.875.2
1945–49*26.229.627.961.167.564.587.397.192.4
1950–54*34.638.536.662.274.968.596.8113.4105.1
1955–59*43.451.747.559.665.862.7102.9117.5110.2
195841.851.746.756.462.159.298.2113.8105.9
195952.964.358.658.857.057.9111.7121.3116.5
196054.366.160.257.157.157.1111.4123.1117.3
196175.184.479.763.959.661.8139.0144.0141.5
196291.799.895.780.576.478.5172.3176.2174.2
YearsPercentage of First Admissions in Total AdmissionsPercentage of Voluntary Patients in First Admissions

*Average over five years.

1935–39*80.118.3
1940–44*76.719.0
1945–49*75.630.1
1950–54*74.034.7
1955–59*67.543.0
195864.744.1
195964.750.3
196062.351.3
196162.956.3
196264.055.0

Diagnosis – The five leading diagnoses in 1962 were: neurotic-depressive reaction, 675 cases; schizophrenic disorders, 632 cases; senile psychosis, 609 cases; manic-depressive reaction, 496 cases; and mental deficiency, 388 cases. These five diagnoses accounted for nearly two-thirds (64.6 per cent) of first admissions.

The number of voluntary patients, informal patients and formal and other patients, by diagnosis, are now shown for 1962.

DiagnosisVoluntary PatientsInformal PatientsFormal and Other Patients
Psychoses   
General paralysis of insane13
Schizophrenic disorders (dementia praecox)30636290
Manic-depressive reaction3454147
Involutional melancholia437
Paranoia and paranoid states1415
Senile psychosis36458115
Presenile psychosis7115
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis225217
Alcoholic psychosis23428
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology142022
Puerperal psychosis2220
Other and unspecified psychoses9822
Psychoneuroses   
Anxiety reaction22413
Hysterical reaction7047
Neurotic-depressive reaction638730
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders10122
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence   
Pathological and immature personality1323882
Alcoholism312323
Mental deficiency1432351
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders15187
Other Conditions   
Epilepsy21199
Other defined conditions744
Observation6131
Totals2,3821,013940

Changes in first admission numbers and rates per million of mean population over the last three years are shown in the following table. The rate for all first admissions rose from 1,172 in 1960 to 1,415 in 1961. In 1962, the rate rose to 1,742 per million, the highest on record.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196019611962196019611962
Psychoses      
Syphilis of central nervous system124112
Schizophrenic disorders (dementia praecox)440500632185206254
Manic-depressive reaction449408496189168199
Involutional melancholia525750222320
Paranoia and paranoid states342429141012
Senile psychosis451487609190200245
Presenile psychosis141623679
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis707691293136
Alcoholic psychosis395355162222
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology444856192023
Puerperal psychosis372742161117
Other and unspecified psychoses1823398916
Psychoneuroses      
Anxiety reaction110183228467592
Hysterical reaction418281173432
Neurotic-depressive reaction356534675150220271
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders49101105214242
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence      
Pathological and immature personality1611932526880101
Alcoholism13524233857100136
Mental deficiency23130338897125156
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders21264091116
Other Conditions      
Epilepsy1818498720
Other defined conditions51015246
Observation1121385915
Totals2,7873,4344,3351,1721,4151,742

Etiological Factors – Information about the causes of mental disorders for first admissions is shown in the following table. It should be noted that several factors can be reported for one case. For example, a person might be admitted because of a combination of old age and excessive use of alcohol. The principal factors were reported as structure of the personality, family relationships, alcohol, old age and subnormal intelligence.

Etiological FactorsNumber of First Admissions
Heredity69
Congenital60
Birth injury16
Constitutional16
Other factors in structure of personality2,128
Family relations984
Adolescence193
Pregnancy and puerperium109
Climacteric112
Old age659
Religion7
Loneliness91
Sickness of near relative44
Unhappy love affair16
Sex trauma and difficulties18
Other stress167
Alcohol754
Financial difficulty16
Immigration unsettlement21
Business worry56
Subnormal intelligence557
Tuberculosis12
Neoplasm of brain6
Other neoplasms31
Endocrine disorders65
Epilepsy188
Other diseases of central nervous system192
Arteriosclerosis383
Other circulatory diseases111
Respiratory diseases45
Congenital malformation59
Injury14
Other illness323
Other factors118
Total7,640

READMISSIONS – A readmission is a person admitted to a New Zealand mental hospital who has previously been in a New Zealand mental hospital.

Diagnosis – In the following table the numbers and causes of readmissions and rates per million of mean population are shown for the latest three years.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196019611962196019611962
Psychoses      
Syphilis of central nervous system131
Schizophrenic disorders (dementia praecox)606684838255282337
Manic-depressive reaction605593662255244266
Involutional melancholia39192916812
Paranoia and paranoid states2717231179
Senile psychosis848579353532
Presenile psychosis654322
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis9516426
Alcoholic psychosis19342881411
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology333934141614
Puerperal psychosis7511324
Other and unspecified psychoses2147923
Psychoneuroses      
Anxiety reaction519583213933
Hysterical reaction334355141822
Neurotic-depressive reaction240295429101122173
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders294850122020
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence      
Pathological and immature personality7481125313350
Alcoholism132208215568687
Mental deficiency68103122294249
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders121321558
Other Conditions      
Epilepsy12292751211
Other defined conditions31311
Observation4218217
Totals2,1152,4082,8828909921,158

Both numbers and rates have increased steadily over the last three years. Diagnoses showing the greatest increases are schizophrenic disorders, and neurotic-depressive reaction.

DISCHARGES – There are four principal ways of being discharged from mental hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) trial discharge; (c) leave, being authorised leave of more than three months' duration for any other purpose; (d) discharged “not committed”, which means being discharged from a mental hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained in a mental hospital.

There were 5,895 discharges in 1962. Of these 4,069 were outright discharges, 1,214 were on trial discharge, 437 were on leave, and 175 were discharged “not committed”.

The principal diagnoses were: schizophrenic disorders, 1,371 cases; manic-depressive reaction, 1,064 cases; neurotic-depressive reaction, 1,047 cases; and non-psychotic alcoholism, 524 cases.

The following table shows the number of discharges for 1962 by diagnosis.

DiagnosisOutright DischargeTrial DischargeLeaveNot CommittedTotal
Psychoses     
General paralysis of insane1124
Schizophrenic disorders (dementia praecox)690525141151,371
Manic-depressive reaction7402506681,064
Involutional melancholia6210274
Paranoia and paranoid states25234153
Senile psychosis645235151
Presenile psychosis3249
Psychosis with cerebral arteriosclerosis1915640
Alcoholic psychosis46165572
Psychosis of other demonstrable etiology311812263
Puerperal psychosis3610652
Other and unspecified psychoses1982231
Psychoneuroses     
Anxiety reaction286732298
Hysterical reaction1202533151
Phobic reaction235
Obsessive-compulsive reaction113115
Neurotic-depressive reaction937673761,047
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting circulation33
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting digestive system11112
Psychoneurosis with somatic symptoms affecting other systems1721121
Other and unspecified psychoneurotic disorders9552102
Disorders of Character, Behaviour, and Intelligence     
Pathological personality without psychosis10712132152
Immature personality110231025168
Non-psychotic alcoholism48329210524
Drug addiction261128
Mental deficiency65847420243
Other and unspecified character, behaviour, and intelligence disorders861520
Other Conditions     
Epilepsy (without psychosis)361511365
Other conditions54211
Observation without need for further medical care113546
Totals4,0691,2144371755,895

Duration of Stay – Over a third (35.3 per cent) of those discharged left hospital within a month of admission. A further 37.8 per cent left in the next two months, and a further 13.0 per cent were discharged in the subsequent three months. The average stay for all discharges was 32 weeks.

DEATHS – In 1962 there were 1,001 deaths in mental hospitals. In addition 87 people died while on leave.

The principal diagnosis was senile psychosis, 497 cases. Next came schizophrenic disorders, 142 cases, and mental deficiency, 106 cases.

In 1962, 177 people died during the first month in hospital and a further 105 deaths occurred of people who had been in hospital one but under three months.

EXPENDITURE. ETC. – The total expenditure on public mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during the last 11 financial years are shown in the next table. As from 1 April 1939 free maintenance and treatment of patients have been provided in all public mental hospitals in accordance with the provisions of the Social Security Act 1938. The Mental Health Amendment Act 1950 provides that the cost of maintenance of any person who is not ordinarily resident in New Zealand and who is detained in any public institution shall be a debt due to the Crown.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureGross Average Cost per Patient
Patients' FeesSale of Produce, etc.

* Cost of board and lodging now treated as a receipt instead of a deduction from salaries as in previous years.

 £££££ s. d.
19532,446,3441,84955,2102,389,285272 2 0
19542,510,8861,21871,5282,438,140231 8 8
19552,549,7333,10468,4372,478,192262 4 10
19562,805,87762966,9622,738,286283 19 4
19573,036,43187475,1932,960,364312 8 2
19583,366,82056095,9903,270,270344 12 2
19593,583,237664102,9513,479,622355 17 3
19603,889,910815111,4633,777,632392 15 7
19614,219,2781,055111,7814,106,442412 8 4
19624,861,7151,163253,197*4,607,355456 6 2
19635,534,3131,680102,0435,430,590528 18 9

As already stated, the expenditure included in the foregoing table does not include amounts spent on new buildings, additions, etc., the cost of which is met by the Ministry of Works. Expenditure for the last five financial years has amounted to £783,548 in 1958–59, £697,398 in 1959–60, £906,479 in 1960–61, £736,417 in 1961–62, and £657,137 in 1962–63.

Chapter 6. Section 6 SOCIAL SECURITY, PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

6 A – SOCIAL SECURITY

DEVELOPMENT – Social security is a comprehensive plan of State assistance by a system of monetary benefits and free or subsidised medical and hospital provisions for the safeguarding of health.

The Social Security Act 1938, which came into operation on 1 April 1939, is the basic legislation. Its principal objects were (a) to substitute for the system of non-contributory civil pensions – e.g., old age, widows', and other pensions – a system of extended monetary benefits; (b) the inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits.

The Social Security Amendment Act 1945 introduced a further important addition to the social legislation of New Zealand. It established the principle of universal family benefits, and from 1 April 1946 each mother has received a benefit in respect of each of her dependent children irrespective of the family income or property

There is reciprocity of social security benefits with Australia, and with the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. Under the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 the classes of benefits cover the following: age pensions and age benefits, invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits, widows' pensions and widows' benefits, child endowment and family benefits, unemployment benefits, and sickness benefits. The Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1956 provides for reciprocity between the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland and New Zealand to cover age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits. Family benefits have been payable on a reciprocal basis since 1948.

Earlier Yearbooks should be referred to for details of social welfare benefits paid prior to the passing of the Social Security Act 1938.

ADMINISTRATION – The Social Security Act 1938 established the Social Security Department, which is under the control of a Commission. The Department administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Security, Part II of the Act dealing with monetary benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits, are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health in accordance with Part I of the Social Security Amendment Act 1963.

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Social Security Department, one of whose officers is designated Secretary for War Pensions.

Owing to the continued decline in volume of rehabilitation work now that the needs of most ex-servicemen have been met, it was decided in 1959–60 to merge the Rehabilitation Division (formerly attached to the Department of Internal Affairs) with the War Pensions Branch of the Social Security Department.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS – Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out was provided for by the establishment within the Public Account of the Social Security Fund. The principal revenue of the fund was derived from a charge (collected by the Inland Revenue Department) on salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies, but the Act also made provision for the payment to the fund of such other moneys as might be appropriated by Parliament from time to time, and a substantial amount was transferred from the Consolidated Fund each year except 1957–58.

The social security charge, which had been at the rate of 1d. for every 1s. 8d. or part thereof of income since the inception of the scheme, was increased in 1946 to 1d. for every 13 1/3d. or part thereof – i.e., 1s. 6d. in the pound. The increase, in the case of salaries and wages, became effective from and including 13 May 1946, while “other” income received during the year ended 31 March 1946 was subject to the increased rate.

The Income Tax Assessment Act 1957, which introduced the Pay As You Earn system of taxation from 1 April 1958, provided for the imposition of a social security income tax in the place of the social security charge. This tax has also been written into the deduction tables under the PAYE system at the rate hitherto obtaining (i.e., 1s. 6d. in the pound). It forms part of the pay-period tax. By the Social Security Amendment Act 1958 all social security income tax was payable into the Consolidated Fund in 1958–59 and 1959–60, and the amount necessary for administering the Social Security Act was appropriated out of that fund. From 1 April 1960 there was paid into the Social Security Fund an amount computed at the rate of 1s. 6d. for each £1 of the national private income (as defined in the Act) for the preceding year, as estimated by the Government Statistician. From 1 April 1964 a new account, called the Consolidated Revenue Account, has been substituted for the Consolidated Fund and the Social Security Fund, and under the Public Revenues Amendment Act 1963 there is credited to this account as social security income tax an amount computed at the rate of 1s. 6d. for every £1 of national private income for the immediately preceding financial year on which social security income tax is payable. (Since 1962 the first £104 of annual income has been exempt from social security tax.)

In the case of salaries and wages the amount of the tax is deducted by the employer or other person by whom the wages or salaries are paid, while the tax on other income is payable by the recipient in two instalments on 7 August and 7 February in the income year.

Receipts – Receipts of the Social Security Fund for five financial years are given in the following table.

Item1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
Social security income tax –£££££
  On salary and wages5,739,381
  On other income of persons11,185,226
  On company income8,142,140
  PAYE55,547,91875,390,00080,377,50082,327,500
Grants from Consolidated Fund (Social Security Act)24,600,000106,500,00034,700,00038,100,00034,000,000
Maintenance recoveries against defaulting husbands115,558131,180140,980148,421159,055
Interest on investments11020,87950,39610,4406,264
Reciprocity arrangements: Recoveries from Australian Government7,6437,89114,28313,40313,767
Other receipts62,08073,480166,647242,610255,345
Total revenue105,400,056106,733,430110,462,306118,892,374116,761,931

Payments – Particulars of payments of the Social Security Fund during the same five financial years are contained in the next table.

Item1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
Monetary benefits –£££££
  Superannuation8,940,75215,460,04720,087,37723,148,89725,117,671
  Age26,104,99227,291,00827,035,64724,858,41324,507,889
  Widows'3,642,3513,915,7854,200,4574,352,7324,546,168
  Orphans'38,19539,44142,94846,30746,062
  Family25,995,31531,791,98630,899,79733,440,32332,301,617
  Invalids'1,942,4902,118,4112,148,8982,190,9842,268,204
  Miners'119,205112,832117,822100,36187,258
  Unemployment111,723189,89892,68180,041163,279
  Sickness1,436,9131,719,3431,673,3721,705,1271,562,716
  Emergency849,461931,429932,458842,530684,498
  Supplementary assistance252,758273,010307,859323,733332,172
  Advances for repairs to homes4,05446,68733,71524,76525,385
  Employment subsidy for disabled civilians1,439
  Capitalisation of family benefit3,879,8896,941,0895,761,9625,150,829
Total, monetary benefits69,438,20987,769,76694,514,12096,876,17596,795,187
Medical benefits –
  Medical3,969,6464,243,3614,244,7984,379,8054,303,951
  Hospital5,774,5195,650,2535,685,2116,259,5716,337,699
  Maternity1,542,4931,561,8611,656,7251,755,0451,858,510
  Pharmaceutical5,112,3435,956,3026,798,1577,678,3388,058,960
  Supplementary2,256,3742,479,8502,763,5402,898,1773,199,105
Total, medical benefits18,655,37519,891,62721,148,43122,970,93623,758,225
Reciprocity benefits –
  Australia9,19110,69912,99114,19810,655
Balance of maintenance moneys29111255309763
Administration expenses1,360,3021,522,1301,704,6721,680,8331,793,322
Total payments89,463,368109,194,334117,380,269121,542,451122,358,152
Balance of fund at end of year20,601,39118,140,48711,222,5248,572,4472,976,226

During the year ended 31 March 1963, £81,264,771, or 70.4 per cent of the total expenditure (£115,375,759) on monetary and medical benefits including supplementary assistance, was paid without a means test, the remaining amount being subject to a means test. From 1 April 1964 the payment of medical benefits is being made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for the purpose, in accordance with the Social Security Amendment Act 1963.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of medical benefits during the last five financial years.

Item1957–581958–591959–601960–611961–62

*Mainly on account of hospital benefits.

Maternity benefits –£££££
  Public hospital fees873,755892,692905,389989,2391,002,877
  Private hospital fees181,254185,978184,679194,808177,269
  Medical practitioners' fees411,661432,170441,276474,677584,151
  Milage fees17,22319,19820,58121,13720,507
  Obstetric nurses' fees4,1023,6935,0263,7172,943
  Private hospital loans54,49828,13099,77471,46770,763
Totals1,542,4931,561,8611,656,7251,755,0451,858,510
Medical benefits –
  Capitation fees4,4124,411
  Milage fees205,362214,860193,445182,918169,050
  General medical services3,680,5203,931,2733,950,6394,084,5584,016,092
  Special arrangements76,57287,09491,75596,159104,732
  Purchase of sites and erection of residences for medical officers2,7805,7238,95916,17014,077
Totals3,969,6464,243,3614,244,7984,379,8054,303,951
Hospital benefits –
  Public hospitals –
  Inpatients4,252,6044,255,6814,322,4134,782,9764,797,526
  Outpatients414,602414,460413,921414,458412,953
  Private hospitals755,215770,358789,907942,361939,225
  Approved institutions117,153125,275129,93680,14092,849
  Private hospital loans196,42364,57715,79525,65986,937
  Grants towards operating costs of Karitane hospitals38,52219,90113,23913,9778,209
Totals5,774,5195,650,2525,685,2116,259,5716,337,699
Pharmaceutical benefits –
  Chemists4,973,5585,787,6846,605,8897,433,7327,747,082
  Medical practitioners27,27432,12648,73673,93770,199
  Institutions111,511136,492143,532170,669170,339
  Refund of Customs duty to wholesalers71,340
Totals5,112,3435,956,3026,798,1577,678,3388,058,960
Supplementary benefits –
  Radiological services471,202489,459510,234522,997541,547
  Laboratory services471,795585,644732,964882,2901,052,566
  Physiotherapy services61,67963,00561,91664,07869,356
  Specialist services (neurosurgery)3,7905,0033,3245,7844,013
  District nursing services195,518206,587222,916234,490246,954
  Dental services940,5901,000,8771,000,5611,045,6291,142,209
  Domestic assistance12,36514,75714,03910,83412,008
  Artificial-aids benefits93,782107,789114,899109,128119,907
  Other5,6536,730102,68722,94710,545
Totals2,256,3742,479,8512,763,5402,898,1773,199,105
Grand totals18,655,37519,891,62721,148,43122,970,93623,758,225
Recoveries*4,7744,6704,5703,2718,659
Net totals18,650,60119,886,95721,143,86122,967,66523,749,566

The following table summarises social security expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to national income.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet National Income at Factor CostExpenditure
HealthFamilyOtherTotalPer Head of Mean Population
Amount £(million) £ s.
1956843.715.518.937.371.733 7
1957886.716.719.538.174.333 17
1958935.117.120.240.277.534 10
1959961.718.726.043.488.138 6
19601,037.419.931.852.0103.744 4
19611,116.021.230.956.6108.745 10
19621,154.823.033.457.7114.146 14
19631,240.423.832.359.3115.446.2
Percentage of Expenditure to National Income
19561.82.24.48.5
19571.92.24.38.4
19581.82.24.38.3
19591.92.74.59.2
19601.93.05.010.0
19611.92.85.19.7
19622.02.95.09.9x
19631.92.64.89.3

Benefits and Pensions in Force – The total number of persons in respect of whom social security cash benefits (including dependent wives and children) were payable at 31 March 1963 was 1,141,116, or 4,504 per 10,000 of population. For the previous year the corresponding figures were 1,117,870 and 4,512 respectively. Particulars of the various social security benefits in force and the annual value at 31 March for the three latest years is as follows.

Class of Benefit or PensionNumber in Force at 31 MarchAnnual Value at 31 March 1963
196119621963

*The expenditure figures given under this heading are gross widows' benefits – i.e., not reduced by the amounts recovered under maintenance orders.

Social security benefits—
  Monetary-£
    Superannuation97,528105,499111,85025,995,394
    Age106,673100,08397,39124,479,423
    Widows'*13,32813,62314,0634,647,645
    Orphans'27427028951,261
    Family'348,004357,568365,11832,549,658
    Invalids'8,1578,1818,0532,265,333
    Miners'31626723683,128
    Unemployment140273358
    Sickness3,9294,3464,529
    Emergency3,0062,6082,767
    Supplementary assistance5,7436,5646,864386,722
Totals587,098599,282611,518

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS, ETC. – In addition to the various classes of benefits enumerated in the foregoing part of this section there were 747 pensions at 31 March 1963 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities”. This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, ex-members of the defence forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, etc.

MONETARY BENEFITS – A summarised account of the changes in monetary benefits from the inception of the social security scheme to 1957 was given on pages 205–206 of the 1958 issue of the Yearbook. Since 1939 the original provisions have been considerably amended and enlarged to correct anomalies and to cover more comprehensively the needs of the people. In addition the rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. In December 1959 additional payments of £6 to single beneficiaries and £12 to married couples were made. These payments covered the period from 12 October 1959–when a general wage order came into effect–to 29 March 1960.

The Social Security Amendment Act 1960 increased the rates payable in respect of age, invalids', widows' (and mothers' allowances), and miners' benefits by £13 a year, and sickness and unemployment benefits by 5s. a week from 30 March 1960. The amendment abolished the means tests on property, formerly applicable to age, invalids', orphans', and unemployment benefits, and increased the amount of income allowable before reduction of age, widows', and invalids' benefits from £104 to £156 a year, and the allowable income for sickness and unemployment benefits from £2 to £3 a week from 12 October 1960. From the same date provision was made for an allowable income of £52 a year before reduction in the rate of orphans' benefit which was formerly reducible by £1 for every complete £1 of an orphan's income.

Also from 12 October 1960 the amendment increased the rate payable in respect of a superannuation benefit by £13 a year and gave the Social Security Commission discretionary power to grant on application an additional £26 a year to single, widowed, separated, or divorced superannuation beneficiaries.

The Social Security Amendment Act 1961 increased the amount of income allowable before reduction of a widow's benefit where the widow is supporting a dependent child or children from £156 to £260 a year from 13 September 1961. From the same date provision was made for up to £52 a year received by an age or invalid's beneficiary, or up to 20s. a week received by a sickness beneficiary as sick benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source, to be disregarded.

The Social Security Amendment Act 1962 increased the rates of superannuation, age, widows' (and mothers' allowances), orphans', invalids', and miners' benefits by £6 10s. a year and sickness and unemployment benefits by 2s. 6d. a week from 18 July 1962.

Similar increases were made from 17 July 1963 in accordance with the provisions of the Social Security Amendment Act 1963.

For the purpose of determining eligibility for benefit on grounds of residence, persons employed outside New Zealand will be deemed to be resident in New Zealand if employed on Government business, and may be so deemed at the Commission's discretion if employed otherwise, for the purposes of Part II of the principal Act, where liable for the payment of social security income tax on their earnings. In each case the wife and children are also included.

The receipt of a war disablement pension or a basic war widow's pension does not render a person ineligible to receive a social security benefit.

SUMMARY OF RATES OF SOCIAL SECURITY BENEFITS–The list below gives a summary of the annual and weekly rates for monetary benefits as from 17 July 1963.

BenefitAnnual RateWeekly Rate

*According to circumstances, but in general, standard rates will be increased by 20s. a week for beneficiary, 10s. a week for his wife, and 5s. a week for each dependent child.

Superannuation –££ s. d.
  Unmarried person2605 0 0
  Married person2344 10 0
Age –
  Unmarried person2605 0 0
  Married couple if both eligible (each)2344 10 0
  Married woman whose husband is not eligible2344 10 0
  Married man whose wife is not eligible4689 0 0
Widows' –
  Widow2605 0 0
Additional mother's allowance where widow has –£ s. d.£ s. d.
  One dependent child169 0 03 5 0
  Two dependent children195 0 03 15 0
  Three dependent children221 0 04 5 0
  Four dependent children247 0 04 15 0
  Five dependent children273 0 05 5 0
  Six or more dependent children299 0 05 15 0
  Orphans' (each child)130 0 02 10 0
  Family (each child)39 0 015 0
Invalids' –
  Unmarried person, 20 years or over260 0 05 0 0
  Unmarried person under 20 years221 0 04 5 0
  Married man with wife included468 0 09 0 0
  Married woman234 0 04 10 0
  Limit of income, including benefits, where domestic or nursing assistance required for a married woman728 0 014 0 0
Miners' –
  Unmarried person260 0 05 0 0
  Married man with wife included468 0 09 0 0
  Miner's widow227 10 04 7 6
Sickness or Unemployment –
  Person under 20 years without dependants3 15 0
  Married man with wife included9 0 0
  Married woman4 10 0
  Others5 0 0
Supplementary AssistanceAccording to circumstances
EmergencyAccording to circumstances
Emergency - Sufferers from tuberculosis*....

Superannuation Benefits – Every person over the age of 65 years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualifications is entitled to a superannuation benefit without conditions as to income or property. The superannuation benefit is, however, regarded as assessable income for income-tax purposes but is exempt from the social security income tax. The residential qualifications require, in general, a period of residence in New Zealand of 20 years immediately preceding application for benefit, but in the case of a person who was resident in New Zealand on 15 March 1938 the qualifying period is 10 years only. Allowances are made for occasional absences.

For the 10 years' requirement, continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by absence—

  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed one year; or

  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds one year but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of 10 years, and the applicant is ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of his application.

A similar proviso for the 20 years' requirement applies—

  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed two years; or

  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds two years but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of 20 years, and the applicant is ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of his application.

Provision is made to cover absence by a seaman serving on board any ship registered or owned in New Zealand, absence in any capacity as a member of any of Her Majesty's Forces, absence of a blind person for vocational training or treatment of the eyes, absence for special surgical treatment not available in New Zealand, and absence of a missionary serving overseas.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other cash benefit except a family benefit. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age benefit are not payable to the one person.

At the date of commencement on 1 April 1940, and for the remainder of the year, the rate of benefit was £10 a year, thereafter being increased by £2 10s. a year. As from 1 October 1951, however, the amount payable for the balance of the year 1951–52 was raised from £37 10s. to £75 a year, this amount increasing by £5 a year on 1 April of each succeeding year to £110 a year in 1958. From 1 April 1959 the rate increased to £156 a year, from 30 March 1960 to £208 a year, from 12 October 1960 to £221 a year for a married person and to £247 a year for an unmarried person, from 18 July 1962 to £227 10s. a year (married person) and £253 10s. a year (unmarried person), and from 17 July 1963 to £234 a year (married person) and £260 a year (unmarried person).

The number of superannuation benefits in force at 31 March 1963 was 111,850, an increase of 6,351 above the total for the previous year. Expenditure on these benefits rose from £23,148,897 in 1961–62 to £25,117,671 in 1962–63.

Age Benefits – Every person who has attained the age of 60 years is entitled to receive an age benefit, subject to satisfying certain qualifications in regard to residence and character. The residential qualifications are the same as those set out under the preceding heading in regard to superannuation benefits. The character qualifications mainly relate to desertion of wife or husband or wilful failure in the case of a married man or widower to provide adequate maintenance for wife or for children under 16 years of age.

The basic rate of the benefit is £234 a year, subject to certain deductions on account of income. Particulars of additions to and deductions from the basic rate are as follows:

Unmarried applicants: The basic rate is increased to £260, although reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income in excess of £156 a year.

Married applicants: Where husband and wife are both entitled to the benefit the basic rate is reduced by 10s. for every complete £1 of their combined incomes in excess of £156 a year. In cases where only one of them is entitled to the benefit the reduction is at the rate of £1 for every complete £1 of their total income (excluding a family benefit) in excess of £390 a year. A further provision allows of an extra payment, not exceeding £234 a year, to a male recipient when his wife is ineligible for any benefit under the Act. This is payable only up to a limit of the total income of the couple, plus benefit, of £624 a year.

For the above purposes, income is deemed not to include amounts received by way of war disablement pension or basic war widow's pension.

From 1 August 1955 age benefit has been payable to unmarried women between 55 and 60 years of age who are unable to engage in regular employment.

Age beneficiaries are entitled to surrender their benefits while their earnings are excessive and to apply for reinstatement immediately the employment ceases. The earnings received during the period that both husband and wife were not in receipt of age benefits are not taken into account.

Any deduction from the maximum rate of benefit because of excess income may be diminished by £6 10s. for each year that an applicant, on having attained the age of 65 years, has deferred applying for the benefit between the ages of 60 and 65 years, provided that he was residentially qualified to receive the benefit during that period.

During 1962–63, 409 existing beneficiaries and new applicants received additional benefit for the first time on account of the deferment concession. The periods of deferment were: one year, 53; two years, 45; three years, 79; four years, 55; and five years, 177.

In computing the allowable income of any female beneficiary or the wife of any beneficiary no account is taken of her personal earnings from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals or charitable institutions up to £78 a year.

A special allowance not exceeding £26 a year may be paid to any person in receipt of an age benefit who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in connection with the South African War or in any of Her Majesty's forces in that war if he had been born in New Zealand or was domiciled therein at the commencement of the war.

The Commission may also, in its discretion, increase by an amount not exceeding £26 a year the rate of any benefit under Part II of the Act payable to any beneficiary who was one of the parents of a deceased member of any of Her Majesty's forces established in New Zealand whose death was attributable to service with the forces. Similar powers exist in respect of a parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand mercantile marine whose death was attributable to the Second World War. The provision also covers from 1 April 1949 the case of a deceased member of any force or of the mercantile marine of any part of the British Commonwealth other than New Zealand who was domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the Second World War and whose death was directly attributable to that war. At 31 March 1963 there were 1,818 of these allowances in force, this representing a decrease of 152 from the figure of 1,970 for 1962.

Where an applicant for an age benefit is totally blind, the rate of the benefit, together with any benefits and allowances payable to or in respect of the wife or husband of the applicant, is not to be less than the total of benefits and allowances that would have been paid if the applicant had been eligible for an invalid's benefit.

The number of age benefits in force at 31 March 1963 was 97,391, a decrease of 2,692 as compared with the figure at the end of March 1962. The 1963 total was inclusive of 5,010 husbands receiving benefits on account of dependent wives who were not eligible for benefits in their own right, and of 71 males receiving the additional allowance of up to £26 a year paid to veterans of the South African War. Expenditure on age benefits decreased from £24,858,413 in 1961–62 to £24,507,889 in 1962–63.

The following table shows the estimated age distribution of (a) persons who were granted new age benefits during the calendar year 1962 (including transfers from widows' and invalids' benefits), and (b) total age beneficiaries at 31 December 1962.

Age, in YearsPersons Granted New Age Benefits During 1962Total Age Beneficiaries at 31 December 1962
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
601,4001,9603,3609611,4292,390
613905809701,6152,4124,027
624003607601,8662,7724,638
632903406301,9642,6964,660
641601703301,7463,0234,769
Totals, 60–642,6403,4106,0508,15212,33220,484
65–693202105304,96313,09118,054
70–741701002706,17613,47519,651
75 and over10010020013,49425,98239,476
Totals3,2303,8207,05032,78564,88097,665

Widows' Benefits – Every widow who is the mother of one or more children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of children under 16 years of age who satisfies the following conditions is also entitled to the benefit:

  1. A widow who has had one or more children, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than 15 years or, in the alternative, that the aggregate of the period of the duration of her marriage and any subsequent period during which she had the care of at least one of her children under 16 years of age was not less than 15 years:

  2. A widow who, on the expiration of not less than five years after the date of her marriage, became a widow after she attained the age of fifty years:

  3. A widow of not less than 50 years of age who became a widow after she had attained the age of 40 years, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than 10 years and that not less than 15 years have expired since the date of her marriage.

It will be noted that no widow under 50 years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit.

Provision is also made for other classes of women (not being widows) to receive benefits as if they were widows. Particulars are as follows:

  1. Any married woman who satisfies the Commission that she has been deserted by her husband and that she has taken proceedings against him for a maintenance order under the Destitute Persons Act 1910. Either the beneficiary or the Commission may institute and prosecute proceedings for the enforcement of the order, or for an order cancelling, varying, or suspending the maintenance order. Any moneys paid by a husband, whether by way of maintenance order or otherwise, are set off against any benefit so granted. Benefits for deserted wives may be continued after divorce:

  2. Any married woman in respect of whose husband a reception order is in force under the Mental Health Act 1911 (whether or not he is detained in an institution under the Act), or whose husband is for the time being an inmate of an institution under that Act, whether as a voluntary in-patient or otherwise.

The two paragraphs which follow also apply in such cases, reference to the date of death being deemed to be reference to date of desertion by the husband or to the making of a reception order.

Except in the case of widows with one or more children under 16 years of age, no widow is entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless she and her husband were both resident in New Zealand for not less than three years immediately preceding the death of the husband or, unless either of them, being ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of the husband's death, has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years.

The term “children” does not include any child born out of New Zealand unless at least one of the following conditions is satisfied – namely, that–

  1. The mother of the child was only temporarily out of New Zealand at the time of its birth; or

  2. Both parents were resident in New Zealand for the three years immediately preceding the date of the death of the husband of the applicant; or

  3. One of the parents, being ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of the husband's death, has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years.

The term “child” includes a stepchild or a child adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant (in cases where the husband is dead) or adopted while the husband and wife were living together (in cases of desertion, etc.). It may also (at the discretion of the Commission) include any child who is being maintained by the applicant or was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

No woman shall be entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless the Commission is satisfied that she is of good moral character and sober habits.

The rate of benefit payable to a widow is £260 a year plus a supplementary benefit (mother's allowance) of £169 a year in cases where there is one dependent child and £195 a year where there are two dependent children under 16 years of age. For a widow with three dependent children the rate of mother's allowance is £221; with four children £247; with five children £273; and with six or more children £299 a year.

Any income received, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widow's pension, is taken into account in computing the benefit payable. Where such income exceeds £156 the annual rate of benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of such excess, but in the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction is £260 a year. The maximum of income plus benefit in the case of a widow without dependent children is £416 a year and for a widow with one dependent child is £689 a year. This maximum is increased by £26 a year for each additional dependent child up to and including the sixth. A widow with dependent children will, of course, receive in addition the family benefit of 15s. a week for each child.

The provision relating to the allowable income of £78 a year gained from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals and charitable institutions without affecting the amount of the benefit payable to women age-beneficiaries also applies to widows' benefits. Widows' benefits cease on remarriage.

At 31 March 1963 there were 14,063 benefits in force, an increase of 440 during the year. Expenditure totalled £4,546,168 in 1962–63, compared with £4,352,732 in 1961–62. Offset against these amounts were the sums of £159,055 and £148,421 respectively, being recoveries of maintenance from defaulting husbands.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1963.

StatusWith One Dependent ChildWith Two or More Dependent ChildrenWithout Dependent ChildrenTotal
Widows2,4772,6687,29112,436
Deserted wives2737133881,374
Wives of mental hospital patients5312377253
Totals2,8033,5047,75614,063

Orphans' Benefits – A benefit in respect of complete orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than three years preceding the date of his or her death. A stepchild or an adopted child comes within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organisations.

The rate of an orphan's benefit is £130 a year reduced by £1 for each complete £1 of income received by or for the benefit of the orphan in excess of £52 a year. In any case where the benefit of the orphan falls below £39 a year application may be made for a family benefit of 15s. a week in lieu of orphan's benefit. For the purpose of assisting in the further education of any child, the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of eighteen years.

The number of benefits in force at the end of March 1963 was 289 (in respect of 382 children), an increase of 19 during the year. Expenditure decreased from £46,307 in 1961–62 to £46,062 in 1962–63.

Family Benefits – As from 1 April 1946 the father or mother of any child or children under 16 years of age may apply for a family benefit, irrespective of the income or property of the parents or children. Prior to 1 April 1946 family benefits were payable subject to a means test.

The rate of the benefit is 15s. a week for each child, and in every case is paid to the mother of the children, unless in special circumstances the Commission considers that it should be paid to the father or to some other person for the benefit of the children.

If a beneficiary in receipt of an age or other monetary benefit is the parent of dependent children, payment in respect of the children is made by way of a separate family benefit.

The term “children” includes stepchildren and adopted children, but does not include–

  1. Any child who has attained the age of 16 years unless such child is continuing its education as a full-time day pupil at a school or college, in which case the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which it reaches the age of 18 years.

  2. Any child who is not in fact maintained as a member of the family of the applicant.

  3. Any child in respect of whom any other benefit or pension, etc., is payable out of public moneys.

The Commission may regard as a member of the applicant's family any child who, although not a child of the applicant, is being maintained as a member of the family. A benefit may also be continued beyond the age of 16 years in respect of any child who is totally incapacitated from earning a living by reason of some physical or mental defect.

In order to qualify for a family benefit at least one of the following conditions must be satisfied, namely—

  1. The child was born in New Zealand.

  2. The mother of the child was only temporarily absent from New Zealand at the time of its birth.

  3. The Commission is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand.

  4. The child has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

A benefit is not payable in respect of any child committed to the care of the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education nor in respect of any child residing in an institution under the care of the Division of Mental Health of the Department of Health. Family benefits are payable to children of a member of any of Her Majesty's naval, military, or air forces.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child of a marriage or a child who has commenced his first year of post-primary instruction.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1958, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the purchase of home properties, additions or alterations to existing homes, or the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of the family benefit in respect of one or more children from the age of one year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than £200 or more than £1,000.

Details of family benefit capitalisation are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedNumber of Benefits ConcernedCapitalised Value of Benefits
   £
196015,26527,4739,363,563
196111,44221,1707,234,836
19629,73916,9885,959,512
19638,88414,9315,251,339

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts decreased from 128,202 at 31 March 1962 to 124,430 at 31 March 1963, the amount lodged decreasing from £12,195,354 to £10,654,021.

The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1963 was 365,118 covering 892,500 children, compared with corresponding figures of 357,568 and 874,000 at 31 March 1962. Included in the total were 30 incapacitated children over the age of 16 years; and at the end of the 1961 school year there were 36,537 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

Expenditure decreased from £33,440,323 in 1961–62 to £32,301,617 in 1962–63.

The following table gives the number of family benefits in force at the end of March 1961 classified according to the number of children receiving the benefit in each case.

Number of Children Receiving Benefit in Each CaseNumber of Benefits at 31 March 1961
1104,325
2106,710
370,983
436,582
515,585
67,112
73,357
81,731
9917
10 or over702
Totals348,004

The average number of children per family in respect of whom benefit was paid was 2.25 in 1950–51, 2.30 in 1952–53, 2.33 in 1954–55, 2.36 in 1956–57, 2.39 in 1958–59, and 2.45 in 1960–61.

Invalids' Benefits — Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the age of 16 years and upwards who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he—

  1. Is totally blind; or

  2. Is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

The other qualifications referred to are as follows:

  1. That he has fulfilled certain residential qualifications, these in the main being the same as for superannuation benefits described on page 183.

  2. That incapacity for work was not self-induced or in any way brought about with a view to qualifying for an invalid's benefit.

  3. Applicant must be of good moral character and sober habits.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. In the event of an application being declined on medical grounds, the applicant has the right of appeal, within three months after the decision of the Commission has been communicated to him, to a board of three medical practitioners nominated by the Department. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate, if the Commission is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment, or in the case of blindness, for the purpose of undertaking vocational training or treatment in respect of the eyes.

The prescribed rates for invalids' benefits, together with the amounts of allowable income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pensions, are as follows.

Class of PersonAnnual Rate of BenefitAnnual Income Allowed Without Reduction of Benefit
 ££
Unmarried person under 20 years221156
Married man234156
Wife234
Married woman234390
All other persons260156

As in the case of other benefits, dependent children are provided for by way of the family benefit at 15s. a week each.

In each case the amount of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widow's pension, in excess of the amounts stated as allowable. In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may be increased by up to 25 per cent of his personal earnings provided his annual income, apart from the benefit, does not exceed £312.

Where an applicant is a married woman and, by reason of incapacity, necessary nursing or domestic assistance is required to be paid for, the Commission may increase the rate of any benefit which may have been reduced on account of income to an amount not in excess of £234 a year, but so that the total income of applicant and husband, inclusive of the benefit, does not exceed £14 a week.

Any person in receipt of an invalid's benefit who, on the attainment of age 60, becomes entitled to receive an age benefit is required to relinquish his invalid's benefit and is granted an age benefit in lieu thereof, but the aggregate amount payable for a blind beneficiary and his wife (if any) is not altered by this transfer.

Of 884 new benefits granted in 1962 the marital status of the recipients was single 379 (195 males, 184 females), married 323 (317 males, 6 females), widowed 52 (32 males, 20 females), and apart, separated, divorced 130 (61 males, 69 females). By far the greatest number were aged 50 years or over, 470, the numbers for other age groups being as follows: under 20 years, 151; 20 and under 40 years, 107; and 40 and under 50 years, 156.

Invalids' benefits in force at 31 March 1963 numbered 8,053, a decrease of 128 on the March 1962 figure, while expenditure rose from £2,190,984 in 1961–62 to £2,268,204 in 1962–63.

Miners' Benefits – Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted miner's phthisis and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, or to any person who contracted, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby permanently and totally incapacitated for work. The term “miner's phthisis” means pneumoconiosis and includes tuberculosis of the lungs or any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with, or a sequel to, pneumoconiosis. The necessary qualifications are—

  1. Employment as a miner in New Zealand for not less than two and a half years:

  2. Continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than five years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit. Continuity of residence is not deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absences aggregating not more than six months:

  3. Good moral character and sober habits and must not have deserted or wilfully failed to provide for his wife and children during the period of five years immediately preceding the date of application:

  4. That compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of the same disability is not being received.

The rates of miners' benefits are £234 a year (or £260 if unmarried), increased by £234 a year for a wife. Dependent children under 16 years are provided for by way of family benefit at the rate of 15s. a week each.

There is no reduction in the benefit on account of the income or property of the applicant and/or his wife.

Provision is made for medical examination where necessary to determine whether the applicant is permanently incapacitated for work, or the extent of his incapacity.

An applicant whose claim has been declined on medical grounds has a right of appeal to a board consisting of three registered medical practitioners appointed by the Department.

A special provision is made for the payment from the Social Security Fund of a reasonable contribution towards the funeral expenses of any person who dies while in receipt of a miner's benefit. The amount to be paid is at the discretion of the Commission.

If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit of £227 10s. a year, during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow, her income or property not being considered in the granting of a benefit.

Payment of benefits is not affected by a period or periods of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate.

Miners' benefits in force at 31 March 1963 numbered 236 (including 51 widows), 31 fewer than at the corresponding date in 1962. During 1962–63 the expenditure on this class of benefit was £87,258, compared with £100,361 in 1961–62.

Unemployment Benefits – Subject to the conditions set out below, every person over the age of 16 years who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to a benefit in respect of unemployment. An applicant is required to satisfy the Commission in respect of the following:

  1. That he is unemployed:

  2. That he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work:

  3. That he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment:

  4. That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first seven days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. In addition, the Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding six weeks, the commencement of the benefit, or it may terminate the benefit in any of the following circumstances:

  1. If the applicant has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason:

  2. If the applicant has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker:

  3. If the applicant or beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment:

  4. In the case of a seasonal worker if his earnings for the season are sufficient for the maintenance of himself and his family notwithstanding a period of temporary unemployment.

Unemployment benefits are payable in accordance with the following scale:

 Weekly Benefit
 £s.d.
Person under 20 years without dependants3150
Married man with wife included900
Others500

Dependent children are paid for by way of family benefit at the rate of 15s. per week each.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit – e.g., an age benefit.

A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit of up to £4 10s. a week only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The foregoing rates of benefits may be reduced, having regard to the income received by the applicant or his wife.

The numbers of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1962 and 1963 were 1,689 and 5,139 respectively, 1,228 persons being granted a benefit in 1961–62, and 3,541 in 1962–63. At the end of March 1963, 358 benefits were in force, compared with 273 at the end of the previous year. Payment of additional benefit for a dependent wife was included in 1,661 of the benefits granted during 1962–63 and in 124 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1963. Expenditure for the year 1962–63 amounted to £163,279, as against £80,041 in 1961–62.

Sickness Benefits – Every person over the age of 16 years who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months and who satisfies the Commission that he is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and that by reason thereof he has suffered a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, is entitled to a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity or to a maximum of £9 a week payable to a man and his wife. Where a person is engaged in business on his own account and by reason of sickness or accident is obliged to employ a substitute during the period of incapacity, the remuneration paid to the substitute is regarded as loss of earnings. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first seven days of incapacity except under special circumstances.

A married woman shall be entitled to receive a sickness benefit of up to £4 10s. a week, only if the Commission is satisfied that her husband is unable to maintain her.

Subject to the foregoing remarks concerning amount of benefit, the rates of sickness benefits are as follows:

 Weekly Benefit
 £ s. d.
Person under 20 years without dependants3 15 0
Married man with wife included9 0 0
Others5 0 0

Any applicant who is maintaining a home and who is not drawing a benefit in respect of a wife, may receive a benefit at a rate not exceeding that for a wife, in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Dependent children are provided for by way of family benefit.

The rate of benefit computed as aforesaid is reduced by 1s. for every complete 1s. of the total income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widows' pensions, of the applicant and of his wife or her husband, as the case may be, in excess of £3 a week.

The numbers of applications for sickness benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1962 and 1963 were 31,288 and 32,999 respectively. The number of persons granted sickness benefits was 29,318 in 1961–62 and 30,641 in 1962–63. Benefits in force at 31 March 1963 totalled 4,529, compared with 4,346 at the end of March 1962. Total expenditure for 1962–63 amounted to £1,562,716, a decrease of £142,411 on the 1961–62 figures.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1962 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit.

Duration of Sickness Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
0–410,4552,53412,989
5–126,9052,1619,066
13–252,4942,1274,621
26–521,1915191,710
53–104471169640
Over 10413371204
Totals21,6497,58129,230

The following table gives a classification of sickness benefits according to the disease suffered by the beneficiary. The data are obtained from an analysis of the benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1962.

Disease or InjuryMalesFemalesPercentage of Total
Infective and parasitic diseases1,1943315.2
Neoplasms4701912.3
Allergic, endocrine system, metabolic, and nutritional diseases6111432.2
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs73600.5
Mental, psychoneurotic, and personality disorders1,0607276.5
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs9182233.9
Diseases of the circulatory system2,1903738.8
Diseases of the respiratory system3,52876014.7
Diseases of the digestive system3,10970713.1
Diseases of the genito-urinary system5193452.9
Deliveries and complications of pregnancy2,1567.3
Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue8991933.7
Diseases of the bones and organs of movement1,5823756.7
Congenital malformations88140.4
Senility, and ill-defined conditions1,1814355.5
Accidents, poisonings, and violence4,22754816.3
Totals21,6497,581100.0

Emergency Benefits – An emergency benefit may be granted by the Commission on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, domestic circumstances, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit.

The amount of the emergency benefit is at the discretion of the Commission, which fixes as nearly as possible an amount equal to that payable for the type of benefit for which the applicant most closely qualifies.

Payments of benefits for which tuberculosis sufferers may qualify are at the rates of £4 15s. a week for a single person under 20 years of age without dependants, £6 a week for a single person 20 years and over, and £10 10s. a week for a married couple. These rates are increased by 5s. a week for each dependent child.

Emergency benefits in force at 31 March 1963 numbered 2,767, compared with 2,608 at 31 March 1962. Expenditure in the 1962–63 year amounted to £684,498 and in 1961–62 to £842,530.

Supplementary Assistance – Since 1951 supplementary assistance has been available to social security beneficiaries and others who have special commitments which cannot be met out of current income, have insufficient other resources, and are unable to help themselves. Welfare and other organisations have been encouraged to assist in bringing this source of help to the knowledge of persons who might qualify, and departmental literature has included information on the purpose of supplementary assistance, the cost of which has been borne by the Social Security Fund. Continuing grants are made where the applicant's continuing commitments, e.g., food, fuel, rent, are in excess of the income received by the applicant, and lump sum grants are usually made to meet some nonrecurring expense. An analysis of these grants showing purpose and amounts of grants, is given in the parliamentary paper H. 9, 1963. More detailed analyses are given in earlier parliamentary papers.

In the 1962–63 year, 11,329 applications for assistance were granted, expenditure totalling £332,172, compared with 10,650 grants totalling £323,733 in 1961–62. There were 6,864 continuing grants in force at 31 March 1963.

Domestic and Nursing Concession – Female social security beneficiaries or the wives of social security beneficiaries are allowed, in addition to the ordinary income exemption of £156 a year, to earn up to £78 a year in domestic or nursing service in private homes, hospitals, homes for the care of the aged, or charitable institutions approved by the Commission, without their benefits being reduced.

During the year 1962–63, 270 applications were received for employment in private homes, and 254 were granted, while at 31 March 1963 there ere 532 concessions in force, compared with 650 at the end of March 1962. During the year 1962–63, 362 applications were received for employment in hospitals and institutions, and 346 were granted, while at 31 March 1963 there were 551 concessions in force.

Reciprocity with Australia – The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit in respect of a person covered by this Act, residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids', or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age benefit unless he has attained the age of 65 years. The Act also provides that the Commission shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Part III of the Act deals with persons who, although ordinarily resident in New Zealand, are temporarily resident in Australia. Such residence is not a disqualification for a benefit. Benefits may be applied for and paid in Australia, although the Commission may, in its discretion, postpone payment of the whole or any part of the benefit until the return of the beneficiary to New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1963 comprised 418 age benefits, 35 widows' benefits, 7 family benefits, 20 invalids' benefits, and 7 sickness benefits, a total of 487, compared with 445 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom – The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1956 brought into operation from 1 April 1956 an agreement providing for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other for permanent residence will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country.

This principle is modified to the extent that the United Kingdom has agreed to continue to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions in New Zealand to former residents of the United Kingdom who are qualified under the United Kingdom scheme. In such cases, New Zealand will supplement such pensions to bring them up to the New Zealand rates where necessary.

United Kingdom Residents in New Zealand – In New Zealand the agreement applies to former residents of England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Isle of Man who claim age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act.

The agreement modifies the residential requirements of the Social Security Act and enables persons who formerly lived in the United Kingdom to be treated as if they resided in New Zealand during any period they lived in the United Kingdom. Though the normal qualifying age for a grant of age benefit in New Zealand is 60, no man claiming age benefit by virtue of the agreement is entitled to receive it till he reaches 65.

The United Kingdom continues to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions to persons in New Zealand who are qualified under the national insurance scheme and, in such cases, New Zealand, where necessary, supplements the national insurance pensions to bring them up to the rate of the appropriate New Zealand benefit. There is no supplementation in cases where the national insurance retirement or widow's pension is equal to, or greater than, the New Zealand social security benefit which could be paid. Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1963 comprised 2,698 superannuation benefits, 2,517 age benefits, 209 widows' benefits, 16 family benefits, 80 invalids' benefits, 6 sickness benefits, and 3 unemployment benefits, a total of 5,529, compared with 4,950 a year earlier.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom – In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mother's and guardian's allowances, sickness and employment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The United Kingdom scheme is a contributory scheme, and payment of benefits is dependent upon the satisfaction of specified contributory conditions.

The agreement modifies the provisions of the National Insurance Act of the United Kingdom and enables persons who formerly lived in New Zealand to be treated for the purpose of satisfying the contribution conditions of that Act as if they had paid contributions under the national insurance scheme for each week during which they had been resident in New Zealand. The qualifying age for retirement pension under the National Insurance Act is 60 for women and 65 for men.

A man who was in receipt of superannuation or age benefit solely by virtue of the New Zealand legislation when he left New Zealand and was then over 65 years of age, or a single, widowed, separated, or divorced woman over 60 years of age, will generally be regarded as having satisfied the contribution conditions under the national insurance scheme, and may receive the appropriate national insurance benefit at the full rate from the date of arrival in the United Kingdom. It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of age benefit when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age.

A married woman who was receiving age or superannuation benefit in New Zealand cannot qualify in her own right for a retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless she has, since the date of her marriage, paid at least 156 contributions under the legislation of the United Kingdom, or was treated under the New Zealand legislation as an unmarried woman. She may, however, qualify for a wife's allowance of £2 1s. 6d. a week, provided that her husband has attained the age of 70 years or has retired from regular employment and attained the age of 65 years.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand who go to the United Kingdom for the purpose of a visit will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 12 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefit for the period of their absence. If they apply for, and receive, national insurance pensions while in the United Kingdom, the amount paid by the United Kingdom will be deducted from the arrears of social security benefit payable on their return.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS – Part I of the Social Security Amendment Act 1963 dealing with medical and like benefits is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

The Act also gives authority for the inauguration of supplementary benefits as and when the occasion for providing such benefits arises. Among the supplementary benefits introduced are radiological services, dental services, home nursing services, and domestic assistance.

Medical Benefits – Under the provisions contained in the Act every person is entitled to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, the principal of these being as follows:

  1. Medical services afforded in relation to maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading):

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate:

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner:

  4. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946–see later headings:

  5. Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health, and medical services not afforded by a medical practitioner in person.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled to receive from the Department of Health a reasonable fee not exceeding 7s. 6d. for every occasion on which any such service is provided. Milage fees are also provided for in certain cases. Where the practitioner is called upon to provide, in response to an urgent request, services on a Sunday or holiday, or between the hours of 8 p.m. and 8 a.m., the appropriate fee shall be a reasonable one not exceeding 12s. 6d. For specialist services an amount not exceeding 7s. 6d. for each attendance is likewise recoverable. Doctors may claim directly from the Department of Health, or may require the patient to pay the fee and himself claim a refund from the Department of Health. There has been a steady swing towards the direct-claim system by doctors, and 77 per cent now follow this practice.

The number of doctors providing general medical services in March 1963 was 1,838 and the number of “services” per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1963 was 4.3, compared with 4.5 in the preceding year. The “effective” population per general practitioner was 1,789.

The following table shows doctors in active practice at 1 June 1962 by type and the percentage using the direct claim system from the Department of Health.

Type of DoctorIn Active PracticePractising on Schedule System
  per cent
General practitioners1,14591.1
General practitioners with specialist interests14568.3
Specialists41540.7
All active practitioners1,70576.9

Pharmaceutical Benefits – This class of benefit was introduced on 5 May 1941. Persons claiming medical benefits are entitled to receive, without cost to themselves, all such prescribed medicines, prescribed drugs, prescribed materials, and prescribed appliances as are ordered for their use by a medical practitioner in the course of providing any medical services under the Act. There is a Drug Tariff, which sets out particulars of all medicines, drugs, appliances, etc., that may be supplied and charged against the fund. The proprietor of any pharmacy within the meaning of the Pharmacy Act 1939 or any other person entitled to sell any drugs or pharmaceutical requirements may be permitted to become a contractor under the scheme. Hospital boards are entitled to receive payment for pharmaceutical requirements supplied to outpatients, but not in respect of inpatients.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1963 totalled 15,745,668, or 6.4 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was 10s. 1 3/4d., the cost per head of population being £3 4s. 2d.

Hospital Benefits – The Act provides for the payment to hospital boards and the proprietors of licensed hospitals and to other approved institutions (who have entered into contracts under the Act) of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. The amount paid to a hospital board is in full satisfaction of its claim for the treatment of patients; in the case of licensed hospitals and other institutions the amount paid is in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients or other persons liable for the hospital charges.

These benefits came into force on 1 July 1939, and the present rates from 1 April 1963, which vary for different classes of treatment, are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment £2 a day.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment £1 8s. a day.

The Act also provides that in lieu of payment being made in respect of individual hospital patients the Minister may from time to time authorise the payment of a grant in respect of hospital treatment afforded in any private hospital or other approved institution.

In addition to the public hospitals and licensed private hospitals, there is another limited class of semi-public hospitals which, in accordance with the Act, has been approved for the purposes of hospital benefits. This class includes the Karitane Baby Hospitals (six), conducted by the Royal New Zealand Society for the Protection of Women and Children, more commonly known as the Plunket Society, and in addition a home for incurables operated under a charitable trust. Special rates were determined for these classes of hospital, and such payments must be accepted in full satisfaction of the claim of the institution authorities.

Hospital benefits are also available in respect of maintenance and treatment afforded to any inpatient of Queen Mary Neurological Hospital, Hanmer Springs, or of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua. Treatment is free except that a small charge is made in respect of single-room accommodation at Queen Mary Hospital when obtained at the request of the patient.

The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 provide for free treatment of outpatients at public hospitals. “Hospital treatment” in relation to an outpatient of any public hospital covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses (introduced 1 June 1947), hearing aids (1 November 1947), artificial limbs (1 April 1948), surgical footwear (1 December 1951), ileostomy and colostomy appliances (27 April 1955), urinals: men's (25 July 1955), women's (29 October 1959), and all medical, surgical, or other treatment afforded by the staff of the hospital; but does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of artificial limbs and surgical footwear the conditions of supply provide for part payment by the patient.

Mental Hospitals – The principal Act made provision for the treatment of patients in public mental hospitals without charge as from 1 April 1939. By section 10 of the Social Security Amendment Act 1939 a licensed (private) mental hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment therein are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits – Maternity benefits include ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere.

These benefits came into force on 15 May 1939, but the maternity medical practitioner service was not in full operation until 1 October of that year. The amount calculated in accordance with the scale of fees for the time being in force shall be accepted by the medical practitioner in full satisfaction of his claims except in the case of a practitioner who is recognised as an obstetric specialist in accordance with the terms of the Act. Such a practitioner, in addition to the fees payable by the Department of Health, may recover additional fees from the patient. A medical practitioner may contract out of the maternity benefits provisions. In such cases the patient is responsible for all the fees.

The main provisions in regard to maternity benefits apart from the medical practitioner service are as follows:

  1. Licensed (private) maternity hospitals: Licensees of licensed maternity hospitals who have entered into contracts under the Act are entitled to receive fees of £2 5s. in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days. The licensee's contract permits a specified additional charge to the patient.

  2. Midwives and maternity nurses: Approved midwives and maternity nurses who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital are entitled to receive from the fund fees at the rate of £1 10s. for the day or days of labour (£3 in the case of midwives) and £1 7s. per day for each of the 14 days succeeding the birth of the child or 10s. 6d. per day if a visiting obstetric nurse only. These amounts are to be regarded as in full satisfaction of a nurse's claims in respect of the nursing services.

X-ray Diagnostic Services – The benefits provided for comprise the following:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen:

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs:

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph:

  4. The provision of medical services incidental to any such examination or photograph, except medical services of a kind not ordinarily performed by radiologists as such:

  5. The provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of any such examinations or photographs.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the services that may be provided. This does not exclude examinations for medical certificates for the purposes of benefits under the Social Security Act 1938 or “sickness benefits” from a friendly society, or group examinations approved by the Director-General of Health.

The scale of fees payable from the fund in respect of services rendered by recognised radiologists is prescribed in a schedule to the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Amendment No. 5, issued on 26 January 1960. In respect of recognised radiologists the amount of such fees is deducted from the amount charged to the patient, who is responsible for the balance, if any.

Physiotherapy Benefits – Physiotherapy treatment by private physiotherapists is covered by the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with registered physiotherapists under which they are paid from the Department of Health a fee of 5s. for each treatment and undertake not to charge the patient any additional fees in excess of 8s. for treatment afforded in their rooms or 13s. for treatment afforded elsewhere.

No physiotherapy treatment is recognised for the purpose of the benefits unless it is given on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, and not more than six weeks' treatment may be given on a single recommendation except in the case of certain specified diseases, illness, etc., approved by the Director-General of Health, when the period of treatment on any one recommendation may be extended up to six months.

Home-nursing Services – Home-nursing services free of cost to the recipients were introduced by the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, which stipulate that no charge may be made for district nursing services provided by any Department of State, hospital board, or subsidised association elsewhere than in a hospital or other institution, but provision is made for payments to these organisations from the Department of Health.

Domestic Assistance – The provision of monetary assistance to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic assistance in homes, or whose objects include the provision of such assistance, is made by the Social Security (Domestic Assistance) Regulations 1944. Assistance in this connection (commenced 20 December 1944) is restricted by the regulations to the following classes:

  1. Cases where there are one or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in a home and the mother or other woman in charge of the home is wholly or partially incapacitated from undertaking her ordinary domestic duties by reason of pregnancy or maternity, or by reason of accident, sickness, etc.:

  2. Cases where there are three or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in the home, and any member of the household requires special care and attention by reason of sickness or infirmity:

  3. Cases where all members of the household of an age or condition to help in the home are wholly or partially incapacitated from work by sickness or otherwise:

  4. Cases where lack of domestic assistance in the home is a cause of undue hardship.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services – The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services came into operation on 1 April 1946, and comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and the provision of medical services incidental to any laboratory diagnostic service, except medical services of a kind that are not ordinarily performed by pathologists as such, and the provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of laboratory diagnostic services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

The schedule of fees payable from the fund covers fees payable to recognised pathologists. The prescribed fee shall be accepted in full satisfaction in respect of the services provided.

Dental Services – The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits commenced on 1 February 1947, and at present are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age.

The regulations provide that the services may be provided -

  1. By a registered dentist in a State dental clinic; or

  2. By a State dental nurse in a State dental clinic; or

  3. By a contracting dentist pursuant to a contract under these regulations; or

  4. By a contracting authority in the dental department of a public hospital or in a dental school, pursuant to a contract under these regulations.

A schedule to the regulations prescribes the nature of the benefits that may be provided and a scale of fees payable to contracting dentists and authorities in respect thereof.

Artificial Aids – The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Contact Lenses – These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than -10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids – Individual electrical hearing aids may be supplied subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient possesses a hearing loss of at least 35 decibels in the better ear over the significant frequencies of speech or such other loss of a lesser degree as, in the opinion of an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board, renders the use of an aid necessary.

  2. The patient's hearing loss is such that in the opinion of the otologist it is capable of correction or marked improvement by the use of the type of hearing aid supplied or approved for the purpose of the benefit.

It is provided that in respect of patients who satisfy these conditions but who do not wish to avail themselves of the hearing aid issued free of charge by hospital boards there may be paid a sum not exceeding £13 towards the purchase of any aid approved for the purposes of these benefits. If a patient has received a benefit for a hearing aid within the preceding five years, the hospital board may pay half (or up to a maximum of £6 10s.) of the cost of replacement, provided that the replacement aid will assist hearing more than the existing aid and that the patient is otherwise eligible.

Artificial Limbs – The supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of section 22 of the Workers' Compensation Act 1956:

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an orthopaedic surgeon employed or engaged by a hospital board:

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser be satisfactorily fitted:

  4. Not more than 80 per cent of the cost of the limb shall be borne by the State. (No charge is made for supplies to children under 16 years of age.)

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes an initial supply of not more than six pairs of limb socks for such limbs, plus a further supply of two limb socks a year.

6 B – WAR PENSIONS

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY – All pensions payable to or on account of members of the forces, the Mercantile Marine, and the Emergency Reserve Corps are governed by the War Pensions Act 1954.

ADMINISTRATION – The Secretary for War Pensions, who under the Act must be an officer of the Social Security Department, is charged with the administration of war pensions under the general direction and control of the Minister in Charge of War Pensions. The Act also provides for the appointment of a War Pensions Board (or boards), which has the responsibility of granting or declining claims for pensions and allowances. This board consists of not less than three and not more than four members, one of whom must be a registered medical practitioner and one a representative of returned servicemen. Claimants have the right of appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board, also appointed under the Act. An appeal board consists of three members, two of whom must be registered medical practitioners, one of these being a representative of returned servicemen.

GROUNDS FOR PAYMENT OF WAR PENSIONS – Pensions in respect of the death or disablement of any member of the New Zealand forces are payable to the dependants of the member (in the case of death) and to the member and his dependants (in the case of disablement) in any of the following cases:

  1. Where death or disablement occurred while on service overseas as a member of the forces in connection with any war in which Her Majesty was then engaged, or in connection with any emergency, whether arising out of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand under the Charter of the United Nations or otherwise (i.e., includes service rendered in Korea):

  2. Where death or disablement is attributable to his service in New Zealand or overseas, e.g., in Malaya:

  3. In any case where the condition which resulted in the death or disablement was aggravated by his service in New Zealand or overseas.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first two months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The Act also states that the boards are not to be bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but shall determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

WAR PENSIONS AND ALLOWANCES, AND WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES: SUMMARY OF RATES – The list below summarises the rates of war and economic pensions and allowances as from 17 July 1963.

Class of Pensions, Allowance, etc.
Dependants of Deceased Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine, or Emergency Reserve CorpsWeekly Rate

*Ranges from £3 17s. 6d. for all ranks and ratings up to lieutenant-colonel (Army) and equivalent in other services; £3 18s. colonel and equivalent; and £4 brigadier or upwards or equivalent in other services.

  Widow –£sd.
    Basic rate*3176
    Mother's allowance (where one child)350
    Mother's allowance (where two children)3150
    Mother's allowance (where three children)450
    Mother's allowance (where four children)4150
    Mother's allowance (where five children)550
    Mother's allowance (where six or more children)5150
    Economic pension500
  Child –
    Where both parents dead or if not under control of mother300
    Other children 150
  Widowed mother (wholly dependent or mother of two or more sons being deceased members of the forces)–
    Basic rate3176
    Economic pension500
  Widowed mother (partially dependent)–
    Basic rate3176
    Economic pension3176
  Other dependant3176
  Guardian of children of deceased member4100
Totally Disabled Members of the Forces, Mercantile Marine, or Emergency Reserve Corps
  Member –
    Basic disablement pension550
    Special increment for blindness, multiple or serious disabilities330
    Economic pension (if unmarried £5)4100
    Attendant's allowance800
  Wife-4100
  Child 150
  Other dependant4100
War Veteran's Allowance£s.d.
  Unmarried veteran (£260 a year)500
  Married male veteran (£468 a year)900
  Married female veteran (£234 a year)4100
 Yearly Rate
  Age supplement (maximum) payable to veteran or to his wife, or both, as each attains the age of 65 years£
39
s.
0
d.
0
Supplementary AssistanceAccording to circumstances
Clothing AllowanceWeekly Rate
  Loss of –£s.d.
    Two limbs or parts0126
    Leg or part0116
    Arm or part086
  Use of mechanical appliance apart from artificial limb086

The payment of 15s. a week to each child may be made either by way of family benefit or, alternatively, by way of war pension.

Economic pensions and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds £3 a week or £156 a year. In the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction in pension is, however, £5 a week. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband is taken into account.

The earnings of women from domestic or nursing services in private homes or in hospitals or charitable institutions up to £78 a year are not taken into account.

The War Pensions Amendment Act 1961 made provision for any sick benefit from a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source up to £1 a week to be disregarded in computing the rate of pension or war veteran's allowance.

Pensions payable for specific disabilities are assessed as a percentage of the full pension payable for total disablement. The following schedule sets out the relevant disabilities and percentages.

Nature of DisabilityPer Cent of Full Pension Payable
Total blindness100
Incurable insanity100
Very severe facial disfigurement100
Amputation of—
  Leg through hip joint; leg through upper third of thigh (if without useful stump); arm (where an artificial arm cannot be fitted with retention of elbow joint function100
  Leg through upper third or thigh (if with useful stump)90
Permanent loss of speech90
Amputation of leg through knee knee joint or middle or lower third of thigh85
Total deafness85
Amputation of arm (where an artificial arm can be fitted with retention of elbow joint function)80
Severe facial disfigurement80
Amputation of leg below knee75
Loss of—
  One eye; four fingers50
  Three fingers; thumb40
  Two fingers25
  Index finger of either hand20

If a member, while in receipt of a permanent pension of an amount of not less than 70 per cent of the maximum pension that would be payable in respect of total disablement, dies from any cause not attributable to service as a member of the forces, a pension may be granted to his widow or dependent children as if death was attributable to service. The 1961 Amendment Act extended this provision to include the widow or dependent children of a member who was not in receipt of such a pension, but who, in the opinion of the Board, could have been granted a permanent pension of not less than 70 per cent of total disablement if he had not died.

Other grants and concessions which may be made include the following:

  1. A free pass on the New Zealand Railways rail and road services to members in receipt of full permanent pensions:

  2. A permit to travel first class at second-class rates on the New Zealand Railways to amputees and others suffering locomotive disabilities to a degree of over 50 per cent for which they receive permanent pensions:

  3. Free medical and surgical treatment in respect of pensionable disabilities. Surgical appliances such as artificial limbs, etc., are also supplied free and kept in good order and repair:

  4. Payment of an annual travelling allowance of up to £26 to totally disabled pensioners who are unfit to travel alone;

  5. Payment of up to £100 towards the cost of structural alterations with a £25 provision for furniture to provide special accommodation for a pensioner suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis:

  6. A maximum accommodation allowance of £2 5s. a day is payable to war pensioners reporting for medical examination or treatment, while compensation of up to £2 2s. 6d. per day is paid in respect of loss of earnings:

  7. Interest-free loans to certain seriously disabled pensioners to purchase motorcars; payment of loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities; gallantry awards to disablement pensioners; and funeral grants in respect of deceased ex-servicemen

Pensions to Dependants (other than Wives or Children) – In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family. “A member of the family” includes a parent, grandparent, step-parent, grandchild, stepchild, brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, and mother-in-law. “Child,” in relation to any member of the forces, means a child under the age of 16 years, and includes an adopted child and an ex-nuptial child (subject to certain conditions). The parents of a male member of the forces are included in the definition of dependant in every case, without proof of preservice dependency. Also, except in the case of the wife, widow, children under 16, and parents, the eligibility of dependants is based on the expectation of dependency on the member.

Economic Pensions – An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

The personal earnings of a disablement pensioner may be disregarded in the assessment of an economic pension to an amount equivalent to that by which the disablement pension is less than the amount of pension for total disablement.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES – The object of war veterans' allowances was to make provision for members of the forces who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service, were ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. The term “veteran” includes –

  1. Any male member of the New Zealand forces who has served as such in actual engagement with the enemy or, by reason of his period of overseas service and the arduous or dangerous nature of it, is considered a proper person for the grant of an allowance:

  2. Any female member who has served overseas as a member of the New Zealand forces:

  3. Any person who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in the South African War and has attained the age of 75 years.

  4. Any person who was a member of the forces of any Commonwealth country other than New Zealand and who –

    1. Served outside that country with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy during any war or emergency in which New Zealand forces served; or

    2. Served outside that country and by reason of the period of service and the arduous or dangerous nature of such service is considered a proper person for a grant of an allowance; or

    3. Was in actual engagement with the enemy.

A condition precedent to the granting of a war veteran's allowance to a member of the New Zealand forces (or to a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served as a member of the forces of a Commonwealth country other than New Zealand) is a minimum of five years' continuous residence in New Zealand immediately preceding the date of the claim. Continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate, increased by one month for each year in excess of five that the veteran has resided in New Zealand; any absences as a member of the Commonwealth forces are also disregarded. For any other person residence of at least 20 years preceding application for an allowance is required, although absences not exceeding two years in the aggregate during that period are permitted with a further allowance of six months' absence for every year of residence in excess of 20.

Whether or not a claimant for an allowance is unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical infirmity is a question of fact to be determined by the War Pensions Board. Claimants have the right of appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pensions in the determination of the basic war veterans' allowances. In computing any war veteran's allowance no account is taken of the personal earnings of any woman from domestic or nursing services in a private home or hospital or charitable institution up to £78 per year.

Where any veteran and his wife have attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of £39 a year each may be paid provided that the amount of the age supplement, together with income from other sources and any disablement pension, does not exceed £156 a year.

Where a veteran in receipt of an allowance dies leaving a widow in respect of whom an allowance is being paid, a War Pensions Board may, in its discretion, grant the widow a gratuity equivalent to £461 10s. a year for two years or of such lesser amount as it thinks fit.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS – These pensions are payable under the 1954 Act where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS – The 1954 Act provides for the payment of pensions and allowances in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine as a result of the Second World War.

WAR SERVICEMEN'S DEPENDANT'S ALLOWANCE – An economic pension, a wife's pension, or a veteran's allowance may be increased by 10s. a week by way of a war serviceman's dependant's allowance where the recipient is the parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand forces, the mercantile marine, or Her Majesty's forces established elsewhere than in New Zealand. Where the deceased was a member of the forces death must have been attributable to war service or, if a member of the mercantile marine, death must have been directly attributable to the Second World War. If the claim is in respect of the death of a member of the British mercantile marine or of forces other than the New Zealand forces, the member must have been domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the war in which he served.

SUPPLEMENTARY ASSISTANCE – Since 1951 supplementary assistance has been available to provide for similar cases to those set out under social security supplementary assistance (see page 192). During the year ended 31 March 1963 there were 380 grants totalling £8,729, compared with 349 grants totalling £10,884 in the previous year.

WAR BURSARIES – Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of war veterans, seriously and permanently disabled ex-servicemen, and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid. Bursaries are paid at the following rates:

Class of BursaryPer Year
 £s.d.
(a) Secondary school children2500
(b) Full-time university students3000
(c) Part-time university students1000
(d) Part-time technical school children1100

The rates payable under (a) and (b) are doubled in the case of an orphan child or a child whose father or mother is in receipt of an economic pension or a war veteran's allowance.

During 1962–63, 2,526 bursaries were granted, expenditure on this behalf being £51,574 for the year. The 1961–62 figures were 2,058 bursaries and £66,075.

WAR PENSIONS APPEAL BOARD – A claimant may appeal to a War Pensions Appeal Board from a decision of a War Pensions Board within six months of the date on which the decision of the latter was communicated to him. Such an appeal can be made only in so far as it relates to –

  1. The rejection of any claim for a pension in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the forces on the ground that the death or disablement was not attributable to his service as a member of the forces or that the condition that resulted in his death or disablement was not aggravated by such service.

  2. The assessment of a pension granted to any member of the forces in so far as the assessment is based on medical grounds.

  3. The rejection of any claim for a war veteran's allowance on the ground that the applicant is not unfit for permanent employment.

The appeal board may confirm the decision of the War Pensions Board or may grant a pension, or, within the limits prescribed by the Act, may increase or reduce the amount of any pension. The number of appeals dealt with was 161 in 1962–63. Of these, 72 or 45 per cent were upheld.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS ALLOWANCES, ETC. – During the year ended 31 March 1963 the Department dealt with 3.012 applications for war pensions. Of these, 530 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, and war veterans' allowances. The total for the previous year was 4,260; of these, 477 were in respect of the applicants' own disability. In addition there were 102 claims received during the year in respect of disablement arising from service with peacetime armed forces, of which 50 were granted and 52 declined.

Summary of Disabilities for Which Pensions Granted, 1939–63 – The following is a summary of the disabilities attributed to war service from 1939 onwards and for which ex-service personnel had been granted pensions up to 31 March 1963.

Class of Disability or DiseaseType of ServiceTotalPercentage of Total
Overseas (1939–45)K ForceJ ForceNew Zealand
Infections and infestations2,0459271532,2973.8
Nervous system9,56140131,73211,34618.9
Eye, ear, and nose6,89683201,4318,43014.0
Circulatory and blood system2,3811021,0563,4495.8
Metabolism and endocrine system428211796101.0
Respiratory system3,63030541,2214,9358.2
Diseases of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments5,1662781,8457,04611.7
Digestive system4,53638121,2185,8049.6
Generative system345111224690.8
Gunshot wounds and accidental injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissues7,992111281,8579,98816.6
Skin2,52625125453,1085.2
Areolar tissue45228750.1
Tumours and neoplastic growth2042552610.5
Malformations30111324340.7
Amputations (not including ringers and toes)-5044225300.79
Urinary tract624731577911.3
Debility4451095540.9
Totals47,62947516111,86260,127100.0

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary AssistanceTotal
Number in Force
195317,78625,141855,96432249..49,041
195417,41924,7661046,81029249..49,161
195517,07424,7031647,61628249..49,618
195616,68324,6871838,47926249..50,091
195716,31724,5192009,52024279..50,616
195815,69424,33020310,88121269..51,164
195915,38324,42319912,1572128911652,336
196014,89024,43020912,9612124912752,671
196114,33924,51819714,2511928916153,522
196213,84524,67620914,7491729817853,711
196313,10424,73720315,1851627817453,454
Expenditure (£)
19532,747,2982,072,4294,4781,471,4054,3152,9571,7641,0816,305,727
19542,776,8912,107,5759,3771,822,0184,5282,3841,6182,7726,727,163
19553,110,9482,341,94014,5052,212,2235,0512,8671,9343,2657,692,733
19563,043,3952,357,35514,8332,707,3085,3632,6681,9784,2548,137,154
19573,126,5462,410,85917,9902,999,5655,1593,3751,9435,5428,570,979
19583,294,3682,566,81619,3863,539,0985,0883,5902,1017,1029,437,549
19593,332,2392,721,44417,5194,508,7725,4054,0062,2679,05510,600,707
19603,390,1832,837,89817,7014,927,6815,5023,8522,1499,58011,194,546
19613,319,4982,878,56417,6305,704,8735,4954,1082,3239,54411,942,035
19623,291,4162,938,00413,4336,124,8865,3264,2131,99310,88412,390,155
19633,188,9843,208,7978,7666,360,2225,0294,1181,9058,72912,786,550

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following: (a) travelling allowances of 10s. a week paid to 1,160 pensioners at 31 March 1963; (b) clothing allowances, of which 1,311 were being paid at 31 March and expenditure on which for 1962–63 was £31,970; and (c) gallantry awards of an annual value of £1,620. The following are not included: (a) costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security amounting to £56,104 in 1962–63 and £54,988 in 1961–62; (b) railway and bus concessions to pensioners for total and permanent disablement and for locomotive disabilities for which a permanent pension of over 50 per cent disablement has been granted, costing £18,748 in 1962–63 and £17,647 in the previous year; (c) loadings on life-assurance policies where the loadings are due to war disabilities, expenditure under this heading being £615 in 1962–63; (d) funeral grants, which cost £26,468 in 1962–63; and (e) 27 interest-free loans in 1962–63 totalling £10,769 towards the purchase of motor vehicles by certain seriously disabled pensioners.

Administrative costs for 1962–63 in respect of war pensions and allowances amounted to £13,227 as against £14,754 in 1961–62.

The numbers of First and Second World War and K Force pensions in force as at 31 March of each of the latest five years are given below.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
PermanentTemporaryWidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914–18
195910,3402081,9432,8147815,383
19609,8902341,8102,8867014,890
19619,4811751,6992,9236114,339
19629,1091411,5363,0065313,845
19638,5531221,3363,0494413,104
Second World War, 1939–45
195915,8045,6927981,49463524,423
196016,1055,3538411,56456724,430
196116,7774,7258421,56061424,518
196217,0014,4408701,60376224,676
196317,3974,1258731,63370924,737
K Force
195957137212199
196066136412209
19618311022197
19629910523209
19631019723203

The number of children for whom payments were made during 1962–63 but who were not included in the preceding table totalled 949, being 77 in respect of First World War pensions, 865 for Second World War pensions, and seven for K Force pensions.

The next table shows the number of disability pensions in force at 31 March 1963, classified according to percentage of disablement.

Percentage of DisablementFirst World WarSecond World WarK ForceTotal
PermanentTemporaryPermanentTemporaryPermanentTemporary

*Includes “over 100 per cent” disablement which is a special rate pension for total blindness or other serious disablement.

100*1,648281,2393501033,278
90–991041115391260
80–89262630397668
70–7961210529184431,342
60–6948313450175231,126
50–59989171,056348552,420
40–491,342121,145417662,928
Under 403,1133512,5602,515747618,373
Totals8,55312217,3974,1251019730,395

Details of economic pensions payable at 31 March 1963 are now given, together with the totals as at 31 March 1962.

Class of PensionsFirst World War 1914–18Second World War 1939–45K Force
NumberAnnual ValueNumberAnnual ValueNumberAnnual Value
  £ £ £
Ex-members with permanent pensions2,012466,377929214,83141,000
Ex-members with temporary pensions112,66524455,2062526
Widows2,357606,5081,181314,383
Widowed mothers173,43137478,687
Totals at 31 March 19634,3971,078,9812,728663,10761,526
Totals at 31 March 19624,5351,066,9302,679608,23561,338

6 C – SUPERANNUATION

General – Superannuation for all Government employees is provided for under the authority of the Superannuation Act 1956, and provisions for members of the Judiciary and members of Parliament are also included in this measure. Members of the armed forces, Police, Post Office, Public Service, Railways, and teachers, are now contributing to the one fund, with slightly differing terms and conditions provided to meet the requirements of the various services.

Local Government employees and the permanent employees of all statutory bodies are provided for under the National Provident Fund Act 1950. For the operations of the National Provident Fund, see Section 6D.

There are also a considerable number of private superannuation funds in existence, some self contained. Information respecting these is given at the end of this subsection.

The Government Superannuation Fund – The Government Superannuation Fund, came into being on 1 April 1948, replacing and absorbing the moneys belonging to the former Public Service Superannuation Fund, the Teachers' Superannuation Fund, and the Government Railways Superannuation Fund. Its revenues comprise contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated and other funds, interest accruing from investments, fines, all moneys that would have been paid into the earlier three funds, and all other moneys that may be payable into the Fund.

The Fund is administered by a board consisting of the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Director of Education, the Director-General of the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and six members appointed on the nomination of the various service organisations.

The benefits of superannuation are now available for all Government servants, i.e., persons in the permanent service of the State. Employees of the Government Service, which includes the Education Service, Police, the Cook Islands Public Service, and the State Advances Corporation, in addition to the Departments of State under the control of the State Services Commission, the Railways Department, and the Post Office, may all become contributors to the Fund. Separate provision is made for persons in the service of the Crown in respect of the Government of New Zealand in other than an honorary capacity – permanent members of the regular armed forces, Police and members of the Prisons Service, Magistrates and Maori Land Court Judges, members of the Judicature (Judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Arbitration), and members of Parliament. A contributor to the Fund who enters the service of the Government of Western Samoa or of the Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation may, if the Board so agrees, remain a contributor to the Fund.

Contributions range from 5 per cent of annual salary, if under 30 years of age at commencement of contributory service, to 10 per cent where the age exceeds 50 years, the increase being at the rate of 1 per cent for each five-year increase in age group. An alternative modified scheme, within the framework of the present standard scheme, was introduced in 1955, under which contributors may elect to contribute only 60 per cent of the standard contribution rates and receive only 60 per cent of the standard benefits. Standard retiring allowances are computed at the rate of a one hundred and twentieth part of the annual salary for each year of contributory service, increased by a sum equal thereto (i.e., on a £1 for £1 basis) up to £500 per annum, reducing thereafter by £1 for each £2 by which the amount exceeds £500. In no case shall the added amount be computed on a lesser salary than £600 per annum. The annual salary for the purpose of this computation is deemed to be the average of that received during the five years immediately preceding retirement, although in special cases, so long as the first computed portion of the retiring allowance is a lesser amount than £150, the average salary received during the last three years may be used if it results in a more favourable computation.

Upon retirement a contributor entitled to a retiring allowance may elect (1) to take an increased allowance to age 65, reducing thereafter, (2) to surrender portion of his retiring allowance in favour of his widow or other approved dependant after his death, (3) to elect to surrender not more than one-quarter of his retiring allowance and to receive in lieu thereof a lump sum payment equivalent to nine times the amount of allowance surrendered, (4) to accept a refund of his contributions.

Payment of retiring allowances and annuities is now made in advance in instalments every 28 days, no recovery being made should the beneficiary die during the benefit period. When a married contributor dies, whether before or after becoming entitled to a retiring allowance, his widow may elect to receive a refund of the amount of his contributions less any sums received by him during his lifetime, or to receive an annuity at one-half of the rate of his retiring allowance at the date of his retirement (or, if he died before then, to which he would have been entitled if he had retired on the date of his death on the ground of being medically unfit for further duty) disregarding any election to take a variable allowance or to surrender part of the allowance to an approved dependant.

The amount of the widow's annuity is not to be less than £130 (£78 in modified scheme). In addition, £26 per annum (£15 12s. in modified scheme) is payable in respect of each child under 16 years of age left by a deceased contributor. The widow's benefit is payable only during widowhood but is reinstated if subsequent to remarriage a person again becomes a widow.

Similarly, when a female contributor dies leaving a husband who in the opinion of the Board was totally or partially dependent on her immediately before her death, a widower's annuity may be paid, with a minimum of £130 (£78 in modified scheme).

The above are general provisions only and for a complete survey need to be supplemented by reference to other provisions in respect of age, length of service, sex, sickness, withdrawals, refunds, subsidiary benefits, etc., contained in the Act. Adjustments have been made from time to time in the allowances payable to retired contributors and also to widows of ex-contributors to assist in meeting the increased cost of living.

Contributory membership and retiring allowances as outlined apply generally to permanent members of the regular armed forces.

The Superannuation Act provides for compulsory membership for the Police and members of the Prisons Service, with retirement at age 60. The rate of contribution varies from 5 per cent to 12 per cent. For computing the retiring allowance, each year in the Police or Prisons Service is deemed to be one year and one-seventh where the contributory service commenced after age 25. Where contributory service commenced between 20 and 25 years a lesser proportion is added.

Members of the Judicature are entitled to a retiring allowance based on one twenty-fourth of their salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds, and they may elect to contribute 5 per cent of their salary to provide annuities for their widows, calculated as 15 per cent of the final salary. Magistrates and Judges of the Maori Land Court are also entitled to retiring allowances, subject to age and length of service qualifications, one-fortieth of the annual salary at the date of retirement being allowed for each year of service, but in no case is the retiring allowance to exceed two-thirds of that salary.

Members of Parliament contribute 10 per cent of salary, but if at the date of commencement of the retiring allowance contributions are less than £425 the deficiency must be paid into the Parliamentary Superannuation Account within such time and in such manner as the Minister of Finance may allow. Subject to service of nine years and attainment of the age of 50 years, retiring allowances are computed at the rate of one thirty-second part of a member's salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. A widow receives one-half of her husband's entitlement or, if he died before having an entitlement, one-half of the retiring allowance he would have been entitled to if he had retired at the date of his death and there had been no provision for his serving a minimum period with a minimum of £130 a year.

At 31 March 1963 there were 76,486 contributors, paying £4,100,253 per annum into the Fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 23,033 and were entitled to £8,378,244 per annum, made up as follows.

Class of PayeeNumberAnnual Allowances
MalesFemaleTotal
Retired for age or length of service10,9113,32214,2337,012,743
Retired for ill health1,2922561,548342,861
Widows5,9785,978989,748
Children6346401,27432,892
Totals12,83710,19623,0338,378,244

Accumulated funds at 31 March 1963 amounted to £41,428,955. Total assets, which amounted to £41,779,287, included: Investments, £39,664,925, interest, due and accrued, £487,634, contributions in course of transmission, etc., £136,575 and cash in hand and at bank, £1,490,153.

The average effective interest earnings (per cent) of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1963 was £4 7s. 4d.

The total revenue of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1963 was £13,351,593, including members' contributions £4,125,601, interest on investments and on contributions, £1,698,012, other items £468, and subsidy £7,527,512. The total amount expended during the year was £9,966,719, including retiring and other allowances £9,099,091, refunds of contributions £819,080, and transfers to National Provident Fund £48,548.

The following statistics present a review of the operations of the Fund during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual ContributionsInterest Receivable From InvestmentsContributions From GovernmentAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund
  £(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
195970,8783,4041,0334,8506,35329,455
196072,8843,5001,1604,9716,82132,263
196174,4583,7581,3285,3817,23235,259
196275,3733,9701,4685,7027,87438,058
196376,4864,1001,6986,2448,37841,429

Private Superannuation Funds – Most large and many small employers have established their own staff superannuation funds. Certain taxation concessions are available to an employer and his employees in respect of their contributions to a superannuation fund provided the fund is approved by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue, and it is probable that there are very few funds being administered which have not been approved. The cumulative totals of approved Funds at 31 March in the latest eight years are as follows: as there is no information available on discontinuances, it is not possible to state the number in active operation.

19563,388
19573,625
19583,844
19593,967
19604,201
19614,404
19624,702
19634,979

Some funds, particularly those of larger organisations such as banks, oil companies, and insurance companies, provide for pensions on retirement. Although most funds provide for lump-sum payments on retirement, the relative proportions of persons covered by provisions for lump-sum payments or pensions is not known.

6 D – NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND

GENERAL – The National Provident Fund came into operation on 1 March 1911 and is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and three other members appointed by and holding tenure of office during the pleasure of the Governor-General. The present legislative authority is contained in the National Provident Fund Act 1950, and its amending Acts.

The Act enables any local authority to pay money at credit of any account into the Fund for investment under an agreement providing for the repayment of the money to the local authority when required, together with interest thereon. Any other body or person approved by the Minister may also pay money into the Fund for investment in the same manner as a local authority.

The National Provident Fund Board is authorised to act as sole Commissioner of any depreciation fund or sinking fund established by a local authority. In addition, Commissioners of any depreciation fund or sinking fund may similarly pay money under their control into the Fund for investment.

Any money paid to the Board in its capacity of sole Commissioner of any depreciation fund or sinking fund shall be invested in the Fund or in such other manner as may be specially authorised by the Governor-General in Council.

The interest payable on money paid into the Fund for investment in the Fund shall be at such rate or rates determined from time to time by the Governor-General in Council.

The Act provides for the appointment of an Investment Committee consisting of the Secretary to the Treasury, the Superintendent of the Fund, and two other persons appointed by the Minister. The Board may from time to time, with the consent of the Minister, delegate to the Committee any of the powers and functions of the Board in respect of this investment of money in the Fund.

The National Provident Fund Account is kept at the Reserve Bank with appropriate provision for overdraft authority.

In addition to guaranteeing the benefits payable under the Act, the State provides a subsidy to the extent of one-fourth of the contributions paid into the Fund, and also meets all the administrative expenses.

The Fund now provides three distinct services:

  1. Public Fund – Pensions and subsidiary benefits for members of the general public, with extensions for members of approved friendly societies and employees of firms, trade unions, etc.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation – Superannuation for employees of all local authorities and other statutory bodies.

  3. Local Authorities Investment Pool – Local authorities may temporarily invest otherwise idle loan and other moneys in the pool.

Public Fund – Membership to the public portion of the Fund is open to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 16 years who wishes to purchase a retirement pension and obtain cover for the various other benefits offered.

Contributors have the option of joining one or both of the schemes offered. The Level Premium Scheme, as detailed in the National Provident Fund Act 1950 and subsequent amendments, provides a medium by which a predetermined amount of pension may be purchased by the payment of fixed regular contributions. After five years' membership subsidiary benefits in the form of an incapacity allowance, widows' and children's allowances attach to membership.

The Single Premium Scheme, introduced by authority of the 1958 amendment, enables residents to purchase a retirement pension by making contributions of varying amounts according to their ability to pay. At the end of each 12-monthly period the total contributions made during the previous 12 months are added up and from this total is calculated the value of the pension purchased during that year which together with purchases in other years becomes available at any age between 60 and 65 years.

Both the Level Premium Scheme and the Single Premium Scheme provide the contributor with optional benefits which become available on retirement. These include a variable pension from 60 to 65 years, the right to accept a joint and survivorship pension with the spouse, and an opportunity of surrendering up to one-quarter of the pension in return for a capital payment.

Both schemes are available without medical examination. The benefits to those contributing for five years or over include a liberal widow's allowance.

Local Authorities Superannuation – Funds earlier established under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act 1908 have been merged with the National Provident Fund, and there is now operating one uniform superannuation scheme to which all local authorities in New Zealand contribute; employees may move more freely from employment in one local authority to another without sacrifice of accrued superannuation benefits.

The principle of voluntary membership introduced into State schemes extends to the National Provident Fund schemes and provision is made for the recognition, by agreement with the employing authority, of General or Local Government service within the British Commonwealth or Western Samoa or within New Zealand. A further provision enacted authorises the board to protect accrued superannuation rights of New Zealanders moving from General or Local Government service to service with a United Nations organisation.

The Fund is the approved superannuation vehicle for all statutory corporations and also provides facilities whereby registered educational institutions may provide superannuation for teachers, thus removing another artificial barrier to the free interchange of teachers in the educational services. With the consent of the Minister of Finance, Government Departments also contribute for nurses and other specialist officers not adequately provided for in the normal superannuation scheme.

The benefits and contributions are substantially the same as those operating in the Government Superannuation Fund, and there is provision whereby employees may transfer from local authority to State employment, and vice versa, without loss of accrued rights.

On retirement there are several options as to joint and survivorship or variable pensions, which enable the income payable after retirement to be arranged to meet individual needs. A superannuitant may elect to surrender his right to a proportion (not exceeding one-fourth) of the pension and to receive instead payment of a sum equal to nine times the amount by which his annual pension is reduced consequent on the surrender.

Investment Pool – Nearly 600 local authorities and other approved bodies are now paying money into the Fund for investment. Since the inauguration of the pool the total amount invested in the Fund is £89.07 million and the total amount withdrawn is £52.65 million, leaving a balance of £36.42 million invested in the Fund as at 31 March 1963. The following table shows the various types of money invested in the Fund and the different classes of local authorities supporting the pool as at 31 March 1963.

Class of Local AuthorityDepreciation FundsSinking FundsReserve FundsSurplus Loan or General Account MoneysTotal
   £(000)  
Cities and boroughs826124,1345,91710,745
Counties942321,2768492,451
Electric power boards3872902,7991,7685,244
Fire boards749446133
Harbour boards552,3692,3294,753
Hospital boards7881994,8195,806
Sundry local authorities1065866611,353
Other approved bodies225,6442695,935
Total amount invested6592,09217,01116,65836,420

Nearly half of the pool is made up of loan and miscellaneous money which cannot be expected to be retained by the Fund for any very long period and, as a result, a considerable portion of the pool must of necessity be invested in readily realisable short-term Government stocks. From the balance of the longer term money invested in the Fund has developed a “hard core” from which it has been possible for the Fund substantially to augment its normal investable income for lending to local authorities.

Statistical Summary – The numbers of contributors as at 31 March 1963 were as follows.

FundMalesFemalesTotal
Annual single premium4,3135114,824
Public Fund8,0175948,611
Superannuation7,8963,56811,464
Totals20,2264,67324,899

Summarised figures set out for the years ended 31 March 1961, 1962 and 1963 form a useful basis for comparative analysis.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1961Year Ended 31 March 1962Year Ended 31 March 1963
New contributors3,2083,6865,300
Total contributors21,98922,42824,899
Pensioners and other beneficiaries5,3985,6675,878
Income –£££
  Contributions1,540,9221,690,7051,884,746
  Interest (including fines)1,100,1451,240,9471,408,984
  State subsidy352,213405,643471,631
Total income (including State subsidy)2,993,2803,337,2953,765,361
Outgo –
  Pensions645,759717,233774,332
  Other benefits411,297527,457510,139
  Total outgo1,057,0561,244,6901,284,471
Funds at end of year25,388,58827,481,19329,962,083
Effective interest earnings (per cent)£4 12s. 2d.£4 16s. 1d.£5 0s. 7d.

The next table presents an alternative comparison, the periods covered on this occasion being the year ended 31 December 1958, the 15 months ended 31 March 1960, and the years ended 31 March 1961, 1962, and 1963.

YearNumber of ContributorsAnnual Rate of Contributions PayableTotal Amount of FundPensions and Allowances Paid During Year
IncapacityRetiringWidows' and Children's
  £(000)£(000)£££
195821,7241,38121,40628,028535,43479,612
1 Jan 1959–31 Mar 196021,6821,65623,45237,987724,507103,490
1 Apr 1960–31 Mar 196121,9891,54125,38933,267645,75990,649
1 Apr 1961–31 Mar 196222,4281,69027,48140,753717,233102,896
1 Apr 1962–31 Mar 196324,8991,88529,96243,468774,332106,926

Of the accumulated fund of £29,962,083, and the local authority loan and special reserve fund of £36,419,896 as at 31 March 1963, £63,610,461 was invested, the principal classes of investments being Government securities, £29,280,855, local authority securities, £33,297,838, mortgages, etc., £792,568; and debentures, shares, etc., £239,200.

The following table shows the details of investments of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1963.

Class of SecurityInvestments, 31 March 1962Movements During PeriodInvestments, 31 March 1963
New InvestmentsRealisations and Repayments
 ££££
Government stock21,255,9058,831,810806,86029,280,855
Local authority debentures28,236,4396,691,6001,630,20133,297,838
Mortgages747,66882,51541,548788,635
Company shares and debentures237,8001,400239,200
Reversions7,9795114,5573,933
Totals50,485,79115,607,8362,483,16663,610,461

6 E – FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act 1909 and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general superintendence by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

LODGES AND MEMBERS – The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, etc., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31 December of the years shown.

Name of OrderRegistrationsLodge Members
196019611962196019611962

*Membership figures relate to “actuarial” societies only.

Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows23723723327,73528,36029,566
Independent Order of Oddfellows1861871847,1817,0306,799
National Independent Order of Oddfellows111484441
Ancient Order of Foresters12912712310,24910,0949,877
United Ancient Order of Druids13613613613,36013,07012,833
Independent Order of Rechabites4545452,5872,5182,425
Order of Sons of Temperance666371358349
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111696762
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society7171703,6463,6023,626
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia101010416394377
Grand United Order of Oddfellows2177
Isolated friendly societies707272508*493*478*
Working-men's clubs252626
International Order of Good Templars11
Specially authorised societies323434
Totals96295394166,34766,03066,433

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, etc., of lodges are required by law. For the year 1962 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 769 “actuarial” lodges, with an aggregate membership of 66,433 at the end of the year, as compared with 779 lodges and 66,030 members for 1961. During the year, 3,349 members were admitted by initiation, etc., and 445 by clearance; 1,368 died, 474 left by clearance, and 1,549 by arrears, etc.

At 31 December 1938 the total membership of lodges was 113,709. Each of the succeeding years up to 1961, however, has witnessed a fall in membership. In 1962 the membership increased slightly. The number at the end of that year (66,433) was, however, 47,276, or 42 per cent, less than in 1938. The various benefits under the social security scheme, particularly medical and hospital benefits (see Section 6A), have no doubt had a considerable effect on the membership of friendly societies.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (769 in 1962) for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS – In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence.

YearDeaths of MembersPer 1,000 Members at RiskDeaths of Members' WivesPer 1,000 Members at Risk
19581,22717.603264.68
19591,36119.743234.68
19601,34519.922824.18
19611,30119.763064.65
19621,36821.002834.34

The number of members sick during 1962 was 10,500, equal to 16.4 per 100 members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1962 was 269,371 weeks, equal to 25 weeks 4 days per sick member and 4 weeks 1 day for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES – The total funds of the societies and branches as at 31 December 1962 amounted to £10,982,198, made up as follows.

FundsAmountAssetsAmount
 £ £
Sick and funeral funds7,484,541Investments at interest9,731,619
Surplus appropriation funds, etc.1,352,185Value at land and buildings1,169,060
Management funds, goods, etc.729,349Cash not bearing interest14,459
Distress, benevolent funds, etc.1,416,123Value of goods34,340
  Other assets21,761
  Owing by management funds10,959
Total10,982,198Total10,982,198

The net income from investments credited to the sick and funeral funds for 1962 amounted to £391,352, the average rate being £5 9s. 3d. per cent, as against £5 7s. 3d. in 1961.

There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies, the increase in the last 10 years amounting to £3,650,857, or 50 per cent. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last 10 years amounting to £65 8s. (65 per cent).

YearTotal FundsAverage Capital per Member
 ££s.d.
19527,331,34199183
19537,523,88310383
19547,780,41910820
19558,078,280113611
19568,512,156120101
19578,840,887126104
19589,140,1251321010
19599,524,723140188
19609,989,885150115
196110,492,453158181
196210,982,19816563

Chapter 7. Section 7 EDUCATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL – The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society – a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors – is reflected in education administration by the policy of giving education at all levels to those who desire it. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity.

Education in New Zealand has its legal basis in the Education Act 1914 (with a number of later amendments), which was based largely on the original Education Act 1877. The Act provides for compulsory education, which is free and secular in public schools.

The original Education Act, which was mainly concerned with the provision of public primary education, created the Department of Education and prescribed the constitution and functions of education boards and school committees. As far as mere structure is concerned, this still remains the pattern of the system of public primary school administration but there have been, in the intervening years, great changes in the relative function of the three types of authority. The general tendency over the first 50 years of the national system of education was for final power and responsibility to shift from the school committees to the education boards and from the education boards to the Department, but since 1930 this tendency has been arrested.

The Department controls the inspectorate and supervises the staffing of schools and all matters pertaining to curricula and conducts the School Certificate Examination. The Maori schools, the Correspondence School, and several special schools are administered by the Department. It has official contacts with the University Grants Committee and the National Council of Adult Education, whilst the universities are independent in their educational activities. The Department distributes the funds voted annually for education by Parliament, and it administers the capital expenditure voted for educational building. There are regional offices of the Department in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

All schools, both at the primary and the post-primary level, are regularly visited by inspectors, who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. They also assess teaching efficiency for grading purposes in State-controlled schools.

Education Boards and School Committees – There remains, however, a considerable amount of local and regional control. Statutory boards (i.e. education boards administering public, primary, and intermediate schools, and governing bodies of post-primary schools) are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for teachers' salaries, for maintenance of schools and new building of schools, for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

Each primary school has its locally elected committee of parents (school committee), which is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of the school committee form the electorate for electing the board members. The local boards controlling post-primary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and other local organisations, and, in the case of technical schools, of employers and employees in local industries.

Although the boards and the school committees have lost many of their original powers, they have not ceased to play an important part in the system. A school committee's primary function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters. In the primary field in particular, the education boards are still the initiating bodies on matters of buildings, sites, conveyance of pupils, consolidation, and provision of school facilities generally, and, although the final word often lies with the Minister of Education or the Department the boards have no small influence in the fixing of policy within their districts.

Trends and Problems – Among the main problems in education at present are those arising from the dramatic increase in the school population during the post-war years. At a time when smaller classes were being planned for, the intake of pupils became greater than ever before and this slowed up the move to reduce the size of classes. Such reduction, however, is still regarded as a major educational objective. The problem has been complicated by a general shortage of adolescent labour and there has been difficulty in training sufficient teachers to staff the schools.

Prominent among trends that have become discernible in recent years are the following: a more flexible school and class organisation; a fuller recognition of individual differences among children; study of subject-matter that has real meaning for children; free post-primary education for all; and developments in the field of advanced technical education to meet needs arising from the expansion and diversification of industry.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND – On 15 February 1960 the Minister of Education announced that Sir George Currie, Vice-Chancellor of the University of New Zealand, had accepted the Government's invitation to serve as chairman on a broadly representative, 11-member commission on New Zealand education.

Under its terms of reference, the Commission was to consider the publicly controlled system of primary, post-primary, and technical education in relation to the present and future needs of the country. It was also to consider the question of financial assistance to private schools.

In July 1960 the Commission presented an interim report on post-primary staffing and recruitment. The public hearings of the Commission which began in May 1960 were completed by the end of June 1961. The hearings were held in various centres and opportunity was taken by the Commission to visit teachers training colleges, schools, and educational institutions of all kinds. The official report of the Commission, which was submitted to the Minister of Education on 12 June 1962, contained a large number of recommendations for improvements in the national system of education, some of which have already been implemented. The Report of the Commission on Education in New Zealand can be purchased from the Government Printer.

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM – A child has wide opportunities for education. He may at the age of three enter a free kindergarten under the control of the Free Kindergarten Association. At the age of five he may enter, and at seven he must enter, either a primary school under one of the 10 education boards, or some other registered primary school, or, if living in an isolated area or physically handicapped, the primary department of the Education Department's Correspondence School. All State primary schools are co-educational. The child passes through the infant classes and Standards 1, 2, 3, and 4. This normally takes six years. The remaining two years of the primary course will be taken either in Forms I and II at the same primary school or, if there is one conveniently situated, at an intermediate school. The intermediate school is a centrally situated school which pupils enter from the surrounding primary schools (called in these circumstances “contributing schools”) after they have completed the primary-school course as far as Standard 4. Because the intermediate school comprises a fairly large number of pupils (usually between 300 and 600) who are mainly between the ages of 11 and 13 years it is possible to classify them into groups of approximately equal ability, provide a good range of optional courses, and utilise specialist teachers and advanced equipment to the full. As at this point in his school career the pupil's social and intellectual interests have developed, he is ready to take full advantage of the varied and enriched courses provided.

On completing a course in Form II or on reaching the age of 14 by 31 March of the first year in which he attends a post-primary school, the child becomes entitled to free post-primary education until the age of 19 is reached. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years. This means, in effect, that some period of secondary education is now compulsory for nearly all children. The only provision for exemption is inability to profit from the further period of education.

When a child leaves the primary stage he normally enters Form III of a secondary school or a technical high school. In some towns a secondary school and a technical high school have been amalgamated to form a combined school. In some country areas a child enters the secondary department of a district high school. Since 1944 secondary schools have catered increasingly not only for “academic” pupils, but for those pupils as well who, after fulfilling the core requirements, specialise in the more practical subjects (technical, agricultural, domestic, commercial).

School Certificates – The School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is now regarded as the accepted test of a completed post-primary education for the great bulk of the pupils who do not desire to proceed to university. The School Certificate Examination is taken at the end of the third or fourth year of the post-primary course. The subjects of the examination are English and either three of four other subjects from a wide range. A pupil may, however, on the recommendation of the school Principal, sit the examination in five subjects in addition to English. School Certificates are endorsed on satisfactory completion of an advanced course of instruction for one year.

Higher School Certificates are awarded after a five years' course to pupils who have been awarded a School Certificate and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of two years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the Universities Entrance Board for admission to a University in New Zealand and satisfactorily complete an advanced course of one year. A Higher School Certificate may also be awarded after a four years' course to pupils who have obtained a credit pass or better in the Entrance Scholarship Examination of the Universities Entrance Board.

Since 1961 a Certificate of Education has been awarded to those candidates who, while not successful in qualifying for the School Certificate, have performed creditably in some subjects in the examination. It certifies that the holder has had at least three years' post-primary education and shows the subjects of the School Certificate Examination in which the candidate gains 30 per cent or more of the possible marks. The degree of success in each subject is shown in four grades. The introduction of the new Certificate of Education followed the recommendation of the School Certificate Review Committee which sat during 1960.

Technical Training – The technical schools, combined schools, and some secondary schools run evening classes, particularly in practical and vocational subjects, which an adolescent may attend after he leaves full-time day school. Apprentices in some trades are required to attend day or evening classes, or both, as a part of their trade training. These classes include boilermaking and panel-beating, carpentry and joinery, cabinetmaking, cutting and tailoring, electrical wiring, mechanical engineering, motor engineering, plumbing, aircraft engineering, radio servicing, heating and ventilating, refrigeration engineering, ship, yacht, and boat building, painting and decorating, sign-writing, printing and photo-engraving, sheet-metal work, and moulding and casting. In some of the larger technical schools part-time students may take professional courses in engineering, architecture, and accountancy.

Apprentice classes are well established, as is the system of examinations provided for these students by the Trades Certification Board. In recent years there has developed a tendency towards regional consolidation and the substitution of “block” courses for half-day-a-week attendance even though apprentices live within easy reach of a school. An important part in apprentice education is played by the Technical Correspondence School for about two in every five apprentices are on its roll. Its function is threefold: it fills the geographical gaps left by the other schools; it provides, on a national basis, technical education for some of the smaller trades and occupations; and it produces technical textbooks.

A recent development in technical training has been the establishment of special full-time trade courses for Maori youths from areas where apprenticeship opportunities are not normally available. Courses in carpentry and joinery have been established at the Auckland Technical Institute; at the Central Institute of Technology, Petone; and at the Christchurch Technical College. These courses are of two years' duration. Also, one year courses in plumbing, electrical wiring, and motor engineering have been established at the Auckland Technical Institute.

The Technicians Certification Authority was constituted under the Technicians Certification Act 1958 to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations appropriate to the needs of persons in occupational groups. The Authority, in addition to developing the original courses for engineering technicians and draughtsmen, has instituted courses for architectural draughtsmen, and for building, chemical, physics, and plant biology technicians, and inquiries into the needs of other occupational groups for similar courses are in progress.

The Central Technical College, Petone, was split into a Technical High School and a Senior Technical School or Polytechnic – the first of its kind in New Zealand – from the beginning of 1960. The senior school, which specialises in block courses for apprentices and technicians and includes the School of Pharmacy, is now known as the Central Institute of Technology. A similar division of the Seddon Memorial Technicial College in Auckland took place towards the end of 1960, and of the Wellington Technical College towards the end of 1961.

The three senior Technical Schools set up in this way, namely the Central Institute of Technology, the Auckland Technical Institute, and the Wellington Polytechnic, were disestablished as technical schools and established formally as technical institutes under the Education Amendment Act 1963. The Act also made provision for the establishment of further technical institutes, which were defined as schools either devoted solely to the provision of technical and continuation education, or providing such a volume of advanced technical education as to warrant being designated technical institutes by the Minister.

University Entrance – Prior to 1944 all pupils desiring to undertake a university course were required to sit and pass the University Entrance Examination conducted by the University of New Zealand. In 1944 a system of partial accrediting came into operation. Under this system pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' post-primary-school course. The University Entrance Examination is now conducted by the Universities Entrance Board, and pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify in this manner. The standard of the present entrance examination is somewhat higher than that maintained prior to the introduction of the accrediting system.

Pupils who have been accredited for, or who have passed a University Entrance Examination, may without further post-primary education receive a fees bursary entitling them to tuition fees for a recognised course at a university. The term of a fees bursary is normally the minimum period in which a student pursuing a full-time course of study in each year could complete the recognised course taken under the bursary. Where pupils have obtained a Higher School Certificate, they may receive a fees and allowances bursary. Also, a person who during the first year of his tenure of a fees bursary has obtained passes in three units of a course for a degree of bachelor of arts or of bachelor of science, or equivalent passes in some other recognised course, may transfer to the second year of a fees and allowances bursary. A fees and allowances bursary is tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the student pursues a full-time course of study during each year of the bursary. The term of a fees and allowances bursary is similar to that of a fees bursary. Students who complete a bachelor's degree in not more than one year in excess of the minimum period in which that degree may be completed by a student taking a full-time course each year are eligible for the award of a master's bursary. Further details of bursaries are set out later.

Universities – There are universities at Auckland, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. A University of Waikato, located at Hamilton, will enrol students from 1965. The State supports the universities and acts through the University Grants Committee.

About 10 per cent of pupils leaving post-primary school matriculate at the universities, but less than half of the number obtain a bachelor's degree between three and five years later. This pass rate is partly explained by the fact that only slightly more than half the university students are attending full time. The pressure on the universities to cater for part-time students has been partly a result of the national urge for equality of opportunity in education. In recent years there have been moves to encourage a greater proportion of full-time students, a course which was recommended by the Committee on New Zealand Universities, chaired by Sir David Hughes Parry, in 1959. The Committee estimated that the New Zealand universities would probably be producing about 2,000 persons with bachelors' degrees in 1965, and about 2,600 in 1970, but was certain that graduates in excess of these numbers would be required by the New Zealand community. It has been estimated that the number of students attending lectures in 1962 (15,881) may be doubled by 1972, and this is presenting the University Grants Committee with a major problem in the forward planning of a big and complex programme of buildings.

Special Groups – The State system also caters for the needs of certain special groups of children. Maori children may attend the public schools, but there are also public Maori schools provided for their primary education. There are also a few private church schools remaining from the pre-Maori War system established with the help of Government subsidies. For his post-primary education the Maori child may go free to any available public post-primary school or Maori district high school. If he lives in a rural area he may gain a Maori scholarship awarded by the Department of Education which will enable him to attend one of a number of full post-primary schools where boarding facilities are available. Of these, 11 are private church schools organised on a single-sex basis and providing full post-primary courses. Some of them are partly financed out of public endowments originally provided for the purpose of Maori education.

As mentioned earlier, children living in isolated areas or prevented in other ways from attending school may be enrolled in the Correspondence School for both primary and post-primary work.

For children with various types of handicap there are provided numerous special educational services. The mentally backward are grouped in 120 special classes attached to ordinary schools throughout the country and in two residential special schools. For children who are extremely backward mentally there are 16 occupation centres in the main cities, and full-time or part-time occupation groups in 12 smaller towns. Two residential schools cater for the needs of the deaf and those partially deaf children who cannot profit from teaching in an ordinary primary school. In addition, four classes for severely deaf and one for partially deaf children are attached to ordinary schools. A national diagnostic and guidance service organised in association with the two schools for the deaf gives assistance to deaf babies and infants and their parents and advises teachers in ordinary schools who have children with a hearing loss in their classes. Children with speech defects attend regularly one of 67 speech clinics. In six of the largest cities there are ten remedial clinics to assist children suffering from serious educational retardation (mainly in reading). Ten reading advisers assist teachers in ordinary schools in coping with backward readers. Classes have been established for partially sighted children in the four main cities, and blind children are catered for in a school for the blind attached to the Foundation for the Blind, Auckland. Six schools have been organised as separate units for cerebral-palsied children. Where a sufficient number of children in hospital justifies it, teachers are made available to conduct hospital classes which are attached to a local school. There are 45 classes of this type. There are five classes for physically handicapped or delicate children. Children who are admitted to one or other of the seven health camps for a period of six to 10 weeks attend the school associated with each health camp. There are two day classes for maladjusted children and the Department of Education operates a residential school for severely disturbed children. Other special schools and homes which take care of children with the most serious and deep-seated problems of maladjustment or delinquency, the schools for the deaf, and the two special schools for the mentally backward, are administered for the Department by the Child Welfare Division, which, in educational matters, is under the control of the Minister of Education. All other special classes and centres are controlled by the education boards. The boards also employ 28 visiting teachers whose task it is to help children whose progress at school is causing concern, by acting as a link between the school, the home and the community. The psychological service of the Department of Education is established in 15 centres. It comprises 30 psychologists, who offer a comprehensive diagnostic and guidance service, and nine area organisers of special classes for mentally backward pupils. The Department conducts special classes in six prisons for prisoners whose basic education is of a low standard.

Private Schools – In addition to the various State schools described, a parent may send his child to a private school, either primary or secondary, conducted by either religious bodies or private individuals. No Government free place is tenable at these schools,* but a secondary school bursary (referred to later) may be tenable at a private school, while assistance for transport by rail and road and a boarding allowance under certain conditions may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or post-primary. All private schools must be registered, and are subject to regular inspection by the Department's inspectors. The majority of the private schools are conducted by the Roman Catholic Church. Amongst the private schools are two endowed secondary schools modelled after the English public school.

Coeducation – To complete the sketch of the school system it should be added that coeducation exists in all stages of the system. At the primary stage, all public, intermediate, and Maori schools and some private schools teach boys and girls together. At the teachers' training colleges and the universities, students of both sexes attend together. At the post-primary level all district high schools and technical colleges have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst just over one-third of the secondary and combined schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all post-primary schools (State as well as private) in 1962 with that over 20 years earlier shows that the ratio of pupils in single-sex to coeducationa schools has changed from 51 to 49 in 1935 to 42 to 58 in 1962.

*Except for Maori scholarship holders in the denominational secondary schools.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS – The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July (except in the case of kindergartens from 1958 to 1960, which are as at end of year).

Class of Institution19581959196019611962

*Pupils on roll at end of year.

†There were also 2,988 students taking part-time courses.

‡Includes 6,678 part-time students enrolled with Technical Correspondence School and 2,021 part-time students enrolled with Correspondence School.

§There were also 478 “part-time students” who were full-time day pupils included under primary and post-primary education.

∥Includes students taking short courses.

¶Students holding post-primary teacher studentships (1,569 in 1962) and bursaries (38 in 1962) are included under universities.

NOTE – Lower departments of secondary schools are now included with registered private primary schools.

Pre-school Education     
Kindergartens (morning and afternoon sessions)13,928*14,807*15,168*15,51716,625
Primary Education     
Public (State) schools Intermediate schools and departments342,360351,906357,907363,167371,762
Maori schools13,13513,15313,18712,66311,937
Maori private church schools840766689656606
Registered private primary schools47,47050,67052,09053,32754,687
Lower departments of secondary schools10811310896
Correspondence classes (primary)1,0871,1501,1251,0381,046
Chatham Islands schools112117121125125
Special schools for handicapped children646613613521489
Totals, primary405,758418,488425,840431,593440,652
Post-primary Education     
State post-primary schools (i.e., secondary schools, technical schools, and combined schools)73,13880,46891,001100,797110,059
Secondary departments of district high schools9,5329,0128,3618,8348,464
Maori secondary private (boarding) schools9188759601,0171,031
Registered private and endowed schools16,06616,78818,33319,73521,259
Correspondence classes (secondary)469507551532505
Totals, post-primary100,123107,650119,206130,915141,318
Part-time Post-primary Education     
Classes conducted by education boards and post-primary school boards providing part-time post-primary instruction43,69351,57054,84557,640§63,153§
Higher Education     
Universities11,15512,45513,67814,43314,949
Lincoln and Massey Colleges of Agriculture1,5101,3501,5841,4841,483
Students exempt from lectures9661,0981,2621,4941,333
Teachers' colleges3,6023,7533,8383,8144,223
Totals, higher17,23318,65620,36221,22521,988
Totals, scholars and students580,735611,171635,421656,890683,736

The preceding table reveals the marked enrolment increases of between 20,000 and 30,000 in each of the last five years. The expansion of the education system began in 1945 when the enrolments of primary and post-primary full-time pupils rose by some 9,000, and by another 8,500 in the following year. In the period between 1952 and 1962 the total increase in enrolments was 192,000 full-time pupils, and the number of part-time students at day and night classes increased by 35,000 in those 10 years. This development led in turn to proportionate increases in the recruitment of teachers, and in the provision of classrooms, of teaching equipment, and other facilities such as school transport.

The expansion was in the first instance due to the increase in the yearly number of births. This number was some 28,000 in 1936, but had risen to nearly 66,500 in 1962. The number of pupils and students at all educational institutions increased from 192 per 1,000 population in 1936 to 275 per 1,000 population in 1962. A second factor, accentuating the rate of expansion in the post-primary school sector, was the gradual increase in the number of students who stayed at school beyond the age of 15, and left school from a higher form. The effect of this second movement has been that the number of candidates for the School Certificate Examination increased by 257 per cent in the 14 years 1948 to 1962.

The school enrolment increases were felt first in the primer classes, then in the lower standards. They gradually spread to the upper primary classes, and were expected to reach peak figures at the post-primary school level around 1962–3. With the increasing numbers of school leavers qualified for university entrance, a similar expansion at the level of higher education is to be expected, with a more rapid rate of enrolment increases expected between 1963 and 1968. Projections of school and university enrolment as far as 1972 were published in a statement by the Minister of Education (E. 2, 1959), which sets out in some detail the assumptions on which the projections were based.

The development since 1930 of the school enrolments is illustrated by the diagram below, which gives for the years 1963 to 1972 estimates based on the most recently revised enrolment projects.

TOTAL SCHOOL POPULATION ACTUAL ROLLS 1930–62 WITH ENROLMENT PROJECTION 1963–72

The changes in total enrolment were accompanied by changes in the yearly number of school leavers entering occupations. The first change was that fewer and fewer pupils leaving primary or intermediate school went directly to work, and more and more went on to some form of post-primary education; the latter proportion was 60 per cent in 1936, it rose to over 80 per cent in 1945, and has now reached over 95 per cent. The educational implications of this change for the kind of post-primary education, that now must cater for almost the whole of the country's child population, are obvious. The second change, which is now gradually taking effect, is that more and more of the pupils leaving post-primary school do so from higher forms than formerly. Finally, the total numbers of school leavers, have been increasing from an estimated 26,000 in 1951 to 39,631 in 1962; in 1964 more than 45,000 pupils are expected to leave school, and over 50,000 in 1970.

The enrolment at universities which reached a total of 17,214 in 1962 has almost trebled since 1939. From about 1956 onwards the age groups born after the depression years began to reach the institutions of higher education, and these had from then on to be ready to accommodate increasing numbers of students. The intake at the teachers' training colleges has increased in order to meet the higher demand for certificated teachers. The total rolls at the training colleges were 2,710 in 1952, 2,769 in 1953, 2,744 in 1954, 2,741 in 1955, 3,549 in 1956, 4,055 in 1957, 4,436 in 1958, 4,915 in 1959, 5,318 in 1960, 5,407 in 1961, and 5,830 in 1962. (These figures include holders of post-primary teachers studentships and bursaries, who attend university full-time.)

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS – The numbers of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Department of Education and also by the Trades Certification Board during the latest five years are given below.

Examination19581959196019611962

*These numbers represent subjects taken. The number of individual candidates in 1962 was 119 and in 1961 was 133.

Teachers' Certificate331336303352361
School Certificate19,17921,17022,36224,93830,692
London University71410
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate677619
Homecraft Teachers' Certificate74
Technological93102110103114
City and Guilds of London127111106
Samoan Public Service157230403528480
Engineers' and Surveyors' Assistants5145343252
New Zealand Certificate in Engineering128140222413532
Technical Teachers' Certificate203*264*295*
Diploma in Teaching249
Totals20,21422,22423,77226,63032,775
Trades Certification6,2337,0027,7168,62810,016

Of the candidates in 1962 for School Certificate, 15,422, or 50.5 per cent, gained a pass, while 32 persons were awarded certificates of attainment.

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
19587,4604,100702
19597,3403,949774
19608,1124,362777
19618,6494,670818
19629,5835,150880

The University of New Zealand conducted examinations in 1962 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, music, architecture, and divinity; for diplomas in journalism, in fine arts, in banking, in social science, and in physical education; and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 19,747 entrants for the degree and professional examinations in 1962 compared with 17,110 in 1961.

TRADES EXAMINATIONS – The Trades Certification Act 1948 provides for the establishment of the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, consisting of the following members:

  1. Three persons to be appointed on the recommendation of the Director of Education, one of the three to be appointed as chairman of the Board on the Director's recommendation.

  2. Two persons to be nominated by the New Zealand Employers' Federation and two by the New Zealand Federation of Labour.

  3. Two persons to be nominated by the New Zealand Technical School Teachers' Association and one by the Technical Education Association.

  4. The person for the time being holding the office of Commissioner of Apprenticeship.

  5. Three other persons, one of whom is to be nominated by the New Zealand Electrical Wiremen's Registration Board, one by the New Zealand Motor Trade Certification Board, and one by the Plumbers' Board of New Zealand.

  6. Additional members of whom one shall be nominated by each other authority which conducts examinations and issues certificates for the whole of New Zealand in connection with a particular trade or trades, and which the Board recommends should be represented on the Board for the time being.

The members of the Board, other than the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, are appointed by the Minister of Education for a term of three years. Provision is made for reappointments, removals from office, etc.

The functions of the Board are to make provision for the examination of persons practising or intending to practise any trade who desire from time to time to present themselves for examination, and, secondly, to grant or issue, either independently or in conjunction with any other examining body, diplomas or certificates to any such persons in recognition of proficiency in any trade, or in any art, science, or matter relating to any trade.

The Board may also (a) co-opt if necessary any person or persons for advice in connection with any trade; (b) make representations to the appropriate New Zealand apprenticeship committee in regard to the prerequisite education for apprentices wishing to enter any industry, or in regard to other educational matters affecting apprentices; (c) appoint, with approval of the Minister, advisory or technical committees to advise the Board on such matters within the scope of its powers and functions as are referred to them by the Board, and appoint any person to be a member of such a committee even if he is not a member of the Board; and (d) charge fees for entry for any examination.

Payments incurred for the expenses of the Board and for administration generally are paid from the proceeds from fees and otherwise, and where the amounts from such sources are insufficient, the deficiency is met from the annual vote for the Department of Education.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION – The following table shows the expenditure (after recoveries have been deducted) from public funds on each branch or service of education for the three years ended 31 March 1961, 1962, and 1963.

ItemExpenditure Year Ended 31 March
196119621963
Expenditure from vote, education –£££
  General3,516,2883,712,4994,067,004
  Buildings, land, furniture, and equipment11,281,17311,462,34811,429,194
  Primary education13,334,30014,478,40615,432,487
  Post-primary education7,439,8818,475,0999,758,139
  Higher education3,018,1053,510,4644,829,152
  Training of teachers2,488,8022,560,7852,946,186
  Maori schools561,438580,038594,605
  Education of the blind107,718142,248203,984
  Special schools201,377230,969248,941
  Child welfare900,295924,5931,018,490
  Miscellaneous grants377,434388,665482,461
  National Library Service326,536362,557404,921
Totals, vote Education43,553,34746,828,67151,415,564

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following figures show Government expenditure on education during the period 1952–53 to 1962–63.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of National IncomeExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
£(000)per cent£s
195321,3383.21012
195424,0473.31113
195525,4093.2121
195628,5193.4135
195731,6363.6148
195834,0363.7153
195935,9293.71513
196039,1683.71614
196143,5533.9185
196246,8294.0191
196351,4164.12011

Education Buildings – The increases in school population have led to an expansion of the school building programme. The following numbers of additional classrooms were completed in recent years. The figures do not include classrooms provided in replacement of obsolete accommodation.

 PrimaryPost-primary
1957491358
1958468301
1959473339
1960423463
1961388357
1962602457

The need to expand the school building programme has resulted in a number of measures being taken in recent years to increase the supply of classrooms. An emergency measure introduced in 1946 was the provision of prefabricated buildings. A further important step in the efforts to meet rapidly increasing rolls was the use of standard plans for both primary and post-primary schools. In 1951 a Dominion Basic Plan for primary schools was introduced, while, in the post-primary field, three standard designs were evolved; and a number of new schools were built to each of the plans over the period 1953 to 1956.

The first primary schools planned on the “block” principle opened in 1955, and the first post-primary school in 1957. These planning principles are now being developed further in two-storied post-primary schools.

Education boards are able to plan and build primary schools within the limits or “white lines” defined on the one hand by a building code which lays down minimum requirements for each type of building, and on the other by the upper limit placed by the Government on the amount of money which it is prepared to allocate to any particular project.

Pre-school Education – Children below the age of five years are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens controlled by local free kindergarten associations which are voluntary bodies formed for the purpose, or at nursery play centres controlled by nursery play centre associations.

Since 1942 the Government has made grants available to kindergarten students in training, and in 1949 accepted responsibility for the cost of sites and buildings for training centres. The salaries of kindergarten teachers and full-time training centre staff have, since 1948, been paid by the Department of Education, and grants are available towards the fees of part-time lecturers in the training centres. Subsidies of £2 for £1 on voluntary contributions raised for the purchase of land, buildings, and initial equipment for free kindergartens are paid by the Government.

Nursery play centre associations receive from the Government a small annual maintenance grant in respect of nursery play centres which meet a required standard of equipment, and a small establishment grant towards initial costs is paid to new centres.

In July 1962 there were 16,625 children enrolled at 217 free kindergartens (8,547 for morning sessions and 8,078 for those held in the afternoon). At the end of 1961 there were 15,517 and 207 respectively. In 1962 there were 173 recognised nursery play centres for 4,979 children.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS – The primary-school system at the end of 1962 consisted of 2,062 public schools (including district high schools and intermediate schools or departments), 150 Maori schools, 339 registered private primary schools (which included 8 Maori private church schools), and two lower departments of secondary schools.

Lower departments of secondary schools may be run for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met from public moneys. At the end of 1962 the total number of pupils in the two departments of secondary schools was 75 with two teachers.

The curriculum of the primary school, as set out in the syllabus of instruction, includes character training, English, arithmetic, geography and history, arts and crafts (including needlework), nature study, physical education (including swimming), health education, and music. Teachers are advised on the teaching of nature study, physical education, and arts and crafts by itinerant specialists. At the Forms I and II levels woodwork and metalwork instruction is given to boys at manual-training centres, and girls are taught domestic subjects, including cookery and hygiene.

The syllabus as a whole has been revised in recent years. Textbooks are issued free to pupils in all schools, both State and private. A series of basic primer readers and a considerable amount of equipment for primer classes are also provided by the Government.

Public (State) Schools – The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in public primary schools and intermediate schools and departments. Pupils in secondary departments of district high schools are not included.

YearNumber of Schools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at End of YearAverage of Mean Weekly RollAverage Attendance over YearAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll

*Includes Chatham Islands and Maori schools.

†Average roll and average attendance figures for first four weeks of third term.

19581,998364,181346,654323,64893.3
19592,010373,807356,877330,31392.6
19602,028378,927359,580335,88593.4
19612,057403,028*393,270365,47392.9
19622,062407,482*395,917370,20993.5

While the number of schools has not increased greatly, mainly owing to the consolidation of small rural schools, the total rolls have increased by 103,000 since 1952. The changes which have taken place in the size of schools may be seen from the following table.

Number of Public Schools19521962Increase (+ or Decrease (-
Roll 70 and under1,095868-227
Roll 71 to 350515698+183
Roll 351 and over279471+192
Totals1,8892,037+148

In each of the education districts are located inspectors of primary schools who form part of the staff of the Department of Education. The total number of primary-school inspectors at 31 March 1963 was 79, allocated as follows: Auckland, 17; South Auckland, 12; Hawke's Bay, 6; Taranaki, 4; Wanganui, 5; Wellington, 10; Nelson, 3; Canterbury, 12; Otago, 6; Southland, 4. These figures exclude one chief inspector and four inspectors in the Head Office of the Department.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms I and II only of intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age in Years1960: Total Pupils1961: Total Pupils1962Percentage of Total Pupils
BoysGirlsTotal Pupils196019611962
544,47446,01724,56923,21547,78412.412.712.9
644,69445,90824,37423,12647,50012.512.612.8
742,86844,29623,63622,19745,83312.012.212.3
842,61242,96022,97021,86344,83311.911.812.1
941,55942,78521,96221,11543,07711.611.811.6
1041,19841,65321,94220,53242,47411.511.511.4
1140,57841,40921,65220,33541,98711.311.411.3
1240,45139,62920,85919,60140,46011.310.910.9
1316,90616,2469,2496,38415,6334.84.54.2
142,2942,1391,3086952,0030.60.60.5
15220167121681890.1- -- -
16 and over50837044114- -- -- -
Totals357,904363,292192,712179,175371,887100.0100.0100.0

The next table gives the number of public primary schools in each education district as at 30 September 1962, classified according to roll numbers. The number of intermediate schools and departments is also shown.

Roll NumbersEducation DistrictTotal Number of Schools
AucklandSouth AucklandTaranakiWanganuiHawke's BayWellingtonNelsonCanterburyOtagoSouthland

In addition there were four public schools in the Chatham Islands and 21 special schools for handicapped children.

*Includes four normal intermediate schools.

1–8274114
9–2426251535353814502020278
25–302741210642381187
31–7062734237423713854652489
71–11046491315152210291712228
111–15020351111171111498137
151–190182344610412137101
191–23015105356256764
231–27061254573137365
271–3101543236284148
311–35014103238265255
351–39021933412268270
391–4301565399393163
431–47024122226451361
471–5101571510111104266
511–5501010124561342
551–59011652933
591–63013424115
631–6702714721
671–710611211113
711–750221128
751–790112
791–83011
831–87011
871–910
911–95011
Normal schools*31222212
Intermediate schools and departments21114267244162
Totals355322121157176226673121641372,037

Primary Schools for Maoris – Some 72.3 per cent of the Maori children in New Zealand are educated in the public schools, 21.7 per cent at Maori schools, and 6 per cent at registered private schools (including those at Maori private church schools). At 1 July 1962 there were 36,386 attending public schools out of a total of 50,359 Maori children receiving primary education in New Zealand. The long-term policy, endorsed by representatives of the Maori people themselves, is gradually to transfer the Maori schools now directly under the Department of Education to the control of the local education boards. However, transfers will take place only after full consultations with the local Maori people.

The language of instruction in the Maori schools is English, but the schools are not completely English in outlook, for Maori arts and crafts, songs, legend, and history are taught.

Methods of teaching are practical, and objectives closely related to the special needs of the Maori people. In many of the Maori schools, such equipment as woodwork rooms, cookery rooms, model cottages, baths, hot and cold showers, and laundries is supplied. Health education is featured in every Maori school.

The number of pupils on the rolls of the 150 Maori schools at 1 July 1962 was 11,937 (including 984 European children), while the total roll number of the 8 Maori private church schools was 606. In addition 2,414 Maori children were on the rolls of registered private primary schools.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Maori schools during the latest five years.

YearNumber of Schools at End of YearRoll at 1 JulyAverage Attendance, Whole YearAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly RollNumber of Teachers
MaoriEuropeanMalesFemales

*Average roll and attendance figures for first four weeks of third term.

†Includes junior assistants (5 males and 91 females in 1962).

195815712,0431,09211,37689.1239309
195915612,0631,09011,54786.0240309
196015612,0981,08911,61988.5252310
196115411,6061,05711,17188.9234312
196215010,95398411,405*95.1*227289

Four inspectors of schools attached to the Department of Education are engaged in the inspection of Maori schools, Maori private church schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Intermediate Schools – Pupils on the rolls of the 60 intermediate schools and 6 intermediate departments at the end of 1962 numbered 34,030. The progress that is being made with the establishment of this type of school may be gauged from the fact that 22 years earlier (1940) the number of pupils was 5,450. Of all children in Forms I and II of public (primary and intermediate) schools at 1 July 1962, 40.5 per cent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest three years were as follows.

Age, in Years196019611962
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10120197317134178312123200323
114,4885,0709,5584,9615,52010,4815,0765,60610,682
127,5647,12414,6887,8017,46015,2618,1957,78715,982
133,6752,5876,2623,7022,5216,2233,6032,4696,072
14484230714535275810484259743
15503484363369572784
16 and over325358459
Totals16,38415,24431,62817,17215,99233,16417,54216,35333,895

The average roll at September 1962 was 34,039 and the average attendance for the same period was 32,102.

Private Schools – No private school may be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration. Certain standards of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum have to be fulfilled as a condition of registration. In general, the instruction afforded must be as efficient as in a State school of the same class.

The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools for each of the last five years. The figures include Maori private church schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsRoll at End of YearAverage Yearly AttendanceTeachers
BoysGirlsTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*Average attendance as at September.

195832425,07425,98951,06347,0321801,1361,316
195933726,83026,60153,43148,2771991,2051,404
196033527,05127,11754,16849,7881791,2451,424
196133627,72827,81555,54351,3702001,2801,480
196233928,24528,58156,82653,027*2081,3121,520

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 275 at the end of 1962 with 49,799 pupils (24,761 boys and 25,038 girls) and 1,231 teachers (101 males and 1,130 females). The remaining private schools comprised 53 church schools of other denominations with 250 teachers and 6,202 pupils, and 11 undenominational schools with 39 teachers and 825 pupils.

POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS – One of the most striking features in the development of New Zealand education is the marked increase in the proportion of pupils who proceed to some form of post-primary education at the conclusion of the primary course. The raising of the school leaving age to 15 years from 1944 stimulated the movement towards secondary education for all. Every child completing the work of Form II or attaining the age of 14 years by 31 March of the year of entry to post-primary school becomes entitled to free post-primary education. Extension of a free place beyond the age of 19 years is allowable in special cases approved by the Director of Education. The post-primary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of post-primary schools are required to give to all pupils during the first two years of their post-primary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

Post-primary schools are either public (State) or private. The following table shows the number of post-primary schools in existence during each of the latest five years.

YearState Post-primary Schools (i.e., Secondary Schools, Technical Schools, and Combined Schools)Secondary Departments of District High SchoolsMaori Secondary SchoolsEndowed and Private Secondary SchoolsTotal
19581301111193345
19591391061194350
1960150961197354
1961160951199365
1962169921199371

A combined school is an amalgamation of a secondary and a technical school under a single governing body. District high schools are public primary schools with a secondary “top” and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial work, and domestic science. Technical schools are described later in this section. Most State post-primary schools are established under their own controlling authority, and district high schools are controlled by the education boards. Where a post-primary school is established in places of a secondary department of a district high school, the education board of the district will usually control the new school for the first few years. Thereafter, the school will be placed under its own board.

The inspection of post-primary schools is carried out by inspectors of post-primary schools attached to the Department of Education. There were (in 1963) 50 inspectors, one chief inspector of post-primary schools, and one superintendent of technical education.

The number of pupils at the end of each of the latest five years is shown in the following table. No account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary departments are included.

YearState Post-primary Schools (i.e., Secondary Schools, Technical Schools, and Combined Schools)District High SchoolsMaori Secondary SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsCorrespondence SchoolTotal
195868,8798,72075515,80243994,595
195975,9288,23674216,496496101,898
196085,2157,54292717,757467111,908
196195,0767,93198619,237439123,669
1962103,4987,7331,01620,742469133,458

The foregoing table does not include part-time students attending technical classes (53,976 in July 1962), students receiving part-time tuition from the Correspondence School (2,021 in July 1962), and students receiving part-time instruction from the Technical Correspondence School (6,678 in July 1962).

The numbers of each sex attending post-primary schools at the end of 1962 were: State post-primary schools, 55,068 boys and 48,430 girls; secondary departments of district high schools, 3,821 and 3,912; Maori secondary schools, 616 and 400, endowed and registered private secondary schools, 10,030 and 10,712; and full-time at Correspondence School, 208 and 261.

The following table shows the number of pupils at State secondary schools and combined schools taking the different courses available. (This table as at 1 July in each of the latest five years may be compared with the similar table for technical schools later.)

Course19581959196019611962
Industrial6,9968,1349,0269,93211,615
Professional40,77645,69751,95932,06534,710
Commercial10,89311,891
General14,07416,446
Home life4,4934,6985,0606,0876,606
Agricultural1,7431,8031,8931,9492,042
Fine arts146267347
Other courses for Sixth Forms......819678
Totals54,15460,59968,28575,81983,988

As a result of a changed classification adopted in 1961, pupils taking the Professional course, previously listed under General, were separately listed. Also, pupils taking the Fine Arts course, previously separately listed, were included under General.

Technical Schools – The technical schools fall roughly into two types: (a) those in the small centres, which provide for all the post-primary needs and are distinguishable from secondary schools only by having in general a rather more strongly developed practical side; and (b) the large technical schools in the main centres, in which there is less evidence of the generalised academic curriculum, since this is adequately provided by the city secondary schools.

However, even in the latter type most of the courses in the day schools are still designedly prevocational and not genuinely “technical” in character. A more recent tendency in the largest centres is for technical schools of the second type to split up into two schools, one a local technical high school, and the other a senior technical school or technical institute providing technical classes or courses of a special or advanced character and serving a wider regional area. Technical schools are normally controlled by a board of managers, but the education board of the district may act in a similar capacity. Control of a technical school by an education board will, however, usually be for a limited period of up to three years; thereafter the school will, if it remains a technical school, be placed under its own board of managers.

There were 43 technical schools in 1962. The following table shows the number of pupils taking the different courses available (as at 1 July in each of the latest five years).

Course19581959196019611962

*Included under General.

Industrial5,8676,1817,2078,2348,287
Professional9,4219,89211,6925,0376,081
Commercial 4,7134,754
General2,7212,979
Home Life2,3842,4452,5612,9352,820
Agricultural1,1211,1671,0951,2691,077
Fine arts191184161**
Other courses for Sixth Forms......6973
Totals18,98419,86922,71624,97826,071

Technical Classes – The number of centres at which technical classes for part-time day and evening students are provided was 207 in 1962.

The total of individual students including apprentices attending day classes in 1962 was 63,153, including 8,699 part-time students at 1 July on the rolls of the Correspondence and Technical Correspondence Schools, but excluding 478 students who were also full-time day pupils at primary and secondary schools.

Technical Correspondence Institute – In July 1946 the Department took over the responsibility for the study courses previously conducted by the Army Educational and Welfare Service. A Technical Correspondence School was established in Wellington to develop these courses for men in the armed services, and also to provide correspondence instruction in vocational and technical subjects for apprentices and advanced students unable to attend technical schools or classes.

The expansion of the work of the school has been remarkable. It was established in 1946 with a staff of two teachers and gave instruction in 12 technical subjects. Instruction is now given in 315 technical subjects. This work is mainly in three categories: first, the correction of students' test papers and the supervision of student studies; second, the preparation of new, and the revision of old assignments for students' use; third, the preparation of textbooks. So far the school has published 10 textbooks and two are at present being written.

The main function of the school, now known as the Technical Correspondence Institute, is to provide technical education at the apprentice and technician levels for those who are unable to obtain such education through the usual institutions. In particular, the Institute meets many demands for apprentice training and for technical education at the senior and advanced levels which could not be met, in view of the distribution of population in New Zealand, by the establishment of additional local schools. All students are employed in an industry or profession and their correspondence studies provide a valuable supplement to their practical experience.

In addition to this technical education service provided on a national basis throughout the country, the Technical Correspondence Institute serves the Island Territories and gives some assistance to Samoa and Fiji, as well as to certain member states of the Colombo Plan.

The work of the Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching given in the other senior technical institutes and instruction is given in some subjects not taught elsewhere. The Institute plays an important role in the education of many of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board. It will also be expected to make its contribution to new courses for technician training for the Certificates to be issued by the Technicians Certification Authority.

The number of students on the roll at 1 July 1962 was 6,678. There were 115 full-time teachers, besides the Principal, on the staff at 30 September 1962.

Probable Destination of Public and Private Post-primary Pupils – An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils leaving post-primary schools during 1962 is contained in the next table. Of the totals, 9.0 per cent of boys and 3.9 per cent of girls intended to proceed to full-time university studies, while a further 2.3 per cent of boys and 11.1 per cent of girls stated their intention of entering the teaching profession. Clerical occupations (including typing) claimed 12.1 per cent of boys and 29.9 per cent of girls; shops and warehouses, 7.2 per cent and 12.3 per cent; manual trades, 27.4 per cent and 3.8 per cent; farming, 17.1 per cent and 1.1 per cent; 0.2 per cent and 7.9 per cent intended to stay at home; various other occupations claimed 14.7 per cent and 22.6 per cent while 10.0 per cent and 7.4 per cent of boys and girls respectively did not know their future vocations at the time.

OccupationTotalsMaoris Included in Totals
BoysGirlsBoysGirls
University1,799762229
Teachers' college4592,1923262
Professional cadetship48490101
Health services662,2753170
Office work –
  (a) Government or local authority8951,44947110
  (b) Industry and commerce1,5204,4561999
Shop and warehouse assistants1,4352,43332111
Skilled trades –
  (a) Government or local authority9631131077
  (b) With private employers4,48663017712
Farming (including those engaged at their own homes)3,39522040433
Clothing workers55663673
Factory operatives615545116126
Domestic work and at home371,54916441
Armed forces (not included elsewhere)473263915
Other occupations1,23085924991
Not known1,9951,462396291
Totals19,90719,7241,6751,651

Duration of Stay at Public and Private Post-primary Schools – The following table gives particulars of pupils who left post-primary schools in 1962, classified according to years of attendance.

Year of AttendanceState Post-primary Schools (Including Secondary, Technical, and Combined Schools)District High SchoolsPrivate Post-primaryAll Schools
TotalsPer Cent
First1,8752371972,3095.8
Second9,78485090211,53629.1
Third10,7127391,72513,17633.2
Fourth6,3063231,5708,19920.7
Fifth3,191428744,10710.4
Sixth and over2251783040.8
Totals32,0932,1925,34639,631100.0

It has been mentioned earlier that, except in special circumstances, children are not permitted to leave school until they reach the age of 15 years, and it would appear that many pupils entering post-primary schools remain there only as long as they are required to, as approximately 34.9 per cent did not proceed beyond the second year of attendance. However, in 1948 the proportion not proceeding beyond the second year was approximately 50 per cent.

Secondary Schools for Maoris – At the end of 1962, 832 Maori pupils were receiving post-primary education at the 11 Maori secondary schools, 187 of the total being Government scholarship holders. There were 57 scholarship holders enrolled in public post-primary schools and 16 at other private secondary schools. In addition, 184 European pupils received post-primary education at Maori secondary schools.

A further step forward in the provision of post-primary education for Maoris was the approval of the establishment of Maori district high schools. These schools, unlike the private denominational schools, are controlled by the Department of Education; they provide courses of a practical nature specially suited to the needs of the Maori pupils. There were 10 such schools in 1962.

Secondary School Bursaries – Bursaries, of a maximum annual value of £50 and tenable for a period of up to two years, may be granted to pupils obliged to live away from home in order to take a Sixth Form course at a post-primary school (public or private) which is approved for accrediting purposes. In order to qualify, applicants must be under 18 years of age and must have passed either the School Certificate or the University Entrance Examinations or have been accredited for the latter.

Technical School Bursaries – Bursaries of a maximum value of £50 may be awarded to pupils who have completed at any post-primary school a two years' course preparatory to a specialised course in agriculture, fine arts, engineering, building construction, commerce, or home science which can be completed only at some technical school. The bursaries are tenable at post-primary schools approved for that purpose and may be held for a maximum of two years. Applicants must be under the age of 17 years at the commencement of the specialised course and must be obliged to live away from home in order to receive satisfactory instruction in the courses to be followed.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE – Vocational guidance centres have been opened in the four main centres, and in Lower Hutt, Hamilton, and Napier. The vocational guidance officers are, however, in close contact with the post-primary schools in other centres. The vocational guidance officers, acting in conjunction with headmasters and special careers teachers in the schools, offer their services at any point in the child's career where a choice has to be made, whether of school course or of vocation. When a child has made his choice of career the vocational guidance officer will if requested find suitable employment for him and endeavour to follow up his progress until he is finally and satisfactorily settled in his line of work.

The centres are in frequent touch with a number of voluntary agencies such as “Heritage”, Crippled Children Society, and lay tuberculosis associations.

For the year ended 31 December 1962 the total callers at the centres numbered 24,105. In addition, 16,327 pupils were interviewed individually in post-primary schools. Group interviews were carried out with many children and “careers courses” were organised by several centres during school holidays so that groups of pupils were enabled to see conditions and operations in occupations selected for their own particular requirements. Other activities, apart from attention to numerous inquiries by letter and the preparation of information sheets covering over 100 occupations, included 1,543 visits to schools, addresses at 279 meetings, and the placement of 1,172 young people in employment.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools – In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been undertaken wherever practicable. The extent of this consolidation will be evident from the fact that, whereas in 1934 there were 2,532 public primary (excluding intermediate) schools, the number in 1962, despite a considerable increase in the school population in the intervening period, was 1,971.

Transport and Board – A natural consequence of consolidation was an increase in the numbers of pupils requiring some form of transport to enable them to attend school. In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now 17 per cent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education. Financial aid towards the cost of fares is given in some cases where the number of pupils is insufficient to warrant a special school bus service. In addition, free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to eligible children living near a railway line but at some distance from a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, combined schools, district high schools, and private secondary schools, as well as to part-time pupils travelling to attend technical schools or classes, and pupils attending manual-training centres.

In areas where there is no organised transport, capitation payments are made to parents for the conveyance of their children to school by car. Horseback allowances are also payable.

The expenditure on transport of pupils for the financial year 1962–63 was £1,921,724, as compared with £1,841,690 in 1961–62.

In certain cases, boarding allowances are granted to pupils living in areas where there are no available or convenient transport services to enable them to attend school. Boarding allowances are also granted to post-primary pupils to allow them to take, in other centres, certain specified courses not available at their local school.

The expenditure on boarding allowances of pupils attending schools for the last three years is given in the table below.

 1960–611961–621962–63
 £££
Public primary and intermediate7,4886,0476,905
Private primary9,1827,4468,480
State secondary76,73782,708108,555
Maori6,7667,4597,178
Private secondary53,06157,78673,773
Totals153,234161,446204,891

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1962, according to the type of school attended. Totals for the two preceding years are also shown.

Type of SchoolNumber of Pupils on RollTotal Pupils Transported to SchoolNumber Receiving Boarding Allowance
Public primary schools337,86755,84978
Intermediate schools and departments33,8953,6599
Secondary departments of district high schools8,4644,85754
State post-primary schools110,05926,0343,096
Maori schools11,9374,39427
Chatham Islands schools125853
Private primary schools and lower departments of secondary schools55,2933,370140
Private post-primary schools22,2902,6392,337
Totals, 1962579,930100,8875,744
Totals, 1961560,417100,4865,744
Totals, 1960542,75797,3905,634

Correspondence School – Since 1922 correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in very remote areas and of those unable to attend school on account of lengthy illness or other causes. The usual subjects of the syllabus of instruction are taught at the school, and in addition pupils who require instruction which is usually available in a special class in a public school can receive instruction by correspondence. One of the features of the school is the provision of instruction in subjects involving practical work, such as needlework, woodwork, and the science subjects. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened and the work of the school facilitated by a number of teachers from the school visiting pupils in their homes in the first term each year and, in four areas, by round-the-year visiting by resident teachers. Residential schools are held in November each year to give pupils the opportunity of taking part in group activities and of intensive tutorial work in subjects not readily dealt with by correspondence. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held in order to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small public schools and junior assistants in Maori schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of post-primary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government Departments, and others who are unable to attend evening classes at post-primary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School. In addition the school enrols teachers for the diploma in teaching courses.

At 1 July 1962 there were 4,539 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,046 being in the primary division and 505 full-time and 2,988 part-time students in the post-primary division. The staff of the school consists of the headmaster, deputy head teacher, 97 post-primary and 30 primary assistant teachers.

Agricultural Clubs – More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are adjudged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and nature study specialists employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES – Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Public Health) of this Yearbook.

Free Issue of Milk – The milk-in-schools scheme, for the free issue of a half-pint daily ration of milk to children, commenced on 1 March 1937.

TEACHING PROFESSION: Training of Teachers – In 1962 there were seven teachers' training colleges (at Auckland, Ardmore, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin) available to students who desired to enter the teaching profession. At 1 July 1962 there were 5,421 students in training. This number includes 1,569 holders of post-primary teacher studentships (Division U) who are attached to training colleges while attending university as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and who are therefore an integral part of the training colleges. Included in the remainder, were 3,452 “Division A” students undertaking training for primary teaching and 354 “Division C” students undertaking training for post-primary teaching. The minimum academic qualification for admission to Division A has been the School Certificate, but approximately two-thirds of these students have an Endorsed School Certificate or University Entrance. From 1964, Endorsed School Certificate is the minimum academic qualification for admission to Division A. Nearly all “Division C” students are university graduates at the time of admission.

The following table shows the number of students in these two groups in December of each of the years 1958–1961, and at 1 July 1962.

YearDivision ADivision CTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
19587312,1191011323,083
19597752,2751041193,273
19608522,2691071243,352
19618772,2811231403,421
19629482,5041731813,806

The normal course of training for “Division A” students is a period of two years at a teachers' training college, followed by a further period of one year as a probationary assistant attached to a public school. Third-year studentships, which entitle holders to an extra year's training in lieu of a probationary year, are available to selected students who wish to specialise in nature study, music, physical education, or arts and crafts, or who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of the deaf. A limited number of selected students are permitted to spend most of the third year of training doing full-time study towards a university degree. For students of “Division C” the course is for one year. These students are university graduates or near graduates who train for service in post-primary schools. To enable students to qualify to teach homecraft subjects, bursaries providing training at a teachers' training college and at a technical high school were instituted in 1943. There were 172 homecraft trainees in the Auckland and Dunedin Training Colleges in 1962. A further 52 trainees were being trained in 1962 as manual training instructors.

In order to meet future staffing requirements due to the rapidly increasing school population a special training scheme was started in September 1949 for selected trainees aged 21 years and over. The scheme was suspended in 1960 but reopened in 1962. On completion of the special training-college course these trainees were required to serve for one year as probationary assistants before being granted trained teachers' certificates. These trainees are not included in the figures in the tabulation of students at training colleges shown earlier, nor are some fee-paying students (Division B) of whom there were 26 in 1962.

Post-primary teachers' bursaries and physical education bursaries, although still awarded in some cases, have been largely replaced by post-primary teacher studentships. To be eligible for one of these awards an applicant must have reached the age of 16 years on 31 December of the year of application, and must at the time of application have qualified for entrance to the university, or hold some equivalent or higher qualification approved by the Director of Education. Students are attached to the training college in the appropriate university centre, and a senior lecturer, appointed to each training college, supervises the work of the students and assists them towards the completion of their university courses. Each student on accepting the award, signs an agreement that he will satisfy the stated conditions. One important condition is that if he does not achieve reasonable success in his university studies he will transfer to the “Division A” course at training college and there complete his training as a teacher.

The allowances payable are –

For the first and second year of the studentship, £270;

For the third and further years of the studentship, £375;

For the graduate training year – First step on the teachers' basic scale (£685).

Tuition fees are paid in addition to the allowances. During the four years of the studentship a boarding allowance at the rate of £46 a year is paid if the student is required to live away from home.

In 1962, 690 post-primary teacher studentships were awarded and of these 591 were taken up in 1963. In addition 34 holders of post-primary teachers' bursaries in 1962 qualified to transfer in 1963 to post-primary teacher studentships.

There were 43 holders of post-primary teachers' bursaries and 1,613 holders of post-primary teacher studentships attending university institutions in 1963.

Public Primary-school Teachers – The following table shows the number of teachers in public primary schools in the various education districts as at 30 September 1962, together with totals for 1961, 1960, and 1940.

Sole TeachersHeads of SchoolsAssistant TeachersProbationary AssistantsTotal Number of TeachersPercentage of Male to Female Teachers
M.F.M.F.M.F.M.F.
Education District –
  Auckland2729736501,237682262,50871.1
  South Auckland3012812435844631581,81480.5
  Taranaki1697197214124348086.0
  Wanganui474992188314285673896.3
  Hawke's Bay3541281196348246279892.3
  Wellington4891582336680291201,38270.4
  Nelson1946831161517296122.6
  Canterbury9342071437727491431,66189.8
  Otago3411163213343207180191.6
  Southland372931252061741521109.2
Intermediate schools and departments6159736423301,075172.8
Totals, 1962386251,583153,3575,39334896712,07488.7
Totals, 1961382211,553193,2685,13534695611,68090.5
Totals, 1960417221,519213,3264,8963261,01411,54193.9
Totals, 19406443639911478862,8902274386,58671.6

Between 1940 and 1962 the total number of teachers increased by 5,488, male teachers contributing 2,926 of this increase and female teachers 2,562. The average number of pupils per teacher (including probationary assistants) in all public primary schools was 30.0 in 1940, 29.1 in 1960, 32.6 in 1961, and 31.8 in 1962; but in 1961 and 1962 the basis was September rolls and not average yearly attendance.

Post-primary-school Teachers – The following table indicates the number of full-time teachers employed in the post-primary schools mentioned. The principals are included except in the case of district high schools, the figures for which apply to assistants in the secondary department only.

YearSecondary SchoolsDistrict High SchoolsTechnical High SchoolsCombined SchoolsGrand Total
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
19581,334846358110730238147933,856
19591,51995933898760263155834,175
19601,6961,107295103884304163954,647
19611,9181,1952921189463541491005,072
19622,1101,3392801239614021751025,492

Male teachers employed in post-primary schools fell from 908 in 1940 to 707 in 1942, this decrease being almost entirely due to enlistment in the armed forces. The position was slightly improved in 1943, and each succeeding year has shown a further advance, the number in 1962 being 3,526, an increase of 2,618 as compared with 1940. The number of female teachers rose from 630 in 1940 to 838 in 1945, this increase being partially due to the employment of women during the war period in positions normally occupied by men. There was a fall to 795 in 1946, but the number at the end of 1962 (1,966) was 1,336 in excess of the number employed in 1940. Teachers employed in private post-primary schools and Maori secondary schools are not included in the figures. In 1962, 970 full-time teachers (469 male, 501 female) were employed in these schools.

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS – Free textbooks were supplied to all primary and post-primary pupils in both State and private schools from the beginning of 1959. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS – Regular broadcasting programmes for schools were initiated in 1931. A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

Visual Aids – The National Film Library, a branch of the Department of Education, lends films and gramophone records free of charge to schools. It also lends films free-of-charge to other organisations having some educational purpose. Films are also supplied to the education services in Western Samoa, Fiji, Rarotonga, and in the Niue, Pitcairn, Cook and Chatham Islands. A branch of the library is situated in Auckland and supplies films to schools and organisations in the upper half of the North Island. The rest of New Zealand is serviced from Wellington. Approximately 2,300 schools and 2,300 other organisations having some educational purpose have 16 mm sound projectors.

The Library contains more than 27,000 films with about 6,000 titles. Up to 6,000 reels of film are issued each week, and of these 71 per cent go to schools or colleges.

Film strips are also available on free loan from the film-strip libraries in the offices of education boards. They can also be purchased by schools for a nominal sum from the National Film Library. Nearly all schools are equipped with film-strip projectors.

A tape-copying service is also provided by the National Film Library for some 600 schools with tape recorders. Tapes submitted by the schools are transcribed from master tapes held by the National Film Library.

Museums – To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers' training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

Publications – The School Journal, an illustrated paper, is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published six times in the year while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear four times a year. Primary School Bulletins, dealing with topics of New Zealand history, geography, nature study, and family life in other countries, are published every year. These publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private. Vernacular Journals are also issued to schools in Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands.

Arithmetic textbooks for all classes in primary schools have been prepared and published over the last few years and a set of infant readers is being issued.

A series of handbooks for teachers in primary schools dealing with English, social studies, arts and crafts, and reading in the infant school, have been prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education, and have been issued free to primary schools, both State and private, on the basis of one copy per classroom. Further handbooks on physical education and on the teaching of numbers in the infant school are being issued.

The Post-Primary School Bulletin is published 10 times a year and issued free to all public and private post-primary schools. It provides background reading for subjects of the revised curriculum, particularly in social studies, science, and literature.

The Education Gazette is published by the Department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State schools throughout New Zealand, and private schools receive one copy free of charge.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year.

HIGHER EDUCATION: The University System – The system of higher education in New Zealand has evolved in recent years from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities and a university college of agriculture. From 1 January 1962, the University of New Zealand ceased to exist and its constituent institutions, the University of Auckland, the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury, and the University of Otago became autonomous universities. In addition the two agricultural colleges which had been associated with the University of New Zealand became, on the dissolution of that body, university colleges of agriculture. One of these, Massey College, then became associated with the Victoria University of Wellington, and the other, Lincoln College, became a constituent College of the University of Canterbury. A later development was the provision under the Massey University College of Manawatu Act 1962 for Massey College and the branch of the Victoria University of Wellington at Palmerston North to be united to form the Massey University College of Manawatu, a university college in association with the Victoria University of Wellington. This association ceased at the end of 1963, and the university college became an autonomous university on 1 January 1964 under the provisions of the Massey University of Manawatu Act 1963. A new university, the University of Waikato was also formally established on 1 January 1964 under the University of Waikato Act 1963, but it will not enrol any students until 1965. The university is located in Hamilton.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee which was established by an Act of Parliament passed in 1960 and re-enacted in 1961 when the major reorganisation was finally completed. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory subcommittee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of the Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibilities in respect of the development of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The Board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements for admission of candidates as barristers and solicitors of the Court.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral and metallurgical engineering, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, and chemical), and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil), and postgraduate courses in obstetrics and gynaecology; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in public administration and social science. The Massey University of Manawatu provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science and also provides extramural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The establishment of a veterinary faculty at the Massey University of Manawatu in 1964 removed New Zealand's dependence on Australia for the training of veterinary surgeons.

Free University Education:Scholarships – The most important awards for those entering university are the 30 University Junior Scholarships and the 40 University National Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for three to six years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full-time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of £110 a year and the University National Scholarship an allowance of £60 a year. Both scholarships are tenable with a Fees and Allowances bursary (see Bursaries below). These scholarships, together with the Taranaki Scholarships and certain privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them) and John Tinline Scholarships of £90 a year awarded by the University Grants Committee. The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The scholarships awarded at the end of the university course, which are listed in full in the university calendars, include the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, Post-graduate Scholarships and Post-Doctoral Fellowships, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarship, the Shirtcliffe Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the Shell Post-graduate Scholarship, the Michael Hiatt Baker Scholarship, the Rutherford Scholarships, the Orford Studentship, and the National Research Scholarships. Many of the Post-graduate Scholarships and some of the Post-Doctoral Fellowships are tenable in New Zealand. The other awards are in general tenable overseas.

Bursaries – The system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course which has been in operation for a number of years was changed as a result of a Government decision made at the end of 1961. The new system came into effect from the beginning of 1962 and replaced the former system of entrance bursaries, Higher School Certificate part-time bursaries, Higher School Certificate full-time bursaries, and Higher School Certificate boarding bursaries. The new bursaries are known as fees bursaries, fees and allowances bursaries, and masters' bursaries. In general, fees and fees and allowances bursaries are tenable for the minimum period, not exceeding six years for medicine, or five years for other courses, in which a student following a full-time course in each year could complete the recognised course taken under the bursary. There is provision for these bursaries to be extended for an additional year in any case where, in the opinion of the Director of Education, the personal circumstances of the bursar warrant it. Masters' bursaries are tenable for up to two years. Further particulars of these bursaries are as follows.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university either by examination or accrediting, or who, having been granted provisional admission, pass two units in any one year. These bursaries provide for payment of tuition fees during their term.

Fees and Allowances Bursaries are awarded to students who hold the Higher School Certificate and are tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the bursar undertakes a full-time course of study in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who during the first year of his tenure of a fees bursary has obtained passes in three units of a course for a degree of bachelor of arts, or bachelor of science, or equivalent passes in some other recognised course, may transfer to the second year of a fees and allowances bursary.

A fees and allowances bursary entitles the holder to payment of tuition fees plus allowances of £40 in the first year of the bursary, £60 in the second year of the bursary, £60 in the third year of the bursary, and £100 in the fourth year of the bursary and in any subsequent year.

The holder of a fees and allowances bursary who is obliged to live away from his home or his usual place of residence in order to attend a university affording tuition in the subjects appropriate to his course and year may also qualify for a boarding allowance of £80 a year.

Masters' Bursaries are awarded to students who have completed a bachelor's degree, in not more than one year in excess of the minimum period in which that degree could be completed by a student taking a full-time course each year. They must, however, proceed in the next year or in the year following that year to take a full-time course leading to a master's degree. The holder of a master's bursary is entitled to tuition fees and an allowance of £100 and he may also, in the same way as a fees and allowances bursar, receive a boarding allowance of £80 a year if eligible.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to suspension and cancellation. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in the following year he is credited with a prescribed number of passes. Only one such suspension is allowed and subsequent failure results in cancellation of the bursary.

Further details of the amounts payable and other qualifying conditions for the various classes of bursaries are available from vocational guidance centres and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

The Government offers for competition annually two bursaries to students wishing to attend the School of Social Science at the Victoria University of Wellington. Preference is given to candidates nominated by non-State organisations engaged in social work. These bursaries provide for full fees, a bursary allowance of £80, and a boarding allowance of £80 where appropriate.

The total number of University National, Entrance, Higher School Certificate, Fees, and Fees and Allowances bursaries current in 1962 was 6,734.

Bursaries, etc., are also awarded annually by other Government Departments and include medical, dental, physiotherapy, and dietetic bursaries (Department of Health), national research scholarships and national research fellowships (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), rehabilitation bursaries (Rehabilitation Board), coal-mining bursaries (Mines Department). Study awards are made to selected public servants to enable them to undertake university study. The Department of Education has a very generous system of studentships available for those intending ultimately to qualify as post-primary teachers.

The following table gives the number of students, including those taking short courses at agricultural colleges, who received free university education during each of the latest five years.

YearJunior University, University National, and Taranaki ScholarshipsSenior University ScholarshipsUniversity National, Entrance, and H.S.C. Bursaries*Teachers' College StudentshipsOtherTotal

*Includes also fees, fees and allowances, and Masters' Bursaries awarded under University Bursaries Regulations.

1958139234,3585901,8756,985
1959156295,2037562,0328,176
1960162375,6797222,3958,995
1961186326,1537322,4049,507
1962156306,7347663,19410,880

Holders of rehabilitation bursaries numbered 34 in 1958, 37 in 1959, 42 in 1960, 16 in 1961, and 12 in 1962.

Students – In 1962 there were 15,881 students actually in attendance at the four universities and the two agricultural colleges. Of these, 1,492 were graduates, 13,562 undergraduates, and 827 unmatriculated students. In addition, there were 1,333 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 551 students who were taking short courses at the agricultural colleges. Comparable figures for the latest five years are given in the following table.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

*Does not include 551 students taking short courses at agricultural colleges.

19589,0152,90079517112,881
19599,9423,34892117714,388
196010,8803,6671,05221015,809
196111,6063,7201,15334116,820
196212,0673,8141,03929417,214*

The following table gives particulars of students who were taking definite courses at universities, including agricultural colleges, during the latest three years.

Course196019611962
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

NOTE – Journalism not awarded after 1960. Physiotherapy – first year students only. In 1960, Agriculture included Agricultural Science, Dairy Technology, Wool diploma, etc.

Agricultural Science –
Degree16511661932195
Diploma11
Horticulture (degree)1822010212
Agriculture –
Ph.D.99
Degree3201233215181591653168
Diploma4261343921332162531254
Dairy Technology (degree)55
Dairy Technology (diploma)6464
Horticulture (degree)516161171818
Horticulture (diploma)5161752230636
Certificate in Agriculture1919
Wool (diploma)9019180181
Intensive course3535
Other3737
Architecture –
Degree162116311811191083111
Diploma70474116412079483
N.Z.I.A.46248431441010
Arts2,9722,4575,4293,1332,5335,6663,0692,5645,633
Banking, diploma4343303022123
Commerce (including accountancy)2,293702,3632,476832,5592,5221092,631
Dentistry166116717521771673170
Diagnostic Radiology, diploma221111
Divinity478554655154660
Education, diploma145401851424218419165256
Educational Psychology (diploma)555588
Engineering, degree –
First professional2422422472472562258
Clerical353537374545
Civil238238245245250250
Electrical101101136136127127
Mechanical585877778585
Metallurgical559944
Mining333325252525
Other1717
Engineering professional776622
Fine Arts –
Diploma91166257517712880101181
Preliminary21113152742189
Non-diploma385694
Food Technology1611726127
Home Science –
Degree303038382626
Diploma145145140140147147
Industrial Chemistry1111
Intermediate courses –
Agriculture482504434746248
Agriculture horticulture61731412214
Architecture44701711404144
Dentistry60604614746248
Engineering43314344571458515515
Home Science2020881717
Medicine290433333104335332750377
Surveying1010
Veterinary Science382404444
Journalism22
Law1,039431,0821,040661,1061,009581,067
Medical Science8198812113
Medicine –
Degree494575515215357452859587
Post-graduate88
Microbiology, diploma3251122
Mining, diploma22
Music –
Degree426310544611054559104
Diploma333811246
Executant diploma116171151641519
Physical education, diploma37629937691064580125
Physiotherapy, certificate463676616756368
Public administration, diploma7712121212
Public Health, diploma5555
Radiology, diploma9910101111
Science1,7314282,1591,9185012,4192,2275382,765
Social Science, diploma11819991881220
Surveying, diploma11111919
Town Planning, diploma101012121919
Urban Valuation, diploma242424242020
Other44
Totals11,8373,78415,62112,5853,94416,52913,0054,03217,037

Graduates – The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities in 1962 are shown in the following table.

FacultyHonoursMastersBachelors
Agriculture3
Agricultural Science853
Agricultural Science (Hort.)4
Architecture10
Arts14267562
Commerce12134
Dental Surgery37
Divinity7
Engineering (Chemical)815
Engineering (Civil)92
Engineering (Electrical)50
Engineering (Mechanical)24
Engineering (Mineral)12
Food Technology2
Home Science25
Laws42100
Medical Science7
Medicine and Surgery193
Music10
Science9127383
Totals2401151,603

In addition, doctorates were completed in Literature (2), Science (5), Medicine (4), Philosophy (16).

Staff – The teaching staff of the universities and agricultural colleges in 1962 consisted of 993 persons on full-time appointments and 264 persons working part-time. On full-time appointments there were 123 professors, 389 senior lecturers, 316 lecturers, 111 junior lecturers, and 54 instructors and demonstrators engaged in teaching. Non-teaching staff numbered 972 full-time and 260 part-time workers.

COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH – In 1933 the Carnegie Corporation of New York set up a committee to report on the proposal to found in New Zealand a Council for Educational Research. This committee called a conference of representative educationists to consider the proposal and approached educational authorities for their cooperation. In view of the unanimous support given to the proposal, the committee recommended the foundation of the Council, and in November 1933 the Carnegie Corporation appropriated a substantial grant for the purpose, payable in five-yearly instalments, beginning in 1933–34. In 1938 the corporation extended the grant to cover a second five-year period, from 1940 to 1944.

When the corporation grants ceased in 1944 the Government passed legislation giving statutory existence to the Council, and since 1945 has made an annual grant to it. In 1953 the Government grant was raised from £3,000 to £4,000, and again raised to £6,000 in 1959. The annual Government grant in 1961, and again in 1962, was £7,000, and contributions from other sources exceeded £3,500 in both of those years. The Carnegie Corporation has continued to show an interest in the work of the Council, and from time to time has made smaller grants for specific purposes.

The Council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications (39 research reports and 18 shorter studies in education) consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and of accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. The work done under the auspices of the Council has been carried out not only by its own permanent staff but also by part-time investigators.

In addition to its activities as a research organisation, the Council acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters.

The Council's activities are under the control of a permanent officer (the director), who was, in the year ended 31 March 1963, assisted by a staff of five. There are local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION – This Council was set up in 1958 following a conference of parties interested in technical education called by the Minister for the purpose of advising him on all matters pertaining to education and training for employment in industry and commerce. It was envisaged that the Council would encourage close relations between those concerned with technical education, industry and commerce. The Council has the following constitution:

  1. A Chairman appointed by the Minister;

  2. One member appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of each of the following bodies:

    1. Department of Education;

    2. University Grants Committee;

    3. Associated Chambers of Commerce;

    4. New Zealand Manufacturers' Federation;

    5. New Zealand Employers' Federation;

    6. New Zealand Institution of Engineers;

  3. Two members appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of the Technical Education Association, one of whom shall be a principal;

  4. Two members appointed by the Minister on the recommendation of the Federation of Labour;

  5. The Commissioner of Apprenticeship;

  6. Such additional members, not exceeding five, whom the Minister may appoint for a limited period on the recommendation of the Council to represent regional and special interests;

  7. One member appointed on the recommendation of the State Services Commission;

  8. Three members appointed on the direct nomination of the Minister.

The functions of the Council are as follows:

  1. To advise the Minister of Education on matters pertaining to education and training for employment in industry and commerce;

  2. To make recommendations to the Minister of Education and to other interested bodies on topics–

    1. submitted for consideration by the Minister of Education;

    2. initiated by the Council;

    3. submitted to it by interested bodies or educational institutions:

  3. To foster close relations between technical education and industry and commerce and more particularly:

    1. to ascertain the needs of industry and commerce and of sections thereof for technical education;

    2. to promote coordination between technical education, industry and commerce, workers' organisations, and government departments in various ways; including research, exchange of staff, provision of visiting lecturers, loans and gifts of equipment, consulting service to industry, advanced lecture courses and seminars;

  4. To consider the coordination of the work of senior technical colleges and the technological activities of the universities;

  5. To advise on location of new or existing national courses.

The Council, which is an autonomous body responsible through its Chairman to the Minister of Education, has under review the possible need to restate its functions in view of developments in the field of technical education.

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION – The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The Act provided for the constitution of a Board of Trustees of the Foundation consisting of a chairman appointed by the Governor-General; the Director of Education (deputy-chairman); the Secretary for Maori Affairs; the officer for Maori Education or some other officer of the Department of Education appointed by the Director of Education; and four Trustees appointed by the Governor-General, one a Maori member of Parliament appointed on the nomination of the other Maori members of Parliament, one appointed on the nomination of the Maori Council of Tribal Executives, one appointed on the nomination of the Dominion Executive of the Maori Women's Welfare League, and one appointed on the nomination of the Minister of Maori Affairs. The Government made an initial grant of £125,000 and the Minister of Finance may approve further grants and also subsidies on contributions to the Foundation of money, land, and other property. Some of the principal purposes for which the Board of Trustees was empowered to apply the income of the Foundation include the education and vocational training of Maoris; the granting of financial assistance or of equipment to schools and institutions at which Maoris are receiving education; the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending post-primary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects.

ADULT EDUCATION: National Council of Adult Education – The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education as set out in the Adult Education Act 1963 (which replaced the Adult Education Act 1947) are as follows:

  1. To furnish information and advice to the University Grants Committee and the Director of Education on any matter relating to adult education, and in particular in regard to any matter which may be the subject of representation or recommendation through the Minister to the Government of New Zealand by the University Grants Committee or the Director of Education:

  2. To conduct such surveys and experiments in adult education as it may consider necessary or desirable:

  3. To advise and assist wherever possible and whenever desirable any bodies or organisations which are engaged in adult education activities, including any such bodies or organisations which are financed partly or wholly from public funds:

  4. To initiate from time to time experimental, exploratory, and pioneering activities relating to adult education; and to help to fill temporary gaps in existing activities:

  5. To call conferences and to cooperate with and foster cooperation between Universities and other bodies and organisations engaged in adult education:

  6. To collect, examine, and disseminate information relating to adult education:

  7. Generally to take an overall cognisance of the development of adult education; and subject to the provisions of this Act or any other Act, to do whatever it considers necessary or desirable in order to stimulate activity in adult education so that it may best accomplish the purposes for which it exists.

From the coming into operation of the new Act on 1 January 1964, the Council ceased to make grants to the universities for adult education purposes (as it had done previously) and each university's adult education department is now financed from the block grants negotiated for the universities by the University Grants Committee. Although full responsibility and control of their adult education activities rests with the universities, each is advised by a committee representative of various community interests.

The adult education department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers or tutors. This staff contains general and specialist tutors, the latter catering for special interests such as music, drama, art, and home science. The two North Island universities also have tutors specialising in work among the Maori people. Some of the tutors are stationed in different parts of the university district and serve as area tutor-organisers. A large number of part-time tutors supplement the activity of the full time staff (numbering approximately 60). The work is carried out by various methods – lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses written for group study and discussion. Cultural activities such as organising itineraries of groups of musicians, dancers, and art exhibitions are also undertaken.

In addition to the adult education activities of the universities, a growing amount of adult education is being done by the post-primary schools under the Manual and Technical Regulations of the Department of Education. There has also been an increase in the number of polytechnics which cater for a wide variety of adult educational interests. It was to ensure an orderly and coordinated development of these forms of adult education, as well as that carried out by the numerous voluntary bodies, that the National Council was given the functions mentioned earlier.

The National Council consists of two members appointed by the Minister of Education, two appointed by the University Grants Committee (one from a list of names suggested by the universities, and one from a list of names suggested by the voluntary bodies actively engaged in adult education), the Chairman of the University Grants Committee and the Director of Education (or their nominees) ex-officio. The council has the power to co-opt one member.

Education of New Settlers – The large number of new settlers who have come to New Zealand from European countries in recent years has led to the establishment of evening classes for teaching English and what may broadly be called civics. Several thousands of new settlers have now passed through these classes and many are now becoming naturalised New Zealand citizens. For those persons not in the position to attend classes, a correspondence course is provided. Special textbooks and other material have been prepared for use by teachers and students. The classes are normally held at technical colleges.

Community Centres – In 1938 an experimental community centre was established at Feilding under the supervision of two experienced educationists specially appointed to the staff of the Feilding Agricultural High School. Classes have been conducted in drama, child care, literature, art appreciation, and physical welfare, both at the centre and in outlying areas. In 1944 a community centre was opened in a suburb of Christchurch. Subsequently, experimental centres were opened in Westport, Wakari, Hawera, and in the coal-mining districts of the Buller. All these receive some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. There are, however, many other community centre schemes supported by voluntary effort.

The Adult Education Act 1947 gave the Minister of Education power to establish or recognise community centres and to make grants to them. On the repeal of this Act in 1963, similar provision was made in the Education Amendment Act 1963.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE – This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library Service, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Regular exchanges of children's and young people's books are sent on a circulating basis to approximately 3,000 schools. The schools served are primary, both public and private, intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including post-primary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 605,717 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1963.

LIBRARY SCHOOL – The Library School of the National Library Service offers professional training to those holding university degrees or with equivalent education. Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of teachers' training colleges. Facilities for training are offered to students sponsored by UNESCO and by countries participating in the Colombo Plan.

PACIFIC ISLANDS EDUCATION – The Department of Education acts in liaison with the Departments of External Affairs and Island Territories to assist other administrations including those in Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, and Pitcairn Island with their educational problems.

As part of this assistance, the Department of Education assumes responsibility for filling in the vicinity of 200 education posts in the Pacific. These officers and teachers are inspected and their rights protected against their return to New Zealand. The Officer for Islands Education has a staff including two inspectors, a scholarships officer, and two textbook writers. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands and supplies of modern texts and apparatus are sent regularly. Several publications have been produced.

In addition, a very important function of the Division is to operate and supervise closely a scholarship system which enables some 200 islands students to obtain in New Zealand schools, trade training centres, and universities, more advanced education than would otherwise be available to them. During the term of their scholarship these students are fully maintained by the Departments of Island Territories and External Affairs. In 1963, approximately 200 other students from Fiji and Tonga, the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands were supervised and assisted in obtaining the benefits of a more varied or advanced education than they could gain in the islands.

The following table shows the numbers of teachers and estimated numbers of pupils in the areas receiving some help from the Islands Education Division of the Department of Education for the year 1963.

TerritoryTeachersPupils
New ZealandLocalPrimaryPost-primaryTotal

*Indicates areas where New Zealand assists but has no administrative authority.

Cook Islands352564,8264615,287
Niue11981,3041171,421
Tokelau Island23676676
Western Samoa*421,09431,2721,70432,976
Tonga*880015,9345,78521,719
Fiji*712,89184,5876,37890,965
C.A.A. Nandi4112112
Gilbert and Ellice*240711,49635411,850
Pitcairn*12727
Totals1745,569150,23414,799165,033

CHILD WELFARE – The Child Welfare Act 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Department of Education now known as the Child Welfare Division. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are placed specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children. The powers conferred by the principal Act were further defined and extended by the Child Welfare Amendment Act 1927. The meaning of the expression “delinquent” was extended by a 1954 amendment to the principal Act.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorised to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was made for the appointment of child welfare officers with wide responsibilities connected with the welfare of children. There were 220 men and women child welfare officers employed at 31 March 1963. The Act also provided for the appointment of honorary child welfare officers. These officers are people of integrity and local standing in their communities who are appointed annually by the Minister in charge of the Division. At 31 March 1963 there were 154 men and women serving in an honorary capacity.

Very wide discretionary powers are given to Children's Courts. Wherever practicable the hearings are conducted in premises apart from the Magistrate's Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child for the purposes of the Act is a person up to 17 years of age.

Children's Courts deal with cases of children brought either (a) on a complaint under the Child Welfare Act that a child is neglected, indigent, delinquent, not under proper control, or living in a detrimental environment or (b) charged with an offence. After hearing the complaint or the charge and in the light of the child welfare officer's report, the Court may, according to the needs of the case, commit the child to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare, or place him under supervision of a child welfare officer for a period (usually one year or two years) or discharge him with an admonition and, on occasion, an order for restitution or a fine.

A new approach to the problem of delinquency was the establishment throughout New Zealand in 1959 of a Juvenile Crime Prevention Section of the New Zealand Police. The aim is to detect delinquency at an early stage and, by close cooperation between child welfare officers and specialist police officers, to deal with the less serious offenders without Court action. The police, after consultation with child welfare officers, decide whether or not there will be a prosecution. For those not being prosecuted appropriate action is taken, for example in the form of a warning from the Police or continuing informal supervision by child welfare officers. During the year ended 31 March 1963, 3,709 cases were dealt with under this scheme without prosecution.

The number of appearances before the Children's Courts in the latest three years (ended 31 March) were as follows.

 196119621963
On “complaints” (under the Child Welfare Act)555572636
For offences (including offences against Acts, regulations, or bylaws)4,5214,3453,814
Totals5,0764,9174,450

On the basis of the total juvenile population at the time, the incidence of appearances for offences is shown as follows.

 196119621963

*Number of cases per 10,000 of the population aged seven to 17 years.

† Among the “more serious offences” are now included some offences not previously included. The figures for 1961 and 1962 have been revised in accordance with this change.

Total Court appearances for offences4,5214,3453,814
Rate*918472
Court appearances for all more serious offences (excluding offences against special Acts, regulations, or bylaws)3,3913,3563,535
Rate*-686566

The decisions made in Children's Courts during the year ended 31 March 1962 are shown in the summary below.

DecisionYear Ended 31 March 1963
Committed to the care of the Child Welfare Superintendent544
Placed under supervision of child welfare officers1,872
Admonished and discharged with or without costs, restitution, or fine1,380
All other decisions654
Total4,450

Many of the children who are committed to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare and who are thereby under his guardianship are placed immediately in foster homes and either at school or in employment. Those who require special care and training which cannot be provided in the ordinary life of the community are placed in institutions administered by the Superintendent. Some few reside in private institutions and some are in boarding schools.

Of the total of 12,154 children under the control and supervision of the Child Welfare Superintendent and his officers at 31 March 1963, 3,506 were under the guardianship of the Superintendent. These 3,506 children were at that date placed as shown in the following summary.

 NumberPercentage of Total
Residing in individual private homes (foster homes, employers' or relatives' homes)2,68876.0
In institutions administered by the Child Welfare Division (including those temporarily admitted)52114.9
In mental hospitals1674.8
In residential schools and colleges (including schools for handicapped children)892.5
In hospitals, convalescent homes, etc.60.2
In children's homes (including orphanages, etc.)270.8
Attending university or teachers' training college80.2

For the children requiring institutional care and training the Child Welfare Division administers several different types of institution. The Girls' Training Centre at Burwood, Christchurch, and the Boys' Training Centre at Levin each provide for the more difficult or disturbed girls or boys. The centres are open institutions providing full educational facilities with qualified and trained teachers and also a wide range of vocational training. Another small institution at Featherston provides specially to girls of primary school age who are so difficult or disturbed as to require special educational and social training. Two small hostels for girls at Wellington and at Burwood, Christchurch, provide for those who, while in ordinary employment, require for the time being the conditions of supervision and care obtainable in a hostel. There are 11 receiving homes and boys' homes in the larger centres providing for temporary care and observation, as well as one girls' home.

Children not requiring institutional care but presenting behaviour and personality problems beyond the capacity of most ordinary foster parents are provided for in “Family Homes”. These are private houses owned by the Division and occupied rent-free by specially selected married couples who agree to care for children on a long-term basis, as a condition of the tenancy. These homes are also used to provide transit accommodation in areas in which there is no receiving home or boys' home. There are 24 of these homes at present in operation throughout the country and more are planned.

Children placed by the Courts under supervision of child welfare officers are supervised in their own homes, except that in a few cases, with the approval of the parents or guardians, the child welfare officer arranges placement elsewhere – e.g., in employment. Magistrates have the authority to order that part or all of the period of supervision be spent in an institution. Most children placed under supervision respond well; where they do not they may appear before the Court again and be committed to the care of the Superintendent. There were 2,188 children under supervision at 31 March 1963.

Preventive cases, numbering 3,694 at 31 March 1963, consist of children who, without any Court appearance, are being supervised and assisted by child welfare officers under arrangements made voluntarily with the parents or guardians.

Child welfare officers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. In the year ended 31 March 1963, 8,883 cases were handled. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even two or three years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and Court action is the outcome of inquiries.

As provided for in the Child Welfare Act 1925, child welfare officers, on receiving from the Registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child.

Child welfare officers administer the provisions of the Infants Act 1908 by which children under six years of age living apart from their parents or guardians for more than seven consecutive days are required to be in licensed foster homes. At 31 March 1963, 754 such children were being supervised.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a child welfare officer must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child under 15 years, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the Court. The Court is required to obtain a child welfare officer's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least six months is required, during which the placement is supervised by a child welfare officer, before a final order can be made.

The Division also has a measure of responsibility towards handicapped children generally, partly because of its role in assisting in the administration of residential schools for children who are deaf, mentally backward, or emotionally maladjusted. Child welfare officers, more especially in country areas, also assist in locating children who require special education, in advising parents or teachers concerning the facilities available, and in ensuring that the circumstances become known to appropriate agencies.

Inspection of children's homes operated by private organisations and administration of schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important function of the Division. Financial assistance is given in the form of capitation payments for children in care and subsidies of up to 50 per cent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities.

The Child Welfare Amendment Act 1958 provided for the making of regulations for the registration and licensing of “Child Care Centres” (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.). These regulations were made on 7 November 1960 and came into force on 1 March 1961.

Chapter 8. Section 8 JUSTICE

Table of Contents

LAW OF NEW ZEALAND – The law applied in the Courts of New Zealand has three principal sources – the common law of England, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted prior to 1947, and statutes of the New Zealand Parliament.

The initial law of New Zealand when it became a British colony was the law of England as it existed on 14 January 1840 – that is, the common law together with those statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date. Subsequent law consists of those enactments of the United Kingdom Parliament between 1840 and 1947 which extended expressly or by necessary implication to New Zealand, and the enactments of the New Zealand Legislature.

In interpreting the common law the Courts have been concerned to preserve uniformity with the common law as interpreted in England. This unity is ensured not only by the existence of the Privy Council as the final Court of appeal for New Zealand, but by the practice of the Judges of following English decisions even though they are in theory not bound by them.

The New Zealand Parliament is now the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country, and there are no constitutional restrictions on the law which it can pass. Before the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 the powers of Parliament were limited in two respects. First, there was a somewhat uncertain and ill-defined incapacity to make laws having extra-territorial application, and, secondly, there was an incapacity to make laws conflicting with a statute of the United Kingdom Parliament extending to New Zealand. Since 1947, however, both these limitations have disappeared, although the United Kingdom Parliament still has the power to make laws extending to New Zealand at the request and with the consent of the New Zealand Legislature.

REVISION OF LAW – In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility of bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other Departments of State is in the hands of the Attorney-General and Minister of Justice. In formulating these proposals the Attorney-General is assisted by the Department of Justice and by the Law Revision Committee, an informal advisory body first set up in 1937. In addition to the Attorney-General, who is chairman, the Committee (at the beginning of 1964) comprised a representative of the Parliamentary Opposition, the chairman of the Statutes Revision Committee of the House of Representatives, the Permanent Heads of the principal legal Departments of State (the Solicitor-General, the Law Draftsman, and the Secretary for Justice), three representatives of the New Zealand Law Society, three representatives of the university faculties of law, a former Solicitor-General, and a barrister and solicitor in private practice.

The purpose of the Law Revision Committee is to bring into the work of reforming the law the principal groups, both inside and outside the ordinary Government machinery, which by their interest or expert knowledge can contribute in a special way to this task. The existence of the Law Revision Committee ensures that before proposals for the amendment of the law are put forward for Parliamentary approval they have been considered from many different points of view and have secured a substantial measure of informed support.

COURTS – The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Courts.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a President and two Judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional Judge or Judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal in any particular case where it is expedient. The Judges of the Court of Appeal are also Judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other Judges of that Court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters.

The Court of Appeal, unlike other Courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior Courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to the Privy Council. This leave may be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final Court of appeal in all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The Members of the Court are a Chief Justice and 15 other Judges, the number being fixed by statute. An amendment in 1953 provides, however, that an additional Judge or Judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the Judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of Judges, together with the provision that the salary of a Judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who retire at 72, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives. The Governor-General may suspend a Judge upon a like Address.

Magistrates' Courts are now set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. The jurisdiction of the Court is exercised by Stipendiary Magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 40, there being 35 at present holding office. Justices of the Peace, however, still sit as a Magistrates' Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges.

Stipendiary Magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least seven years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several Courts with specialist functions. These include the Court of Arbitration, which makes awards governing pay and working conditions in industry, and also makes general wage orders; the Compensation Court, which determines claims under the Workers' Compensation Act; the Land Valuation Court, which determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes; and the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

JURIES – The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every male British subject (other than a Maori) between 21 and 65 years of age and resident within 15 miles of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. There is provision for Maoris to serve on juries in criminal cases where both the victim and the accused are Maoris and in civil cases where one of the parties is a Maori.

The special provisions for Maori juries have been abolished with effect from the end of 1964 by the Juries Amendment Act 1962. Thenceforward all jury cases will be heard before a jury of which Europeans and Maoris are equally qualified to be members.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; Judges of the Supreme Court and of the Compensation Court; Judges and Members of the Court of Arbitration and of the Land Valuation Court; Judges and Commissioners of the Maori Land Court; Magistrates; Visiting Prison Justices and members of Parole Boards; Coroners; the Chairman of the Local Government Commission; the Chairman and Members of the Licensing Control Commission; Officers of Parliament; clergymen; nuns; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in Court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Provision was made by the Women Jurors Act 1942 for women to serve on juries voluntarily. The Juries Amendment Act 1963 altered the law to provide for the automatic inclusion of women on the jury rolls but giving them the right to exemption on request. The age limits for women are the same as for men.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the Court or a Judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the Court or a Judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

The Grand Jury was abolished in New Zealand by the Crimes Act 1961.

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts – From the beginning of settlement in New Zealand there has existed a speedy and inexpensive forum for determining everyday disputes between citizens. From 1846 to 1925 there were two types of Lower Court, as well as the Supreme Court. Resident Magistrates' Courts (from 1893 called Magistrates' Courts) dealt with the smallest claims, while larger minor claims were determined first by Courts of Requests, and from 1858 by District Courts.

The most important feature of this period was the gradual replacement of the three-tier structure by a two-tier structure as the jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts became more extensive and the District Courts fell gradually into disuse. The jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts was considerably extended in 1893, but the main reason for the increasing importance of these Courts was the requirement, first introduced in 1913, that every Magistrate should be a qualified barrister and solicitor. In 1925 District Courts were formally abolished, leaving the Magistrates' Courts and the Supreme Court as the sole Courts with general jurisdiction.

Before 1947 the jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts was limited (a) as to amount, the maximum sum which could be claimed being £300, and (b) as to remedies, which virtually limited jurisdiction to claims for debt or damages.

The Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 revised the whole framework of Magistrates' Courts procedure, which had been substantially unchanged for 80 years, and brought it into line with present-day jurisdiction and requirements. The jurisdiction of the Court was also widened and has been further increased by an amendment in 1961. It may now hear all claims up to £1,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the Court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may now grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 11 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for Which Judgment Entered
  £ ££
195246,8361,701,96324,753880,840743,680
195353,2772,183,45229,8421,180,2751,014,240
195458,1562,496,38832,9321,288,5451,064,327
195566,0782,843,10938,4751,502,3981,318,362
195672,7463,066,94643,8721,859,0331,599,585
195779,0003,212,82046,4771,865,3311,575,680
195882,4933,182,05350,0941,819,1691,575,016
195980,8562,885,95951,3861,805,7101,570,604
196081,1853,147,66649,4991,476,1971,278,360
196192,3833,696,90654,2261,923,9571,716,559
1962108,6984,461,55860,5372,342,3642,051,183

The average amount claimed in each plaint has risen from just over £36 in 1952 to a little more than £41 in 1962.

Supreme Court – The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exception, all cases determined in the Magistrates' Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount
     £
19521,451125302242182,036
19531,435106282..232,733
19541,527130237..291,041
19551,614137198..255,513
19561,735146199..400,341
19571,817144206..354,528
19581,91153242..467,872
19592,136138240..585,891
19602,162138248..505,078
19612,201128278..485,498
19621,891144286..518,297

Court of Appeal – During the five years 1958 to 1962 there were 208 civil appeals, of which 55 were allowed, and also eight cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in three judgments for the plaintiffs and five for the defendants.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts – The criminal jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts has gradually grown out of the general jurisdiction historically enjoyed in respect of minor offences any Justices of the Peace. The Court previously had power to deal with all summary cases – that is, cases where a statute provides that an offence shall be dealt with summarily – and with a few indictable offences. Since 1952, however, Magistrates have had jurisdiction, which is now given by the Summary Proceedings Act 1957, to deal with the majority of indictable offences. This Act gives a Magistrate jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. If the Magistrate deals summarily with an indictable offence, he may impose a sentence of imprisonment of up to three years or a fine of up to £200. A Magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than three months.

Justices of the Peace now hear only a small number of summary cases where the statute creating the offence provides that one Justice or two or more Justices are to have power to deal with it, or where jurisdiction is expressly conferred on Justices in a particular case. This is provided for in the Summary Proceedings Act and is a departure from the previous law, under which Justices had jurisdiction in all summary cases unless otherwise provided. The tendency is to have all but the most trivial criminal cases dealt with by Stipendiary Magistrates, although the extent to which this is practicable varies from district to district.

The following table shows the number of criminal charges dealt with in Magistrates' Courts in the latest 11 years. These figures and all the figures relating to Magistrates' Courts, Supreme Court, and prisons, include Maoris; Children's Court cases are excluded and will be found under the section relating to juvenile offences.

YearNumberPer 1,000 of Mean Population
Against MalesAgainst FemalesTotalAgainst MalesAgainst FemalesTotal
195278,5363,66682,20278.263.6941.18
195385,8954,60690,50183.384.5244.17
195484,2003,97788,17779.933.8242.09
195582,2184,31786,53576.414.0640.46
195691,3145,26296,57683.184.8544.24
1957104,1425,655109,79792.775.0949.18
1958113,5066,804120,31098.725.9952.63
1959106,3606,622112,98290.595.7148.39
1960117,0617,735124,79697.986.5452.50
1961126,0308,925134,955103.287.3955.60
1962140,9929,918150,910112.658.0260.65

The great majority of these charges are, as may be expected, for comparatively minor offences, particularly against the traffic laws. Traffic offences alone accounted for more than two-thirds of the convictions in the Magistrates' Courts in 1962; of the 137,395 convictions, 99,273 were for traffic offences, while 4,951 were for offences against the liquor laws, and 5,294 for drunkenness.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest five years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year.

Type of Offence19581959196019611962

*Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

Common assault9568439791,0671,312
Sexual offences518407376564748
Other offences against the person233176175152153
Theft4,4963,9973,9193,5003,950
Wilful damage908734977852931
Other offences against property (including forgery)5,2225,5085,5615,1075,865
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)4,8864,5564,7154,4945,294
Application for prohibition order818696733637764
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, etc., of police, and vagrancy2,1672,1642,4122,6943,697
Minor traffic offences71,45267,96077,40085,74697,323
Other offences against good order1,2219211,7951,8091,607
Breach of probation345356398436472
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing Act4,7814,2974,8685,0364,951
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income2,2531,7632,7004,1183,589
Failing to pay maintenance1,6401,6901,5311,3131,531
Deserting merchant ships286139145226244
Breaches of price control orders641685613924
Other offences6,5455,2804,1494,6544,940
Totals108,791101,655112,889122,544137,395
Distinct cases*87,74582,30793,273102,340114,749

The total convictions (137,395) for 1962 represents a rate of 55.22 per 1,000 of mean population.

Comparing 1962 with the previous year, the larger increases according to types of offence were as follows:

  Per Cent
Common assault24523
Sexual offences18432
Theft45013
Other offences against property (including forgery)75815
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)80018
Application for prohibition order12720
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, etc., of police, and vagrancy1,00337
Minor traffic offences11,57714
Failing to pay maintenance21817

Major decreases according to type of offence were as follows:

Other offences against good order20211
Failing to furnish return, and making false return, of land or income52912

The next table classifies the result of hearing and punishment inflicted on summary conviction for all cases during 1962.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyOffences Against Good OrderOther OffencesTotal
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out7241,6935,2474,91612,580
Committed for trial or sentence2965644022922
Admonished and discharged38213
Imprisonment5863,3779816305,574
Corrective training117522180
Detention in detention centre22240441320
Detention in borstal institution, etc.2695638491,069
Released on probation3002,440316873,143
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence-13726018853638
Fined1,0492,7103,31811,747118,581
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)928312,9247624,609
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)1,3781,378
Miscellaneous8741,0291,903
Totals3,23313,006113,98020,691150,910
Distinct cases2,4816,40299,77515,767124,425

Traffic Offences – Traffic offences form so large a proportion of summary convictions that a further analysis is of interest. The most frequent traffic offences are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest five years.

Offence19581959196019611962
Negligently driving motor vehicle using death3629282227
Negligent driving causing injury3330313132
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle causing injury111
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury2718241211
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use1,0881,135,0799471,095
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle786711707713782
Drunk in charge of other vehicle1410622
Excessive speed in motor vehicle15,96316,59021,71325,05927,892
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor vehicle12,84911,43712,67114,05815,052
Negligent or dangerous driving other vehicle77128126115149
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles2,7823,0922,6043,3174,111
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles6,0036,1055,7816,0446,450
Offences relating to driver's licence3,7763,7274,3835,0796,050
Breaches of parking regulations20,56318,02720,96722,00924,650
Other traffic offences9,4398,8549,15510,06512,969
Totals73,43769,89379,27587,47499,273
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population32.1329.9433.3536.0439.90

Convictions for traffic offences in 1962 were 11,798, or 13.5 per cent, higher than in 1961. The largest increase was in the number of convictions for other traffic offences, which was 2,904, or 28.9 per cent more than in 1961. Other major increases in convictions (with the percentage increases in parentheses) were recorded for the following: excessive speed in motor vehicle, 2,833 (11.3); negligent or dangerous driving of motor vehicle, 994 (7.1); lighting offences, 794 (23.9); offences relating to driver's licence, 971 (19.1); and parking offences, 2,641 (12.0). It should be noted that the number of motor vehicles increased from 917,799 at 30 June 1961 to 984,576 at 30 June 1962.

The previous table excludes the more serious cases involving death or injury, which are sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1962, 52 such cases were sent forward and there were 20 sentences, comprising 14 for negligent or drunken driving causing death, and 6 for negligent or drunken driving causing injury.

Of the 99,273 convictions for traffic offences, 5,122 persons had their drivers' licences cancelled for varying lengths of time. These are given below, together with the figures for the previous year.

Period for which Licence Cancelled19611962
Under 3 months1,6771,620
3 months and under 6 months988972
6 months and under 1 year265308
1 year and under 2 years9901,223
2 years and under 3 years274236
3 years and under 4 years586669
4 years and under 5 years1214
5 years and over11780
Total cancellations4,9095,122

Drunkenness – The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness, together with rate per 1,000 of mean population, for each of the latest five years.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19584,6911954,8864.080.172.14
19594,4021544,5563.750.131.95
19604,5381774,7153.800.151.98
19614,3811134,4943.590.091.85
19625,1271675,2944.100.142.13

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table, but the figures do not include cases of application for prohibition orders of which there were 764 in 1962, compared with 637 in 1961. The rates of convictions have risen in the latest year, with convictions of females following the same trend as convictions of males.

Supreme Court – Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes – those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal Sentences
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMFTotal
(a) Total Cases
19588092332313219354216558
19595784027414302557619595
19601,3015360335107471039749
1961901753942511350725532
196281711840148217161849667
(b) Distinct Persons
19582571214775021979206
1959262171461252219814212
1960354241961572326818286
196140628222126028212294
1962368192011350125114265

Of the 387 distinct persons indicted during 1962, 214 were convicted and 160 acquitted, and “no bill” was returned or the prosecution was not otherwise proceeded with in the remaining 13 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyForgery and Offences Against the CurrencyOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against PropertyForgery and Offences Against the CurrencyOther OffencesTotal
195820331217265589094616206
1959115421283159583104916212
19601705151648749118139524286
1961209282132853216111959294
1962198431162266711813413265

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19581959196019611962

*Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.

Murder13124
Attempted murder1121
Manslaughter*78643
Traffic offences involving death or injury614212120
Assaults and wounding1722244425
Sexual offences5434598059
Other offences against the person41597
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering4748373850
Theft, receiving, and fraud4148866875
Other offences against property6816137
Forgery and uttering69552
Other offences161624913
Totals206212286294265
Per 10,000 mean population0.900.911.221.211.06

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest five years were as follows:

Sentence19581959196019611962

*Commuted to life imprisonment.

Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)2619443428
Ordered to come up for sentence54557
Discharged2121
Fined1717312939
Imprisoned127137160172173
Corrective training5587
Detention centre4
Borstal training91016336
Preventive detention141719137
Death1*2*1*1*
Totals206212286294265

In 1941 the death sentence for murder was abolished, life imprisonment with hard labour being substituted therefor. It was restored in 1950 by the Capital Punishment Act but was again abolished by the Crimes Act 1961. The only crime for which the death penalty may be imposed is treason. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Flogging and whipping were also abolished in 1941 and have not been restored.

CRIMINAL APPEALS – The law relating to criminal appeals is now contained in the Crimes Act 1961. Both the prosecutor and the accused may appeal on a point of law. In addition, any person convicted on indictment or committed for sentence may appeal to the Court–

  1. Against his conviction on any ground involving a question of law.

  2. With the leave of the Court or on the certificate of the Judge who tried the case, on any ground involving a question of fact or on any other ground deemed sufficient by the Court.

  3. With the leave of the Court against the sentence passed unless it is one fixed by law.

The Court may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

The Act does not affect the Crown's prerogative of mercy, but contains a provision enabling the Governor-General to refer to the Court any application for the exercise of the prerogative.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN – Of the 150,910 criminal charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1962, 9,918, or 6.6 per cent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase on the 1961 total which was 8,925.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences during 1961 and 1962 included the following:

 19611962
Common assault2530
Drunkenness102149
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.3666
Theft524584
Fraud and false pretences18598
Offensive conduct or language7062
Vagrancy130167

Supreme Court statistics also suggest that women in general are of a law-abiding disposition; 14 females (5.3 per cent of the total) were sentenced in 1962 for criminal offences.

Women received into prison under sentence during 1962 numbered 160. The principal offences concerned were: burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 8; embezzlement, 5; theft, 44; fraud and false pretences, 4; vagrancy, 51; breach of probation, 17. The corresponding total in 1961 was 142, and the main offences were; burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 5; embezzlement, 9; theft, 44; fraud and false pretences, 7; wilful damage, trespass, 4; indecent, riotous, offensive conduct, 5; vagrancy, 37; breach of probation, 9.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS – As previously mentioned, Maoris are included in the statistical tables presented elsewhere in this section, the data given here being for purposes of comparison. According to the population estimate of 31 December 1962, 5.31 per cent of the total population of New Zealand aged 15 and over were Maoris.

It is not possible to classify Maoris and non-Maoris in Magistrates' Court summons cases, but an accurate classification can be arrived at in the case of arrests, and the following summary shows total charges for arrest cases in 1962. Figures for non-Maoris are quoted for comparative purposes.

Class of OffenceTotal Charges for Arrest Cases
RaceAgainst the PersonAgainst PropertyAgainst Good OrderOther Offences
DrunkennessOtherMalesFemalesTotal
Maoris4822,7805228912524,4454824,927
Non-Maoris1,6177,4443,8973,54197916,59188717,478
Totals2,09910,2244,4194,4321,23121,0361,36922,405

Of the total number of arrests and convictions 22.0 per cent and 22.8 per cent respectively were Maoris.

The total number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during the five years 1958 to 1962 was 226, or 17.9 per cent of the total of 1,263. Of the 44 Maoris (including four females) sentenced during 1962, 3 were committed from Magistrates' Courts and 41 were tried and convicted in the Supreme Court. The following table shows the number of Maoris sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years, together with the percentage of Maori offenders to total persons sentenced in each case.

YearOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property*Total Offences
Sexual OffencesOther
Maoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total SentencesMaoris SentencedPercentage of Total Sentences

*Including forgery and uttering.

†Includes other offences.

1958611.11027.81414.03115.0
1959617.61020.42421.24119.3
19601322.01322.01611.54214.7
19613240.02024.71612.96823.1
19621728.81118.61410.44416.6

During 1962, 1,010 Maoris (including 69 females) were received into prison under sentence, this being 28.4 per cent of the total number of distinct committals. Of the 1,770 persons held in custody on 31 December 1962, 610, or 34.5 per cent, were Maoris. Corresponding figures for 1961 were: 854 received under sentence (including 60 females) this being 26.6 per cent of the total of distinct committals. Maoris in prison on 31 December 1961 were 583, or 31.2 per cent, of the 1,866 persons held.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS – Children's Courts were established in New Zealand under Part IV of the Child Welfare Act 1925, and are expressly designed to separate youthful offenders and children in need of protection from the atmosphere and associations of the regular Courts. All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children's Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary Courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular Court, the Court may order his case to be heard in the Children's Court.

To fulfil the object for which Children's Courts were set up, the legislation prescribes that as far as possible persons attending a Children's Court shall not be brought into contact with persons attending any other Court. Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children's Court are not held in a courtroom and, where a Children's Court is in the same building as any other Court, it does not sit when that other Court is in session. Proceedings in Children's Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding Magistrate.

When a child was brought before a Children's Court and charged with any offence, the Court was formerly not required to hear the charge against him. The law was changed in 1948, and all charges must now be heard and determined. It is not necessary, however, to record a conviction even if the charge is proved, and in practice convictions are not entered. The Court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction had been recorded.

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts during each of the latest five years. It is shown in two ways; i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only one charge, the most serious, is counted, irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19523,9104534,3632,1183452,463
19533,7755764,3512,1384162,554
19544,8515715,4222,4094222,831
19555,0266855,7112,7305483,278
19565,4205936,0132,9494953,444
19577,3068758,1813,7706464,416
19588,0841,0899,1734,3587455,103
19597,1588097,9673,5256404,165
19609,2971,06810,3654,8038065,609
19619,1041,35610,4604,6788675,545
19628,0921,3309,4223,7138974,610

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the latest five years are as follows.

Type of Offence19581959196019611962

*Includes forgery and uttering.

NOTE – Distinct cases figures are included in those for total charges.

 Total Charges
Sexual offences14311681167159
Assaults1078213111496
Other offences against the person31981113
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering1,1981,3361,5211,5442,126
Theft, receiving, and fraud3,2002,6073,4553,2623,309
Unlawful conversion of vehicles8648309801,164910
Wilful damage668457673574545
Other offences against property*735615653145
Offences against good order1,7711,4822,1602,357829
Indigent or delinquent child7858249409081,027
Other offences333168260306263
Totals9,1737,96710,36510,4609,422
 Distinct Cases
Sexual offences1128867109106
Assaults8266969080
Other offences against the person26961112
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering542582629743928
Theft, receiving, and fraud1,5611,1731,6341,5001,387
Unlawful conversion of vehicles294255390351276
Wilful damage360185291227229
Other offences against property*2725501539
Offences against good order1,1539371,4491,555526
Indigent or delinquent child710732830765882
Other offences236113167179145
Totals5,1034,1655,6095,5454,610

The cases heard during 1962 resulted as follows:

 Total ChargesDistinct Cases
Dismissed or withdrawn577340
Admonished and discharged1,566866
Committed to care of Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education1,474615
Placed under supervision3,7091,742
Committed to an institution599133
Fined818611
Otherwise dealt with679303
Total cases9,4224,610

PROBATION – The present legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The Court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily.

An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than one year nor more than three years, and during this time he must observe certain statutory conditions governing his behaviour and must accept the supervision of a Probation Officer. The statutory conditions of probation relate to such matters as reporting to a Probation Officer, employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. In addition, the Court may impose particular conditions designed to assist his rehabilitation and to prevent further crime. It may also impose a fine in addition to probation. At the end of his period of probation the offender is deemed to be a free man, but if at any time during the period he breaks any of the conditions on which probation has been granted to him, he may be brought back to Court and becomes liable to a term of imprisonment or to a fine. In addition, he may be sentenced for the original offence for which he was placed on probation.

The probation method has come to be accepted as an integral part of the penal system and is widely used in New Zealand. The following figures show the number of persons released on probation during each of the past 11 years.

YearNumber Admitted to Probation
19521,176
19531,098
19541,278
19551,429
19561,692
19571,749
19581,870
19591,804
19601,979
19611,944
19621,978

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1962, together with the period of their probation.

Age, in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
1 Year15 Months18 Months2 Years3 Years

*Includes one offender placed on probation for 30 months.

Under 2027611994661461,088
20–241678216256467
25–2949256717158
30–3949296821167
40–4923113161063
50–59749525
60–694116
70 and over224
Totals5753352790*2581,978

Probation is a conditional suspension of imprisonment and provides the opportunity whereby the offender may, with the assistance and supervision of a Probation Officer, rehabilitate himself. The real purpose of probation is to prevent further offences, and it is more freely used in the case of first offenders and young offenders.

CRIMINAL INJURIES COMPENSATION – The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 provides for the establishment of a Crimes Compensation Tribunal to assess compensation to be paid by the State (with recovery where practicable from the offender) for persons injured by certain criminal acts, and for dependents of persons killed by such acts.

PRISONS: Historical Development – The historical development of prisons is summarised in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Administration – The object of imprisonment is the protection of society, and this may be achieved by the processes of deterrence and reformation. It is the duty of the prisons administration to exert every effort to divert the young and malleable offender from further crime and to attempt reformation in any case offering any hope of success. It is also necessary to balance the demands of reformative training and security. The interest of the community as well as of the offender demand that so far as possible the time spent in prison should be so used as to bring about the greatest likelihood that the prisoner will lead a law-abiding and socially purposeful life on his discharge.

The Criminal Justice Act 1954, which came into force on 1 January 1955, revised the penal system. The Act had a twofold purpose: the first, to provide every possible means of diverting the young or inexperienced offender from a life of crime, and the second, to protect the community against the hardened offender by keeping him away from society for a long period.

From the coming into force of the Act the sentences of detention which the courts may impose are as follows:

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding the maximum prescribed by the Act. This was formerly three years but was reduced to two years by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being three months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to one month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. (The part of the Act relating to this type of punishment was brought into force for male offenders sentenced by Courts in the North Island in June 1961 and for male offenders sentenced by Courts in the South Island in August 1962.) After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. If the sentence is for less than 12 months the Court may order that the offender be on probation for a period of up to 12 months from his release. If the sentence is for 12 months or more the offender will automatically be on probation on his release, the period of probation being for 12 months or for the unexpired term of his sentence, whichever is the greater. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Parole Board, but in any event not less than three years nor, except where the offender has qualified for preventive detention through certain sexual offences, more than 14 years. The offender must be 25 years of age or over and must have qualified for preventive detention by the number of his previous convictions and the type of his previous sentences. After serving three years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the Board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends until the expiry of the full 14 years or for life, as the case may be.

The sentence of corrective training, which was formerly available for certain offenders between the ages of 21 and 30 years, was abolished in 1963.

The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for another type of sentence for young offenders – the sentence of periodic detention. This is initially available only to Courts in Auckland.

Under the Act any person between the ages of 15 and 21 years who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. The person will then be required to attend at a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody will be kept busy attending classes or groups, undergoing physical training or performing work either in the centre or outside it. Outside work may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person or on Crown or local authority property. The sentence is designed primarily for young offenders of the vandal and larrikin types.

Subject to the overall control of the Minister of Justice, the administration and general management of the prisons and the borstal institutions are the responsibility of the Secretary for Justice.

Classification – The key to successful prison work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end Classification Boards operate in the three main reception centres, Auckland Prison, Wellington Prison, and Christchurch Prison, and in Wi Tako Prison, an institution for those in prison for the first time.

Every man sentenced to imprisonment for a term of six months or more comes before the classification board which can call upon a psychologist, psychiatrist, vocational guidance officer, probation officer, or any other form of specialist service to assist in defining the offender's character and potential, and advise upon the most hopeful form of treatment while he is in prison.

In New Zealand the total number of prisoners is not high. There is therefore little opportunity for special categories of prisons. The task of the Classification Boards is to advise on the question of allocation of prisoners. Boards have no executive powers, but they furnish to the prisons administration a report on each prisoner whom they see and their recommendations are as far as possible carried out.

Measures Employed in Treatment – This section may conveniently be dealt with under six heads – vocational and non-vocational training; earnings; punishments; pre-release; and after care.

Vocational Training – Every prisoner must assist by his labour to reduce the cost of his maintenance in custody; it is also necessary that he should develop the habit of hard and consistent work. In New Zealand all available prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, there are courses of trade training.

Non-vocational Training – If a prisoner is eventually to be released into the community, then it is important during his period of imprisonment to pay regard to every aspect of his life as a citizen. It is not enough merely to restrict his freedom and to train him to work; he must also be kept or made mentally and morally fit.

An increasing number and variety of evening activities are being introduced into the prisons, and the number of prisoners engaged on them is likewise increasing. Very real training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are full-time teachers in Auckland Prison, Christchurch Prison, Waikeria Youth Centre, Arohata and Invercargill Borstal Institutions, and part-time teachers in many other institutions. It is their task to seek to improve the general education of those prisoners who have been unable to reach the level of the present Form II or the old Standard VI, and also to assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses through a Correspondence School. The interest shown in education is encouraging, since in many cases it fits a prisoner for better employment on his release and thereby helps to reduce the chances of his further offending.

Since 1945, when, as the Country Library Service, it made some provision for the Invercargill Borstal Institution, the National Library Service has year by year increased its assistance to prisons. At the present time all institutions receive at regular intervals a generous supply of well chosen books and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the Library's Request Service.

Earnings – All prisoners are credited with earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence and conduct. The present system has been in operation for several years and is proving beneficial. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure.

Punishments – An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the Superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a Visiting Justice or to the Court. A Visiting Justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the Superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the Court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a Superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

Pre-release – Various means are used to prepare inmates for their release. In 1961 the first pre-release hostel was opened in Invercargill. It provides accommodation for up to seven borstal trainees who are permitted to take private employment during the last few weeks of their sentence. Similar hostels for borstal trainees have been opened in Auckland and Hamilton. It is planned to open another in Wellington and one for adult prisoners in Christchurch.

Under the Penal Institutions Amendment Act 1961, selected inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. In accordance with the Act the selection of inmates for this privilege is made, on the recommendation of Superintendents, by a special committee chaired by a Magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute some of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Justice Department for payment upon final release.

After care – Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, corrective training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are released on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a Probation Officer, and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose – it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and discipline during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing Court so orders.

Parole Boards – The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present four parole boards; the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and three Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. Persons serving sentences of imprisonment other than life imprisonment do not normally have their cases considered by a board but any particular case may be referred to the Prisons Parole Board in special circumstances.

Until 1961 there was only one board, called the Prisons Board in 1910 when it was established, and known as the Parole Board after 1954, when the Criminal Justice Act amended its jurisdiction to conform with the changes then made in the penal law. The provision for separate boards for the review of borstal cases was made by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1961.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least one but not more than five other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for three years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a Magistrate as Chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and two residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for three years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearBorstal Detention*Corrective TrainingImprisonment or Hard LabourHabitual Criminals or Preventive DetentionPersons on ParoleTotal

*Under jurisdiction of the Borstal Parole Boards from November 1961.

19588172474835111,158
19591,075198406741,384
19607812053797121,132
19611,0221613280101,305
19621,4181152883121,656

Of the cases coming before the Board in 1962, there were 636 recommendations made for release on probation and five persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

STATISTICS OF PRISONERS – There are 14 institutions serving as prisons or borstals in New Zealand, and 11 police gaols. Any person serving a sentence of not more than eight days may be detained at any police station, which is deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1962 is shown in the following table.

 MalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at 1 January 19621,7541121,866
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)5,9563956,351
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)6,0494086,457
Persons in prison at 31 December 19621,661991,760
Daily average number of prisoners1,784971,881

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. In 1962, 217 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a Court order, 35 were classed as mental defectives and transferred to mental hospitals, while 2,029 persons were not returned to prison after release for hearing of the charge, being acquitted, fined, placed on probation, etc.

The following table analyses the ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1962.

Age, in YearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft, and FraudConversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Vagrancy and DrunkennessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesAssaultsOther
Under 214133143710743239901
21–24355062737853222717
25–291832131962752171509
30–3951321420219109240667
40–49313121368102152462
50–5922525436980235
60 and over33219261568
Totals201186401,3172424541,1193,559
Maoris (included above)517015418107832661,010

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1962.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 YearsOver 5 YearsOtherTotal

*Sentenced to life imprisonment.

Under 2181171232404121901
21–2411521422611547717
25–29111138155723012*509
30–3917314197102156667
40–4911712915049116462
50–596261822253235
60 and over19261363168
Totals6789131,0557701231823,559

The next table shows the special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1962. These figures are included in the previous table; corresponding columns are: three months and under twelve months – detention centre; one and under three years – borstal training; three and under five years – corrective training; and over five years – preventive detention.

Age, in YearsDetention CentreBorstal TrainingCorrective TrainingPreventive DetentionTotal
Under 21168375543
21–2422628
25–2988
30–3933
40–4922
50–5911
60 and over
Totals170375346585

Of the total of distinct persons received into prison in 1962 no less than 72.3 per cent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 31.4 per cent of these had been convicted more than six times.

The number of prisoners received to serve sentence imposed during the year 1962 for criminal offences was 4,065, but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 3,559 (3,399 males and 160 females). The corresponding figures for 1961 were 3,607, of which 3,209 were distinct persons (3,067 males and 142 females).

An analysis is given below of distinct persons received into prison according to nature of sentence imposed in 1960, 1961, and 1962.

Nature of Sentence196019611962
Imprisonment2,6312,6732,974
Corrective training584234
Detention centre67170
Borstal training350414375
Preventive detention17126
Death11
Totals3,0573,2093,559

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 11 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in JailProportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
19521,083301,1135.355.50
19531,088271,1155.245.37
19541,196271,2235.655.77
19551,117371,1545.165.33
19561,362411,4036.176.35
19571,469441,5136.496.69
19581,636591,6957.067.32
19591,702441,7467.297.48
19601,770581,8287.457.69
19611,810561,8667.467.69
19621,704561,7606.857.07

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the latest 11 years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in the next table.

YearNumberPer 10,000 of Mean Population
19522,26811.36
19532,35411.49
19542,40411.48
19552,53111.83
19562,88613.22
19573,03713.60
19583,05613.37
19592,95512.83
19603,05712.86
19613,20913.22
19623,55914.30

POLICE – The Police in New Zealand are maintained wholly by the Central Government. The law relating to the establishment and regulation of the Police is contained in the Police Act 1958.

Organisation and Duties – A Commissioner and two Assistant Commissioners with headquarters at Wellington, subject to the directions of the Minister of Police, have the general superintendence and control of the Police. In addition an Assistant Commissioner is stationed in charge of the Auckland District. The other 14 districts in New Zealand are each under the charge of a Chief Superintendent, Superintendent, or Chief Inspector of Police, who is responsible for the maintenance of good order and the proper execution of police duty therein. Districts are divided into subdistricts under the charge of Chief Inspectors, Inspectors, senior sergeants, sergeants, or constables, and cities and towns, where regular beat duty is performed, are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants, and supplemented by mobile patrols.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the provisions of the Police Offences and the Official Secrets Acts, there are several statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Secondhand Dealers Act, etc. They also undertake certain types of inquires and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold such additional appointments as Registrars and Bailiffs of Magistrates' Courts, Probation Officers, and Inspectors of Sea Fishing.

Recruiting – In general, male recruits for the Police must be between the ages of 19 and 35 years, be not less than 5 ft 8 1/2 in. in height, and female recruits must be between the ages of 20 and 33 years, with a height of not less than 5 ft 5 in. Recruits must pass a departmental pre-entry test. They must be of British nationality, of good character, smart, active, intelligent, and be passed as medically fit. The selection of recruits is made after exhaustive inquiries into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. On appointment they undergo a three months' course of training at the Police Training School, Trentham, where they are drilled and receive comprehensive training in their powers and responsibilities as police officers, fitting them to deal with the situations which may be faced on duty.

Appointments to vacancies in the higher ranks up to the rank of Chief Inspector are made from those members of the next lower rank who have qualified by examination, efficiency, and seniority for such promotion.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Criminal Investigation Branch, which is attached to each district headquarters and undertakes the investigation and detection of the more serious crimes.

Strength – The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1963, inclusive of 34 women police, was 2,575 (2,323 Uniform Branch; 252 Criminal Investigation Branch). In addition, 9 members who had commenced retiring leave prior to retirement were on the non-effective strength. Details of the effective strength were: Commissioner, 3 Assistant Commissioners, 5 Chief Superintendents, 12 Superintendents, 20 Chief Inspectors, 35 Inspectors, 113 senior sergeants, 283 sergeants, 13 temporary sergeants, 2,056 constables and 34 women police. In addition to the above, there were also 81 police cadets, 8 matrons, and 1 district constable.

Women Police – At 31 March 1963 the women police consisted of 1 senior sergeant, 1 sergeant, and 32 policewomen and these were stationed at Auckland, Hamilton, Napier, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, Timaru, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Their duties are mainly the investigation of complaints in respect of women and children, and patrol duties in uniform. Some policewomen are employed in the Criminal Investigation Branch.

Chapter 9. Section 9 DEFENCE AND REHABILITATION

9 A – DEFENCE

CONTROL AND COORDINATION OF DEFENCE – The Ministry of Defence, the establishment of which was approved by Government in November 1962, is a unitary department combining not only all joint-Service functions but also the Departments of Army, Navy, and Air as distinct components. There is thus a centralisation of control and a decentralisation of administration. The Ministry acts as a coordinating defence authority to advise the Government on defence policy, planning, and expenditure. The Secretary of Defence, in addition to his function as departmental head, is Chairman of an Officials Committee, which comprises the Chief of Defence Staff, the three Service Chiefs of Staff, the Secretary of External Affairs, and the Secretary to the Treasury. This Committee provides advice to the Cabinet Committee on Defence, or the Minister of Defence, on defence policy as a whole by combining considerations of military, strategic, political, economic, and financial importance.

Chiefs of Staff Committee – The Chiefs of Staff Committee, comprising the Chief of Defence Staff (chairman) and the Chiefs of the Naval, General, and Air Staffs. The Committee is responsible for advising the Minister of Defence on purely military matters and is served by several inter-service committees dealing with various subjects such as strategic and operational plans, intelligence, and communications.

Principal Personnel Officers' Committee – This committee comprises the senior personnel officers of the three Services. This committee is responsible for personnel matters such as manpower, conditions of service (including pay), medical services, education, and welfare.

Principal Administrative Officers' Committee – This committee consists of the senior supply officers of the three Services and a Treasury representative. Their sphere of responsibility covers matters such as supply and maintenance, quartering, transportation, works, munitions, and equipment. This and the preceding committee are served by subordinate committees responsible for administrative planning, and in various specialist fields such as medical, recruiting, and the design and provisioning of clothing and other stores.

Cooperation With Other Countries – To facilitate exchanges on military matters, New Zealand joint service liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, and Malaysia. In addition the head and deputy head of the New Zealand Joint Services Liaison Mission in Washington are accredited to the Canadian service authorities as military, naval, and air advisers to the High Commissioner for New Zealand in Ottawa. A New Zealand military liaison officer serves with the Commonwealth Liaison Mission in Korea. The United Kingdom and Australia have service representatives in Wellington attached to the offices of their respective High Commissioners, and there are military attachés on the staff of the United States Embassy in Wellington.

Industrial War Potential – Planning in respect of the demands which, in war or on the threat of war, the services would make on industry is the task of the Joint War Production Committee, on which is represented the Departments of Industries and Commerce, Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Services.

Defence Science – Defence science activities in New Zealand are guided by an executive committee, comprising the Chiefs of Staff and the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, known as the Defence Science Policy Committee.

The Defence Science Policy Committee is served by appropriate technical subcommittees of service and scientific composition. It is aided by the Defence Science Advisory Committee consisting of non-Government scientists and experts. The Policy Committee with its supporting groups is known as the Defence Research Organisation.

Defence science activities are coordinated with Commonwealth requirements through the Commonwealth Advisory Committee on Defence Science or by direct negotiation with other Commonwealth Governments.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED SERVICES – The principal statutes governing the armed services are as follows: Army, the New Zealand Army Act 1950 and its amendments, the Military Manoeuvres Act 1915; Navy, the Navy Act 1954 and its amendments, the Naval Discipline Act (U.K.), the Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908; and Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 and its amendments.

Two other Acts of general application, are the National Military Service Act 1961 and the Courts-Martial Appeals Act 1953. The latter provides for the establishment of a special Court of Appeal for the Navy, Army, and Air Force, to which persons convicted by a court martial may appeal against conviction.

The Court is to consist of an uneven number of Judges (not fewer than three), of whom one is a Judge of the Supreme Court and the others either Judges, barristers, or former Judges of the Supreme Court.

The Courts Martial Appeal Court is empowered to allow an appeal if it thinks that the finding of the court martial is unreasonable, or cannot be supported having regard to the evidence, or involves a wrong decision on a question of law, or that on any other ground there was a miscarriage of justice. The Court may dismiss any appeal if it considers that no substantial miscarriage of justice has actually occurred. When the Court allows an appeal it may direct either an acquittal or a new trial.

The Court may also substitute what it regards as another lawful conviction for the conviction appealed from, and it is empowered to substitute when necessary an appropriate sentence for the sentence of the court martial without increasing the sentence.

The decision of the Court on any appeal is to be final unless the Attorney-General grants a certificate that a point of law of exceptional public importance is involved, and that another appeal is desirable in the public interest, in which case it may be made to the Court of Appeal.

National Military Service Act 1961 – This Act, which repealed the National Service Registration Act 1958, follows very closely the lines of the Military Training Act 1949. The Minister of Labour may, by notice in the Gazette, require the registration of all male British subjects who are in a specified age group between 18 and 21 years. These persons may then be called upon to serve in the Army for (a) a period of whole-time service in camp not exceeding 14 weeks; (b) three years' part-time service during which training may be required for a total of 60 days; (c) three years in the Reserve.

Currently, youths in the 20 year age group are required to register, and the annual intake is 3,000.

STRENGTH OF DEFENCE SERVICES – The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the three services together with any emergency force over the latest 11 years:

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19532,8236,5584,62414,005
19542,9155,9704,69113,576
19552,8094,5714,76312,143
19562,8324,3804,70111,913
19572,9263,9074,79011,623
19582,9984,4004,76912,167
19593,0074,2304,54711,784
19602,9195,3424,51012,771
19612,8534,9054,39012,148
19622,8485,4344,50512,787
19632,8775,0494,05811,984

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY – The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Naval vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Naval ships in New Zealand waters.

A Naval Defence Act was passed in 1913 to provide for the maintenance of a sea-going naval force and a training centre under the immediate control of the New Zealand Government. However, the First World War intervened and it was not until 1921 that this policy was implemented and the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy. In 1941 these forces became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration – The command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Navy is carried out by the Naval Board. The Naval Board consists of the Chairman (the Minister of Defence), Chief of the Naval Staff and First Naval Member (a Rear-Admiral), Second Naval Member and Chief of Naval Personnel (a Commodore), Third Naval Member and Chief of Naval Technical Services (a Commodore), and Navy Secretary and Member for Finance (a senior public servant).

Role of the Royal New Zealand Navy – Through the collective defence arrangements made by New Zealand, e.g., under UN, SEATO, and ANZUS agreements, and within the Commonwealth, the Royal New Zealand Navy provides forces capable of integrating with the navies of friendly nations. These forces are also planned to provide a measure of defence for the home territories should the need arise.

One ship is permanently attached to the Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve and others could reinforce it at short notice. The normal peacetime duties are many and varied, and include flag-showing cruises to foreign ports and around New Zealand and its island territories; support for New Zealand Antarctic interests, surveying, fishery protection, and servicing weather stations. These are in addition to training both active service personnel and reserves for their wartime tasks.

State of the Navy – Her Majesty's New Zealand ships are at present:

*In reserve.

CruiserRoyalistAt least one cruiser or frigate is maintained on the Far East Station if required. The remaining ships in commission are normally employed within the New Zealand Naval Station.
Frigates (Otago Class)Otago
Taranaki
FrigatesRotoiti
 Pukaki
 Kaniere* 
 Hawea* 
Survey shipLachlan 
Supply shipEndeavourAntarctic support and fleet replenishment.
Ocean minesweepersStawell* 
 Kiama* 
 Inverell* 
 Echuca* 
Fleet auxiliaryTuiNaval and oceanographic research.
Motor launchesTwelveFishery protection. Training. Survey work. Harbour duties. RNZNVR Divisions.

Shore Establishments – Navy Office, Wellington, is the office of the New Zealand Naval Board and its associated naval and administrative staffs.

The Naval Base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore, Auckland, HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and training establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, and Dockyard.

The Dockyard (administered by a Captain Superintendent) includes the Naval Store Depot and is capable of refitting ships up to light cruisers.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry training establishment for the Navy and is situated near HMNZS Philomel, Auckland. HMNZS Irirangi is the wireless station for the New Zealand Naval Station and is situated at Waiouru in the centre of the North Island.

Personnel – Entry into the Royal New Zealand Navy is open to young men through the following channels:

BoysAges 15 years 3 months to 16 years 3 months.
Artificer apprenticesAges 15 years to 17 years 6 months.
YouthsAges 16 years 3 months to 17 years 6 months.
Adult entriesAges 17 years 6 months to 25 years (28 years for tradesmen).

With the exception of the artificer apprentices who carry out their initial training in Philomel before proceeding to the United Kingdom for trade training, all new entries receive their basic training in Tamaki. Technical and specialist training is, as far as possible, carried out in New Zealand, but where no facilities exist, ratings attend courses in naval establishments in Australia and the United Kingdom.

There are two schemes for direct entry as officer cadets. Candidates between the ages of 15 years and 16 years 6 months are eligible for selection as cadet midshipmen; these cadets carry out three years' training at the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, New South Wales, before proceeding to the United Kingdom for specialist technical training. To cater for the older age group, young men between the ages of 17 years and 19 years are eligible for selection as special entry cadets; these cadets undergo approximately 20 months preliminary training at the Royal Australian Naval College before proceeding to the United Kingdom. Cadets entered under both schemes carry out a short period of sea training in the Royal New Zealand Navy before undergoing their specialist training in the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom those cadets who will become seamen and supply specialists spend two years at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, and the cadets who will become engineering specialists undergo about four years' technical training at the Royal Naval Engineering College, Plymouth. On completion of their United Kingdom training the officers return to New Zealand to take up appointments as trained officers in the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Suitable ratings who qualify educationally and professionally are eligible for promotion to officer rank, depending on age and experience.

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service – The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service. In 1949 the WRNZNS became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Employment of members of the WRNZNS is varied and includes duties as cooks, stewards, writers, shorthand typists, chart correctors, motor-transport drivers, and teleprinter operators. These duties are supplemented or amended as necessary to meet the requirements of the Navy.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve – There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the four main centres – Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. When the Military Training Act 1949 was introduced these divisions accepted the responsibility for training the Navy's compulsory naval reservists. In all they trained 1,992 men before it was decided in 1957 to cease compulsory training for the Navy. The divisions then reverted to their former purely volunteer role.

Strength of the Navy – The strength of the Navy as at 31 March 1963 is shown below:

 OfficersRatingsTotal
Regular Forces (including WRNZNS)3112,5662,877
Active reserves –
  Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve1212
  Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve134399533
Total (reserves)146399545
Inactive reserves –
  Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve1,6591,659
  Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve309309
  Royal New Zealand Naval Emergency Reserve174174
  Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Emergency Reserve1919
  Retired officers and pensioners248122370
  Compulsory naval reservists1,0741,074
  Royal Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve2121
  Royal Naval Special Reserve (National Service)55
Totals (inactive reserves)5783,0533,631

Naval Expenditure – During the year ended 31 March 1963 the sum of £7,444,606 was expended on the Royal New Zealand Navy. Of this sum £7,037,287 was expended from vote “Navy”, and the sum of £407,319 from vote “Defence Construction and Maintenance – Subdivision III – Navy”. The total expenditure for the previous financial year was £7,075,695.

THE ARMY – The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the New Zealand Army Act 1950.

The Army consists of the Regular Force, the Territorial Force, the Army Reserve, the Cadet Corps, and military forces raised in time of war or other like emergency.

The New Zealand Army comprises the following Corps:

  • Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery.

  • Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

  • Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers.

  • Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.

  • Royal New Zealand Infantry Corps.

  • New Zealand Special Air Service.

  • New Zealand Army Air Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

  • Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

  • Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.

  • New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Legal Service.

  • Royal New Zealand Provost Corps.

  • New Zealand Army Education Corps.

  • Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

  • New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.

  • New Zealand Cadet Corps.

The New Zealand Army Act as far as possible places the officers and soldiers of the Regular and Territorial Forces on the same footing.

Command and Organisation – The Army Board consists of –

The Minister of Defence, as President; The Chief of the General Staff (First Military Member); The Adjutant-General (Second Military Member); The Quartermaster-General (Third Military Member); The Army Secretary; and a Territorial Officer (Associate Member).

The board is charged with the administration and, through the officers appointed for that purpose, the command of the Army.

The Army in peace is so organised, trained, and equipped that, in the event of war, it can undertake rapidly and efficiently the tasks which will fall to it.

The Army consists basically of:

  1. A static Regular Force.

  2. An operational Regular Formation.

  3. A Territorial Force.

The Static Regular Force – The static Regular Force commands, trains, and equips the Army as a whole, including the provision of cadres for the Territorial Force. The establishment of the static force is approximately 3,250 all ranks, assisted by service units of the operational Regular Formation.

The Operational Regular Formation – The operational Regular Force is designed to provide the major portion of an infantry brigade group prepared for overseas service. A battalion of this formation is deployed with the British Commonwealth Far East Strategic Reserve. In addition this formation assists in the training of the Territorial Force and the Cadet Corps. It is organised on standard British lines with a total establishment of 3,000 all ranks.

The Territorial Force – The Territorial Force is designed to provide additional formations should additional forces be required. It will also provide reserves of trained officers, N.C.O.s, and men as necessary to place the Army on a war footing.

The Territorial Force is organised as three brigade groups at reduced establishment. Its strength as at 31 August 1963 was 5,441 all ranks. The Review of Defence Policy 1961 provides for the Territorial Force to be brought up to its planned strength of 10,000 by a selective National Service Scheme which commenced in 1962.

In time of war or other like emergency the Governor-General may, by Proclamation, transfer the Army Reserve or any specified portion thereof to the Regular Force or to the Territorial Force, and declare the Territorial Force liable for continuous service within New Zealand or overseas during the continuance of such state of war or emergency.

The New Zealand Army Act also empowers the Governor-General to accept the offer of any officers or soldiers of the Territorial Force or the Army Reserve or of any other persons to render themselves liable, or to enlist in the Army, as the case may be, for service within or outside New Zealand.

Conditions of Service – Regular Force: All officers and soldiers of the Regular Force are liable for service within New Zealand and, with the exception of minors and the Home Service Section, overseas.

Enlistment in the Regular Force, which is voluntary, is until retiring age for officers, with provision for special short-term engagements, and for soldiers of the General Service Section as follows:

Men: Eight years, of which three, four, or five may be served on the Active List and the balance on the reserve. Re-engagement may be for a period to complete five, eight, or 12 years' service on the Active List or until retiring age. Reserve service after re-engagement will be for three years or until retiring age, whichever is the sooner.

Women: Three years, with re-engagement for one, two or three years or until retiring age.

TrainingRegular Force: Except in the case of special entries and Quartermaster officers commissioned from the ranks all Regular officers are commissioned on graduation from the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, England, the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Australia, or from the Officer Cadet School, Portsea, Australia.

Post-graduate and specialist training is received either in New Zealand or at overseas training establishments. Candidates for Staff College must pass the same entrance examinations as British Regular officers except for military law, and administration and morale, upon which candidates are examined by Army Headquarters, Wellington.

Promotion of long-service Regular officers to lieutenant, captain, and major is normally gained after two, six, and seven years' service respectively in the previous rank, provided that the prescribed promotion courses and examinations are passed and the officer is recommended for promotion to the next higher rank.

Regular soldiers are trained at the Army Schools, Corps Depots, and in Regular units in New Zealand. In certain cases special training is received at overseas training establishments. Before promotion, qualification is required at a unit test for corporal, a district course for sergeant, written examinations set and marked by Army Headquarters for staff sergeant, and a course at Army Schools for warrant officer.

Territorial Force: Officers and soldiers are required to carry out annually a minimum of 20 days' training to be classified as efficient. Of this training a minimum of 14 days must be annual camp training. In addition to this part-time training obligation, selected National Servicemen will be required to carry out a period of full-time training at the commencement of their service.

The maximum number of days annual part-time training, including attendance at courses, for which officers and soldiers can receive pay is: (a) commanding officers of units, 60 days; (b) other officers, 50 days; (c) non-commissioned officers, 50 days; and (d) privates, 40 days.

Before promotion to captain and major, officers are required to qualify at prescribed promotion courses and examinations, and before promotion to lieutenant-colonel at a promotion course.

Training Establishments:The Army Schools – Headquarters, The Army Schools, commands and administers a group of Army schools situated at the one centre, which provide courses for all ranks of the Regular Force as well as for officers and specialist non-commissioned officers of the Territorial Force and New Zealand Cadet Corps.

The group consists of the Tactical School, Regular Force Depot, School of Army Administration, School of Artillery, Armoured School, School of Signals, School of Infantry, Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps School, Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School, the Regular Force Cadet Unit, and the Regular Force Cadet School.

The Regular Force Depot provides basic recruit and instructor courses for all arms of the Regular Force, including Regular Force Cadets.

The Regular Force Cadet School provides academic training for cadets between the ages of 16 and 18 years. Trade training of cadets is carried out at the appropriate corps school or depot.

Other training establishments, the School of Military Engineering, Medical Corps Depot, and the Army Ordnance School are situated apart from the central Army School organisation but fulfil similar functions. In addition, each military district from time to time holds courses for Territorial officers and soldiers, and for personnel of the New Zealand Cadet Corps.

New Zealand Army in Malaysia – In accordance with New Zealand's undertaking to make a contribution to the British Commonwealth Strategic Reserve in Malaysia, a small formation headquarters and an infantry battalion at lower establishment totalling 750 all ranks, are at present serving in South-East Asia. It is policy to change the battalion in Malaya at two-yearly intervals, the most recent change being at the end of 1963. Personnel of the formation headquarters are changed on an individual basis.

New Zealand Cadet Corps – There are 142 secondary schools with Army cadet units with a total strength of 51,371 all ranks. These units are designated by the name of the school. Service is voluntary and annual training approximates 30 hours. All units are basically infantry, but provision is made in the larger units for such specialist activities as Artillery Troops, Signal Platoons, etc. All units can take part in certain Empire shooting competitions and have had marked success in this respect. Courses for officers and non-commissioned officers are held at district training camps, and units may hold barracks annually.

Rifle Clubs and Associations – All rifle clubs and associations (including the parent body, the National Rifle Association of New Zealand) must be formally recognised by the Army Board. There are 104 rifle clubs and 23 rifle associations and subassociations in New Zealand.

The planning, construction, and maintenance of rifle ranges, and safety precautions to be observed in conducting rifle practices and competitions, are governed by orders issued by the Army Board.

Army Expenditure – The following table shows Army expenditure for the financial years 1961–62 and 1962–63.

 1961–621962–63
 £(000)£(000)
Vote: Army7,9939,817
Vote: Defence Construction and Maintenance900915
Defence Fund1,699
 10,59210,732

Strength of the Army – The strength of the Army as at 31 August 1964 was as follows.

 OfficersSoldiersTotal
Regular Force (including force in Malaysia, women, and personnel seconded from the British and Australian Armies)5765,0105,586
Territorial Force (Active)7124,7295,441
Reserve of Officers (General List)1,1031,103
Class A Reserve (Territorial Force)28,22328,223
Class B Reserve (Regular Force)1,0901,090

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE – The Royal New Zealand Air Force had its inception in the New Zealand Permanent Air Force and the New Zealand Air Force (Territorial), established as part of the defence forces of the country in 1923. Permission to change the name of the NZPAF to Royal New Zealand Air Force was granted by His Majesty King George V in 1934. By the Air Force Act 1937, the RNZAF was constituted as a separate armed service, and its administration was vested in the newly formed Air Department. Until 1951 the administration of Air Force law was in accordance with RAF practice, but with the coming into force that year of the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 the provisions of the RAF code ceased to apply.

Command and Organisation – The force is raised, maintained, and organised under the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 and the amending Acts of 1954 and 1959, and consists of –

  1. The Regular Air Force.

  2. The Territorial Air Force.

  3. The Air Force Reserve.

  4. The Air Training Corps.

  5. The Women's Royal New Zealand Air Force.

It is administered by the Air Board, which consists of the Minister of Defence, as President; the Chief of the Air Staff; the Air Member for Personnel; the Air Member for Supply; the Assistant Chief of the Air Staff; and the Air Secretary, who is also the permanent head of the Air Department.

Command of the RNZAF is exercised by the Air Officer Commanding, who also holds the appointment of Chief of the Air Staff. RNZAF Headquarters is located in Wellington. There are seven stations in New Zealand, including Headquarters Unit, and one in Fiji. A small headquarters is established in London and liaison staffs are in Washington and Melbourne. One squadron is serving with the Far East Air Force in Singapore.

Role – The role of the RNZAF is to provide forces for the defence of New Zealand and her island and trust territories, for the defence of sea and air communications, and for deployment overseas as necessary to support the United Nations and to meet obligations to, and defence arrangements with, the Commonwealth and allied countries. In order to meet these commitments the RNZAF is organised to provide an operational force immediately available in an emergency. In addition, the RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisation in New Zealand and the South Pacific area.

Administration:Regular Air Force – Candidates for commissions in the General Duties Branch are drawn mainly from civil life and appointed to short-service commissions. Permanent commissions in the General Duties Branch are granted to limited numbers of men who are selected for training at the RAF and RAAF colleges at Cranwell and Point Cook respectively, and also to selected officers serving on short-service commissions. Professional training for officer cadets, combining both military and university studies, is carried out at Wigram in association with the University of Canterbury. This scheme permits training for up to 10 cadets annually for permanent commissions in the General Duties, Technical, and Administrative and Supply branches.

Candidates for commissions in branches other than General Duties are also drawn from the ranks. Some, with higher educational and specialist qualifications, are commissioned on joining the service. Commissions are either permanent or short-service; the latter carry an obligation for service with the Air Force Reserve.

Retiring ages for officers holding permanent commissions in the General Duties Branch are: squadron leader and below, 45 years; wing commander, 48 years; group captain and above, 53 years; while those for other branches are 49, 51, and 53 years respectively.

Service for airmen in the Regular Air Force is mainly through initial engagements of up to eight years on the active list, according to trade, with a reserve liability of four years in each case. Twelve-year engagements are granted to men who are selected for apprentice training. This training was formerly carried out at the RAF apprentice schools at Halton and Locking, but from 1960 has been provided by the RAAF apprentice schools at Wagga, New South Wales, and Canterbury, Victoria. Opportunities exist for re-engagement. The RNZAF also trains its own apprentices (in certain trades) under a scheme known as the New Zealand Certificate in Engineering Training Scheme. Trainees commence their service at Woodbourne and undergo a four year course as fitters to the level of the New Zealand Certificate in Engineering. To qualify for superannuation, it is necessary to complete a minimum period of 20 years' service before attaining the age of 55 years. For women, the initial term of service is normally for three years with no reserve obligation. Opportunities exist for re-engagement, and airwomen may qualify for superannuation.

Non-regular Air Force – The non-regular forces of the RNZAF consist of:

(a) The Territorial Air Force, (b) the Active Reserve, and (c) the General Reserve.

The Territorial Air Force is manned in specialist branches only. Some members serve full time, some train annually. The Active Reserve is manned by personnel who either have reserve obligations following service in the Regular Air Force, or who volunteer subsequent to the expiry of those obligations. They have an annual training liability. The General Reserve has no training obligation in time of peace.

The Air Training Corps provides a valuable source of recruits for the Regular Air Force and fosters airmindedness throughout the youth of New Zealand. Annual flying scholarships provide training at Ohakea for selected cadets.

Recruitment – Recruiting is effected through three area recruiting offices located at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and through a sub-office in Dunedin.

Operational Units – Operational units comprise a medium-range transport squadron serving with the RAF in Singapore, a maritime squadron stationed in Fiji, a long-range transport squadron at Whenuapai, and a light bomber squadron based at Ohakea. These squadrons are supported by operational conversion units and a transport support unit.

Training Establishments:Flying Training – The training of all aircrew is undertaken at the Flying Training School at Wigram.

Ground Training – Boy entrants undergo an educational, general service, and basic training course for 12 months at the Boy Entrant School, Woodbourne. During this period boy entrants enlisted in non-technical trades are trained to specialist level, while those enlisted in technical trades complete training to a basic engineering level. All other recruits, both airmen and airwomen, receive initial general-service training at Wigram. Airmen technical recruits then go to No. 1 T.T.S., Hobsonville, for basic engineering training and graduate to No. 2 T.T.S., Wigram, No. 4 T.T.S., Woodbourne, or to the Photographic School, Ohakea, for specialist trade training. Recruits in administrative and firecrew and medical trades receive their trade training at No. 3 T.T.S., Wigram. After a period of employment on units, ranging from 12 months to two years, airmen and airwomen are given further training to an advanced level. The training of N.C.O.s, provosts, and general service instructors is conducted at General Service Training School, Wigram.

Officer Training – Officer training, other than that carried out by officer cadets and aircrew trainees as part of their course, is given at the Command and Staff School, Whenuapai, which embraces initial, intermediate, and staff college training.

Strength of the Air Force – The strength of the RNZAF at 31 March 1963 was –

Regular Air Force4,058
WRNZAF221
Territorial Air Force108
Active Reserve868
General Reserve5,418
Air Training Corps9,716 (7,827 in school units: 1,844 in town squadrons).

Air Force Expenditure – The total expenditure of the Air Force for the year ended 31 March 1962 was £9,053,654. The comparable figure for 1961–62 was £9,167,561.

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS – A brief summary of forces raised and employed overseas in the post-war period 1945–55 with the British Commonwealth Occupation in Japan, on service with the United Nations forces in Korea, and on garrison duties in Cyprus is given in the 1959 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Malaysia – The Prime Minister announced in early 1955 that it was intended to recruit an Army Special Air Service Squadron for jungle warfare in Malaysia. This squadron left New Zealand in November 1955 and, after completing jungle and parachute training in the theatre, joined its parent unit early in 1956 in an operational role. Towards the end of 1957 this squadron was replaced by an infantry battalion. The New Zealand Unit is in addition to the Royal New Zealand Air Force contribution comprising No. 41 Transport Squadron, together with occasional training visits by maritime reconnaissance aircraft. The Royal New Zealand Navy continues to maintain a frigate or a cruiser in the area.

STRENGTHS OF THE ARMED SERVICES IN WAR: South African War – Approximately 6,500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18 – A total of 124,211 persons (including 91,941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these 100,444 proceeded overseas. This total comprised 98,950 troops serving with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces in the European, Mediterranean, or Samoan areas; 550 nurses; and 944 others (including 211 British Army reservists, 541 naval personnel, and 192 Royal Flying Corps personnel). In addition, it was known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand and enlisted in British and Australian forces, while others (exact numbers unknown) are known to have joined Canadian and South African forces.

At Armistice date in November 1918 New Zealand had over 56,000 troops overseas, and a further 10,000 were ready to embark or in training.

The troops provided for overseas service represented nearly 10 per cent of the total population of New Zealand in 1914 and over 40 per cent of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45 years. These percentages do not take into account New Zealanders who served in the British or Australian naval or military forces.

Second World War, 1939–45 – Approximately 60,000 men volunteered for service in the New Zealand forces in the Second World War before conscription was introduced in July 1940.

The net intake of men to the armed forces – i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries – was 194,000, equivalent to 67 per cent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140,000 persons served overseas.

A total of 104,988 Army personnel served overseas with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and, of these, 99,343 (97,893 males and 1,450 females) left New Zealand on or before 15 August 1945, and 5,645 (5,491 males and 154 females) left New Zealand on or after 16 August 1945. (Some detailed tables are given on pages 69–271 of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

The following table shows the proximate strength of each of the services from the outbreak of war in September 1939 at yearly intervals until August 1945, when hostilities ceased. The figures at July 1942 are also shown, as that month marked the peak for mobilisation, there being 151,073 men in the armed forces at that time, representing approximately 43 per cent of the male population of military age.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceAll ServicesTotalFemale Personnel (Included in Previous Columns)
In New ZealandOverseas
1939 (September)1,32018,0001,48620,39241420,806
19401,79129,3003,80827,6287,27134,89918
19413,57975,14810,21354,99733,94388,940202
19425,605109,38918,22882,20151,021133,2222,356
1942 (July)6,110124,77323,666104,49050,059154,5493,476
19437,657104,08733,77782,74062,781145,5217,302
194410,01872,66241,59555,03969,236124,2757,942
194510,41246,69835,00442,73149,38392,1145,609
1945 (August)10,46640,94231,57836,96246,02482,9864,632

CASUALTIES ON ACTIVE SERVICE – The following table gives particulars of casualties suffered on active service by members of the armed forces in the wars, etc., listed. For the Second World War the figures shown for Navy and Air Force include New Zealand personnel serving with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. Deaths and injuries due to accidental causes while on active service are included in the figures of deaths and wounded respectively. The number shown as “missing” refers to the number so classified at the end of the period quoted.

 Deaths (Including Died as Prisoner of War)Wounded and InjuredPrisoners of WarWounded and Taken Prisoner of WarInternedMissingTotal

*At 4 August 1919 this total comprised 16,688 deaths, 41,315 wounded, and 1 missing.

South African War, 1899–1902228166394
First World War, 1914–18 (up to 12 November 1918) –
  1 N.Z.E.F.16,30241,2623568458,004*
  Samoa22
  Nurses1313
Totals16,31741,2623568458,019
Second World War, 1939–45 (up to 31 December 1946) –
  Navy573170543800
  Army6,79315,3246,6441,2194630,026
  Air Force4,14925552032234,979
  Mercantile Marine110123233
Totals11,62515,7497,2181,2511494636,038
Jayforce (up to December 1948)1111
Korea (up to December 1954) –
  Navy213
  Army37801118
Totals39811121
Malaya (up to September 1960) –
  Army102131
  Air Force527
Totals152338

SUMMARY OF WARTIME ACTIVITIES OF ARMED FORCES – A condensed account of the wartime activities of the three armed services was given in the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

PERSONS WITH OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE – Census statistics on overseas war service are now given.

Wars19561961
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*Plus any with service in both World Wars.

Overseas service –
  Only in Korean War4,290194,3094,948344,982
  Only in Second World War138,2704,618142,888140,5495,447145,996
  Only in First World War55,6161,10056,71645,8791,06446,943
  Only in South African War1,61861,624991141,005
  In Korean War and Second World War1,21251,2171,33031,333
  In Korean War and Second World War and/or First World War98210067269
  In Second World War and First World War2,995443,0393,274623,336
  In South African War and First World War79727994705475
  In South African War and Second World War*842864444
Totals with overseas war service204,9805,798210,778197,5526,631204,183

Although the number of First World War veterans declined by 16 per cent between the censuses of 1956 and 1961, there still remained 50,858 (49,725 men and 1,133 women). Of this figure, 38,848 served with the New Zealand Forces, and the remaining 12,010, who served with the Australian, United Kingdom, Indian, and Other Commonwealth Forces, will include an unknown number of immigrants who have arrived in New Zealand since 1918.

The number of Second World War servicemen in New Zealand is increasing, because the number of Second World War servicemen of overseas forces coming to New Zealand has been greater than the number of veterans of the New Zealand Forces dying or emigrating.

Figures from the last three censuses showing the increases in number of persons who served overseas in the Second World War, are: 951, 141,901 (137,740 men and 4,161 women); 1956, 147,296 (142,626 men and 4,670 women); 1961, 150,771 (145,257 men and 5,514 women).

The increase (amounting to 2.3 per cent between 1956 and 1961, compared with 3.8 per cent between 1951 and 1956), is accounted for mainly by immigration of persons who served in the United Kingdom Forces. The number of those with overseas service in the New Zealand Forces only, declined from 124,394 (122,557 men and 1,837 women) to 122,939 (120,885 men and 2,054 women) between the last two censuses, the decline being accounted for by emigration as well as deaths.

PERSONS WITH WAR SERVICE IN NEW ZEALAND ONLY – In the following table the numbers of persons mobilised for at least 28 days in home service only are given.

MalesFemalesTotal
Home service only, First World War9,1202179,337
Home service only, Second World War84,2788,27592,553
Home service, First World War and overseas service Second World War210210
Home service Second World War and overseas service First World War7,754437,797

CIVIL DEFENCE – The Civil Defence Act 1962 made provision for a civil defence organisation, the preparation of plans for civil defence to operate in the case of a national emergency or a major disaster, and the carrying out of those plans if a national emergency or a major disaster occurs. Provision is made for the appointment of a Director of Civil Defence, a Deputy Director, and Regional Commissioners, and the constitution of a National Civil Defence Committee. Local authorities are responsible for preparing local civil defence plans.

9 B – REHABILITATION

ADMINISTRATION – The Rehabilitation Act 1941 and its amendments made provision for the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen, and an extensive programme was promoted by the Rehabilitation Board, the National Rehabilitation Council, and the Rehabilitation Department. Under the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953 regulations have been made for the rehabilitation and protection of servicemen and dependants of servicemen who served overseas in connection with any emergency under the United Nations Charter or otherwise.

The Rehabilitation Board determines the nature and extent of the assistance that may be granted to any class of servicemen, and approves the granting of such assistance.

The board has the assistance of District Rehabilitation Committees, which keep in touch with discharged servicemen and act in an advisory capacity concerning rehabilitation matters in their respective districts. The number of committees at 31 March 1963 was nine.

On 1 April 1954 the Rehabilitation Department ceased to function as a separate Department and became a division of the Department of Internal Affairs, in the form of a board secretariat with regional representation at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. From 1 January 1960 the Rehabilitation Division became part of the Social Security Department.

Rehabilitation Assistance – With the reduction in demand for rehabilitation benefits, the provision of initial rehabilitation assistance has been substantially completed in all fields except land settlement and housing, and decisions terminating the availability of various forms of assistance in so far as they apply to ex-servicemen of the Second World War have been made from time to time. All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K Force are to cease on 31 March 1965.

No closing date has yet been set for resettlement assistance, limited to housing and furniture loans, available to ex-servicemen with service in the Malayan theatre and who are eligible for this form of assistance in terms of Amendment 3 of the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Regulations 1953, but service in this theatre after 31 December 1963 will no longer be qualifying service.

No time limits have been fixed in respect of the availability of any rehabilitation assistance for (a) children of deceased and totally incapacitated ex-servicemen, or (b) ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be retarded or interrupted or become necessary from war disability. Appropriate forms of assistance for these groups will continue under such terms and conditions as may be considered appropriate by the Rehabilitation Board from time to time.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service with emergency forces.

DISABLED SERVICEMEN – Apart from the board's general forms of assistance which are available to these men, special training assistance continues to be provided on behalf of the board by the Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League and the Blinded Servicemen's Trust Board.

The league provides training in trades particularly suited to seriously disabled men, and the Rehabilitation Board is prepared to subsidise wages of any such disabled men whose disabilities make institutional treatment necessary or preferable to training within industry. This assistance is valuable for the ex-serviceman whose disability prevents him from following his normal occupation.

The league also provides employment under sheltered conditions for ex-servicemen whose disabilities make them unemployable in the ordinary industrial life of the community. Here again the Rehabilitation Board is prepared to assist by subsidising wages.

Since the league undertook this work on behalf of the Rehabilitation Board 538 men had completed their training by 31 March 1963. Three men were receiving training at that date.

The Blinded Servicemen's Trust Board was constituted in 1945 to provide training facilities for the wholly or partially blinded ex-servicemen and to promote their welfare. Many men have attended the training centre, “St. Dunstan's”, for instruction in additional techniques and new methods. The bulk of training has now been accomplished, and the trust board's activity is mainly concentrated on after-care of some 58 men located throughout New Zealand and the coordination of assistance available through State and private channels.

FARM TRAINING AND SETTLEMENT – Applications from ex-servicemen of the Second World War closed on 31 March 1951 and for ex-servicemen of the Emergency Forces with service in Korea the closing date was 31 March 1958. There have been 12,480 ex-servicemen settled on farms with rehabilitation assistance. Rehabilitation assistance has also been given to those who have purchased established farms on their own account.

The area of land acquired for the settlement of ex-servicemen up to 31 March 1963 was 2,706,029 acres. Further particulars are contained in Section 10B.

EDUCATION – Educational facilities are provided by the Rehabilitation Board for ex-servicemen in the way of bursaries, payment of fees, book allowance, etc. Up to 31 March 1963 assistance had been granted in 54,435 cases.

Education and Career Assistance to Children of Deceased or Totally Incapacitated Servicemen – In conjunction with the War Pensions Office, the Rehabilitation Board is also concerned with the education of the children of deceased servicemen whose deaths have been the result of war injuries, and of the children of ex-servicemen who through war disability are totally incapacitated for work. War bursaries are provided under the War Pensions Regulations 1956 to assist with the education of these children through the post-primary school and university stages. Assistance for education and career training after post-primary schooling is completed may be granted by the Rehabilitation Board, the assistance taking the form of tuition and examination fees and a contribution towards the cost of books. Where full-time study is approved, a subsistence allowance is payable, varying from £3 15s. per week to £5 5s. per week at the age of 21 years, with married male bursars being granted £9 10s. a week.

So that due encouragement is given to any children wishing to train for a worth-while trade or career the board will, where necessary, consider a payment to bring their wages up to £5 net per week where required to live away from home or £3 15s. per week when living at home. Those 21 years of age and over, whether living at or away from home while engaged in career occupations not covered by apprenticeships, may be considered for a grant sufficient to bring their net wages up to £5 10s. per week.

FINANCIAL – The following is a summary of loan limits and net interest rates applicable to the various types of loan granted by the Rehabilitation Board.

Type of LoanMaximum AmountRate of Interest

*Above these limits it is normal to ask the ex-serviceman to contribute on a pound-for-pound basis and, more recently, and in suitable cases, to ask for less than the pound-for-pound contribution.

†This limit applies with up to two children. The limit increases with the number of children to a maximum of £2,650 where there are five or more.

 £Per Cent
(a) Tools of trade50Free
(b) Furniture100Free
(c) Business5004
(d) Farms –
  Going concerns –
    Dairy5,000*3
    Sheep6,250*3
  Stock and plant only –
    Dairy1,5004
    Sheep or mixed2,5004
(e) Houses –
  New2,5003
  Existing1,8003

Particulars of the various classes of loan authorised during the year ended 31 March 1963, and the totals to 31 March 1963, are as follows.

Class of LoanYear Ended 31 March 1963Totals to 31 March 1963
NumberAmountNumberAmount
 ££££
Purchase of farms, etc.471,203,54912,09076,353,579
Housing1,2552,949,21663,76298,214,425
Tools of trade1,48248,964
Furniture595,67163,8855,992,402
Business43,50011,5327,535,961
Miscellaneous670132,057
Totals1,3654,161,936153,421188,277,388

Business Assistance for Ex-servicemen – In addition to the loan facilities available to assist ex-servicemen in purchasing existing businesses, or in establishing new businesses, special assistance has been given to ex-servicemen requiring licences for licensed industries and trades, and also in obtaining stock, plant, and equipment which may be in short supply or subject to control.

There had been 11,532 loans totalling £7,535,961 granted up to 31 March 1963. Of these, four for £3,500 were granted in the latest year.

Housing – Assistance in this connection consists of provision of finance for the erection of new, and the purchase of existing dwellings.

The number of loan authorisations for the erection of new homes during the year ended 31 March 1963 was 690, making a total of 31,012 to 31 March 1963.

Loans for the purchase of existing dwellings were authorised in 565 cases in 1962–63, while the total up to the end of that period was 32,750.

Expenditure – Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the year ended 31 March 1963, together with the totals to 31 March 1963, was as follows.

ItemTo 31 March 1962 From OutsetYear Ended 31 March 1963To 31 March 1963 From Outset
 £££
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance1,812,14513,9241,826,069
Trade training –
  Grants and loans to Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League369,15014,783383,933
  Land and buildings for trade-training schemes, Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League, etc.288,147288,147
  Private firms and Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League (includes subsidies to employers and separation allowances)1,595,5023,6121,599,114
  Trade-training centres operated by Rehabilitation Board5,860,2645,860,264
  Training of blinded ex-servicemen124,5633,937128,500
  Other expenditure234,724234,724
 8,472,35022,3328,494,682
Farm training and settlement (excluding loans) –
  Farm training485,700485,700
  Purchase of lands for settlement, development, and other expenses in connection therewith (excluding £27,013,457 recovered from Rehabilitation Loans Committee and shown under “Loans”)39,162,7081,362,98940,525,697
 39,648,4081,362,98941,011,397
Loans –
  Interest concessions11,424,894785,14912,210,043
  Loans authorised (Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee)3,437,043162,4053,599,448
  Loans authorised (Rehabilitation Loans Committee)184,115,4524,161,936188,277,388
  Reserve Fund contributions2,440,73347,8982,488,631
  Small Farms Act leases; losses and interest concessions55,32755,327
  Suspensory loans (Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee)143,5451,081144,626
  Suspensory loans (Rehabilitation Loans Committee)5,165,345153,5275,318,872
  Earthquake damage insurance633633
 206,782,9725,311,996212,094,968
Grants –
  Rehabilitation allowances431,885431,885
  Special grants (including supplementary wage grants to children)108,15010108,160
  Special grants to Returned Services' Associations69,21169,211
  Travelling expenses of ex-servicemen, including fares, furniture removals, and loss of earnings42,66942,669
 651,91510651,925
Other items9,7099,709
Totals257,377,4996,711,251264,088,750

MAORI REHABILITATION – The following table gives particulars of assistance afforded to Maori ex-servicemen up to 31 March 1963. Maoris are entitled to the same assistance under the same general conditions as Europeans, although special measures have been provided to meet their particular needs.

At 31 March 1963, 5,379 Maori ex-servicemen had been demobilised, of whom 3,964 had served overseas.

Type of AssistanceNumber of Ex-servicemenAmount AuthorisedType of AssistanceNumber of Ex-servicemenAmount Authorised
Loans – £Trade training - £
  Farm2301,485,536  “A” class673
  Housing1,5242,664,978  “B” class66
  Furniture1,582155,401  “C” class8
  Business243106,983  “D” class72
  Tools of trade632,053  “F” class3
  Miscellaneous628,212Total, trade training822
Totals, loans3,7044,423,163Farm training277
Educational assistance155Total number assisted4,958

In addition, 89 ex-servicemen have been settled on farms under the Maori Land Amendment Act 1936 and 35 ex-servicemen have received housing assistance under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

DEMOBILISATION – Demobilisations as recorded by the Rehabilitation Division total, to date, 217,179.

Chapter 10. Section 10 LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, VALUATION, ETC.

10 A – GENERAL

LAND UTILISATION – The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories comprising Cook and associated islands and Tokelau Islands, but inclusive of the minor islands since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,700 acres.

The broad grouping of land use in 1960 for farm and other purposes is shown in the following table:

Occupied farm landAcres (million)
Improved grassland18.4 
Tussock and other native grassland13.0 
Total grassland 31.4
Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards1.4 
Plantations0.9 
Land in fern, scrub, and second growth5.7 
Standing bush2.7 
Barren and unproductive land1.9 
Total other occupied farm land 12.6
Total occupied farm land 44.0
Land in cities and boroughs 0.4
National parks, reserves, and domains 5.1
State forest land 9.8
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc. 7.1
Total land 66.4

Tenure of Occupied Lands – The area of land in occupation as at 31 January 1960, classified according to tenure, was as follows:

 Acres
Crown land (including leases and licences)18,256,493
Freehold (including all land held on deferred payment)22,335,285
Leasehold3,427,119
Total occupied area44,018,897

Size of Holdings – Although approximately 31 per cent of holdings surveyed in 1960 were less than 100 acres in extent, the total area of such holdings represented only a little under 3 per cent of the occupied land of New Zealand. A further 24 per cent of the holdings ranged between 100 and 200 acres, but the aggregate area of these amounted to less than 9 per cent of the total. At the other end of the scale it was found that 64 per cent of the occupied land was held in areas of 1,000 acres and upwards, although the number of such holdings was only a little under 9 per cent of the total. Holdings of 5,000 acres and upwards, of which there were 1,013 in 1960, accounted for 38 per cent of the total area of occupied land.

The number of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation, grouped according to size, as returned in each of the years 1949, 1952, 1957, and 1960 are given below. For these years, excepting 1960, statistics were collected for areas under 10 acres.

Area, in AcresNumber of HoldingsPercentage of Total
19491952195719601949195219571960
1– 911,46312,36311,765..13.1613.6913.90..
10– 4913,61113,71610,39611,72115.6315.1912.2915.24
50– 9912,96213,46011,93212,35314.8914.9114.1016.06
100– 19917,25018,10417,94918,38419.8120.0521.2223.90
200– 31910,08410,30810,28910,68711.5811.4212.1613.89
320– 63910,65311,08311,18412,10912.2312.2713.2215.74
640– 9994,2154,3824,3574,6594.844.855.156.06
1,000– 4,9995,8275,8665,7456,0026.696.506.797.80
5,000– 9,9995385355315510.620.590.630.71
10,000–19,9992782762612640.320.310.310.34
20,000–49,9991441431411450.170.160.170.19
50,000 and over515254530.060.060.060.07
Totals87,07690,28884,60476,928100.00100.00100.00100.00

The total acreage of holdings in each group is given in the following table.

Area of Holdings, in Acres1949195219571960
acres
1– 953,05356,40150,871..
10– 49344,548346,400265,188299,766
50– 99949,958989,287882,805918,596
100– 1992,417,3422,536,2302,521,2342,618,512
200– 3192,527,4012,584,8762,579,1612,692,109
320– 6394,823,0685,011,0735,061,4575,470,835
640– 9993,349,9843,470,2973,452,8093,683,904
1,000– 4,99911,377,53911,367,37011,125,37511,537,911
5,000– 9,9993,661,1383,670,1823,592,5873,755,107
10,000–19,9993,891,5863,870,9483,704,4433,839,876
20,000–49,9994,457,0354,404,0014,326,1514,330,396
50,000 and over4,864,8474,912,6384,989,2844,871,885
Totals42,717,49943,219,70342,551,36544,018,897

The following additional details not normally obtained in the annual farm production survey were collected under the special census of agriculture in 1960:

Holdings at 31 January 1960NumberPercentage of Total
Occupied by Maoris5,2276.79
Lying entirely idle and unused4,5915.97

A classification of all holdings in 1960 according to the status of the occupier showed the following position:

Holdings at 31 January 1960NumberPercentage of Total
Owner44,11957.35
Lessee13,57117.64
Manager3,6834.79
Partner3,9505.13
Shareworker2,1072.74
Part owner, part lessee9,49812.35
Totals76,928100.00

Condition of Occupied Land – In 1962, 43,763,030 acts were assessed as being occupied, including reserves and Maori lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, and holdings of less than 10 acres in extent. The land in occupation in New Zealand at 31 January 1962 was classified according to condition and use as follows.

 AcresPercentage of Total

*Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.

†Includes unimproved land together with domestic orchards, residences, private gardens, and grounds.

In principal cereal crops and crops for threshing*405,9800.93
In green, root and other crops*813,0071.86
In fallow142,9130.33
In sown grasses and clovers–
  Cut for hay, seed or silage1,160,0102.65
  Not cut for hay, seed or silage17,885,63040.92
In orchards (commercial only)16,0790.04
In market gardens and nurseries14,5870.03
In plantations991,0952.27
Total area in cultivation21,429,30149.03
Balance of land22,279,86550–97
Total area in occupation43,709,166100.00

Information collected in 1960 in conjunction with the World Census of Agriculture showed that 36 per cent of the total area in occupation was stated as being capable of cultivation by ploughs or discs.

Land in cultivation (under crop and in pasture) forms the subject matter of Section 14 – Farming. An indication of the condition and geographical distribution of unimproved land is afforded by the following table, which relates to the position at 31 January 1960.

Land DistrictPhormium (New Zealand Flax)Tussock and Naturally Established Native GrassesFern, Scrub, and Second GrowthStanding Native BushBarren and Unproductive LandTotal, Unimproved Occupied Land
acres
North Auckland3,575107,539871,412263,17795,0231,340,726
South Auckland1,71762,3221,299,029687,679107,2062,157,953
Gisborne65116,171310,830178,13629,368634,570
Hawke's Bay55286,719341,21269,53842,198739,722
Taranaki614,295150,328193,13617,863365,683
Wellington7,923589,474672,635290,726126,6721,687,430
North Island13,3961,166,5203,645,4461,682,392418,3306,926,084
Marlborough5,8381,407,022278,281112,482225,5662,029,189
Nelson2,089200,676380,029190,72341,938815,455
Westland4,32343,758207,166214,841126,146596,234
Canterbury4,8973,931,458242,723113,033539,7954,831,906
Otago2,0315,054,486614,061250,702439,0496,360,329
Southland6,9561,231,629303,981147,45267,2011,757,219
South Island26,13411,869,0292,026,2411,029,2331,439,69516,390,332
New Zealand39,53013,035,5495,671,6872,711,6251,858,02523,316,416

RESERVES AND NATIONAL PARKS: History – Land has been set aside for public purposes from the early years of colonial administration in New Zealand. The New Zealand Act 1840 (Imperial) authorised the disposal of land “to any persons, bodies, public or corporate, for the public uses of our subjects there resident or any of them”. Royal Instructions of 1840 to Governor Hobson elaborated on this and provided that such lands were not to be granted conveyed or demised or occupied by any private person or for any private purpose. A subsequent Royal Instruction dated 1846 and the New Zealand Company's Colonisation Act 1847 (Imperial) authorised the vesting of reserves in trust for public purposes or uses.

The wisdom of reserving areas for public purposes on the subdivision of land into residential sections has also long been recognised by legislation. The Plans of Towns Regulations Act 1875 provided for reserves in the case of Crown subdivisions. Legislation requiring the provision of reserves on subdivisions of private land was first enacted in the Land Laws Amendment Act 1912. The Land Act 1924 specified that not less than 5 per cent of the area of any subdivision was to be reserved for public purposes and the Land Subdivision in Counties Act 1946 added the alternative, at the option of the Minister of Lands, of the subdivider paying costs or contributing land for sale with the proceeds earmarked for the purchase or improvement of reserves.

Subdivision in cities, boroughs, and town districts is controlled by the local authority under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954; land is normally set aside as reserves, but the local authority may take a cash payment for reserve development. By the Counties Amendment Act 1961 control of subdivision in counties was vested in the local county council from 1 April 1962. The position at present is that local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made on subdivision for reserves and with subsequent administration of reserves. The Crown is not bound by this legislation, but in practice refers its subdivisions to local bodies for approval and makes generous provision for reserves.

The first statute providing for the reservation of Crown land for parks and domains was the Land Act 1877; an amendment in 1884 permitted the reservation of land containing “natural curiosities”; and the Land Act 1892 allowed Crown land to be set aside as scenic reserves. It was in 1887 that the three mountain peaks of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro were given to the nation by Te Heuheu Tukino and associated chiefs as “a national park for the benefit of everybody”. This gift came only 15 years after Yellowstone was established as America's and the world's first national park and the gift area formed the nucleus of New Zealand's first national park – Tongariro – in 1894. The second national park – Egmont – was constituted by special legislation in 1900.

The first general legislation on national parks was enacted in 1928 – this provided a uniform means of setting up and administering new parks. Under this legislation two new parks were established – Arthur's Pass in 1929 and Abel Tasman in 1942.

Interest in national parks increased after the Second World War and a review of the administration led to the passing of the National Parks Act 1952. This made the Minister of Lands responsible to Parliament for national parks and laid the foundations for an integrated system of parks. Fiordland (part of which was first reserved in 1905) became a national park and four new parks were constituted – Mount Cook (1953), Urewera (1954), Nelson Lakes (1956), and Westland (1960). The Act established the National Parks Authority consisting of the Director-General of Lands (Chairman), the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of Department of Tourist and Health Resorts, three persons appointed by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Forest and Bird Protection Society, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand and the Royal Society of New Zealand respectively, and one person appointed by the Minister of Lands to represent the national park boards.

The National Parks Authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey and a Supervisor of National Parks has been appointed to assist in coordinating and integrating policy in the nine parks. Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board of which the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the Land District is chairman. Each Board comprises not more than eight persons appointed by the Minister of Lands but in the case of Egmont and Tongariro special provisions exist regarding the appointment of members to the Boards. Each Board employs one or more salaried rangers responsible for development, protection, and interpretation, and their work is supplemented by the voluntary help of about 250 honorary rangers appointed from those whose interests bring them into the parks frequently or who live nearby.

Scenic and historic reserves are controlled by scenic and historic boards, by local authorities, or by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district. A large number of honorary rangers help in the supervision of these reserves. The legislation governing these and all other reserves is the consolidated Reserves and Domains Act 1953. Once land has been reserved for a specific purpose, either by notice in the New Zealand Gazette or by deposit of a subdivisional plan, the purpose of the reservation can only be changed or the reservation revoked by the Minister of Lands. In some cases advertising is first required and in all cases the Minister will not approve a change of purpose or the revocation of the reservation unless it is in the public interest. The Minister is also responsible through the Department of Lands and Survey to see that use of these areas is consistent with the purpose for which the land was reserved.

Description – Nine national parks have been constituted in New Zealand covering 4,571,172 acres or one-fifteenth of the country's land area. They are set aside as the law says “for the purpose of preserving in perpetuity as national parks, for the benefit and enjoyment of the public, areas of New Zealand that contain scenery of such distinctive quality or natural features so beautiful or unique that their preservation is in the national interest”. The National Parks Act requires that parks be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; that, as far as possible, native flora and fauna is preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated; and that, subject to restrictions necessary to preserve native flora and fauna or for the general welfare of the parks, the public has freedom of entry and access. The only restricted area is the “special area” set aside to protect the habitat of the takahe (notornis) – 128,000 acres out of the three-million acre Fiordland National Park.

Any form of development not provided for in the National Parks Act must be sanctioned by Act of Parliament. Permitted development includes the erection of houses for park rangers and huts for Government employees engaged in noxious animal destruction, the erection of huts by mountaineering, tramping, or other similar clubs, the erection of ski tows and similar facilities. Appropriate commercial undertakings may operate in the parks under licence while boards controlling the parks may, with the consent of the Authority, establish camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses, or other buildings, and may help private enterprise in their establishment. “Wilderness areas” where development is restricted to access by foot track are provided for in the Act and a number have been set aside. Virtually all the finance for parks is provided by the Government, but donations by private individuals or organisations are encouraged and earn a £2 for £1 subsidy from the Government.

Three of the nine national parks are in the North Island and six in the South. Tongariro National Park (163,356 acres), includes the three volcanoes – Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro – and is the skiing playground of the North Island. Egmont (82,280 acres) contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains and preserves forests within a 6-mile radius. It varies from heavily forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice of the upper levels. The remaining park in the North Island, Urewera (492,763 acres), surrounds Lake Waikaremoana and contains the largest remaining forest area in the North Island. Kiwi, kaka, and most other native birds are found and the area is rich in Maori history.

In the South Island, Abel Tasman National Park (43,708 acres), contains coastal and elevated bush-clad country along the shores of Tasman Bay and includes off-shore islands and reefs. It has a broken coastline with many bays, coves, and beaches of golden sand. Nelson Lakes (139,836 acres) is centred on the twin lakes of Rotoiti and Rotoroa and is surrounded by mountainous country with extensive beech forests on the lower slopes. Further south, Arthur's Pass (242,890 acres), preserves an alpine and forested area straddling the Southern Alps. Mount Cook (172,979 acres) and Westland (210,260 acres) national parks share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps, and Westland takes in forest and lake country and a small strip of sea coast as well as the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers. Mount Cook National Park contains most of New Zealand's highest mountains and includes the 18-mile-long Tasman Glacier. Fiordland (3,023,100 acres), one of the world's largest national parks, contains majestic scenery with fiords, mountains, forests, and lakes. It includes Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau while the road through the Homer Tunnel gives access to Milford Sound. The park is the only known habitat of the takahe (notornis) and the kakapo.

Scenic Reserves – Scenic reserves, of which there are 886 with a total area of 673,821 acres, preserve native forest, and preserve access by the public to other scenic features such as the sea coast, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, limestone caves, thermal areas, and vantage points. Forest areas range from large tracts of remote forested land with considerable conservation value to small remnant areas in developed districts. Large scenic reserves have been set aside along main highways, but, in general, barren mountainous regions not included in national parks remain Crown land.

There are 17 reserves in excess of 5,000 acres and some are larger than the smallest national park, Abel Tasman. Some areas at present set aside as scenic reserves could, in future years, achieve national park status.

Scenic reserves over 5,000 acres are: Lewis Pass, 63,406 acres; Haast Pass, 62,170 acres; Wanganui River, 34,407 acres; Buller Gorge, 30,302 acres; Routeburn, 27,366 acres; Rakeahua (Stewart Island), 25,200 acres; Lake Kaniere, 18,440 acres; Gouland Downs, 16,200 acres; South Cape (Stewart Island), 15,815 acres; Glenhope, 13,528 acres; Lake Brunner, 10,241 acres; Tennyson Inlet, 9,968 acres; Rahu (Reefton), 7,541 acres; Mangamuka Gorge, 6,872 acres; Tangarakau 6,524 acres; Te Tapui (Cambridge), 5,856 acres; Waioeka Gorge, 5,274 acres.

Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, as does the extent of development of them. Some are well developed with cleared areas used for camping and picnics and have formed tracks. Facilities on those flanking highways are mainly the provision of off-road parking combined with picnic areas. Many reserves have no facilities as yet. Among the best known reserves not in the preceding list are Trounson Kauri Park in North Auckland, Huka Falls, near Taupo, Hongi's Track, near Rotorua, Ball's Clearing in Hawke's Bay, Pelorus Bridge and Hundalee in Marlborough, the Summit Road Scenic Reserves and Peel Forest Park in Canterbury, Punakaiki, and Lake Ianthe in Westland, and Forest Hill and Curio Bay in Southland.

In an endeavour to recreate the natural New Zealand scene in an area where exotic trees, noxious weeds, and engineering development have intruded, the Department of Lands and Survey has established a plant nursery at Taupo where native trees and shrubs are being propagated for beautification of reserves in the Taupo basin.

There is provision in the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 for land to be declared private scenic reserves – this land remains in private ownership, but receives the protection of the Act. There are 2,528 acres in 18 private scenic reserves and these include White Island, where grey faced and other petrels nest in large numbers, as well as about 3,000 pairs of gannets annually. The Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust area is a private scenic reserve near New Plymouth in native bush being planted with native trees as well as rhododendrons. Other large private scenic reserves are Moncrieff, near Nelson, and Makarora on the Haast Pass Road.

Historic Reserves – Forty-one areas of historic interest totalling 3,012 acres are set aside as historic reserves and the Department of Lands and Survey cooperates closely in administration and investigation of historic sites with the National Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

The Treaty House area at Waitangi administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not an historic reserve, in the strict sense.

Bird Sanctuaries and Allied Reserves – Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. Such areas are now reserved under the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. In all there are 29 reserves in this category with a total area of 446,927 acres; some of them are mainland areas, but most are off shore, outlying, and sub-antarctic islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird; Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and the Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for the preservation of flora and fauna and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

Generally, access to reserves of this type is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and bird life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there.

Nature Conservation Council – The Nature Conservation Council Act 1962 provides for the establishment of a Nature Conservation Council. This Council of independent members, expert in the field of conservation, has been set up to coordinate scientific and technical information on nature conservation, to inquire into the effect of proposed public works on any aspect of nature conservation and to act as an advisory body to Government on matters effecting nature conservation which is defined in the Act as “the preservation of the native flora and fauna and the natural features and natural beauty of New Zealand”.

Wildlife Sanctuaries – The Wildlife Act 1953 provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries are now termed wildlife refuges. Occupiers of any land in wildlife refuges can be authorised to carry out certain operations necessary for the normal use of land.

Public Domains – Domains of which there are 913 covering 61,767 acres provide districts with land for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. Many domains are designed primarily to provide for organised sport but there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal domains are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momcrangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city domains are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on domain and.

Summary of Areas Reserved – The following table records the main classes of reservations as at 31 March 1963.

Type of ReservationNo.Acres
National Parks94,571,172
Scenic reserves886673,821
Historic reserves413,012
Bird sanctuaries and allied reserves29446,927
Public domains91361,767

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS – Practically all title to privately owned land and interests in land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system administered under the Land Transfer Act 1952. This system was introduced into New Zealand by the Land Transfer Act 1870. While that Act retained some of the provisions and innovations of the Land Transfer Act 1860 which it repealed and superseded, it was largely based on the revolutionary Torrens system of registration of title devised for South Australia.

Under this land transfer system, which with certain modifications has operated in New Zealand since 1870, the title to land is not secured or effected by the mere execution of deeds or documents. Registration of a valid title is the fundamental principle, and it is only by such registration that title to land or any interest therein may pass or be obtained. The District Land Registrar appointed in and for each of the land registration districts is responsible for the registration in his district, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

No instrument or dealing may be registered unless it is in accordance with statute or general law or if forbidden by positive law. An increasing number of statutes and regulations expressly impose upon the District Land Registrar the duty and responsibility of ensuring that no instrument is registered or no interests in land are acquired in contravention of the statutory provisions and requirements regulating the aggregation and subdivision of land, the alienation of Crown land, Maori land, or public reserves, the dedication or constitution of roads, streets, and access ways, and many other matters involving Government policy.

The land transfer system has proved so successful and has provided such a reliable record of dealings with land that over the last half century there has been an increasing tendency on the part of local authorities and other statutory bodies to use its facilities to give specific notice of obligations and restrictions attaching to land by virtue of their respective statutes. When national or district schemes of drainage, irrigation, water supply, or sewerage which result in improvement to land are undertaken today, statutory authority is customarily given to charge part of the cost against the land. These charges are recorded against the titles concerned. While entries of this nature on the register were not envisaged in the original land transfer system they do ensure that a prospective purchaser, by inspection of the Register, can acquaint himself with all matters affecting the property. The land transfer registration system is also used extensively to ensure that other statutory restrictions governing the acquisition and subdivision of land and dealings with land are not contravened.

Special procedures are necessary for the registration of dealings with Crown land and Maori land and these are contained in the Land Act 1948, the Maori Affairs Act 1953, and the various related Acts respectively.

The demand for land for housing development has resulted in adaptations to the system. The normal procedures relating to subdivision title and finance have been streamlined and, as in most forms of substantial purchase today, provision made for payment by instalment. The State-sponsored group building schemes, the Housing Act 1955, and the housing provisions in the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 have met this situation. Agreements for sale and purchase and occupation licences are registered today in great numbers in the same way as the traditional forms of dealing with land.

The Joint Family Homes Act which was passed in 1950 provides for settlements of land as “joint family homes” and increasing use is made of this procedure year by year. (See Section 19.)

Certificates of Title Issued – The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest eight years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
195624,069
195722,948
195823,590
195925,521
196026,953
196129,337
196231,743
196329,724

The table following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act.

Year Ended 31 MarchTown and Suburban PropertiesCountry PropertiesAll Properties: Total Consideration
NumberAreaConsiderationFreeholdTotal Freehold and Leasehold
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberConsideration
  acres£(000) acres (000)£(000) £(000)£(000)
195339,32510,00865,4618,2851,34333,0509,05335,241100,702
195443,42710,92575,5038,4421,37136,5969,18838,915114,419
195546,97811,84088,7618,8041,72544,4609,59347,964136,725
195641,37810,36380,6847,1121,23737,3667,72240,256120,940
195738,0669,57875,6146,6771,20536,0897,26839,064114,678
195842,18310,39189,6417,7031,44046,1138,39050,060139,701
195941,85410,28385,2166,7961,07239,6197,29942,400127,616
196045,12510,99994,8667,2041,26344,5767,73047,859142,725
196152,23316,000119,8948,4031,71062,1769,17967,888187,782
196249,35813,979116,7057,7871,40858,5788,45563,343180,048
196346,27715,108118,6356,7821,13546,2327,28949,541168,175

The numbers of transfers shown in the table relate only to transfers of land on sale, i.e., they do not include transfers of land from trustees to beneficiaries or to new trustees, transfers of mortgages, easements, etc.

As all classes of properties are included, land transfer figures do not give a precise indication of any changes that may take place in property values. In the case of town and suburban properties, however, the numbers involved are probably sufficient to smooth out changes from year to year in the proportions of different classes of property included in the total.

The following table shows town and suburban transfers classified by amount-group for the latest five years, and includes figures of average consideration per transaction for each amount group.

Year Ended 31 MarchUnder £1,000£1,000–£9,999£10,000–£24,999£25,000 and OverTotals
NumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverageNumberConsiderationAverage
  £ (000)£ £ (000)£ £ (000)£ £ (000)£ £ (000)£
195918,1318,39146323,36269,9072,9922904,07114,038712,84640,08241,85485,2162,036
196019,5549,66149425,14476,6003,0463454,77913,853823,82546,64845,12594,8662,102
196121,46111,10451730,08994,9523,1565427,63314,0831416,20544,00752,233119,8942,295
196219,89010,72353928,73991,3433,1785818,06113,8741486,57944,44949,358116,7052,364
196317,6319,81055627,87389,6653,2176108,69114,24816310,46964,22646,277118,6352,564

The following analysis shows, for 1962–63, transfers of country freehold properties classified by size groups. The average consideration per acre is also given for the two earlier years.

Size Group (Acres)NumberAreaConsiderationConsideration per Acre
1962–631962–631962–621961–621962–63
  acres£(000)££
Under 303,37021,27710,861510.7510.45
30– 4938715,2742,144138.82140.34
50– 9983460,3446,329111.6104.88
100–14956467,4125,43282.9080.58
150–249557108,0535,83359.5753.98
250–499546189,4366,77336.7835.75
500 and over524673,6688,86114.4113.5
Totals6,7821,135,46446,23241.5940.72

Further particulars relating to transfers of country freehold properties are contained in the next table. As indicated previously, very diverse types of property are included in the figures, and the averages should not be taken for more than they purport to show. This is particularly so in the case of country properties, where the number of transactions is comparatively small.

Year Ended 31 MarchAverage Value per TransactionAverage Value per AcreYear Ended 31 MarchAverage Value per TransactionAverage Value per Acre
 ££ ££
19523,52322.4619585,98632.03
19533,98924.6119595,83036.97
19544,33526.6919606,18835.30
19555,05025.7719617,39936.36
19565,25430.2119627,52241.59
19575,40529.9419636,81740.72

Monthly statistics of transfers on sale of land registered under the Land Transfer Act are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

LEGISLATION CONCERNING LAND DEVELOPMENT, SETTLEMENT, AND SALE OF LAND – Legislation governing this aspect is found in the Land Act 1948, the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952, and the Marginal Lands Act 1950. The Land Act provides for the administration, development, and disposal of Crown lands and authorises the purchase and development of private land for settlement purposes. The Land Settlement Promotion Act provides for the closer settlement of farm land by preventing the undue aggregation of land and providing for the acquisition of farm land that is, or when subdivided will be, capable of substantially increased production. The Marginal Lands Act 1950 assists farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on marginal lands, by providing finance for approved development programmes where it is not available through normal lending channels.

Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952 – Part I of the Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production. Land cannot be taken from any person owning less than the equivalent of two economic farms, and provision is also made for the retention of land for the owner's children. The owner may object to the Land Valuation Committee or the Land Valuation Court to the taking of land. The Court may also be called in to assess compensation for land taken if the owner does not accept the Crown's offer.

Part II deals with the control of sales and leases of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The Act applies to sales of freehold farm land and, with certain exceptions, to leases of farm land for terms of three years or more. The consent of the Land Valuation Court is required to such transactions unless the purchaser or lessee files a declaration with the District Land Registrar within one month of the date of the transaction to the effect that he owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land, and that he has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf. The matters to be considered by the Court or committee in determining whether undue aggregation would result include: (a) whether the farm land already owned, leased, held, or occupied in fee simple or under any tenure of more than one year's duration, by the purchaser or lessee, is sufficient to support him, his wife, and any dependent children in a reasonable manner and reasonable standard of comfort; (b) whether, having regard to land so held, etc., the acquisition of additional land could, judged by ordinary and reasonable standards, be considered excessive; (c) the nature of the use to which the purchaser proposes to devote the land and his ability to achieve that purpose; (d) whether the acquisition would be in or against the public interest; and (e) whether refusal of consent would result in unavoidable and substantial hardship to the vendor or lessor.

The Act prevents, without the consent of the Land Valuation Court or Committee, the purchase of farm land by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are less than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction.

Marginal Lands Act 1950 – The administration of the Act is the responsibility of the Minister of Lands and is carried out by the Department of Lands and Survey. Actual control is vested in the Marginal Lands Board. To assist it in the administration of the Act the Board has appointed Marginal Lands Committees in each land district. Each committee consists of three members – the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district, who is chairman, an officer of the Department of Agriculture, and one other person selected from a panel of farmers appointed for each committee. The farming members are selected for their experience in the farming or management of marginal lands.

The Board is empowered to make loans for clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, drainage, irrigation, buildings, farm machinery, livestock, in fact for any purpose having for its object the successful development and farming of a property regarded as suitable for a loan.

It is the policy of the Board not to compete with existing lending institutions and before it will make an advance the applicant must satisfy the Board that finance cannot be obtained through normal business channels. The Board will not normally provide finance for the improvement of a property unless it is capable of being developed into an economic unit. The policy is to assist competent men to make their holdings economic rather than help farmers already substantially established to bring into production additional land which could be developed from their private resources or out of revenue.

The scheme is achieving its objective of increasing production from marginal country. Many farmers on difficult and unattractive properties have, with Marginal Lands Board assistance and with application and energy established and maintained profitable production. Many have completed their development programmes and, as a result, have been able to convert their current account mortgages to instalment mortgages, repaying the advances over a term of years, while others have repaid their advances in full.

An estimate of the area of grassing undertaken with Marginal Lands Act finance is 100,000 acres with increases in carrying capacity estimated at 220,000 sheep, 10,000 run cattle, and 10,500 dairy cows.

For the year ended 31 March 1963 the Board granted 62 loans totalling £371,039. In all, from the inception of the marginal lands scheme, 934 loans have been approved, amounting to £4,188,711. The present rates of interest payable on advances are:

Current account first mortgage5 per cent.
Current account second and subsequent mortgages5 1/2 per cent.
Instalment mortgage, first5 1/2 per cent, reducible to 5 per cent.
Instalment mortgage, second and subsequent mortgages6 per cent, reducible to 5 1/2 per cent.

SOIL CONSERVATION AND RIVERS CONTROL – The problem of damage by flooding and soil erosion, and of exhausted soils on hill country, deteriorating pastures, and increasing run-off led to the enactment of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941. This provided for the establishment of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, and catchment boards in problem districts. There are 13 catchment boards and three catchment commissions and the Waikato Valley Authority, covering three-quarters of New Zealand.

River Control – New Zealand has a generous and well distributed rainfall exceeding 45 in. over about 70 per cent of the country, and has only a very small area with less than 25 in. In some districts, such as the West Coast of the South Island and the western central plateaus of the North Island, annual rainfall exceeds 100 in., with extremes over 200 in.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off, both on total annual flow and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some river systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding. Severe storms are likely to occur at any season of the year and extreme falls have been experienced of 12 in. to 20 in. in 24 hours in certain areas. It is therefore not surprising that flood control is a major problem in New Zealand, with total run-off and peak flood discharges being among the highest in the world.

With the passing of the Act and the setting up of catchment boards with their specialist staff, great progress has been made with river control throughout the country. Action has naturally been focussed first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owners have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, in the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers. Schemes range from channel clearing, training, and bank protection, with partial flood protection up to 5–10-year frequency, to complete protection with stopbanks up to floods of 100-year frequency. Such schemes may involve expenditure up to £2,500,000, and subsidies vary generally from £1 for £1 to £3 for £1 or more depending on the capacity of the property owners to meet their share of the cost.

The policy of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is to encourage soil conservation as complementary to river control. In the case of two large river schemes and several smaller schemes planning has included the whole catchment. As farmers become aware of the benefits of soil conservation work comprehensive planning for other river catchments will follow.

There are many rivers in New Zealand where major control schemes cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller individual works covering clearing, training works, bank protection, minor stopbanking, and the like are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified. Type and cost of works have to be related to the financial capacity of the area. Subsidies are generally £2 for £1 but may be up to £3 for £1. Continuity of control and maintenance is of greatest importance in river work and the Council therefore encourages the planning of comprehensive schemes where rating districts are established to ensure the meeting of capital charges and adequate future maintenance.

Most of the major river-control works are carried out by catchment boards, the Waikato Valley Authority, or river boards, but smaller works are also carried out by Ministry of Works, counties, and drainage boards.

Drainage – The high rainfall and run-off factors indicated above have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys where river gradients are flat or in coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes and include floodgates and pumping stations. Particularly in the North Island, there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem of development because of shrinkage and necessity for water-level control. These areas have been largely held and developed by the Lands and Survey Department.

Drainage work is generally more straightforward with quicker returns, and subsidies rarely exceed £ for £1. Only community drains giving benefit to more than one owner qualify for subsidy. Drain maintenance is also subsidised to encourage a higher standard of maintenance, the subsidy usually being £1 for £2.

Drainage works are carried out primarily through catchment authorities, Waikato Valley Author and a large number of drainage boards, but are also carried out by the Ministry of Works on behalf of the Lands and Survey Department and by counties. It is emphasised that drainage works must be properly coordinated with river works.

Soil Conservation – Soil erosion and flooding problems have their origin on the hill-country pastoral lands, especially where farming has forced grass to take over the protective functions of vigorous native forest, scrub, fern, and swamp vegetation. The changes in the vegetation brought about by developing farm resources have been reflected in drastic changes in the soil in the hill country. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soils. The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbent combination of soil and vegetation with a satisfactory capacity to control water, which causes most soil erosion. Successful techniques which have been developed include spelling, control of burning and of animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, the wider use of cattle, subdivisional fencing, stock water ponds, gully-control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and spaced and close tree planting for stability.

To assist farmers directly to tackle their own problems subsidies are made on farmers' contributions. These are from £1 for £1 to £2 for £1 on tree planting for stability and wind breaks, materials for conservation fencing, contouring, or flood-control dams, and on gully-control planting and structures.

Land Capability and Catchment Control – Experience has proved that the American system of land classification for soil conservation purposes is very satisfactory. In this system an inventory is made of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, and soil erosion. Along with a knowledge of vegetation and farming experience a land capability map is prepared classifying the land into classes according to the way in which the land in each class can be used. The required soil conservation practices are also determined for each class.

From this basic classification of the land in a catchment more detailed surveys of individual farms provide the data necessary for detailed conservation farming plans. These plans are then discussed with the farmer and fitted into his capacity for implementing them over a period of years. Great care is taken to support the necessary special soil conservation practices with accepted good farm management practices. The conservation treatment and farm management practice can then be dovetailed with the river control and drainage plans for the lower catchment to provide the ultimate plan for catchment control. Allied operations of importance are soil conservation forestry, fire prevention, and animal pest destruction.

Plans have now been developed in this country to integrate farming practices with the physical limitations of the land in order to assure permanent production consistent with stability and permanence of the land and conservation of the rain that falls.

Agricultural Aviation – The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council has an advisory committee on agricultural aviation, which since 1949–50 has sponsored new developments in aviation for conservation purposes. The promotion of aerial topdressing, aerial oversowing with grasses and clovers, dropping of fencing materials, and spreading of rabbit poison is enabling millions of acres of denuded and eroded high country to receive conservation treatment progressively. These aerial aids to farming, coupled with the wider adoption of provident management practices on the land, provide a practical soil conservation approach with great potentialities on the dominantly hilly problem lands.

Staffing and Finance – The Ministry of Works and Department of Agriculture provide the technical and administrative services required by the Council. The Council and the catchment boards have built up a team of specialist engineers and soil conservators, which ensures that investigations, planning, supervision, and execution of works are carried out to high standards.

An administrative rate of up to 1/12 d. in the pound on capital value over the district provides for the services of catchment boards, but special rates struck on a classification according to the benefit accruing provide the local contribution for actual works.

Public Relations – The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council sponsors information services by way of publications, movie films, show displays and radio broadcasts.

Publications – A list of the soil conservation, hydrological, and other publications available may be obtained by writing to the Secretary, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, P.O. Box 8024, Government Buildings, Wellington, New Zealand.

10 B – CROWN LAND

ADMINISTRATION – Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands, who is the Permanent Head of the Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (Chairman), the Director-General of Lands (Deputy Chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the Valuer-General, a representative of the State Advances Corporation, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than two other persons appointed by the Governor-General. The Director of Rehabilitation and a representative of the New Zealand Returned Services' Association are members of the Board for matters concerning the rehabilitation of ex-servicemen of the Second World War.

The duties of the board are broadly defined in the Act as follows:

It shall be the duty of the board to carry out the provisions of this Act for the administration, management, development, alienation, settlement, protection, and care of Crown land; and to carry out all negotiations for the purchase of land by the Crown under this Act and the performance and completion of all contracts of purchase so entered into by the Crown.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more Land Settlement Committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of three members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and two private farmer members. The board may also appoint as an associate member of any committee any person who in the opinion of the board possesses expert knowledge of advantage to the committee in the execution of its functions. The functions of these committees are not expressly set out in the Act, but the board has wide powers of delegating to committees any of its functions.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND – Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and if necessary a ballot is conducted to decide the successful applicant, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any urban or commercial or industrial land may be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price. Every applicant must be of the age of 17 years or upwards, and must apply for Crown land solely for his own use or benefit. Two or more persons may make application to purchase or take on lease or licence as joint tenants or tenants in common.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial or industrial land – (a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. The board may, however, determine that any specified farm land or urban land may be taken on renewable lease only, but without the right of acquiring the fee simple. The board may also determine that any specified commercial or industrial land may be taken on lease only, but without the right of acquiring the fee simple, for any term with or without a right of renewal, but so that the aggregate term, including renewals (if any), does not exceed 50 years.

  2. Pastoral land – (a) On pastoral lease for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding five years.

In some cases a holder of a lease or licence is required to effect within a certain specified period such improvements as the board determines. In most cases the lessee or licensee of any farm or pastoral land is required to commence to reside on the land within one year after the date of his licence.

SELECTIONS – The following table shows details of the various freehold selections during the year 1962–63, together with totals for 1961–62.

FreeholdNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price
Crown lands – acres£
  Farm24610,83137,819
  Urban446172207,394
  Commercial or industrial382980,728
  Land Subdivision in Counties Act271011,850
Totals, 1962–6375711,042337,791
Totals, 1961–6275715,317392,104

Corresponding details concerning selections made under leasehold tenures are given for similar periods.

Leases and LicencesNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedAnnual RentalAnnual Instalments

* Areas and rents not shown; licences on royalty basis only.

Crown lands – acres££
  Renewable leases –
    Farm12044,52415,003603
    Urban3591,097
    Commercial or industrial4213,996
  Pastoral leases325,10360585
  Pastoral occupation licences313,05280
  Deferred-payment licences –
    Farm6217,4534,953
    Urban1,39738174,619
    Commercial or industrial418998,285
    Land Subdivision in Counties Act111277,366
  Special leases (section 67, Land Act)4110,9391,829
  Licences for removal of minerals*23
  Miscellaneous licences2,26242,240108,407
Totals4,102154,648131,01795,911
Endowment and other lands –
  Leases under section 169, Land Act262187
  Leases under section 48, Land Act4714,8308,843
  Westport Harbour Board710619
  Sundry endowment leases1021063
Grand totals, 1962–634,168170,415140,02995,911
Grand totals, 1961–624,193191,587100,581105,816

LEASES AND LICENCES CURRENT AT 31 MARCH 1963 – The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current at 31 March 1963. This table is in two parts, the first (a), dealing with leases and licences issued under the Land Act 1948, and the second (b), with those issued under Acts other than the Land Act 1948 and still current at 31 March 1963.

TenureNumberAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment (Including Improvement Loading)

*Areas and rents not shown; licences on royalty basis only.

(a) Tenures Under the Land Act 1948
  acres££
Crown lands –
  Renewable leases –
    Farm4,9602,623,563456,91611,503
    Urban2,75094654,070318
    Commercial or industrial7711516,941131
  Pastoral leases4486,782,61888,0151,387
  Pastoral occupation licences54359,6003,673
  Deferred-payment licences–
    Farm1,384514,387166,503
    Urban10,8382,728503,340
    Commercial or industrial3572,62791,675
    Land Subdivision in Counties Act1,06324651,382
Special leases (section 67, Land Act) –
  Renewable –
    Farm18255,3208,797688
    Urban814147190
    Commercial or industrial314,1199,865228
Non-renewable –
    Farm7530,0944,295133
    Urban133167
    Commercial or industrial119133,263
Licences for removal of minerals*165
Flax leases51,05717415
Communal grazing licences365726754
Miscellaneous licences5,269395,419119,282
Totals, Crown lands27,69310,773,604795,715827,947
Endowment and other lands –
  Leases under section 169, Land Act272,981502
  Leases under section 48, Land Act23834,18526,2512,856
  Leases under section 47, Land Act9100522
  Westport Harbour Board Endowment953,187197
  Sundry endowment leases177222,3066,951
Totals, tenures under Land Act 194828,23911,036,363830,138830,803
TenureNumberAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment (Including Improvement Loading)
(b) Tenures Under Acts Other Than the Land Act 1948
Crown lands – acres££
  Renewable leases5,0501,413,357158,7242,458
  Leases under section 5, Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Amendment Act 1921–22133,937833
  Special tenure leases355132,87615,86574
  Leases in perpetuity6,3771,296,517153,184260
  Perpetual leases629825
  Mining district land occupation leases4731868
  Pastoral regulation licences (mining districts)274,130138
  Small grazing-run leases37118,2545,055
  Pastoral-run licences991,255,95810,073
  Education reserves: Public Bodies Leases Act20411,3102,57133
  Deferred-payment licences551108,68624,296
  Small-farm leases1317934
  Leases under Education Lands Act –
    Leases817,7617,229116
    Temporary tenancies127588
  Hanmer Crown leases3811154
  Sundry leases341,201205
Totals, Crown lands12,9444,354,800354,74627,237
Endowment and other lands –
  Westport Harbour Board Endowment –56410,1242,741
  Thermal Springs licences4926211
  Sundry other endowments7322,9123,254
  Miscellaneous licences89731,3575,670
Totals, tenures under Acts other than Land Act 194814,5274,419,219366,62227,237
Grand totals, all tenures42,76615,455,5821,196,760858,040

LEASES AND LICENCES FREEHOLDED – Over the past few years many Crown lessees have availed themselves of the provisions of the Land Act 1948 and have freeholded their leases, either for cash or on deferred-payment licence.

In 1962–63, 295 leases were freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments. The area embraced by these leases was 44,171 acres and the total purchase price £314,352, of which £198,788 was on deferred payments. These figures are a decrease on those for 1961–62 when 587 leases over 99,991 acres were freeholded for a total of £837,775.

Leases and Licences FreeholdedPurchased for CashPurchased on Deferred Payments
NumberAreaPurchase PriceNumberAreaPurchase Price
Crown lands – acres£ acres£
  Farm7811,30062,2397632,829145,532
  Urban651935,990662048,157
  Commercial or industrial119,300
Totals, Crown lands14411,320107,52914232,849193,689
Endowment and other lands –
  Urban718,035215,099
Grand totals15111,321115,56414432,850198,788

PURCHASE OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENT – The Land Act 1948 authorises the Land Settlement Board to purchase private land or the interest of any lessee or licensee in any Crown land or Maori land for the purposes of settlement as farming, urban, commercial and industrial, or pastoral land. The Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952 gives power to the Minister of Lands, under certain conditions, to take any farm land suitable for settlement where additional farm land is required for settlement of landless discharged servicemen and others requiring land on which to establish themselves in farming. This provision has not been operated, however.

LAND DEVELOPMENT – The Land Settlement Board, constituted in 1941 to administer land policy and land development through the Department of Lands and Survey, has had the responsibility of developing, for the settlement of ex-servicemen of the Second World War, both Crown land and undeveloped private land purchased or acquired for the purpose. Initially all land developed was offered exclusively to ex-servicemen eligible for rehabilitation farming assistance, but with the commitment to settle ex-servicemen largely fulfilled, a civilian land settlement policy has been introduced. The few remaining ex-servicemen awaiting farms still receive preference at ballots, but as few are applying, the great bulk of farms offered by the Land Settlement Board go to civilians.

Development of land for settlement includes clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, erection of buildings, and installation of water supplies. To consolidate pastures and to control regrowth of scrub and weeds, the land is farmed as part of the development process. This helps to meet the cost of development and to ensure that, when the farms are disposed of, the new settlers will not experience stock troubles or reversion.

The major development districts are Rotorua with 289,000 acres under development, Southland (256,000 acres), North Auckland (173,000 acres), and Te Kuiti (135,000).

The following table contains particulars of land acquired for development and settlement during the year ended 31 March 1963, and from the establishment of the Land Settlement Board in 1941 to 31 March 1963; also shown are those areas made available for settlement and the balance on hand at the latter date. The figures do not include particulars relating to ex-servicemen who have been assisted by way of rehabilitation loans to purchase established farms on their own account. Further information concerning the settlement of ex-servicemen on the land will be found in Section 9B, Rehabilitation.

As the table shows, the bulk of the land has been purchased by voluntary negotiation or was formerly unoccupied Crown land which has been included in development blocks. All the land shown as acquired compulsorily was acquired between 1943 and 1953.

Nature of TransactionYear Ended 31 March 1963From Inception (1941) to 31 March 1963
AreaUnitsAreaUnits

Areas include adjustments consequent on surveys.

*Reduced by two units on re-scheming of farm settlement.

†Tentative figures only. Final subdivision and utilisation is decided as development is approaching completion.

ACQUISITIONS
 acres acres 
(a) Purchased by voluntary negotiation64,889321,572,955..
(b) Compulsorily acquired (Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 and Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950)281,472..
(c) Properties where ex-servicemen substituted under section 31 (3) (b), Servicemen's Settlement Act 195017,390..
(d) Crown land made available4,5276834,212..
Totals, acquisitions69,416382,706,0295,534
DISPOSALS
I To Grade “A” Ex-servicemen
(a) Developed units (including substitutions)8,029181,358,4343,497*
(b) Unimproved units1,3145
 8,029181,359,7483,502
II To Civilians
(a) Developed units27,60871123,616342*
(b) Unimproved units179143,80989
 27,78772167,425431
III Sundry Disposals
(a) Transferred to Maori Affairs Department for settlement12,11631
(b) Adjacent owners, reserves, workers' homes unsuitable for settlement, etc.1,9755120,47320
 1,9755132,58951
Totals, disposals37,791951,659,7623,984
Land on hand for development in farm settlements1,046,2671,550

10 C – MAORI LANDS

DEFINITION OF MAORI LANDS – Before European settlement, all the land in the country was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Practically all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown.

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes European land by the following processes:

  1. If all interests in it are sold to or otherwise vested (including vesting by succession) in a person or persons each of whom is less than one-half Maori blood for a beneficial estate in fee simple.

  2. If the land (being solely owned) is declared to be European land by the Maori Appellate Court.

  3. If the Maori owner of solely owned land had been declared to be a European by Order in Council under provisions since repealed or has obtained an exemption order under section 433A of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

  4. If the land is comprised in any certificate of title issued under section 12 of the Maori Housing Amendment Act 1938.

Even though one of many Maori owners may sell, the land remains Maori land until all have disposed of their interest, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. The term “Maori” includes a half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

Since 1954, by virtue of various provisions in the Maori Affairs Act 1953, emphasis has been placed on the need for the improvement of existing Maori land titles by the elimination of small fractional interests and the reduction in the number of owners. The idea behind this is to clear the way for the better use of the land in an attempt to keep Maori freehold land in the possession of the Maoris.

POWERS OF ALIENATION – The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Maori land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Maori cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Maori cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Maori land by a Maori has any effect until it is confirmed by the Maori Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Maori alienating; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase money or other consideration is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law. A lease of Maori land cannot be for a longer term than 50 years.

With regard to Maori freehold land, the Court during 1962–63 approved of new leases comprising 21,581 acres to Europeans and 21,327 acres to Maoris, the previous year's figures being 21,490 and 11,163 acres respectively. It confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 28,019 acres of freehold land to Europeans and 6,663 acres to Maoris in 1962–63, the corresponding 1961–62 figures being 15,518 and 4,850 acres respectively. During the year ended 31 March 1963 timber-cutting rights were confirmed by the Court in respect of 52,152 acres.

REMAINING LAND – The area of Maori land still held by Maoris in the North Island is estimated at 3,750,000 acres, and in the whole of New Zealand at 4,000,000 acres. In many cases the Maoris are utilising their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by the Maori Trustee. Extensive areas formerly managed for the Maori owners by the East Coast Commissioner, acting under statutory powers, have practically all been returned to the management of the owners, who are farming them under the system of incorporated owners provided by Part XXII of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

BOARD OF MAORI AFFAIRS – The Board of Maori Affairs constituted under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 consists of the Minister of Maori Affairs, the Secretary for Maori Affairs, the Director-General of Lands, the Valuer-General, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the member of the Executive Council representing the Maori race or, if there is no such member, any member of the Executive Council appointed by the Governor-General to be a member of the Board, and three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The functions of the Board include, inter alia, the following:

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Maori land or land owned or occupied by Maoris.

  2. The approval of investment and advances, and of certain expenditure from the Maori Trustee funds.

  3. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown.

  4. The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Maori Housing Act 1935, as amended in 1938.

MAORI LAND COURT – The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General may think fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorises. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are:

  1. The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Maori freehold land.

  2. The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.

  3. The sanctioning of exchanges for other Maori land and European land.

  4. Granting probates of wills and effecting succession to the estates of Maoris.

  5. Making orders for the adoption of children.

  6. Appointing trustees for Maoris who are minors or under other disability.

  7. The incorporation of the owners of Maori land.

  8. Granting confirmation of alienation of Maori land.

  9. Assessing compensation for Maori land taken under the Public Works Act.

  10. Making awards under legislation similar to the Family Protection Act 1955.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

MAORI TRUSTEE – The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and function with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts. A detailed review of the functions and powers of the Maori Trustee is contained in parliamentary paper G. 9 of 1954.

The Maori Trustee may be appointed executor of the will of a deceased Maori or administrator of an intestate Maori estate. He may also be appointed trustee to manage the property of Maoris who are minors or suffer from some other legal disability, and is statutory trustee of the estates of Maori mental patients. The Maori Trust Office Regulations 1954 prescribe the rates of commission and fees chargeable by the Maori Trustee and the rates of interest payable in respect of moneys held by him in his Common Fund.

In addition to the administration of Maori reserves, situated mainly in Taranaki, and in Nelson, Greymouth, and other South Island localities, the Maori Trustee has the responsibility for the administration of large areas of Maori land elsewhere. Most of these lands are, like the Maori reserves, vested in the Maori Trustee, who is responsible for leasing them and distributing the proceeds to the owners. The two principal statutes under which the Maori Trustee acts in relation to the control and leasing of land are the Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954 and the Maori Reserve Land Act 1955. Another function is the collection and distribution to owners of rents from most other Maori land leased under Part XXIII of the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

The Maori Trustee has extensive lending powers used principally for the settlement and improvement of Maori land, for the establishment of Maoris in business, and for housing purposes. Most advances are made on the security of Maori land.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in the latest two years.

ItemAs at 31 March
19621963
Assets –££
  Cash48,04936,909
  Investments –
    Government securities2,838,9972,777,966
    Local authority debentures25,00054,650
    Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft1,217,4031,366,000
  Land, buildings, and miscellaneous138,062139,185
Totals4,267,5114,374,710
  Liabilities –
    Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors3,176,3473,215,940
    Reserves and Appropriation Account1,082,2231,151,491
    Sundry creditors, etc.8,9417,279
Totals4,267,5114,374,710

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT – Maori land development policy is directed to the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will assure them of a reasonable standard of living based on today's costs and standards; to secure them the best possible tenure for the lands they farm; to assist them to develop the land and to teach them modern methods of farming. The means at the Department's disposal have permitted the development of approximately 10,000 acres of new land annually. In the year ended 30 June 1963 there were 11 farms settled.

The Lands and Survey Department has estimated that Maori land at 31 March 1955 totalled 4,072,398 acres. This total is broken down, very tentatively, by the Department of Maori Affairs into the following categories:

 Acres
Leased to Europeans750,000
Under control of the Department (Part XXIV) and the Maori Trustee445,230
    (This includes 210,000 acres being developed or suitable for development)
Farmed by Maoris, Trusts and Incorporations1,477,770
Idle land suitable for development550,000
Idle land not suitable for development777,000
 4,000,000

The estimated area of Maori land suitable for settlement is thus limited to 760,000 acres (210,000 acres under departmental control and 550,000 acres of idle land).

Up to 30 June 1963 the Department had settled 2,251 Maoris on farms. If the use of the remaining 760,000 acres follows the usual pattern of one-third sheep farms and two-thirds dairy farms, only 3,910 more Maori farmers can be settled, i.e., 560 sheep farmers and 3,350 dairy farmers.

10 D – SURVEYS AND MAPS

INTRODUCTORY – The surveys of Crown lands, Maori lands, land purchased under the former Settlements Acts and the Land Act 1948, lands acquired under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952, and lands acquired or taken for public works, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands, and are carried out by staff and contract surveyors registered by the Survey Board under the provisions of the Surveyors Act 1938. This Act provides that in order to undertake land title surveys all registered surveyors must hold annual practising certificates, issued by the secretary of the New Zealand Institute of Surveyors. The necessary qualification is completion of a three-year diploma course at the University of Otago, two years' practical survey experience, and final examination by the Survey Board.

The surveys of private lands for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act 1952 are carried out by private surveyors similarly registered.

Statutory authority for the surveyor to enter upon any land and to place survey marks thereon is contained in several Acts, and the wilful destruction of these marks is subject to a severe penalty.

All surface surveys are made in accordance with regulations laid down and are subject to field check (if thought necessary) and to office examination prior to approval and deposit.

The standard of length is the chain of 22 Imperial yards divided into 100 links, and all linear measurements have to be expressed in terms thereof, and areas in acres, roods, and perches, with decimals of a perch. Standard comparison bands are available in each district office of the Department of Lands and Survey, as well as at the office of the Surveyor-General.

In the 1957 and earlier issues of the Yearbook there is described the survey system of minor triangulation adopted in 1876 to enable settlers to be given possession of definite pieces of land, with each section having for the purpose of record and title registration a complete identification by means of its number, the number of the block, and the name of the district.

A national series of completely contoured maps is being produced with the assistance of photo-grammetrical plotting machines, but progress with these maps has been slow and it has been found necessary to resort to a system of interim stream and ridge-pattern maps using aerial photographs with slotted template assembly and radial line plotting.

STANDARD SURVEYS – In order to more adequately correlate and redefine old boundary marks for land-title purposes and to provide a permanent standard of reference for future surveys in cities and boroughs where land values are high, and on highways and on main arterial roads where modern road surfaces have eliminated survey marks, a precise survey is carried out, all intersections being referenced with permanent standard marks, normally iron tubes in concrete blocks protected by an iron cover.

These surveys are of two classes – (1) those in the cities and boroughs, being of standard of accuracy of 2 inches to the mile, the cost of which is borne partly by the local authority concerned and partly by the Department of Lands and Survey and (2) those carried out on highways and arterial roads to a lesser standard of accuracy, for the purpose of referencing survey marks lost or obliterated by road works and surfaces.

These standard traverses will in the future be correlated with precise levelling traverses, thus providing a standard level datum for engineering works.

PRECISE LEVELLING – Approximately 1,547 miles of precise levelling have been carried out for the purpose of correlating the level data of irrigation and drainage and other engineering works. This type of levelling has been carried out in accordance with international standards of accuracy – namely, 0.012 feet or 0.44 inches per mile.

These levels are at mean sea-level datum determined from the tidal records of the principal tidal stations or of tide gauges established specially for that purpose. The traverses are referenced at approximately 25-mile intervals by fundamental bench marks and at approximately 1-mile intervals by standard bench marks.

This work is being further extended to meet the requirements of national drainage, irrigation, hydro-electric, and river-control development, where related and coordinated levels in terms of a fixed datum are essential.

AERIAL SURVEY AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING – Extensive use is made of aerial photographs for other than purely mapping purposes. All types of land and engineering development, investigations into geological resources, afforestation, and town and rural planning are now based on data extracted from the aerial photographs. The Department is responsible for the maintenance of a complete library of aerial photographs, which are made available for all national purposes. At present the North Island has been completely photographed while two-thirds of the South Island has been covered.

There is an increasing demand for topographical maps of all scales for land development, forestry, engineering, geological and soil survey, and other governmental purposes. New cartographic techniques have revolutionised the production of better and more varied scales and types of maps. In consequence it can now be claimed that New Zealand has a mapping organisation that compares more than favourably with overseas mapping agencies.

Mapping is also undertaken of islands and territory within the Ross Dependency, Antarctica. Information for these maps is based on aerial photography supplied by the United States, field work from New Zealand field parties, and maps prepared by other countries.

GEOGRAPHIC BOARD – The New Zealand Geographic Board, constituted under the provisions of the New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946, is the official place-names authority.

The main function of the board is to adjudicate on matters pertaining to place and feature names in New Zealand. The board has authority to assign new names for localities, geographical features, post offices, railway stations, etc., and to alter existing names subject to the right of appeal vested in the general public and to the rights of local authorities concerning names within the areas administered by such local authorities.

The board together with three co-opted members also acts as the Antarctic Place Names Committee. This committee is the official New Zealand authority for approval of names in the Antarctic. Its activities are confined mainly to the Ross Dependency but liaison is maintained with the place-name authorities of other countries.

The membership of the board comprises the Surveyor-General, two representatives of the Maori race, a representative of the New Zealand Geographical Society, a representative of the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and two members appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Lands.

MAPS – Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition 300 private selling agents have been appointed throughout the country and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue of Maps published by the Department.

10 E – VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL – The necessity for fixing equitable land values arises in many of the relations of the General Government and local governing authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following:

  1. The levying of land tax.

  2. The apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities.

  3. The levying of rates by local authorities.

  4. The advancing of money on mortgage by Government Departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act.

  5. The assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties.

  6. The fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE – The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government Department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the General Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Court Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value”.

“Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land.

The “capital value” is the sum of the “unimproved value” plus the value of “improvements”.

THE VALUATION ROLL – The Valuation of Land Act 1951 directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district over which a local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:

  1. The name of the owner of the land, and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:

  2. The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act 1925:

  3. The situation, description, and area of the land:

  4. The nature and value of the improvements:

  5. The unimproved value of the land:

  6. The capital value of the land:

  7. Such other particulars as are prescribed.

Revision of Rolls – District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than five years unless the Governor-General in Council directs otherwise.

Equalisation of Values – Naturally it is not generally possible to revalue all the constituent districts of a special purpose rating authority such as a catchment board in one year. With rising values, this sectional revaluation could lead to a greater proportion of the special purpose authority's rates falling on the newly revalued districts. To meet this situation the Valuation Equalisation Act was passed in 1957. The general purpose of this Act is to provide for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times.

The Supplementary Roll – There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. The supplementary roll may be used for the same purposes as the district roll except that it may not be used for the assessment of land tax or local rates. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes – e.g., the granting of loans by Government Departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties – are entered on the supplementary roll, but not on the district roll. There is generally a right of objection to such special valuations procedurally similar to the objections discussed under the next heading.

Objections to Valuations – When a district valuation roll is revised the Valuer-General addresses to each owner, and also to the owner concerned when any particular valuation in that roll is altered, a notice showing the new valuation and naming a date before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged. In the case of a revision of a district roll the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, only the owner has a right of objection.

The Valuer-General refers any objections to his district valuers for reconsideration. He may then decide (1) of his own motion to refer the objection to the Land Valuation Court, (2) to alter the valuation to the extent claimed, (3) to alter the valuation to such extent as is agreed upon with the objector, or (4) to decline to alter the valuation. If his decision is either (2), (3), or (4), he serves notice of it on the objector, and on the owner if other than the objector. Either of these may notify the Valuer-General within 14 days that he desires the objection to be heard by the Land Valuation Court. If no such notice is received the Valuer-General's decision is deemed to be assented to, and the roll is amended, if necessary, to give effect to his decision.

LAND VALUATION COURT – The Land Valuation Court Act 1948 established the Land Valuation Court, which consists of three members appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one of whom is the Judge of the Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Valuation of Land Act the Court hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952.

The Act also established Land Valuation Committees which, in the exercise of their powers and functions, are subject to the general jurisdiction of the Court. A local authority may appoint a person, other than a member or paid officer of a local authority, to be an additional member of the Land Valuation Committee exercising its functions in the district of that local authority. This provision is limited to cases where objections to valuations of property situated in that local authority's district are being heard.

Except that the Judge of the Court may on the application of any party to proceedings, or of his own motion, state a case for the opinion of the Court of Appeal on a question of law, the decisions of the Land Valuation Court (either decisions of the Court itself or orders of the committees sealed by the Registrar) are final.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Land Valuation Court's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may within 14 days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING – The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act 1932 provides for rating relief for farm lands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farm lands lower than the values for the same lands appearing on the district valuation rolls. There are rights of objection to such valuations, either to a specially constituted Assessment Court where the valuations are to appear on a farm-land roll, or to a Magistrate if special rateable values are being assessed for the ordinary rating roll. The values are generally revised at five-yearly intervals.

A heritage of the days of independent valuations by local authorities is the provision by which they can rate on the annual (rental) values of properties within their areas, these values being assessed by the local authorities' own valuers. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 per cent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 per cent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 per cent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND – The figures in the following table show valuations over a long period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

At 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
£ (thousand)
187899,56762,574
1885113,271..
1888111,13875,497
1891122,22575,832
1897138,59184,401
1902154,81694,848
1905197,684122,937
1907236,645149,683
1909271,516172,760
1911293,117184,063
1913340,560212,963
1915371,077230,705
1916389,165241,322
1917405,466251,088
1918421,383260,922
1919445,533275,988
1920470,094290,880
1921518,584317,631
1922544,503329,174
1923553,404330,791
1924568,501333,870
1925587,350339,310
1926603,250341,048
1927618,264341,519
1928631,45535,217
1929655,907344,758
1930664,571338,887
1931667,911331,635
1932662,829321,799
1933653,708314,556
1934650,362309,770
1935637,604301,138
1936635,802295,696
1937632,230287,845
1938636,363282,326
1939652,899282,806
1940660,524278,881
1941673,118277,542
1942681,922276,885
1943684,181276,881
1944688,795277,039
1945697,366277,495
1946710,425279,214
1947746,412284,274
1948796,038291,617
1949889,268307,152
1950985,880324,465
19511,112,747349,160
19521,314,879394,228
19531,532,358449,814
19541,702,727487,125
19552,068,313579,128
19562,306,585644,410
19572,496,337697,540
19582,677,250751,129
19592,832,252805,299
19603,066,231889,821
19613,248,684952,831
19623,472,8641,030,529
19633,686,7991,106,072

The table shows a continuous decrease in land values from 1929 to 1943. Probably the lowest point in real values was reached about 1934, and the decreases shown after that year merely indicate that the new valuations being made were still at levels lower than the existing pre-depression figures. After 1943 land values were stabilised through the operation of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943, and the increases shown to 1950 mainly reflect the writing into new valuations of increases which had occurred prior to 1943.

The lifting of land sales control on urban properties from 23 February 1950 was reflected in the 1951 general revaluations of boroughs and cities. County revaluations did not, however, reflect the transition to a free market basis until the 1952 revaluations, the effect of the higher basis having been postponed 12 months as provided for by section 38 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1950.

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up to date has the effect in the preceding table of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes. Rural land values are generally conditioned by the prices received for exports of primary products, improved efficiency in farming methods, growth of population, improved internal transport, and other facilities, etc.

In the following table the gross values are analysed in more detail for the latest five years.

As at 31 MarchNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
£(thousand) Counties
1959803,199233,712405,664148,4441,208,863382,155
1960854,809245,950427,397154,9981,282,206400,949
1961898,134258,858461,050174,4461,359,185433,304
1962953,475272,300499,816189,5231,453,291461,824
1963994,726291,837525,747201,0311,520,473492,867
Boroughs
19591,167,280314,657446,487107,0921,613,767421,749
19601,297,221364,848477,498122,6531,774,719487,501
19611,381,388393,12898,088124,9451,879,476518,073
19621,480,049432,188528,091134,6662,008,140566,853
19631,602,511469,694553,133141,8002,155,644611,495
Independent Town Districts
19597,0931,1902,5292059,6221,395
19607,4331,2321,8731399,3061,371
19617,9801,2952,04315810,0231,453
19629,3251,6932,10815911,4331,852
19638,5091,5512,17315910,6821,710
Grand Totals
19531,093,872313,896438,486135,9171,532,358449,814
19541,223,171342,660479,556144,4651,702,727487,125
19551,477,970405,183590,343173,9462,068,313579,128
19561,641,247446,658665,338197,7522,306,585644,410
19571,750,298476,779746,039220,7612,496,337697,540
19581,870,739511,266806,511239,8642,677,250751,129
19591,977,571549,558854,681255,7412,832,252805,299
19602,159,464612,030906,767277,7903,066,231889,821
19612,287,502653,281961,182299,5493,248,684952,831
19622,442,849706,1811,030,015324,3473,472,8641,030,529
19632,605,746763,0821,081,053342,9913,686,7991,106,072

RATEABLE VALUES – The values quoted earlier in this section relate to gross values (i.e., the value of all property, whether exempt from local rating or not). The following summary indicates rateable values for counties, boroughs, and independent town districts as at 31 March 1963.

Local Authority DistrictNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
£(thousand)
Counties897,725273,758485,897192,7471,383,622466,505
Boroughs1,427,387424,854488,834128,8561,916,221553,710
Town districts (independent)7,1481,3661,9091479,0561,512
Totals2,332,259699,977976,640321,7503,308,8991,021,727

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 1 April 1963, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts as at 31 March 1963.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationRateable Property Values
Capital ValueUnimproved ValueValue of Improvements
Percentage Distribution
Counties99.434.241.845.740.
Boroughs0.665.357.954.59.6
Town districts (independent)- -0.50.30.20.3
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

It will be observed that there is a closer correlation between value of improvements and population distribution than between unimproved values and population distribution, with capital values consequently taking up an intermediate position.

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the Report on Local Authority Statistics, where similar data are also given for dependent town districts and for road districts.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD – The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. There were 318 classified as rural valuers, 358 as urban valuers, and 55 as both rural and urban valuers at 31 December 1963.

Chapter 11. Section 11 TRANSPORT

11 A – SHIPPING

PORT DEVELOPMENT – The Bay of Islands was the first New Zealand port used by commercial shipping, but port development soon followed in other northern harbours such as Hokianga, Mangonui, and Auckland. Wellington came later, followed by New Plymouth. With settlements becoming established in the South Island, shipping was next recorded at Nelson, Akaroa, and Port Chaimers. By 1853, when statistics were first compiled for New Zealand as a whole, 11 ports were receiving shipping direct from overseas. The number of ports in use by overseas vessels increased during the gold-rush period, but later decreased to a number which has not changed greatly during the past 60 years.

With increasing trade and the growing size of ships handled at New Zealand ports since 1950, harbour boards have had to meet the demand for shipping facilities by extensive development of the ports. A new wharf at Opua in the Bay of Islands opened the port to overseas shipping for the export of butter in 1957, while extensions to the port of Tauranga are enabling it to serve the rapidly growing timber, woodpulp, and paper industries of the Bay of Plenty area. At Bluff in Southland a development scheme involving a capital expenditure of £5 million has been designed to make it into one of the most important meat exporting ports of the country. All-weather package loaders, which came into operation in 1963, have enabled the rates of loading to be substantially improved for meat and cheese. Successful operation in all weathers has been effected by the use of mechanical loaders which enable produce to be under cover from wharf shed to ship's hold.

At Whangarei, where an oil refinery has been built and has come into operation, a new wharf at Marsden Point and other oil refinery facilities have involved an expenditure of £3 million.

At Auckland an overseas passenger terminal with modern facilities for handling passengers was opened in 1961, and in Wellington a like two-storey passenger terminal costing nearly £1 million is under construction.

Rail-road ferry terminals have been built at Wellington and Picton for the Cook Strait service of G.m.v. Aramoana.

Major development work is under way or projected at most other ports, including Lyttelton and Otago. (The linking of Lyttelton with Christchurch by a road tunnel constructed at a cost of £3 million and opened on 27 February 1964 is an important ancillary development.)

New Zealand's first loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) has been authorised for harbour development. It involves £2.8 million which the Government is relending to five harbour boards, namely, Auckland, Lyttelton, Napier, Timaru, and Whangarei.

SHIPPING STATISTICS – Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls made each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage
  tons (000) tons (000) tons (000)
19531,8417,25813,6964,45115,53711,709
19542,0498,33213,5024,78215,55113,114
19552,2009,18913,2394,74015,43913,929
19562,2689,75312,9844,85515,25214,608
19572,44310,30512,9274,82815,37015,133
19582,97711,88012,7354,79315,71216,673
19592,87512,70010,9994,97313,87417,672
19603,12413,54910,2494,97813,37318,527
19613,65216,17710,2475,03613,89921,213
19623,60316,45710,6545,46714,25721,924
19633,76416,43311,0766,18914,84022,622

These figures reflect the increased number of ports visited by overseas ships while on the New Zealand coast. The average number of coastal calls made by each overseas vessel was 3.3 in 1959, 3.2 in 1960, 3.5 in 1961, 3.6 in 1962, and 3.6 in 1963. Movements of coastal vessels declined from 1953 to 1962 when the rail-road ferry Aramoana came into operation.

The following table shows for the latest three years the total shipping traffic handled inwards at the various ports. Overseas and coastal vessels calling at more than one port in the course of a single voyage have been recorded as entered at every port visited. The figures given in this section include all registered merchant vessels trading at New Zealand ports: thus they exclude naval vessels when engaged in their normal duties, private launches, lighters engaged in loading or unloading vessels in roadsteads, trawlers, other fishing vessels, and pleasure craft.

Port196019611962
NumberTonnageNumberTonnageNumberTonnage
Awanui1175,9351035,797741,937
Mangonui584,074714,42021838
Whangaroa451,914421,341721,323
Bay of Islands105150,072108260,433101237,646
Whangarei755232,471865298,594585369,415
Auckland3,4994,154,9553,6104,535,0013,5484,485,817
Onehunga12939,62310737,64717665,917
Raglan5215,0815719,4976521,380
Thames1883,0201301,9391152,092
Coromandel1154,1191064,5481074,685
Whitianga841,943901,995831,816
Tauranga336595,296330804,460328803,344
Whakatane and Ohiwa327,351145,446228,421
Tokomaru Bay184,816133,228112,399
Tolaga Bay133,786142,91582,089
Gisborne-228207,205218240,947228238,814
Napier405973,6644481,170,2654871,324,399
Taranaki262792,7723031,017,5003151,006,800
Patea121
Wanganui25688,86623894,89726096,709
Wellington2,1944,334,8452,3004,841,7172,4324,858,207
Picton303393,111282379,892352543,824
Wairau544,752434,257666,534
Nelson751313,273782365,021833401,176
Motueka-21728,64926028,55925232,432
Tarakohe145104,56113794,830
Westport-143113,885150113,555145116,315
Greymouth116120,063119122,69510693,157
Jackson Bay27702770
Kaiapoi754,4151239,93515512,131
Lyttelton-1,2743,123,5971,2193,409,1771,3613,429,058
Timaru407645,686370803,090469958,734
Oamaru8543,7858155,22710660,654
Otago5041,365,7475341,539,0946041,595,960
Bluff428702,766501881,2475051,020,927
Half-moon Bay12244,57512143,16512824,380
Totals13,37318,526,90313,89921,212,83214,25721,924,160

In 1962 Wellington ranked as the first port of New Zealand as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland Lyttelton, Otago, Napier, Bluff, Taranaki, Timaru, and Tauranga, in that order. Steadily increasing volumes continue to be recorded at Whangarei, Tauranga, Napier, Timaru, and Bluff.

In the cases of Wellington, Lyttelton, Picton, Bluff, and Half-moon Bay, the figures are inflated by the recording of the regular inter-island steamer services.

The following table shows for the three latest years the number and net tonnage of all calls of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port196019611962
NumberTonnageNumberTonnageNumberTonnage
Bay of Islands38148,07750259,31951234,719
Whangarei2693,24430138,60048212,853
Auckland7953,822,6998544,186,7388384,147,604
Onehunga392214771385
Tauranga199558,365243779,078244776,190
Gisborne32139,91737178,88536174,188
Napier-217897,0972661,099,1622791,249,315
Taranaki160747,792204967,421193949,343
Wanganui41,21531,08931,428
Wellington5562,636,5236543,163,4056153,007,191
Picton1591,85721105,53326136,918
Nelson74187,96188241,56183262,623
Westport82,65161,1643582
Greymouth716,566612,173
Jackson Bay27702770
Lyttelton4281,818,4354982,136,5454872,106,007
Timaru107516,185153685,313163816,379
Oamaru59,73411,992
Otago2991,258,7473351,423,8013241,449,957
Bluff154609,738196786,315208929,593
Totals3,12413,548,7613,65216,177,0833,60316,457,267

Overseas vessels called at 19 ports in 1960,20 in 1961, and 18 in 1962. In the years 1936–38 approximately New Zealand ports were visited by overseas vessels. The following table shows the percentages of inward overseas shipping tonnage recorded at the ports of Wellington, Auckland, and Lyttelton for the latest five years. In recent years these three ports have landed slightly more than half of the total tonnage of overseas shipping, whereas their share in earlier years was two-thirds of the total.

Port19581959196019611962
   per cent  
Auckland29.228.328.225.925.2
Wellington21.321.019.519.618.3
Other North Island16.418.219.21.21.9
  North Island66.967.566.866.665.3
Lyttelton13.513.413.413.212.8
Other South Island19.619119.820.221.9
  South Island33.32.533.233.434.7
  New Zealand totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Direction of Overseas Shipping – Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries are given in the following table.

Country19611962
EnteredClearedEnteredCleared
No.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.Net TonnageNo.Net Tonnage
Aden16,537524,66527,51528 355
Australia4141,782,6534651,900,1423781,695,0094331,804,439
Bahrain533,57416,960746,794746,979
Belgium1261,08513,454733,099317,498
Canada21136,347795,2661695,905643,715
Ceylon527,20811,96525,103
Fiji31168,39132178,92246147,61454296,506
France14,93432170,552636,47153290,103
Gilbert and Ellice Islands1264,375737,453630,655846,597
Hong Kong1424,0671132,1232157,9471122,583
India1154,330618,7071263,555512,577
Indonesia423,476745,997213,693314,861
Iran1171,48216,940743,911958,358
Japan93242,76195257,18786261,68083235,265
Malaysia413,045923,070
Nauru Island28152,52129158,17635193,01325138,600
Netherlands Antilles20129,42619125,8501178,6791276,673
Singapore18103,61321119,39621124,3081979,926
South Africa1254,545420,977823,963519,965
Sweden12,750
United Kingdom133872,66699710,087119782,183106741,692
United States of America69398,18963378,08057377,94857395,674
Other countries118525,954116607,453142669,78799535,063
Totals1,0384,953,9291,0314,923,4229914,788,8321,0004,885,429

In earlier years the tonnage of shipping entering from and clearing for the United Kingdom was higher than that for any other individual country. In 1954, however, shipping to and from Australia exceeded that recorded for the United Kingdom, and this has been the case for subsequent years also.

The next table shows the net tonnage of shipping between New Zealand and certain principal countries for the latest six years.

YearAustraliaUnited KingdomUnited States of AmericaCanadaPacific Islands
net tons
Entered
19571,150,0461,028,742578,08831,865305,383
19581,405,602955,345304,144141,185422,736
19591,432,370881,554359,270116,364381,656
19601,511,736876,522559,855149,915493,516
19611,782,653872,666398,189136,347562,570
19621,695,009782,183377,94895,905543,006
Cleared
19571,222,762975,140507,49420,136390,863
19581,346,4411,016,060415,77495,303358,363
19591,494,841966,890391,36469,406382,653
19601,649,682839,598380,67972,876474,714
19611,900,142710,087378,08095,266624,798
19621,804,439741,692395,67443,715695,045

Ports of Arrival and Departure – The next table shows the extent to which various ports were made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure by overseas vessels during the last three years. The relative overseas trade of the various ports can be judged only by taking into-account the coastwise visits of overseas vessels in the course of unloading and loading.

PortEnteredCleared
196019611962196019611962
net tons
Whangarei22,91821,792
Auckland2,701,1202,793,0282,645,5091,812,5431,967,7181,952,621
Tauranga69,685142,840118,103360,149439,791417,465
Gisborne3244106,2661,72717,075
Napier30,55559,17677,165241,192,243,409249,731
Taranaki90,350112,477106,658186,340205,798236,810
Wanganui894706321573385
Wellington-997,0321,242,7671,069,143848,8631,007,642916,024
Picton23,01520,82830,49132,1582,24529,184
Nelson22,26519,23834,67251,02674,56092,491
Greymouth-16,9637,419385
Lyttelton349,318367,652428,164292,662317,763281,049
Timaru26,14338,75343,68539,53240,30956,322
Otago89,60894,49566,745332,917349,492350,937
Bluff83,62054,140145,258203,819272,583263,928
Totals4,500,8924,953,9294,788,8324,408,4254,923,4224,885,429

As will be seen, in 1962, 78 per cent of overseas vessels (on a tonnage basis) arriving in New Zealand made Auckland or Wellington their first port of entry, and 59 per cent used one of these two ports as the final departure point.

Passengers – The overseas passenger traffic is concentrated principally at Auckland and Wellington. Small numbers of overseas passengers, however, arrive at and leave from the other ports. The following table gives the numbers of passengers arriving at and departing from each port for the latest five years.

PortPassengers Arriving from OverseasPassengers Departing for Overseas
1958195919601961196219581959196019611962
Auckland21,14020,62220,26426,43827,07417,75620,86520,30622,46123,250
Napier6148724458691136172151
Wellington19,56219,52316,75720,0820,64014,64615,32816,06913,02512,883
Lyttelton1,0711,151816795252204193262252273
Dunedin5637588331896612851595
Timaru2761323161820
Other45626662179104130598161178
Totals41,93541,47037,97447,49848,94432,88536,68937,49936,60436,850

Shipping Between New Zealand and Island Dependencies – In the tables of overseas shipping no account is taken of ships moving between the main islands of New Zealand and the island dependencies of Cook Islands and Niue. These islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, and shipping to or from them is not treated as overseas. The following table illustrates the extent of this shipping movement during the latest five years.

YearEntered New Zealand Ports from Cook Islands and Niue
With CargoIn Ballast
VesselsNet TonnageCargo (Manifest Tonnage)VesselsNet Tonnage
19581620,68015,654310,152
19591210,11210,56015,741
196096,3746,118127
19611617,94512,725
19621418,0069,839
YearCleared New Zealand Ports for Cook Islands and Niue
With CargoIn Ballast
VesselsNet TonnageCargo (Manifest Tonnage)VesselsNet Tonnage
19581211,37410,036180
195995,6796,005
19601216,53612,162
19611625,61014,989
19621314,70410,606  
    

In most years all the departures to the islands are from Auckland. Of the 14 vessels bringing cargo from the islands in 1962, 12 were of New Zealand registry.

Shipping on Inland Waters – Although New Zealand is well supplied with rivers few can be used by shipping for other than short distances. There are no regular passenger or cargo services on any of the rivers. The only inland-water shipping of consequence is the service on Lake Wakatipu operated with the Earnslaw. This vessel is the property of the New Zealand Railways. Passengers and cargo are carried from Queenstown to other points on the shores of the lake. Farmers use this service for transporting livestock. The next table shows the operations of this service during the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassengersLivestockTimberOther GoodsRevenueExpenditure
 No.No.super. ft. (000)tons££
195924,07810,2892044,33821,65127,479
196033,43010,9213063,82421,83828,994
196135,72613,9365063,86123,40332,625
196235,97617,5352954,10824,61333,711
196336,65111,9091403,61122,50735,501

Values of Exports and Imports by Ports – Tables showing the values of exports and imports through the various ports are included in Sections 22B and 22C respectively.

CARGO STATISTICS – The following table gives the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels entering and clearing New Zealand ports during the last 11 years, distinguishing those entered and cleared “with cargo” (cargo manifest tonnages are also shown for these) from those “in ballast”.

YearWith CargoIn BallastTotal
VesselsNet TonnageCargo Manifest Tonnage*VesselsNet TonnageVesselsNet Tonnage

*Direct comparisons of import and export tonnages are invalid since the former contain a much higher proportion of goods recorded in “measurement” tons than do the latter.

†“In ballast” means (a) inwards – “having no cargo for discharge in New Zealand”; (b) outwards – “having no cargo loaded in New Zealand”.

Entered
19536142,502,8563,617,49759264,7016732,767,557
19546872,882,3104,453,50664277,8227513,160,132
19557533,173,2114,858,36971353, 3578243,26,568
19567203,022 7134,422,90560341,8357803,364,548
19577953,503,8754,560,463101436,0648963,939,939
19587943,445,5434,536,110135608,2259294,053,768
19597503,355,6483,989,897133671,4778834,027,125
19608183,800,2554,636,376154700,6379724,500,892
19618654,150,0154,951,635173803,9141,0384,953,929
1962x8504,054,8204,832,023141734,0129914,788,832
19638834,145,525..146764,3131,0294,909,838
Cleared
19534061,746,1571,175,0352701,057,8636762,804,020
19544271,800,3051,224,9783081,332,6297353,132,934
19554512,014,9521,328,1553491,435,5218003,450,473
19564642,017,8291,476,0963211,346,8927853,364,721
19575492,488,5061,516,7803461,451,3508953,939,856
19585542,495,8081,531,0333571,478,4849113,974,292
19595772,506,5931,791,1653261,608,1369034,114,729
19606102,643,6821,747,8973511,764,7439614,408,425
19616512,999,0251,848,8693801,924,3971,0314,923,422
1962x6803,064,1902,233,4653201,821,2391,0004,885,429
19637303,043,665..3041,832,1201,0344,875,785

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo handled at all ports for the last eleven years.

YearInwards*TranshipmentsOutwards*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons
19531,975,4483,835,923174,2941,858,6081,253,3849,271,951
19542,120,7864,529,665170,8551,948,1951,277,57210,217,928
19552,155,5885,050,090204,3051,951,0141,389,65710,954,959
19562,148,7334,947,327190,1721,943,7841,555,59810,975,786
19572,252,6055,169,225174,1091,963,7101,610,98811,344,746
19582,259,4874,865,187148,2822,018,0761,664,98411,104,298
19592,179,6894,494,627127,6331,930,0031,912,67710,772,262
19602,282,9685,059,083109,9631,995,5781,932,78611,490,341
19612,433,1775,704,028157,5462,164,4911,983,15812,599,946
19622,464,0355,156,683116,3172,231,4952,045,36312,130,210
19632,881,9425,696,657109,462,546,8992,119,73913,464,169

The next table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1962. The high proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is due to the central position of the port and the fact that much overseas cargo is transhipped from Wellington to South Island ports.

PortInwards*TranshipmentsOutwards*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons
Mangonui3,4622503,712
Bay of Islands4,3302,12328,78235,235
Whangaroa4,815194,834
Whangarei124,50680,922173,08680378,594
Auckland613,3601,943,70723,250181,485535,3113,320,363
Onehunga79,92029145083,745164,856
Raglan16,6411,45718,098
Thames3,2414213,662
Tauranga21,578314,0432522,683382,505740,859
Ohiwa1,21212,13013,342
Tokomaru Bay12872884
Tolaga Bay4907911
Gisborne52,4531,85414,55318,09686,956
Napier101,894269,8181,27217,941160,171552,368
Taranaki57,722274,4114077,224149,937490,108
Wanganui119,45755510,277229130,518
Wellington499,3051,046,44281,228488,929238,1982,435,330
Picton114,4672,77199,15514,429230,822
Wairau5,8174,53110,348
Nelson68,28554,37635585,61066,934275,915
Motueka6,51224,48530,997
Tarakohe14,624126,940141,564
Westport3,1393,098188,492194,729
Greymouth8,723155,020163,743
Kaiapoi16,69216,54633,238
Lyttelton280,290673,9561,200306,512134,7521,397,910
Timaru54,24016,43879,01491,819241,511
Oamaru16,11016824,51140,789
Otago108,918280,6987,76077,87991,597574,612
Bluff60,012191,01237025,231132,523409,518
Half-moon Bay2,2941,5903,884
Totals2,464,0355,156,683116,3172,231,4952,045,36312,130,210

In any consideration of these statistics it is advisable to note that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulae as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the ton. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

In the Section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 90 per cent of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the main pastoral produce items in the outward overseas cargo, including transhipments, during 1962. Although pastoral products constitute the bulk of New Zealand's exports on a value basis, a number of other types of commodities constitute an important part of the total outward overseas cargo. The table also shows the extent to which exporting ports participated in the handling of the major remaining items.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen MeatHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tons
Bay of Islands13,8961,97411,36129964290
Whangarei80
Auckland133,86119,952104,273108,52220,61419,33646,573
Tauranga1,765686759
Gisborne3,8548,9026688583,212
Napier3054,4466,0846,81246,145
Taranaki13,54257,7216,64349,4354,1483,9884,384
Wanganui229
Wellington12,20411,58816,74072,08912,45411,32153,016
Picton3214,6393461,731
Nelson3558562,95174543327
Lyttelton34175667345,7947,82410,14329,100
Timaru1,21352,2124,1424,26021,172
Otago1601,94567930,3504,2725,85534,277
Bluff1434,4901,30476,5685,3827,84632,912
Totals178,67798,521134,081517,49865,96172,716273,698
PortFruit, FreshIron and Steel, etc.Paper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodWood PulpAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tons
Bay of Islands52028,782
Whangarei80
Auckland4,6412,8901,14311,54824168,805542,399
Tauranga1544,348265,38567,5951,957382,510
Gisborne60218,096
Napier32,639141414,709160,893
Taranaki929,984149,937
Wanganui229
Wellington20,806226702,73552,186265,435
Picton5,8191,57314,429
Nelson41,34219,66782266,937
Lyttelton4213018739,973134,963
Timaru33,5925,22591,819
Otago1,0346322,11411,96392,714
Bluff1763,801132,523
Totals106,2963,23845,694305,41067,836212,1202,081,746

Transhipments – Transhipments of cargo during 1962 totalled 116,317 tons, of which 81,228 tons were transhipped at Wellington. As was noted earlier, the central position of this port tends to increase the quantity of goods transhipped. Quantities of inwards overseas cargo, particularly motor spirit, kerosine, and mineral oils, are transhipped at Wellington for delivery to other ports, while significant, though reducing, quantities of New Zealand produce are carried to Wellington coastwise for transhipment there to overseas ships. The main contribution to transhipment at Wellington is the carriage of apples by coasters across from Nelson.

REGISTRY OF OVERSEAS SHIPS – The following table shows the country of registry of vessels arriving in New Zealand during the latest five years.

Country of Registry19581959196019611962
net tons (000)
British Commonwealth –
   United Kingdom2,1101,9132,2392,5412,516
New Zealand550516484428422
Other British Commonwealth242287243269213
    With cargo2,4792,3372,5592,8122,702
    In ballast423379407426450
      Totals, British Commonwealth countries2,9022,7162,9663,2383,152
      Percentage of total7267666566
Other –
  Norway306282272363334
  Sweden41881019195
  Netherlands116205324373398
  Panama1041026680111
  United States of America364381394372278
  Remaining countries220253378437421
    With cargo9661,0181,2421,3381,353
    In ballast185293293378284
      Totals, other countries1,1511,3111,5351,7161,637
      Percentage of total2833343534
Grand totals4,0544,0274,5014,9544,789

The following table shows the changes that have taken place in recent years in the proportions of cargo carried to and from New Zealand in ships of different countries of registry. United Kingdom ships still carry the bulk of our external trade although the proportion of outward cargo carried in vessels of this country of registry has tended to decrease over the period shown.

Country of Registry19581959196019611962
per cent
Cargo Inward from Overseas
Australia2.63.81.73.02.8
Denmark1.02.21.32.22.
Netherlands3.83.06.32.3.5
New Zealand17.818.716.915.716.7
Norway15.013.711.214.513.8
Panama4.45.42.92.84.0
Sweden1.64.4.63.83.9
United Kingdom50.345.348.549.948.4
United States of America0.30.50.20.2
Other countries3.53.56.5.84.6
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Country of Registry19581959196019611962
per cent
Cargo Outward for Overseas
Australia1.41.91.61.60.6
Germany, West0.91.8
Hong Kong1.0.61.2.2.0
Japan5.49.68.29.98.9
Netherlands1.61.31.72.83.9
New Zealand16.515.718.212.712.0
Norway- -1.41.02.92.3
Panama0.70.9
United Kingdom71.865.763.262.564.9
Other countries2.23.85.03.92.7
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING REGISTER – The figures for vessels registered in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 11 years are as follows.

YearSailing VesselsSteam and Motor VesselsTotals
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
1953402,0591,653463259,633133,882503261,692135,535
1954392,0421,643465253,387130,648504255,429132,291
1955371,8311,497476255,107131,090513256,938132,587
1956371,8311,497481258,924132,547518260,755134,044
1957361,8211,487490264,309134,669526266,130136,156
1958361,8211,487495271,179137,660531273,000139,147
1959412,3381,898490260,248131,409531262,586133,307
1960422,4712,031491243,008122,631533245,479124,662
1961422,4712,031503241,096120,992545243,567123,023
1962402,6522,096493250,399124,724533253,051126,820
1963504,0513,505496244,047120,603546248,098124,108

In the table which follows, the vessels on the New Zealand register at 31 December 1962 are classified into sailing, steam, and motor, and are listed for the various ports of registry.

Port of RegistrySailing VesselsSteam VesselsMotor Vessels
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
Auckland342,5932,052195,2742,49929957,77027,405
Napier181944983,6771,543
Wellington659442558,49929,8306482,16442,723
Nelson206,9802,910
Lyttelton74,6951,774144,1661,983
Timaru1942488
Otago 7,3143,6731316,5538,865
Bluff31,05742814489154
Totals402,6522,0966178,60039,141432171,79985,583

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 352 vessels on the Auckland register being only 91 tons.

In the next table vessels registered in New Zealand at the end of 1962 have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given therein do not agree with those shown above, as vessels employed exclusively within “restricted limits” and pleasure craft are not included. The total number of vessels engaged in trading was 145, of an aggregate net tonnage of 114,269.

Size of VesselsEmployed in the Coastal Trade OnlyEmployed Partly in the Coastal and Partly in the Foreign TradeEmployed in the Foreign Trade Only
Number of VesselsNet TonnageNumber of VesselsNet TonnageNumber of VesselsNet Tonnage
Under 50 tons34597
50 and under100 tons161,101
100 and under200 tons121,561
200 and under300 tons51,217
300 and under400 tons196,8321369
400 and under600 tons73,206
600 and under800 tons1691
800 and under1,000 tons1807190943,599
1,000 and under1,200 tons
1,200 and under1,500 tons22,7571114,421
1,500 and under2,000 tons11,6251529,227
2,000 tons and over 39,7101235,640
 Totals10130,10421,2784282,887

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES – The examinations for masters, mates, and engineers serving in the Mercantile Marine are conducted by the Marine Department, the regulations relating to these examinations being based upon those of the United Kingdom Ministry of Transport with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions. The Ministry of Transport recognises the following certificates only as of Commonwealth validity: extra master, master, first mate and second mate foreign-going ships, first- and second-class steam and motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the Ministry of Transport. Regulations provide for the examinations for masters and mates and for marine engineers in both foreign going and home trade.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS – The Marine Department carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and during the period 1 January 1962 to 31 December 1962 certificates of survey were issued to the following categories of New Zealand ships:

Passenger ships engaged in international voyages3
Cargo steamships engaged in international voyages5
Cargo motorships engaged in international voyages39
Home-trade steamships11
Home-trade motorships86
Restricted-limits steamships30
Restricted-limits motorships338
Total512

In addition to the certificates of survey required under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Department is required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1948, to which the New Zealand Government is a signatory. Special surveys additional to the above were made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSES – The rugged and windswept coastlines of New Zealand's two main islands and Stewart Island which are over 4,000 miles in length are lit by 25 manned and 70 unmanned automatic coastal lights (not including harbour entrance and other harbour lights). The main harbours are on the east coasts of both islands and the majority of lights are located on these coasts, in Cook Strait between the North and South Islands and in Foveaux Strait between the South and Stewart Islands. The Marine Department maintains the coastal lights, fog signals and radio beacons, and harbour boards maintain their own lights and fog signals. Fog and low visibility are not frequent on the New Zealand coasts which can be said to be well served by 13 radio beacons.

In the New Zealand Light Service all manned lights are electrified, where possible from the national mains supply, otherwise with diesel-electric generating plant. Electric alarm bells cover all types of failure. The unmanned automatic light beacons are equally divided between electric lights (mains or battery operation) and acetylene gas lights. Twelve of the principal lighthouses are equipped with radiotelephone.

Fog signals of the diaphone type are established on Tiritiri Matangi, at Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, and Taiaroa Head; while radio beacons have been established at Cape Reinga, East Cape, Portland Island, Cuvier Island, Mokohinau, Baring Head, Stephens Island, the Brothers Island, Cape Campbell, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

The most powerful light is that of Stephens Island, which, placed some 600 ft above high water, is visible at a distance of 32 nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Reinga (altitude 542 ft), visibility 31 miles; East Cape (505 ft), visible at 30 miles; Cape Brett (altitude 490 ft), visible at 29 miles; Cuvier Island (altitude 390 ft) and Mokohinau (altitude 400 ft), both of which have a visibility of 26 miles; Godley Head (altitude 317 ft) and Portland Island (altitude 300 ft), both visible at 24 miles. Thirteen other lights have a range of 20 miles or over, being Centre Island, Baring Head, and Akaroa, of 23 miles; Cape Palliser, Brothers, and Nugget Point, of 22 miles; Cape Foulwind, of 21 miles; Tiritiri Matangi, Cape Saunders, Channel Island, Marotiri, Taiaroa Head, and Gibson Point, 20 miles each. The remaining lights have visibilities of under 20 miles.

WRECKS – In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

The numbers of shipping casualties reported to the Marine Department during the year ended 31 December 1962 are shown in the following table. It should be noted that figures list all casualties including small craft.

Type of ShipMiscellaneous, Berthing, Machinery Breakdown, etc.CollisionFireFounderingStrandingExplosionTotal
Passenger13 5
Cargo148411037
Fishing3316720
Pleasure112
Totals18145719164

11 B – RAILWAYS

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT – Railway history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton, and the first portion of this line was opened on 1 December 1863.* A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on 5 February 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1865 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury, and in 1870 the General Government established an Immigration and Public Works Department with one of its objects the building of a system of railways to open up the country for settlement.

Although practically the whole of the railways are now State owned, some sections were built by private enterprise, notably the 83-mile line from Wellington to Longburn constructed by the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Co. Ltd. in 1882–86 and operated by the company until 1908.

By 31 March 1880, 1,182 miles of State-owned lines were open for traffic and by 31 March 1900 more than 2,100 route miles in 10 separate sections were in use. The 369-mile trunk line between Christchurch and Invercargill was completed for through traffic as early as 1879, but the 426-mile North Island main trunk railway between Auckland and Wellington was not completed until November 1908.

More recently, other main lines have been completed, linking up most of the hitherto isolated sections. Westland was connected with Canterbury via the 5 1/4-mile Otira Tunnel in 1923; Whangarei was connected to the main North Island system in 1924; Gisborne and Dargaville to the same system in 1942; and Westport was linked with the South Island system in 1943. In 1945 the Christchurch-Picton main line was completed.

The past decade has seen the building of new lines to serve the extensive man-made forests in the North Island. An 18-mile branch railway from Putaruru through Tokoroa to Kinleith was opened in 1952 and the 9-mile Kawerau branch and 36-mile Murupara branch were completed in 1957.

In 1957 the main highway between Blenheim and Nelson was deemed to be a notional railway connected at Blenheim to the South Island railway system. In 1962, with the commencement of a rail-road ferry service connecting the North and South Island railway systems, a link was also established between the notional railway and the North Island system.

Government railways in most instances have been constructed by the Ministry of Works and transferred to the Railways Department when completed. The gauge is 3 ft 6 in. Standard rails for heavy traffic main lines weigh 91 lb per lineal yard, and for secondary and branch lines 72 lb per yard. At present much of the track is laid to the standards adopted prior to 1950 – viz, 85 lb, 70 lb, and 55 lb rails. Sleepers, 2,400 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood, but since 1960 substantial use has been made of treated radiata pine sleepers from New Zealand mills.

Vast improvements have been made to existing railways during the past 60 years and many sections have been reconstructed at considerable expense to ease gradients, shorten distances, and reduce curvature. The Auckland-Westfield deviation, opened in 1930; the Wellington-Tawa deviation, brought into full use in July 1937; and the Turakina-Okoia deviation, opened in December 1947, are typical examples. Recent examples are the Rimutaka deviation and its 5 1/2-mile tunnel between Upper Hutt and Featherston, which was opened in November 1955 to eliminate the 1-in-15 Rimutaka Incline used from 1878; and the Porirua-Plimmerton deviation and duplication completed in 1961.

The total route milage of railways vested in the Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1963 was 3,263 – 1,645 miles in the North Island and 1,618 in the South Island. In addition, traffic was being worked by the Railways Department over a further 4 miles of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was provided on 157 route miles of track. Between 1 April and 9 September 1962 five little-used branch lines totalling 69 miles in length were closed to traffic accounting for the reduction in the South Island railway milage to 1,618 and the total system milage to 3,263.

* There is a special article in the 1963 issue of the Yearbook (pp. 1175–1195) covering 100 years of development of New Zealand Railways.

The Otira - Arthur's Pass section of line, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923, the Christchurch-Lyttelton section in 1929, the Wellington-Johnsonville line in 1938, and the Wellington-Paekakariki section in 1940. The first part of electrified services between Wellington and the Hutt Valley was brought into operation in 1953, and the last stage of this project was completed in July 1955.

The introduction of main-line diesel electric locomotives in 1952 was the beginning of a radical change in motive power operation in New Zealand, and there has been a steady increase in the percentage of total traffic hauled by this means. During the year 1962–63 diesel traction accounted for 52.4 per cent of the gross ton-miles; diesel railcars ran 45.3 per cent of the total passenger train-miles.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service – An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947; information on its operation is given in Subsection 11D.

Cook Strait Rail/Road Ferry Service – A ferry to carry rail and road vehicles, and passengers, is operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. The Aramoana (4,160 tons) is designed to carry a maximum of 34 railway wagons, or about 85 motorcars, on the vehicle deck and a further 30 motorcars in an upper deck garage. There is all-weather accommodation in lounges and cabins for nearly 500 passengers, but it is possible to carry up to 1,150 passengers on special occasions. Regular sailings began on 13 August 1962.

ADMINISTRATION – In 1876 the railways that had been operated by Provincial Governments passed under full control of the Public Works Department, which itself operated some of the opened lines that it had built. In 1880 a separate Railways Department was established with a General Manager responsible to the Minister for Public Works, but in 1889 a board of three Railway Commissioners was appointed. This was the form of management until 1 January 1895 when, under the Government Railways Act 1894, a Minister for Railways was appointed for the first time, with a General Manager once again as the permanent head of the Department. Control by a Minister and General Manager continued until 1952, except for two short periods of board management from 1925 to 1928 and from 1931 to 1936 respectively.

Following a recommendation of a Royal Commission, appointed in March 1952, that management be vested in a Corporation, the Government established a Railways Commission comprising five Directors appointed from 12 January 1953 and interposed between Minister and General Manager. When the position of General Manager became vacant on 1 April 1955 the Government appointed a Director of the Railways Commission to the dual position of General Manager and Director. The Government Railways Amendment Act 1956 abolished the Railways Commission from 1 April 1957, and invested control in a General Manager, who is responsible to the Minister of Railways.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION – The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each the last five financial years is given below.

Item31 March 195931 March 196031 March 196131 March 196231 March 1963

*Together equal to £42,521 per mile of open line. Includes cost of rolling stock, buildings, and equipment as well as right of way and track.

£ (thousand)
Open for traffic—
  Railway lines and works89,89392,60895,78198,523101,380*
  Rolling stock33,69035,11035,25936,02037,367*
  Cook Strait rail/road ferry service2611,2161,790
  Other subsidiary services10,36010,75411,31711,87512,036
Totals133,943138,472142,618147,634152,573
Works under construction299298379379376
Grand totals134,242138,770142,997148,013152,949

So varied are the geographical features of New Zealand that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. Numerous mountain chains and rivers make railway construction in general both difficult and expensive. The Otira Tunnel is 5 miles 26 chains long, and the Rimutaka Tunnel is 5 miles 37 chains. The length of the longest bridge, over the Rakaia River, is 5,720 ft, and the largest viaduct, the Mohaka, 887 ft long and 318 ft above water level.

ROLLING STOCK – Information as to the rolling stock in use on the State railways as at 31 March 1963 is given in the following table.

*In addition there are 5 small diesel-electric shunting locomotives in use in workshops and 99 diesel and petrol shunting tractors, both road and rail type, in use at stations.

Locomotives –
  Steam (tender)388
  Steam (tank)57
  Electric28
  Diesel-electric129
  Diesel-electric shunting24
  Diesel-mechanical shunting86
Total712*
Passenger vehicles –
  Sleepers18
  First class86
  Second class612
  Composite6
  Railcars50
  Electric multiple units128
  Postal9
Total909
Wagons –Four WheeledBogie
Horse boxes1141
Cattle96685
Sheep2,75618
Frozen and chilled meat736742
Cool, ventilated1,232..
Covered goods739429
High side18,021220
Low side1,171..
Platform1651,166
Vegetable..29
Brake vans8420
Other2,978496
Totals28,7833,646
 32,429

From 1901 to 1939 most of the locomotives and rolling stock were built in the railway workshops, but many steam locomotives and goods wagons were imported after the 1914–18 war. A number of electric locomotives, multiple-unit electric coaches, and railcars were also imported from England between 1923 and 1939.

After the 1939–45 war, construction of steam locomotives in railway workshops continued until 1950 in the North Island and until 1956 in the South Island. Construction of goods wagons has also continued in railway workshops, the annual output being dependent on the availability of staff and materials. Other requirements have been met by importations of locomotives, railcars, multiple-unit coaches, and goods wagons, mainly from the United Kingdom.

Since 1945 more than 14,000 goods and livestock wagons of modern design have been placed in service to cover replacements and to provide for more diversified traffic. Total wagon stock at March 1963 was 32,001. In addition to this wagon stock owned by the Department, some privately owned specialised wagons are in use including 19 bulk-cement bogie-type wagons and 193 petrol-tank wagons.

Dieselisation of locomotive power commenced in 1949 with the purchase of four 25-ton diesel-mechanical shunting locomotives, and by 1963 there were 86 of varying sizes in service.

In 1959 eighteen 40-ton diesel-electric shunting locomotives were imported for heavy shunting duties. These have been supplemented by six similar locomotives built in railway workshops.

The first 15 diesel locomotives for main-line service were imported in 1952; they were 51-ton 660 h.p. locomotives. The fleet was subsequently increased during 1954–58 by importation from Great Britain of forty-two 750 h.p. and ten 1,500 h.p. locomotives.

In 1955, thirty 1,425 h.p. diesel-electric locomotives were imported, 15 from Canada and 15 from the United States. They were followed in 1957 by 10 similar locomotives from Australia. Further deliveries from Canada in 1961 and 1962 brought the fleet total of this type to 62, and a further 10 were ordered for delivery in 1963.

The 1,425 h.p. type of diesel-electric locomotive is ideally suited for heavy goods haulage on the North Island Main Trunk and such secondary lines as can cope with the axle loading.

Dieselisation of the two limited express trains in the North Island was accomplished in April 1963. Steam for carriage heating is supplied by special steam-heating vans, three of which were constructed in the railway workshops.

The latest diesel railcars, of which 35 were placed in service between 1955 and 1959, each weigh 57 tons unladen and seat 88 passengers. Designed for a top speed of 65 m.p.h. on level track, they are powered by two 210 h.p. diesel engines. With 15 railcars of earlier design, they provide fast passenger services covering a total of more than 7,000 miles daily spread over 12 main lines.

Standard main-line passenger cars are 56 ft in length, have chair seats, and are steam heated and electrically lit. They are steel sheathed and fitted with enclosed vestibules and gangways. Sleeping cars are provided with wash basins in each two-berth cabin, wall mirrors, reading lights, and plug-in sockets for electric razors.

Typical of the modern wagons now in use are steel high-side open wagons with a capacity of 15 tons; double-deck sheep wagons able to carry 80 sheep; 50-ft covered goods wagons for express goods trains; and high-capacity all-steel insulated wagons for frozen meat and chilled beef traffic. A new type of wagon, 42 1/2 ft long and 9 ft wide, for the Murupara-Kawerau log traffic, was specially designed for carrying a 26-ton bundle of logs loaded up to 12 ft above rail level. Deliveries of a new type of 14-ton capacity covered goods wagon designed for palletised goods traffic began in 1960, and special wagons have been introduced for the conveyance of cement in bulk and heated bitumen.

The proportions of railway traffic moved by the different types of motive power are shown in the following table. In recent years, diesel power has become steadily more important at the expense of steam.

In these traffic figures, the weight of motive power is excluded – except in the case of diesel railcars and multiple-unit electric trains.

Types of Trains1960–611961–621962–63
Gross Ton-miles (Million)Per CentGross Ton-miles (Million)Per CentGross Ton-miles (Million)Per Cent
Passenger trains –
  Steam locomotives307.240.3294.938.3299.38.5
  Diesel locomotives49.6.456.97.460.87.8
  Diesel railcars174.822.9177.723.179.23.0
  Electric locomotives46.46.47.06.47.66.
  Electric multiple unit185.24.3193.525.191.224.6
Totals, passenger762.6100.0770.0100.0777.8100.0
Mixed and goods trains –
  Steam1,773.752.1,656.048.01,356.740.4
  Diesel1,551.245.61,718.249.81,925.057.4
  Electric77.92.377.62.274.22.2
Totals, mixed and goods3,402.8100.03,451.8100.03,355.9100.0
All trains –
  Steam locomotives2,080.950.01,950.946.21,655.840.
Diesel locomotives1,600.338.41,775.42.01,985.848.
Diesel railcars174.84.2177.74.2179.4.3
Electric locomotives124.33.0124.63.0121.82.9
Electric multiple unit185.4.4193.54.6191.24.6
Grand totals, gross ton-miles4,165.4100.04,221.8100.04,133.7100.0

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE – Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Loss

*Loss recovered from General Reserve.

 £££
195934,372,86435,137,305-764,441*
196034,936,91435,500,047-563,133*
196136,238,99836,301,757-62,759*
196236,639,38036,801,304-161,924*
196336,443,47838,293,953-1,850,475*

The expenditure figures do not include interest on capital (£6,668,919 in 1962–63). The chief items of expenditure for 1962–63 were wages, £23,156,958; locomotive fuel (including electricity), £1,717,871; stores and material, £4,598,346; depreciation and renewals, £4,859,454; miscellaneous, £3,961,324.

A sum of £4,958,846 was set aside in 1962–63 for depreciation and track renewals, while expenditure from these funds amounted to £3,113,821. The amounts standing to the credit of the Depreciation and Renewals Accounts for 31 March 1963 were £18,528,787 and £219,564 respectively.

The revenue and expenditure for the last five years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
NOTE–On 1 April 1962 the Refreshment Branch, until then a subsidiary service, became an operating branch, and revenue and expenditure is now included in railway operation.
£ (thousand)
195929,8234,55030,5054,632-682-82
196030,2714,66630,7584,742-487-76
196131,4294,81031,4894,813-60-3
196231,6954,94531,8164,986-121-41
196331,3765,06733,4374,856-2,061+211

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1962–63 year.

AreaRevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or LossRatio of Expenditure to Revenue
 £££per cent
North Island21,672,91221,123,582549,33097.5
South Island9,703,42612,314,155-2,610,729126.9
Totals31,376,33833,437,737-2,061,399106.6

The various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years, are shown below. Full working costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1961–621962–631961–621962–63

*Included in operating figures. (See tables below.)

£ (thousand)
Lake Wakatipu steamers25233436
Refreshment service421*468*
Bookstall service270*261*
Advertising service94968182
Departmental dwellings3984131,1771,312
Leases of bookstalls, etc.125104121113
Road services – Passengers and goods2,9112,9642,8442,884
Rail/road ferry service652429
Miscellaneous receipts701815
Totals4,9455,0674,9864,856

Revenue – In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger FaresParcels, Luggage, and MailsGoods and LivestockLabour Demurrage, etc.Refreshments and BookstallsTotal

*Revenue from checked and left luggage included with passenger revenue; parcels and mail revenue was included with goods revenue.

†Revenue from labour demurrage, etc., included with goods.

‡Included with subsidiary services revenue.

£(thousand)
19592,76965225,71069229,823
19602,798*26,78568830,271
19612,826*27,88871531,429
19622,901*28,79431,695
19632,926*27,73371731,376

The revenue from passenger fares and luggage during the year 1962–63 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £1 3s. 5d. per head of mean population. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £12 10s. 9d. per head.

Expenditure – The railway operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Refreshments and BookstallsTotal

*Includes superannuation subsidy.

†Included in subsidiary services expenditure.

£(thousand)
19598,6176,7925,5868,73977130,505
19608,2887,2205,5398,90180930,758
19618,3747,2325,5519,48884431,489
19628,0957,3895,6189,86185331,816
19638,6567,5095,6479,93894174733,437

The increase in expenditure has been due chiefly to an increased wages bill, mainly the result of higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment.

PASSENGER TRAFFIC – From about 1925 until 1933 there was a steady decline in the number of passenger journeys recorded. This was attributed to the development of motor competition and, after 1930, to the severe economic depression. As economic conditions improved from 1933 to 1939 there was an upward trend, and from 1939 to 1944 there was a sharp increase caused by the wartime movement of members of the armed forces, the curtailment of road services, and the restrictions placed on private motoring by rationing of petrol and shortage of motor tyres.

In January 1944 train services had to be reduced drastically owing to shortage of coal. This fact, together with the large decline in armed forces traffic after the cessation of hostilities, caused the annual number of railway passenger journeys to recede considerably until the 1948–50 period, when restoration of a number of main line and suburban passenger train services became possible. Many branch-line and country main-line mixed-train services that had been discontinued were not restored, however, and the short-distance traffic that they carried was transferred permanently to road services.

Curtailment of main line and suburban services was again necessitated in 1951 because of shortage of coal arising from industrial disputes. Subsequent staff shortages prevented any large-scale restoration of services until more railcars could be introduced on main lines and until the Hutt Valley electrification scheme was nearing completion. Nevertheless, the number of passenger journeys per annum rose steadily from 1952 to 1957, reaching 25,377,170 in 1956–57. There was a decline to 24,816,639 in 1957–58, attributed partly to the continuing development of private-car competition and air services, and also to the exceptional series of floods and line blockages during the year but a subsequent steady increase brought the number of journeys up to 26,324,017 in 1961–62. Journeys for 1962–63 totalled 25,665,557.

Passenger train-miles run during 1962–63 totalled 5,779,173; and the total passenger revenue (including luggage) received represents 122d. per passenger train-mile, and £1,206 per mile of line operated by passenger services.

The following table shows passenger journeys over the latest four years.

Type of Journey1959–601960–611961–621962–63
Non-suburban –
  Ordinary –
    Standard fares1,877,1251,893,4391,861,0121,842,914
    Reduced fares448,774416,911385,141395,935
  Season660,042645,913766,426829,712
Totals, Non-Suburban2,985,9412,956,2633,012,5793,068,561
Suburban –
  Ordinary5,919,2916,150,4915,495,7114,644,976
  Season17,229,24817,126,67617,815,72717,952,020
Totals, Suburban23,148,53923,277,16723,311,43822,596,996
Grand totals26,134,48026,233,43026,324,01725,665,557

Computed passenger miles are shown in the following table.

YearPassenger Miles
 (000)
1947–48535,863
1953–54460,338
1954–55476,343
1955–56469,424
1956–57471,912
1957–58442,830
1958–59441,604
1959–60447,644
1960–61446,244
1961–62449,261
1962–63452,300

The following table shows the revenue received from passenger journeys over the latest four years.

Type of Fare1959–601960–611961–621962–63
Non-suburban –
  Ordinary –££££
    Standard fares1,637,6501,665,9581,621,5511,651,795
    Reduced fares181,005168,079158,989161,681
  Season42,76443,84142,27744,907
  Miscellaneous117,541119,223133,820136,133
Totals, Non-suburban1,978,9601,997,1011,956,6371,994,516
Suburban –
  Ordinary288,264300,127321,881294,002
  Season530,600529,213622,518638,107
Totals, Suburban818,864829,340944,399932,109
Grand totals2,797,8242,826,4412,901,0362,926,625

GOODS TRAFFIC – The quantity of goods traffic carried by New Zealand Railways increased steadily year by year until 1929–30, but declined considerably during the depression until 1933. Since 1933 there has been a steady upward trend, with only occasional and brief recessions reflecting fluctuations in economic activity. The quantity of goods carried in 1962–63 (10,043,732 tons) was the lowest recorded since 1955 and was 778,621 tons (7.2 per cent) lower than in 1961–62. Revenue earning ton-miles decreased to 1,156 million, but the average haul rose from 113 to 115 miles.

The numbers of livestock carried for the last two years were as follows.

Item1961–621962–63Variation
    per cent
Cattle and horses805,825850,267+ 44,442+ 5.5
Calves579,328588,864+ 9,536+ 1.6
Sheep7,014,6355,962,373-1,052,262-15.0
Pigs409,946396,274- 13,672- 3.3
Totals8,809,7347,797,778-1,011,956-11.5
Equivalent tonnage598,652571,112- 27,540- 4.6
Revenue£1,750,687£1,605,596- £145,091- 8.3

The following table gives interesting information concerning goods and livestock traffic and earnings for the year 1962–63.

CommodityTonnageRevenue
Tons CarriedPer Cent of TotalTons One MileAverage HaulTotalPer Cent of TotalPer TonPer Ton-mile
  Products of AgricultureNo.per cent(000)miles£per cent£s.d.d.
Grain and seeds258,4542.5726,273101486,7861.7511784.45
Meal94,2810.9410,180107195,9400.712164.62
Fruit and vegetables59,3440.5910,879183272,6900.98411116.02
Root crops and fodder98,7470.9816,476166251,9990.9121103.67
Totals510,8265.0863,8081251,207,4154.352734.54
  Animals and Other Products
Cattle, calves and horses312,8013.134,744111792,7312.8621085.48
Sheep and pigs258,3112.5729,176113812,8652.9332116.69
Meat, fresh and frozen505,5115.0320,973411,116,3794.0224212.77
Butter176,8511.7617,874101502,6231.81216106.75
Cheese73,7230.735,07368163,2110.592437.72
Wool257,0722.5626,817104918,0113.3131158.22
Dairy by-products112,5361.29,73486275,4740.9928116.79
Fat, hides, and skin92,0870.926,89674275,6830.99219109.59
Fish3,8970.0475319319,7520.075146.30
Totals1,792,78917.84152,040854,876,72917.5721457.70
  Products of Mines
Agricultural lime147,8251.4711,24176163,3560.591213.49
Coal, West Coast589,0945.8759,611101863,4773.11943.48
Coal, other877,9198.74123,2041401,651,4975.9511773.22
Road materials60,0920.606,332105113,0060.4111774.28
Totals1,674,93016.68200,3881202,791,33610.0611343.34
Products of Forests
Timber, imported17,3880.71,3968038,8180.42476.67
Timber, New Zealand679,6306.81123,5841822,011,2307.2321923.91
Products of New Zealand pulp mills386,8423.8561,0901571,101,9883.97216114.33
Logs, ex Murupara792,8967.8927,74934304,1211.0 782.63
Totals1,876,75618.72213,8191143,456,15712.44116103.88
Manufactures, etc.
Benzine, gasoline, kerosine344,8073.4338,4221111,030,0603.7221996.43
Cement259,7622.5950,547194803,3592.8931103.81
Manures, phosphates, etc.945,5049.4189,582951,692,5816.0115104.53
Totals1,550,07315.43178,5511153,526,00012.712564.74
Other traffic2,638,35826.25347,82613211,892,42842.8741028.21
Grand Totals10,043,732100.001,156,43211527,750,065100.0021535.76

The next table shows the tonnage of goods carried, freight train-miles run, and net ton-miles run, together with the respective averages.

Year Ended 31 MarchTonnage CarriedFreight Train-milesTons 1 MileGross Revenue
Per TonPer Freight Train-milePer Ton-mile

*From 1960 revenue includes parcels traffic.

†From 1962 revenue includes demurrage, cranage, engine hire, and other miscellaneous revenue.

   (000)£s.d.£s.d.d.
195910,367,4788,836,8561,157,63629621835.3
1960*10,543,0978,762,6091,170,71421093125.5
196110,830,0339,022,0741,204,737211531105.5
196210,822,3539,121,1661,221,08421323325.7
196310,043,7328,776,0511,156,43221533335.8

The following diagram illustrates the growth in the tonnage of goods and livestock carried over the last 80 years.

A classification of goods traffic is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchAgricultural and Pastoral ProduceAgricultural Lime and ManuresTimberCoalMotor Spirits and KerosineOtherTotal
Agricultural ProduceDairy ProduceMeat, Fish, and LivestockWool
Tons (thousand)
19596213721,0632441,0991,4681,8813243,29510,367
19605694031,1302571,1871,5691,8103253,29310,543
19615414091,1012581,2201,6521,7553363,55810,830
19625333541,0972531,2481,5921,7813363,62810,822
19635113631,0802571,0931,4901,4673453,43710,043

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES – The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1963 was 24,805. The staff is divided into two divisions – namely, the salaried division, and the general division – and is further classed in a number of branches, as shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTrafficWay and WorksLocomotive RunningWorkshopsRoad ServicesOtherTotal
19597,8136,6573,5905,0751,5261,29025,951
19607,5716,4953,6135,0461,5161,27825,519
19617,3706,1983,5234,8241,4951,23124,641
19627,2735,8563,4584,6791,4901,23423,990
19637,3746,1213,6324,8911,5131,27424,805

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896 and revised at various times since, applies to railway employees. A Board is constituted to hear appeals of members against decisions in regard to promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Minister of Railways and the other elected by the members of the Department. The Government Railways Amendment Act 1944 provided for the establishment of a tribunal of three members whose principal functions are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages for railway employees; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, etc.; and terms and conditions in regard to leave of absence, railway travel concessions, etc. This tribunal, known as the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, is deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The members, who must not be members of the Railways Department or of any of the railway employees' organisations, are appointed for a term of three years.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS—During the year ended 31 March 1963, 27 persons were killed and 373 injured in all kinds of accidents associated with train working and movements of rolling stock. Comparative figures for the previous year were 26 killed and 418 injured. These figures do not include employees who were killed or injured whilst engaged on other duties, e.g., railway workshops.

Of the 27 persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1962–63 two were passengers and four were employees; of the remainder who were neither passengers nor employees ten were killed in accidents on the line, 10 at level crossings, and one while trespassing. Of those injured 28 were passengers, 264 employees (chiefly in minor accidents), and 81 were neither passengers nor employees. Of the 81 other persons, 44 were injured in crossing accidents.

In furtherance of departmental policy, an additional 49 automatic road-crossing alarms were installed in 1962–63, bringing the total number of automatic alarms now in operation up to 422.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS – There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and sawmills. The most important are the 7-mile line of the Ohai Railway Board, extending from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai, and the 4-mile line from Stirling to the State Mines at Kaitangata (South Otago). These lines carry substantial coal traffic in departmental wagons. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd. in the North Island operates logging trains over the 15-mile Matahina Tramway from Matahina to Edgecumbe, thence by running rights over the Government railways for 4 miles to Awakeri and finally over their 6 1/2-mile line from Awakeri to the mill at Whakatane. At Portland, near Whangarei, Wilsons Portland Cement Co. Ltd., operates an extensive private railway system serving its works.

11 C– ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

ROADS AND BRIDGES – Two major developments in recent years have been the Auckland Harbour Bridge and the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel; tolls are charged to users to provide for upkeep and repay the loans raised for their construction. The Auckland Harbour Bridge, with its approaches, is nearly 2 miles long and was opened in 1959. The Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel, which was opened in 1964, comprises 2 1/2 miles of motorway, of which 1 1/4 miles is actual tunnel. The total milage of formed roads in New Zealand at 31 March 1962 was 57,548. Details are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCountiesBoroughsTown DistrictsRoad DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways

*All on county roads.

Sealed7,6544,9664,23288516,945
Metal or gravel31,7431,8957998910434,630
Unmetalled5,800811722265,973
Totals: formed roads52,0665,148199135*57,548

The formation of roads in many parts has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads. system as at 31 March 1962, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges. There is an average of slightly under 15 ft of bridging per mile of formed road.

Materials of which Bridge ConstructedCountiesBoroughsTown DistrictsRoad DistrictsTotals
No.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total LengthNo.Total Length

* Includes Bailey bridges erected as a temporary measure.

 
  ft ft ft ft ft
Concrete reinforced or stone2,488239,23520020,61685282,696260,379
Steel girders and concrete deck*993103,2547110,22252871,069113,763
Timber with steel or concrete1,849167,736659,04039531051,920176,976
Timber3,335260,1411089,1794293104253,457270,038
Totals8,665770,36644449,057201,203135309,142821,156

ROADS ADMINISTRATION – The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956, and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways. There are 7,057 miles of State highways.

By the National Roads Act a National Roads Board was established from 1 April 1954, and its functions are defined as follows:

  1. To administer the National Roads Fund in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

  2. To provide an advisory service in respect of the whole roading system of counties, boroughs, and town districts throughout New Zealand, and to report to the Government from time to time on the progress being made in providing a roading system adequate for needs arising from current developments in motor traffic.

  3. To advise the Government of any changes necessary in the legislation and regulations relating to the use of roads.

  4. To act as the final authority in disputes relating to road classifications.

  5. To advise the Government of changes necessary in the provision of finance for road construction and maintenance, particularly of changes considered advisable in the levying and collection of motor taxation, including exemptions therefrom.

  6. To assist and advise local authorities generally on roading matters and any special roading problems arising from development of industries, etc.

  7. To undertake at not more than five or less than three year intervals a comprehensive survey into the roading position in New Zealand, including standards, growth of traffic, adequacy, etc.

  8. To give effect to any special matter of roading policy communicated to it by the Government.

  9. To initiate and conduct research into roading problems in New Zealand.

  10. To collect information on roading developments in other countries and make this available to roading authorities in New Zealand.

  11. To undertake any other activity for the provision of a roading system adequate both for the needs of an efficient road transport system and for the benefit generally of motor-vehicle operators and the safety of the public in relation to motor traffic.

The composition of the National Roads Board is: (a) one member, to be appointed Chairman of the Board; (b) the person holding the appointment in the Ministry of Works as Director of Roading; (c) an officer of the Ministry of Works; (d) an officer of the Transport Department; (e) two nominees of the New Zealand Counties Association (Incorporated); (f) two nominees of the Municipal Association of New Zealand (Incorporated); (g) a representative of commercial road users; and (h) a representative of private motorists.

District Roads Councils – New Zealand is divided into 21 roads districts, composed of local authorities grouped according to geographic situation and community interest.

For each roads district there is an advisory body, known as the District Roads Council, which is constituted to include the District Commissioner of Works, one representative of each constituent county and road district, one person to represent boroughs and independent town districts for each two members representing counties or road districts, a representative of commercial road users, a representative of private motorists, and a nominee of the Commissioner of Transport.

District Roads Councils function as advisory bodies, with the principal duties of recommending upon the maintenance and improvement programmes for State highways, and upon the yearly allocation of subsidies and grants from the National Roads Fund for local authority roading. They also make recommendations to the National Roads Board on standards and requirements for roads and highways in their particular districts, and on general matters affecting road users or road safety.

Finance – The National Roads Act 1953 provided for a National Roads Fund to be established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund to be derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

On the revenue side of the Fund's operations the Act reintroduced the principle of reserving motor taxation for roading purposes, and now provides for the apportionment of fixed minimum percentages thereof for expenditure on State highways, county roads, and municipal streets.

Details of the classes of revenue automatically paid into the Fund from 1 April 1954 are as follows:

  1. Fees and charges from registration and licensing of motor vehicles.

  2. Heavy traffic licence fees.

  3. Motor spirits tax and milage tax.

  4. Tyre tax.

  5. Receipts from any source in respect of the construction, maintenance, or control of any highway.

  6. Receipts from transfers, sales, or hire of materials or plant or property of any kind or from executing works for other organisations.

  7. Any other moneys credited to the Fund.

From April 1954 to March 1964 a tax on motor spirits of 1s. 3 3/4. per gallon was paid into the National Roads Fund and was then from 1 April 1964 supplemented by the remaining 2d. per gallon of the tax imposed from 27 June 1958 and previously paid to the Consolidated Fund.

Expenditure from the Fund may be made without appropriation as follows:

  1. Payment of annual subsidies to local authorities for roading purposes.

  2. Payments by the Crown in respect of the construction, maintenance, and control of State highways.

  3. Compensation payable by the Crown for acquisition of land for a State highway.

  4. Compensation and damages payable by the Crown for accidents and injuries in relation to works the cost of which is chargeable to the Fund.

  5. Cost of purchase or hire of machinery or equipment.

  6. Cost of survey and other preparatory work for State highways.

  7. Cost of experimental work.

  8. Cost of administration by the Ministry of Works.

  9. Contributions towards the cost of regional or comprehensive transportation surveys.

  10. Other expenses by the National Roads Board in exercise of its functions.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the years ended 31 March 1962 and 1963.

 1961–621962–63
 ££
Receipts –
  Petrol tax (net)17,341,49917,323,115
  Milage tax574,808656,906
  Tyre tax20,80826,124
  Fees and charges –
    Registration and licence fees2,533,3842,690,459
    Heavy traffic fees2,781,0612,850,319
  Contribution from Consolidated Fund1,000,0001,000,000
  Miscellaneous receipts –
    Repayments of plant purchases32,25721,547
    Repayments of advances to local authorities7,3566,445
    Rents39,95747,580
    Fees15373
    Sales of land and buildings23,54316,735
    Interest on plant purchases2,1742,204
    Interest on advances to local authorities2,411917
  Transfer of bridging material11,7103,746
  Bailey bridging hire29,43515,731
  Interest on investments17,33325,250
  Miscellaneous1,5102,131
  Hamilton arterial routes: (Railway lowering) contribution from Hamilton City Council and Consolidated Fund100,00037,500
Total receipts24,519,39924,726,782
Expenditure –
  Highways maintenance4,205,2384,239,650
  Highways construction7,206,3797,930,393
  Local authority roading subsidies and grants10,633,16611,189,166
  Administration and general expenses –
    Ministry of Works administration1,089,2501,220,347
    Purchase of plant (local authority)24,96632,975
    Fees and travelling expenses4,8053,425
    Miscellaneous expenses28,21427,562
  Bridging expenses –
  Bailey bridging7,69938,438
  Unauthorised expenditure4,4803,346
Total expenditure23,204,19724,685,302
  Balance in Fund at end of year2,026,8802,068,360

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1958–591959–601960–61*1961–62*1962–63*

*On 1 April 1961 milage of highway system reduced from 13,200 to 7,060. Figures for previous years relate to State and main highways.

 £££££
Construction and improvement7,298,2878,954,5347,384,3046,230,5066,833,157
Renewal of bridges1,484,6891,558,542925,754975,8731,097,236
Maintenance, repairs, etc.4,901,6425,554,6594,117,7714,205,2384,239,650
Totals13,684,61816,067,73512,427,82911,411,61712,170,043

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island, as compared with the number of motor vehicles in each Island at 31 March of each of the last five years, appears in the following table, the percentages relating to New Zealand totals.

Item1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
Percentage of New Zealand Totals
North Island –
  Maintenance expenditure65.4169.0468.0866.4668.91
  Motor vehicles67.3767.4667.4767.7467.82
South Island –
Maintenance expenditure34.5930.9631.9233.5431.09
  Motor vehicles32.6332.5432.5332.2632.8

The following table shows the milage of State highways in the North and South Islands at 31 March 1963, together with a classification as to the type of construction or surface.

IslandLength of Highways
Dustless SurfaceGravel or Macadam SurfaceTotal
  miles 
North Island2,8738953,768
South Island2,4158743,289
Totals5,2881,7697,057

State Highways – The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works.

The National Roads Board has the sole power of construction, maintenance, and control of all State highways. These powers may be delegated, for any State highway or portion thereof, to the local authority in whose district the road is situated. Any construction or maintenance work that is not delegated by the Board to a local authority is carried out by or through the agency of the Commissioner of Works and the cost borne by the Fund. The Board may also delegate to the Ministry of Works its duties in connection with design, supervision, construction, or maintenance, or the administration of any specified State highway. No new construction works are to be commenced by the Board, however, without the prior consent of the Minister of Works.

For State highways, the whole cost of construction is to be met from the National Roads Fund.

Highway Standards – In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadmaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests, and during recent years advances have been made in the direction of framing standard specifications which allow of a wider use of certain local materials which formerly were not accepted.

Motorways – Legislation by means of the Public Works Amendment Act 1947, as amended by section 44 of the Public Works Amendment Act 1948, makes provision for the declaration of motorways. It is emphasised that motorways are not merely better all-purpose highways, but are limited as to access, and restricted as to class of traffic.

In addition to providing the most efficient and economic transport service, the main distinguishing features of a motorway are the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development, both of which will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total milage of motorways in use at 31 March 1963 was 35.09 miles. During 1962–63, 7 motorway bridges, totalling 1,455 ft, were completed. Additional lengths are under construction at Auckland and Wellington. The figures quoted for motorways' milages and bridging are included in those shown under highways.

Activity During the Year Ended 31 March 1963 – During the year ended 31 March 1963, 137 miles of new sealing on highways were completed, giving an aggregate of 5,288 miles sealed, or 74.9 per cent of the total highway milage. In addition, improvements to existing sealed surfaces were effected on 563 miles of highways.

New bridging totalled 8,387 linear feet, compared with 12,728 linear feet in the previous year.

Local Authority Roading – Under the National Roads Amendment Act 1959 the National Roads Board pays from 1 April 1960 a subsidy at the rate of 15s. for each £1 that is spent by the local authority out of its own funds in the financial year on such programme of subsidised works as has been accepted for that financial year by the Board; the amount of subsidy is to be not less than 14 per cent of the Board's revenue in the case of boroughs and independent town districts, and not less than 30 per cent in the case of counties, dependent town districts, and road districts.

In addition to these statutory subsidies the Board may, so far as money available in the Fund permits, provide such additional finance as it thinks justified to a local authority having regard to its particular financial problems or special circumstances. Such additional aid is provided by way of grant.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the Board decided that a more generous subsidy would be available to all local authorities for bridge replacement work, and such additional aid is provided by grants.

For the year ended 31 March 1963 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 £££
Municipalities2,895,277637,8153,533,092
County councils (including road boards)4,787,2422,868,8327,656,074
Totals7,682,5193,506,64711,189,166

Loan Assistance – In special circumstances the Board may advance money by way of loan to local authorities to provide for the proportion of cost payable by a local authority in respect of a subsidised work. Such loans must be repaid by instalments extending over a period (not exceeding 10 years) to be agreed upon between the Board and the local authority, and interest is payable at a rate approved by the Minister of Finance.

The Board is also empowered to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, and equipment to local authorities on such terms as it thinks fit, including terms for the repayment of the purchase money by instalments extending over not more than four years, with interest on the unpaid balance at such rate as is fixed by the Board. Since this scheme was introduced by the Main Highways Board, plant, etc., has been purchased to the value of £1,157,503, of which sum £42,515 was outstanding at 31 March 1963. New advances made and repayments received during 1962–63 totalled £32,975 and £21,547 respectively.

Development Roading – In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) for development road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farm lands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roading to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character such as the through road linking Paringa-Haast-Haast Pass.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1963 was approximately £979,000.

Overall Roading Expenditure – The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1963.

National Roads Fund –££
  State highways12,170,000 
  Subsidies, etc. – local roading11,189,000 
  23,359,000
Consolidated Fund (Vote Roads) 979,000
Local authority funds –
  Municipalities5,975,000 
  County councils, etc.6,908,000 
  12,883,000
Total 37,221,000

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES – The following scale of fees is at present operative: Registration fees are £1 for any tractor, trailer, or power cycle, and £2 for any other motor vehicle. Annual licence fees are as follows: Power cycles, £1; motor cycles, £2; motorcars and private station wagons, £3; traction engines, £7 10s.; motor vehicles not otherwise specified, £4; trailers (not exceeding two tons laden weight), £1 10s. Other fees include drivers' licences, 5s.; changes of ownership, 10s.; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, £2; any other motor vehicles, £3). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities are credited to the National Roads Fund.

The Transport Act 1962 provides that the annual licence may take the form of new registration plates or be in such other form as prescribed by regulation. The Motor Vehicles (Registration and Licensing) Regulations 1949, authorise the alternative of a licensed label system instead of an annual change of registration plates. A system of issuing permanent registration plates for motor vehicles was brought into partial operation on 1 July 1963. Permanent plates are at present being issued in respect of dealers in motor vehicles, and for motor cycles and power cycles.

The following table shows the numbers of the various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years.

Type of VehicleLicensed as at 31 March
19591960196119621963
Cars480,381502,574523,847553,181583,867
Light trucks (i.e., 2 tons and under, laden-50,23549,72451,02554,09655,484
Heavy trucks (i.e., over 2 tons laden)67,46669,68673,38276,06277,542
Contract vehicles1,7301,6791,7061,7561,776
Omnibuses2,2682,3172,2552,3302,472
Public taxicabs2,4422,4452,4912,6912,859
Rental cars2,2342,2252,4232,5822,916
Private taxicabs184174158170207
Service coaches673628586546537
Trailers91,283100,855117,597134,516138,734
Vehicles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (other than exempted Government-owned vehicles)52,85257,22462,16968,88171,270
Government vehicles16,86216,68317,48017,13218,307
Motor cycles26,62426,87428,43631,28832,488
Power cycles9,5449,93710,85413,06513,195
Totals804,778843,025894,409958,2961,001,654
Dealers' cars3,2213,0543,1353,2643,236
Dealers' motor cycles200152145116133
Grand totals808,199846,231897,689961,6761,005,023

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, logging machinery, cranes, etc.

The rate of increase in the number of motor vehicles has exceeded the rate of increase in population. The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 11 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19536.64.0
19546.43.8
19555.93.7
19565.53.5
19575.23.4
19584.83.2
19594.83.2
19604.73.2
19614.63.
19624.53.0
19634.32.9

The next table shows the estimated total consumption of motor spirits in New Zealand, together with the quantity consumed by motor vehicles, for each year during the last 11 years.

Calendar YearConsumption of Motor Spirits
By Motor Vehicles on Public RoadsTotal Consumption
million gallons
1952149.0182.7
1953160.5196.7
1954172.213.0
1955185.0228.5
1956200.7244.6
1957207.0252.4
1958217.0263.7
1959218.5261.0
1960234.3280.4
1961245.4296.4
1962253.0298.7

The following diagram illustrates the movement that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles since 1933. The low consumption of motor spirits during the depression period, the effects of rationing during the war years, the post-war recovery, and the subsequent increases paralleling the greater number of vehicles licensed in later years, are clearly demonstrated.

The following table gives particulars of the numbers of motor vehicles newly registered during each of the last five financial years. It should be noted that if a vehicle is again brought into use after its registration has been cancelled, it is treated as a new registration.

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
195931,6447,75726,08515,70481,190
196030,9325,98024,29116,66777,870
196136,3856,64017,71129,18289,918
196240,4006,70520,72024,57792,402
196345,2606,62318,58621,09191,560

Since 1 April 1958 registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are available separately. These particulars (which exclude re-registrations) are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailersTotal Registrations
195929,8726,14931,20667,227
196028,3383,46427,62059,422
196134,3764,74313,80821,15274,079
196239,0505,28814,12617,03375,497
196343,3604,66513,00218,19479,221

ROAD TRANSPORT – The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the operations of the Transport Department. The Traffic Regulations 1956, made pursuant to the Transport Act, set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

The Heavy Motor Vehicle Regulations 1955 fix, in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local authorities for road-maintenance purposes, and also for classifying roads and providing other measures. Quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicle Regulations range from £2 8s. 4d. (not above 2 1/2 tons) to £98 (30 tons), with £3 10s. for each additional ton or part thereof above 30. The fees for farmers' trucks range from £1 6s. 8d. to £92 6s. 8d. on a corresponding basis. No distinction is now made between passenger and goods vehicles, while the range of weight classes is considerably extended. Heavy-traffic fees, less the cost of collection, etc., were apportioned among the local authorities having control of roads within each heavy-traffic district, either as might be mutually agreed upon by such local authorities or, in default of such agreement, by the Minister of Transport, but from 1954 the fees (less collection costs as fixed by the Minister of Finance and not exceeding 5 per cent) have been paid to the National Roads Fund.

The Motor Spirits Taxation Act 1927 imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases were not connected with road taxation). From November 1953 the full duty was increased to 1s. 3 3/4d. per gallon, and this amount is paid into the National Roads Fund instead of only the first 6d. per gallon. An additional duty of 1s. per gallon (reduced to 8d. and then 4d. per gallon in 1959 and to 2d. per gallon in 1960) was imposed by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1958 but this was payable to the Consolidated Fund until 31 March 1964.

There is also a tyre tax collected under the Customs Act and paid to the National Roads Fund.

TRANSPORT LICENSING – The Transport Act 1962 provides that passenger services, goods-services, rental services, and harbour-ferry services may only be carried on under licence granted under the Act.

The constitution of transport, goods-service, rental service, and harbour-ferry-service districts is provided for in the Act, together with the establishment of a licensing authority for each district. Goods-service districts may be identical with a transport district or be a part of the latter. The Governor-General may also declare any specified harbour or harbours or parts thereof to be a harbour-ferry-service district.

The licensing authority for any transport district may also be declared to be the licensing authority for the goods-service district and rental service district. The Act provides for the appointment of a licensing authority for each harbour-ferry district instead of the former practice under which the licensing authority for the transport district to which the harbour is contiguous was to be the licensing authority for the harbour-ferry district. The Minister may authorise any specified licensing authority to exercise jurisdiction in respect of licences which would otherwise come within the jurisdiction of some other licensing authority.

The licensing authority, is to consist of either one or three persons as the Minister may determine, who are appointed for a term of up to five years' duration. Members are also eligible for reappointment. The sole member or the chairman (where the authority consists of three members) has the authority and privileges of a Magistrate in respect of proceedings.

The Act provides that any authority under the Act when dealing with an application or any other matter concerned with road transport or harbour-ferry services, is to have regard primarily to the public interest, the desirability of the service, and the needs of the district. More generally the authority is to have regard also to the following:

  1. The provision of modern transport facilities best suited according to the nature of the service to meet the needs of national production and living standards and of national defence.

  2. The fair and impartial regulation of all forms of public transport in order to develop and maintain transportation facilities adequate to meet the needs of New Zealand and of national and Commonwealth defence; and, for these purposes, to administer such facilities so as to recognise and preserve the inherent advantages of each form of transport; to promote safe, adequate, economic, and efficient service, and the fostering of sound economic conditions in transportation; to encourage the establishment and maintenance of reasonable transport charges without unjust discrimination, undue preference or advantage, or unfair or destructive practices; and to promote good working conditions for workers.

The carriage of any goods (whether for hire or reward or not) by any goods service vehicle the weight of which exceeds 2 1/2 tons can operate only under a transport licence if there is available for their carriage a route that includes not less than:

  1. In the case of fresh meat or fresh fish, 75 miles of open Government railway.

  2. In the case of logs, 50 miles of open Government railway or the Murupara-Kawerau railway.

  3. In the case of biscuits or confectionery, 50 miles of open Government railway.

  4. In any other case, 40 miles of open Government railway.

Where a farmer is carrying his own farming goods (other than lime) in a goods-service vehicle owned by him a transport licence is required if the gross laden weight exceeds 6 1/2 tons and if there is an available route that includes:

  1. In the case of fresh milk, fresh cream, fresh vegetables, fresh fruit, eggs, poultry, or fresh meat, 75 miles of open Government railway.

  2. In any other case, 40 miles of open Government railway.

These provisions do not apply –

  1. Where the route that includes the railway is longer by more than one-third than the shortest road route.

  2. Where the owner of the vehicle is the Crown.

  3. Where the vehicle is owned by a local authority or public body and the goods are carried within the district of the local authority or public body.

  4. To the carriage of livestock.

A transport licence is not required for: (1) the carriage to and from school of school children and their teachers only; (2) the carriage by a contract vehicle or a harbour ferry of a private party on a special occasion; (3) carriage of workmen to and from work by the Government or a public body, where the vehicle is not designed principally for the carriage of persons and such service has been approved by the Commissioner for this purpose; (4) carriage of newspapers, or in connection with funerals or repair and wreckage of vehicles which have met with mishap; (5) farmers carrying milk, cream, or whey to and from dairy factories for their neighbours where a licensed goods service is not available; (6) relieving or assisting inhabitants of a locality where the usual communications are interrupted by flood, earthquake, or fire; (7) carriage of showman's goods, and equipment by a vehicle owned by the showman; (8) carriage of goods in connection with repair and maintenance of service-station equipment; (9) carriage of goods by an apiarist in connection with business; (10) carriage of household effects by an owner on change of residence; (11) letting on hire agricultural tractors and trailers; (12) carriage of soft drinks by manufacturers for retail distribution unless there is an available route which includes at least 75 miles of open Government railway; (13) carriage (otherwise than for commercial purposes) to or from an exhibition or show of a vehicle or farm machinery registered with a vintage farm machinery club if approved by the Commissioner of Transport in writing; (14) a goods service (not within section 109 of the Act) exclusively for the collection and disposal of domestic, industrial, or commercial refuse; (15) every goods service for the carriage by any member of a hunt club or pony club or amateur horse sports club of a horse or pony belonging to any member of the club to or from any hunt, gymkhana, amateur horse sports meeting or other club function (excluding meetings under the control of the New Zealand Racing Conference or the New Zealand Trotting Conference); and (16) other passengers, goods, rental, or harbour-ferry services otherwise exempted by Order in Council.

In considering applications for taxicab licences a Licensing Authority is to have regard to the extent to which the proposed service is necessary or desirable in the public interest; the extent to which an improved standard of taxicab service is necessary or desirable in the public interest; the provision of an adequate supply of taxicabs to meet the reasonable public demand; any increase or decrease in the population of the area to be served; the extent to which the existing licensed taxicabs in the area are available for public use; the desirability of providing and maintaining a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the taxicab industry; the special needs of the area in respect of the travelling public; any evidence and representations made at a public sitting by or on behalf of any local authority or the licensee of a passenger service operating over a defined route; any representations contained in any petition presented at a public sitting signed by at least 25 adult residents of any locality proposed to be served; and any other matters that the Licensing Authority considers relevant to the application.

In considering applications for passenger service (other than taxicab) or harbour-ferry service licences the licensing authority is to have regard to the extent to which any proposed service or improved service is necessary or desirable in the public interest, and the needs of the district concerned and the protection of public funds where the Minister of Railways holds a licence. If further consideration be then given, factors to be taken into account are existing services, financial ability of applicant to carry on the service, provision and maintenance of a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the transport industry, the manner in which a service has already been carried on, or the likelihood of satisfactorily carrying on a service, timetable or frequency of service, vehicles or ferries to be used, conditions of roads, routes and load restrictions, speeds, etc., and representations that may be made by various bodies, persons carrying on transport services and likely to be affected, and petitions of 25 or more adult persons of the locality concerned, etc.

Preference is to be given to applications for passenger service licences by local authorities or other public bodies under certain conditions, chiefly where no existing services are available or where the proposal is for an extension of an existing service, or if the new service is wholly within the applicant's district in the case of a local authority, etc., or where there will be no competition with an existing service to the same locality by means of another route.

In considering applications for goods service licences the licensing authority is to have regard to the interests of the public generally, including primarily those of persons requiring facilities for transport and secondarily those of persons providing such facility; the needs of the district concerned; the public interest and whether this would be adversely affected where the application involves exemption from the railway protection provisions.

In considering applications for rental-service licences a licensing authority is to have regard, among other things, for the ability of the applicant to provide satisfactory facilities for the proper maintenance and upkeep of the vehicles to be used in connection with the proposed service; and the ability of the applicant to ensure that the vehicles used in connection with the service are operated with due regard to road safety.

The licensing authority is to prescribe the terms and conditions of the licences such as class (continuous, seasonal, or temporary), commencement date, localities and routes, timetables, etc.

Additional requirements may be prescribed for taxicab licences to ensure the control of the service in the interests of efficiency and of the public – e.g., complying with roster of duties, joining an organisation for the purpose of obtaining telephone facilities, etc. There is no limitation on the period for which licences may be issued except in the case of rental services licences which are issued for a term of three years, and they may be transferred subject to certain conditions.

Certificates of fitness are required for each passenger service, rental service, or goods-service vehicle and all trucks with gross laden weight exceeding two tons. Charges are to be fixed, in the case of a service owned by a public body by that body itself, and in the case of any other service, by the Commissioner of Transport, there being a right of appeal to the Transport Charges Appeal Authority in either case.

The Transport Charges Appeal Authority, as in the case of the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority, also established under the Act, is to be a barrister or solicitor of not less than seven years' practice.

Applications to fix road and harbour-ferry charges may be made by the holder of, or an applicant for, the licence; any other person whose interests are affected, being the holder of a licence, an applicant, the permanent head of a Government Department, a local authority, or a public body; any 25 or more adult residents of a locality in which the charges are or would be in force; all parties to a contract for the carriage of passengers or goods by any such services; and incorporated bodies whose members have a special interest in the type of transport concerned or whose principal objects are the protection of the interests of transport operators. The power to fix fares to be charged on any road passenger service carried on by the Minister of Railways to which Part III of the Government Railways Act 1949 applies, is expressly excluded from the jurisdiction of the charge-fixing bodies, but there is now right of appeal to the Charges Appeal Authority.

The principles to be observed in determining transport charges include: the promotion and maintenance of the economic stability of New Zealand; desirability of increasing national production by granting concessions on the carriage of producers' goods; desirability of providing special fares for all regular users of passenger services, and that children under four years be carried free, with children from the age of four years and under 15 years at half adult rates; desirability of maintaining a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the road-transport and harbour-ferry industries; and the maintenance of efficiency of the transport services to which the proceedings relate.

Included in the general provisions is one under which the owner of any motor vehicle licensed for passenger services or rental services or goods services and involved in an accident attended by serious injury to any person, or serious damage to the property of any person, shall notify the Commissioner of Transport within 48 hours of the occurrence.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services – The following tables review the operations of licensed road transport services to which the preceding paragraphs relate. The first of these tables gives the estimated overall figures concerning licensed road goods services for each of the four latest years ended 31 March.

Road Goods Services1958–591959–601960–611961–62
Revenue£(000)37,00040,00044,00045,000
Capital£(000)27,00028,00029,00030,000
Total vehicle-miles(000)234,000246,000257,000257,000
Number of goods service licences 6,9446,8176,9006,911
Average revenue per vehicle-mile d. 38.3738.9740.9242.30
Average number of miles per vehicle 14,63215,11315,46415,050

The second table shows traffic data, revenue, and number of vehicles used by the road passenger services operating in New Zealand, and is inclusive of services in the four metropolitan transport districts, for each of the latest four years ended 31 March.

Road Passenger Services1958–591959–601960–611961–62
Traffic statistics –
  Passengers carried 154,570,063162,759,069191,449,968189,491,557
  Vehicle-miles 70,031,64170,568,90874,378,14076,417,960
Total revenue£9,134,8009,673,69511,025,57111,460,033
Total revenue, per miled.31.3032.8935.5835.99
Number of vehicles included 3,6943,6563,8634,016

ROAD SAFETY – The New Zealand Road Safety Council, first set up in 1936 to advise the Government on matters of road safety, was reconstituted in 1947. Subcommittees have now been set up dealing with the following: the motor driver, motor vehicle, roads, traffic laws, traffic law enforcement, road accident statistics, road safety publicity, and child education in traffic. Since April 1953 local road safety committees have been formed to deal with local problems and make recommendations to the parent body. There are now 36 local organisations operating throughout New Zealand.

Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out per medium of the press, posters, screen slides, and radio, concentrating on simultaneous presentation, as far as possible, of specific aspects of the problem. Other means employed in furthering road safety consist of traffic instruction in schools, inspection of motor vehicles, and enforcement of traffic laws.

The Transport Act 1962 contains several provisions designed to achieve greater safety on the roads. A maximum speed limit of 55 miles per hour is fixed, but lower limits are provided for special classes of vehicles – e.g., motor cycles with pillion riders, 40 miles per hour (30 miles per hour without safety helmets); heavy passenger vehicles, 45 miles per hour; vehicles drawing trailers, 40 miles per hour; and heavy goods vehicles, 35 miles per hour. A uniform speed limit of 30 miles per hour is fixed in boroughs, town districts, or other localities which have been declared to be closely populated localities by notice published by the Minister of Transport in the New Zealand Gazette. The Act also gives the Minister power to exempt any road in a particular borough or town district from the provisions of the maximum speed limit, and further exceptions are ambulances (fitted with a siren or bell) or police or traffic officer vehicles travelling on urgent duty, or fire engines on urgent fire service. Limited-speed zones may now be defined and indicated by signs at the approaches to closely settled areas, and there a maximum speed-limit of 30 m.p.h. operates when adverse conditions prevail, such as poor visibility, heavy traffic, condition of road or presence of children.

Persons convicted on indictment of reckless driving, dangerous driving, or driving while under the influence of drink or a drug to such an extent as to be incapable of having proper control of a motor vehicle, if injury or death to any person results from their actions, are liable to a maximum penalty of five years' imprisonment or a fine of £500. Where no person is injured or where the offence as above results in summary conviction, the maximum penalty is three months' imprisonment or a fine of £100. For driving while under the influence of drink to such an extent as to be incapable of having proper control of the vehicle the minimum disqualification from obtaining a licence, unless the Court thinks fit to order otherwise, is three years for the first offence and 10 years for any subsequent offence if convicted within seven years from the date of the immediately preceding conviction. For reckless or dangerous driving the minimum cancellation of licence is now one year. Application may be made to the Court to review the disqualification after six months except for intoxicated driving for which the period is 12 months and two years for a subsequent offence. The Act prescribes penalties for careless or inconsiderate driving, certain accident-promoting offences (3 months' disqualification), and makes compulsory the reporting to the police of all motor-vehicle accidents involving injury.

Included in the Traffic Regulations 1956 are the requirements to which motor drivers must conform and which are designed to promote the safety of those using the roads.

The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest four years ended 31 March.

Type of Offence1959–601960–611961–621962–63

*Includes 689 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

†Includes 655 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

‡Includes 722 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

§ Includes 751 motor cyclists exceeding 30 miles per hour without safety helmets.

║ The maximum speed limit was increased to 55 m.p.h. as from and including 26 January 1962.

(a) Road traffic offences –
    Intoxicated in charge180202232290
    Negligent driving38212920
    Driving in a dangerous manner175172201215
    Dangerous speed118106101107
    Careless or inconsiderate driving9298811,0281,177
    Exceeding 30 m.p.h.4,7384,5345,7617,633
    Overtaking offences355561604837
    Failing to keep left443494554715
    Failing to yield right of way314368394400
    Driver's licence offences1,0091,1091,5182,079
    Licensing and registration offences970874764913
    Lighting offences1,1208861,2911,685
    Defective brakes130144204296
    No warrant of fitness2,2042,2423,0734,578
    Loading offences116104216133
    Exceeding 50 m.p.h. or 55 m.p.h.1,0421,0821,3841,383
    Cycling offences859929836993
    Failing to dip9788113131
    Failing to give right of way to pedestrians9796131147
    Exceeding 40 m.p.h. with pillion passenger293253235283
    L plate offences401323473499
    Crossing railway line7056124154
    Compulsory stop8658251,2131,535
    Parking5,0796,6007,8597,132
    Miscellaneous1,946*1,8392,5492,972§
(b) Heavy motor-vehicle offences –
    Exceeding heavy-traffic licence568600786773
    Exceeding axle load1,1791,1281,7372,020
    No heavy-traffic licence550490551645
    Speeding962946751926
    Miscellaneous666997111
(c) Transport licensing offences –
    Unlicensed goods service171165129102
    Breach of goods service licence2502198165
    Unlicensed passenger service111
    Breach of passenger service licence1315
    No certificate of fitness201224268285
    No vehicle authority26474158
    Drivers' hours breaches613
    Overloading85628388
    Rental vehicle offences75786382
    Miscellaneous transport offences62755040
(d) Miscellaneous offences under miscellaneous
    Acts and regulations357410174
Totals27,82628,97035,62641,595

The above table covers only the offences reported by officers of the Transport Department.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS – Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the police. For the year ended 31 December 1962, 9,644 such accidents, resulting in 398 fatalities and in injuries to 13,776 other people, were reported. Comparative figures for 1961 and 1960 years were (1960 figures being given in parentheses): number of accidents, 9,031 (8,844); fatalities, 393 (374); persons injured, 12,796 (12,443). The increase in the traffic flow over the last few years, caused largely by the increased number of vehicles on the road, has been an important factor in the increase in motor accidents. New Zealand has one of the lowest motor accident death rates (based on deaths per 10,000 licensed motor vehicles), the figure for 1962 being 4.8. Details of the number and nature of road accidents for the latest five calendar years, which have been compiled by the Transport Department, are as follows.

Number of AccidentNumber of Accidents
19581959196019611962
Collisions –
Between two or more motor vehicles3,4673,5323,8864,0884,248
    Between motor vehicle and bicycle1,3311,2591,2791,3311,364
    Between motor vehicle and pedestrian1,2941,3101,3461,3301,422
    Between motor vehicle and fixed object654642735721794
    Between motor vehicle and animal or horse vehicle5453525651
    Between motor vehicle and railway train4956424653
    Between motor vehicle and tram881355
    Multiple and other collisions188221226199255
Totals, collisions7,0457,0817,5797,7768,192
Non-collisions –
    Drove off road228264244267326
    Went over bank295291330326342
    Overturned on roadway461475510505600
    Person fell from vehicle132116138121145
    Other3338433639
Totals, non-collisions1,1491,1841,2651,2551,452
Total accidents8,1948,2658,8449,0319,644

Particulars of fatal motor-vehicle accidents included in the foregoing table are now given. It should be noted that the figures relate to the number of accidents and not to the number of deaths, which, as stated above, numbered 398 in 1962.

Nature of AccidentNumber of Fatal Accidents
19581959196019611962
Collisions, motor vehicle with –
    Pedestrian8790899584
    Motor vehicle93778286105
    Train10101369
    Bicycle3726303031
    Horse vehicle or animal4
    Other4747484759
    Otherwise7263798486
Totals346313341352374

Statistics of deaths resulting from motor-vehicle accidents are available for many years from vital statistics, these figures being discussed briefly in Section 4c.

The following table summarises the presumed main causes of casualties in 1962.

Road User or Circumstance Considered Primarily Responsible for AccidentFaultsKilledInjuredTotal Casualties
Faults of drivers of motor vehicles6,69327710,15810,435
Faults of pedal cyclists61817679696
Faults of pedestrians1,053631,0731,136
Mechanical or other condition of motor vehicles42412718730
Mechanical or other condition of pedal cycles3443438
Road conditions3476571577
Weather conditions1263155158
Miscellaneous and unknown causes34916388404
Total9,64439813,77614,174

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1962 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10,000 VehiclesKilled per 100,000 PopulationInjured per 10,000 VehiclesInjured per 100,000 Population
New Zealand39813,7764.816.0166.553.6
Australia2,49158,5248.023.5187.0553.0
Great Britain6,709334,9876.412.6318.9628.4
United States of America41,0001,500,0005.222.189.9807.2

URBAN TRANSPORT OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES – In recent years the use of motor-bus and trolley-bus services has increased and electric tramways have become a small sector of the urban passenger services. Only one electric tramway system serving a city area continued to run, this being in Wellington; this service was terminated in May 1964.

The data provided in this section cover the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities in the respective periods. These consist of: (1) Motor-bus services only; (2) combined trolley-bus and motor-bus services; (3) combined tram, trolley-bus and motor-bus services.

No account is taken in this section of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways or by any private enterprise.

Systems Comprising Motor-bus Services Only – In the following tables information is given on the operations of those municipal services which consist entirely of motor-buses.

ServiceYear Ended 31 March
1960196119621963
Number of Passengers Carried
Gisborne784,065786,534781,200766,815
Palmerston North1,490,0621,500,5301,505,8761,500,856
Eastbourne1,240,0791,209,0771,219,5091,214,129
Christchurch21,425,46021,614,70022,061,55921,944,976
Timaru1,347,2531,324,8451,287,2621,252,056
Invercargill2,489,6182,481,1912,225,5062,359,172
Totals28,776,53728,916,87729,080,91229,038,004
Average Number of Passengers per Mile Run
Gisborne4.04.534.63.85
Palmerston North4.564.744.744.53
Eastbourne2.252.22.92.7
Christchurch4.854.844.884.88
Timaru5.235.14.944.77
Invercargill5.025.054.204.30
 4.614.614.564.54
ServiceYear Ended 31 March
1960196119621963
Revenue
 ££££
Gisborne27,02128,31629,31429,799
Palmerston North37,01240,47340,32541,894
Eastbourne76,58177,98479,02979,612
Christchurch585,232597,313613,139613,006
Timaru36,03039,25238,70538,016
Invercargill50,55950,57152,05354,997
Totals812,435833,909852,565857,324
Expenditure
 ££££
Gisborne25,94127,67829,23129,344
Palmerston North43,65845,57244,04435,970
Eastbourne70,39973,74871,17773,511
Christchurch739,088755,333778,093788,241
Timaru40,20939,09452,27351,758
Invercargill69,49179,09587,03289,687
Totals988,7861,020,5201,061,8501,068,511
Number of Buses in Use
Gisborne99910
Palmerston North15151214
Eastbourne22222121
Christchurch155155156156
Timaru17171716
Invercargill19202020
Totals237238235237
Seating Capacity
Gisborne291302310349
Palmerston North467461402482
Eastbourne775778751755
Christchurch6,2006,2006,2406,240
Timaru647647647660
Invercargill707744740744
Totals9,0879,1329,0909,230
Miles Run During Year
Gisborne191,376173,737187,603198,932
Palmerston North327,065316,337317,697331,270
Eastbourne551,505569,924557,799558,561
Christchurch4,414,2624,464,4564,521,9284,500,797
Timaru257,745259,034260,449262,483
Invercargill496,001491,623530,072548,428
Totals6,237,9546,275,1116,375,5486,400,471
ServiceAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per MileExpenditure per Mile
196119621963196119621963196119621963
 d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.d.
Gisborne8.308.738.9639.237.5035.9538.2337.4035.40
Palmerston North6.206.206.4530.7130.4630.3534.5733.2726.06
Eastbourne15.0114.9815.332.8434.0034.2131.0630.6231.59
Christchurch6.516.546.5832.132.5432.6940.6141.3042.03
Timaru6.957.087.336.3735.6734.7636.2248.747.32
Invercargill4.745.495.4824.6923.5724.0738.6139.4139.25
Totals6.776.886.9231.8932.0932.539.0339.9740.07

Systems Comprising Combined Trolley-bus and Motor-bus Services – New Plymouth has operated a service of this type since disposing of electric trams in July 1954, Dunedin since the cessation of electric trams in March 1957, and Auckland since December 1956.

Route Milage – Lengths of routes in use at 31 March 1963 are given below.

ServiceTrolley-bus RoutesMotor-bus Routes
 mchmch
Auckland70167644
New Plymouth329209
Dunedin25204235

The following tables set out details of the operations of these authorities during the last four years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of VehiclesSeating CapacityNumber of Miles RunTotal Passengers CarriedPassengers per Mile Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor Buses
Auckland
19601332435,72710,5083,537,1384,767,37953,374,0006.43
19611332355,72710,2323,686,3744,475,09651,774,9496.34
19621332355,72710,2323,525,4254,398,05451,006,4136.44
19631332355,72710,2323,413,7034,448,38249,531,4856.30
New Plymouth
196041716868187,142449,9053,415,3816.36
196141716868183,936445,2903,333,3126.30
196241716868184,378454,3503,229,7906.00
196341816873482,454460,6903,227,8505.94
Dunedin
196075403,0001,3771,464,439776,48118,555,9498.28
196175393,0001,3651,374,673748,74717,341,9548.7
196275393,0001,3651,399,573693,90615,983,9357.64
196368392,7201,3651,292,478792,98014,184,3926.80
Totals
19602123008,89512,5665,088,7195,993,76575,345,3306.80
19612122918,89512,2785,144,9835,669,13372,450,2156.70
19622122918,89512,2785,009,3765,546,31070,220,1386.65
19632052928,61512,3314,788,6355,702,05266,943,7276.38
Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Mile RunExpenditureExpenditure per Mile Run
Passenger FaresTotal (Including “Other”)Operating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (Including “Other”)
 ££d.d.£££d.
Auckland
19601,664,5661,686,7197.4848.751,386,956311,2861,755,75850.74
19611,670,3421,694,7377.7449.841,411,807336,5291,748,33651.41
19621,653,8661,676,7607.7850.791,409,650350,2041,759,85453.31
19631,618,0441,643,0477.8450.61,425,487375,5511,801,03854.98
New Plymouth
196065,47669,3974.6031.0173,0768,13181,20736.29
196167,66069,2944.8731.4269,9878,13678,12335.43
196268,61970,3525.031.3472,4958,13680,63135.92
196368,46770,0975.0930.9774,5038,15582,65836.52
Dunedin
1960401,414415,4595.944.50369,37998,633468,01250.2
1961383,661393,6325.3144.49375,460108,980484,44054.75
1962406,396416,1716.047.71391,585111,539503,12457.68
1963409,700419,9986.9348.33392,742115,399508,14158.48
Totals
19602,131,4562,171,5756.7947.011,829,411418,0502,304,97749.92
19612,121,6632,157,6637.0347.891,857,254453,6452,310,89951.29
19622,128,8812,163,2837.2849.91,873,730469,8792,343,60953.29
19632,096,2112,133,1427.5248.301,892,732499,1052,391,83754.72

Systems Comprising Combined Electric Tramways, Trolley-bus and Motor-bus Services – Wellington had the last electric tramway in New Zealand, and also has the only cable tram service which runs from the centre of the city to Kelburn. Electric tramways reached the peak of milage of track in use in 1929 when 170 miles of line were operated by the various local authorities. A steady decline in the milage of track in use took place until 1950 when 158 miles of line were used. From that year onwards the change has been more rapid. At the same time there has been a steady expansion in the milage of the trolley-bus routes and a more rapid growth of motor-bus routes.

In Wellington there were at 31 March 1963, 13 miles 68 chains of tram route, 24 miles 46 chains of trolley-bus route, and 55 miles 41 chains of motor-bus route being operated.

The following is a summary of the operations of this service. Details cover the combined tramway, trolley-bus and motor-bus service in Wellington.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1960196119621963
Passengers carriedNo.37,101,17436,095,02635,504,67435,007,508
Passengers per runNo.8.298.278.17.89
Passenger fares£967,727973,856974,613978,546
Average fare per passengerd.6.266.486.596.71
Total revenue£990,831997,522997,9291,001,222
Revenue per mile rund.53.154.8654.7154.3
Total expenditure£1,108,8021,128,4731,156,5181,206,671
Expenditure per mile rund.59.4362.0663.4065.24
Number of vehicles –
    TramcarsNo.89666464
    Trolley busesNo.69818181
    Motor busesNo.112112112111
Seating capacity –
    TramcarsNo.3,0771,9221,8521,852
    Trolley busesNo.2,8983,4023,4023,402
    Motor busesNo.4,3054,3054,3054,263
Miles run –
    TramcarsNo.1,352,0211,137,0051,039,015976,668
    Trolley busesNo.1,317,2051,442,3901,472,4661,446,492
    Motor busesNo.1,808,4921,784,6451,866,2982,015,819

The following is a summary of the operations of all local authority transport undertakings.

Item1960196119621963
Passengers carriedNo.141,223,041137,462,118134,805,724130,989,239
Miles runNo.21,798,15621,453,26721,309,01321,330,137
Average passengers per mile runNo.6.486.416.336.4
Passenger fares£3,893,0253,910,6383,936,6513,912,609
Average fare per passengerd.6.626.837.017.7
Revenue£3,974,8413,989,0944,013,7773,991,688
Revenue per mile rund.43.7644.6345.2144.91
Expenditure£4,402,5654,459,8924,561,9774,667,019
Expenditure per mile rund.48.4749.8951.3852.51

11 D – CIVIL AVIATION

GENERAL – A steady increase in international air traffic indicates new patterns of world travel from which New Zealand will greatly benefit when the new airport at Auckland is completed in 1965. New Zealand's international airline, Tasman Empire Airways Ltd., operates in parallel with QANTAS (an Australian airline) on the Tasman Sea crossing and 108,925 passengers were carried to or from Australia in the year ended 31 March 1963. A rapid rate of increase of civil aviation in New Zealand has been a feature of the post-war era. A key to expanded operations by the National Airways Corporation, the main operator, was the completion of Wellington Airport in 1959. Passengers carried on domestic services in the year ended 31 March 1963 totalled 823,000. An air freight service operates across Cook Strait, while aerial topdressing results in some 600,000 tons of fertiliser and lime being distributed on pasture to aid farm production.

ADMINISTRATION – Civil aviation in New Zealand is administered by the Civil Aviation Department, which in 1964 was separated out from the Air Department. The Department is responsible broadly for the safety of flying within New Zealand and the South Pacific region, which is controlled by the Civil Aviation Regulations 1953, this being done in accordance with the provisions laid down by the International Civil Aviation Organisation. In addition, the other major responsibilities of the Administration are the planning, provision and maintenance of ground facilities and services for civil aviation, and advising the Government in respect of air transport policy and international negotiations in the field of air transport.

The established staff of the Civil Aviation Department as at 31 March 1963 exceeded 1,000. The greater proportion of staff employed consisted of technical staff in the field, comprising air traffic services (202), telecommunications engineering and maintenance (246), and communications staff (231).

FACILITIES PROVIDED – Various facilities for air navigation are provided by the Civil Aviation Department. Radio navigational aids of different kinds are installed at the more important airfields in New Zealand and in the south-west Pacific, as well as en route aids at various points along the internal airways.

In addition, the Civil Aviation Department has a number of aeradio stations in New Zealand providing air to ground, ground to air, and ground point-to-point communication facilities, plus communication centres located at Auckland, Christchurch, and Wellington.

The air traffic control system comprises control towers situated at the important aerodromes with area control centres situated at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. In addition, communication facilities are provided at aerodromes in the Cook Islands, Fiji, and Western Samoa. In Fiji an air traffic control service is also maintained by the Civil Aviation Department.

The Civil Aviation Department is responsible, in collaboration with the Ministry of Works, for airport planning. The Ministry usually undertakes the actual construction and maintenance, although this is sometimes done by the local authority. At other than minor aerodromes in New Zealand and the south-west Pacific crash/fire facilities are provided by the Civil Aviation Department.

The Civil Aviation Charges Regulations 1954 prescribe the rates of dues payable by operators for the use of airways and airport facilities provided or maintained by the Crown. Different rates are prescribed in respect of international and domestic operators, and a distinction is made in respect of air transport and other domestic operations. No charges, other than those prescribed by regulations, are to be made for the use of aerodromes or connected facilities without the approval of the Minister in Charge of Civil Aviation.

The administration of Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group and Campbell Island, on which weather-reporting stations are located, is another responsibility of the Civil Aviation Department.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE – The net Government expenditure on civil aviation in New Zealand and its island territories in 1962–63 was £3,629,566, compared with £2,515,950 in 1961–62.

New Zealand is the administering authority for the South Pacific Air Transport Council, which established and maintains the International Airport at Nandi, Fiji. The major member Governments are United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.

AIR SERVICES LICENSING – Licensing of air services in New Zealand is vested in the Air Services Licensing Authority which was constituted by the Air Services Licensing Act of 1951. This Authority consists of one chairman and three members appointed by the Crown, and its principal functions are to hear and determine applications for the granting, renewal, or transfer of air service licences. An air service (including aerial topdressing) may not be commenced or carried on without a licence granted under the Act except that any aero club affiliated to the Royal New Zealand Aero Club (Inc.) may carry club members in club-owned or hired aircraft without such a licence.

For the year 1962–63, 131 applications were received in respect of air service licences, and the following table shows the decisions of the Authority.

CategoryDecision by AuthorityTotal Applications Received
New Licence IssuedTemporary Licence IssuedExisting Licence RenewedExisting Licence AmendedApplication DeclinedApplication Withdrawn or Adjourned
Topdressing1238182162
Scheduled services2412725
Non-scheduled services227191150
Totals56774432137

During the year three appeals against the Authority's decisions were lodged with the Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority: one was allowed in part, and two were withdrawn.

NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION – The operation of the internal air services is no longer under the complete control of the National Airways Corporation, as provision was made for other operators to run services under the Air Services Licensing Act 1951 previously mentioned. However, the bulk of the internal scheduled services are still operated by the Corporation. Information concerning the establishment of the National Airways Corporation and its duties and functions may be found on pages 329–330 of the 1951–52 Yearbook.

The Corporation operates daily services to and from the following destinations: Kaitaia, Kaikohe, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, Hamilton, Whakatane, Rotorua, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Napier-Hastings, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Blenheim, Nelson, Westport, Hokitika, Christchurch, Timaru, Dunedin, Invercargill.

Statistics of operations of the National Airways Corporation for the two latest years are shown in the following table.

Item1961–621962–63Increase or Decrease
   per cent
Route milage3,4593,459
Milage flown –
    (a) Revenue8,523,5808,204,062– 3.74
    (b) Non-revenue including training273,584191,300–30.07
Revenue passengers carried –
    Schedule787,840778,520–1–18
    Charter6,9689,315+33.68
Passenger-miles created –
    Schedule294,387,213285,262,819– 3.09
    Charter2,346,1273,834,161+63.42
Revenue passenger-miles –
    Schedule200,614,261201,019,682+ 0.20
    Charter1,460,9042,526,252+72.92
Average passenger journey (miles)254,637258,207+1.40
Freight, excess, mail (lb) –
    Schedule32,459,15631,282,733– 3.62
    Charter5,719,3775,658,465– 1.06
Excess baggage ton-miles189,025191,627+1.37
Freight ton-miles –
    Schedule4,134,8053,827,461– 7.43
    Charter518,060411,874–20.49
Mail ton-miles370,718394,792+ 6.49
Total revenue load factor66.6868.06
Revenue passenger load factor68.570.47

Operating expenditure in 1962–63 totalled £5,605,388 (including depreciation on equipment) as compared with £5,401,980 in 1961–62 and £4,820,175 in 1960–61.

An operating profit of £112,835 for the year 1962–63 was recorded but, after adding interest on investments and deducting interest on capital loans, a loss of £136,320 resulted. The corresponding figure for 1961–62 was £96,182 net loss.

Notwithstanding the Air Services Licensing Act 1951, the Corporation is still charged by the National Airways Act 1945 “to satisfy the need for air services within New Zealand”. The Corporation has therefore sought constantly to improve the standard and scope of its service whilst keeping fares at a low level. The Corporation has not therefore sought high profits. The expansion achieved during recent years is indicated by the increase in revenue passenger miles on scheduled services from 185 million in 1960–61, to 201 million in both 1961–62 and 1962–63 years.

FLYING OPERATIONS: Domestic Scheduled Services – Scheduled air transport operations over specific routes were first commenced in New Zealand in December 1934, on the route Inch-bonnie – Hokitika – Franz Josef Glacier, on the West Coast of the South Island. Subsequent extensions of services up to the outbreak of war in September 1939 had covered almost the whole of New Zealand. During 1946 and 1947 the New Zealand National Airways Corporation absorbed all then existing scheduled commercial services, and by adding to the fleet of aircraft was able to commence new services.

In February 1953 a scheduled service between Christchurch and Oamaru via Ashburton and Timaru was commenced by South Island Airways Ltd., followed by a Christchurch to Nelson service during 1954. In April 1956 these services were taken over by a new company, Trans Island Airways Ltd. The Christchurch-Oamaru service ceased in June 1957 and the Christchurch-Nelson service ceased in March 1959. Bay of Plenty Airways Ltd. came into existence in July 1958, taking over the non-scheduled operations of Tauranga Air Services Ltd. Their Wellington service commenced in September 1959. The company ceased operations in November 1961.

In December 1960 a new company, South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand Ltd., commenced timetable operations with two modified DC 3 aircraft, serving smaller centres not previously having a regular air service. This airline has added a further three modified DC 3 aircraft and fully scheduled operations are being undertaken largely consistent with the company's initial service to smaller centres, but also offering competition on some routes previously operated only by the National Airways Corporation.

At 30 September 1963 domestic scheduled services excluding NAC were being operated on the following routes.

Terminating Points of RoutesIntermediate StopsRoute MilesScheduled Frequency
 West Coast Airways Ltd.  
Hokitika-HaastFranz Josef, Fox, as required1255 return flights weekly
 Straits Air Freight Express Ltd.  
Wellington-Nelson (freight)Nil96Daily as required
Wellington-Blenheim (freight)Nil72 
 Mt. Cook and Southern Lakes Tourist Co. Ltd.  
Christchurch-Te AnauMt. Cook, Cromwell3283 return flights weekly
 South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand Ltd.  
Auckland-ChristchurchHamilton, New Plymouth, Nelson5102 return flights weekly, 4 flights north weekly and 2 flights south weekly
Auckland-ChristchurchHamilton, New Plymouth, Nelson, Blenheim5452 flights south weekly
Auckland-ChristchurchHamilton, Napier, Masterton, Wellington5973 flights south weekly
Christchurch-InvercargillTimaru, Oamaru, Alexandra, Gore3243 return flights weekly
Christchurch-NelsonNil1581 return flight weekly
Hamilton-GisborneWhakatane1643 return flights weekly

At 31 March 1963 the aircraft used in the operation of services on the above routes and including NAC were:

Bristol 1706Douglas DC 3 (freighter)6
DH 89 Dominie4Fokker Friendship8
Douglas DC 321Vickers Viscount 8074
  Total49

The following table gives the summarised results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services during the last 11 years. Statistics for the New Zealand Railways Freight Service, operated by Straits Air Freight Express Ltd. since 1 April 1951, are excluded and the timetable operations of South Pacific Airlines of New Zealand are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchHours FlownMiles Flown (000)PassengersFreight lb (000)*Mail lb (000)Passenger-miles (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Mail Ton-miles

*Includes excess baggage.

†Includes excess baggage ton-miles.

195337,0494,740312,3097,8351,12479,5121,010145,457
195444,0475,504369,40810,4911,74089,9571,366174,132
195546,9465,831387,36515,5951,02493,8901,977183,686
195649,5726,276428,49419,0701,157104,4022,397218,878
195753,0166,815476,77919,0171,229118,6592,419250,218
195854,3097,107513,69420,8541,757130,2662,811277,286
195955,3567,481556,54521,3291,808146,3922,990278,639
196054,7767,614650,81222,4921,993169,9363,165312,656
196160,7968,539744,02530,0052,225189,5944,077355,090
196267,2559,602841,78330,7892,319214,1054,360374,785
196359,0228,914822,02329,0282,464211,8464,114397,461

CIVIL AVIATION DOMESTIC COMMERCIAL AIR SERVICES(1)

(1) Straits Air Freight Express Ltd are excluded

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service – The New Zealand Railways Air Freight Service was commenced officially in February 1947 following a number of special inter-island freight flights which had been carried out by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Railways Department to meet a shipping emergency. With the introduction of the Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Services, delays caused by lack of shipping space and industrial troubles were somewhat alleviated. The service was conducted by the RNZAF, operating Dakota aircraft, until June 1947, when the service was handed over to the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, which continued to operate with Dakotas.

In 1950 the Railways Department decided to allow private enterprise the opportunity of tendering for the contract to run the service, and the successful tenderer was Straits Air Freight Express Ltd., which took over on 1 April 1951. The service is at present being maintained by five Bristol Freighter aircraft on a daily basis, the number of trips varying according to the amount of cargo offering.

Traffic statistics for this freight service for the last 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchTrips FlownHours FlownMiles FlownFreight lb (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Passengers
19532,9131,412213,45933,8791,106113
19543,9371,954293,89240,4981,360598
19554,8852,487364,07650,1451,668858
19565,4112,683398,54753,9141,780986
19576,1073,033453,91254,3641,7971,308
19587,4153,826554,68867,8572,2401,660
19598,5634,365642,66676,2802,5271,437
19609,5094,465628,11387,6122,5661,225
196111,8534,864635,078112,7712,6931,231
196213,7395,534765,022122,3603,0411,557
196312,3815,050660,924110,6252,650927

Non-scheduled Air Services – During March 1963, 16 companies and 25 aero clubs were providing timetable, charter, taxi, scenic, and joyriding services. The RNZAF, using Sunderland flying boats, flew 12 flights to the Chatham Islands during the year. The following is a traffic summary of these services for the years ended 31 March 1962 and 31 March 1963.

 1961–621962–63
Commercial CompaniesAero ClubsTotalCommercial CompaniesAero ClubsTotal
Number of flights20,5185,99126,50923,9066,57430,480
Hours flown12,0014,51816,51912,5514,89717,448
Miles flown1,263,948513,8521,777,8001,322,729515,0791,837,808
Passengers carried55,21011,19566,40569,57611,96881,544
Freight carried (tons)3,038183,0563,001193,020

Aerial Work Operations – The Royal New Zealand Air Force undertook extensive trials in the dropping of fertiliser from the air in 1948 at the request of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, which was interested in aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion. The RNZAF experiments were successful and as a result the interest of the farming community was aroused and private firms began operating commercially in 1949.

The industry grew rapidly and is now an accepted feature of the national economy. More than half the fertiliser sown in the country is applied from the air and, in the year ended 31 March 1963, 592,473 tons of fertiliser were distributed in this way.

Aerial application of insecticides and weedkillers developed rapidly since 1955 and has now stabilised with an annual distribution of 1,500,000 gallons of spray.

Other aerial work includes photography, seed sowing, and the dropping of rabbit and opossum poison, supplies, and fencing materials.

Progress of agricultural aviation in this country was shown at an International Agricultural Aviation Show held at Palmerston North in November 1956. This was the first show of its kind in the world and some 200 aircraft demonstrated the aerial farming techniques developed in New Zealand.

In June 1960 Civil Aviation Administration introduced the Chemical Rating, a technical qualification which'is now mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals except fertilisers. Many agricultural chemicals are highly toxic and the Chemical Rating ensures that pilots are familiar with their properties and the correct application techniques.

A summary of aerial work operations for the year ended 31 March 1963 follows.

Topdressing –
    Hours flown69,840
    Fertiliser distributed (tons)592,473
    Seed sown with fertiliser (tons)222
    Area treated (acres)5,198,615
Seed sowing –
    Hours flown1,049
    Seed sown (tons)709
    Area treated (acres)91,847
Rabbit poisoning–
    Hours flown3,686
    Bait distributed (tons)5,772
Fencing materials–
    Hours flown193
    Materials dropped (tons)433
Spraying –
    Hours flown5,363
    Weedkiller and insecticide distributed (gallons)2,268,887
Aerial photography and survey–
    Hours flown995
Supply dropping –
    Hours flown368
    Materials dropped (tons)171
Miscellaneous –
    Hours, flown1,306
    Materials dropped (tons)317
    Number of aerial-work operators58
    Number of aerial-work aircraft owned255

International Services:Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. – Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. was formed to operate a trans-Tasman air service. The share capital was subscribed by the Governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, the share proportions being 20, 30, and 50 per cent respectively. Later it became equally owned by Australia and New Zealand, and then wholly by New Zealand from 1 April 1961.

On 30 April 1940 the Auckland-Sydney service commenced. In June 1950 the company took over the Auckland-Suva service from New Zealand National Airways Corporation. The Wellington-Sydney service was inaugurated on 3 October 1950 and the Christchurch-Melbourne service on 28 June 1951. With the withdrawal of the Short Solent flying boats from the trans-Tasman routes, the Wellington-Sydney service was discontinued in June 1954 and a new service from Christchurch to Sydney was commenced in the following month.

The first Lockheed Electra turboprop aircraft was brought into use on the trans-Tasman service in December 1959, and by March 1960 all TEAL services between Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji had been converted to Electras. The company's fleet now consists of three of these aircraft.

A winter service linking Auckland and Brisbane was instituted in 1959. This has operated year round since early 1962 on a weekly frequency. In July 1960 TEAL commenced a direct Wellington-Sydney service. Two new routes were added to TEAL's network in November 1963: Wellington-Brisbane, and Wellington-Melbourne. Both had an initial frequency of one return service a week.

The Coral Route to Tahiti via Suva and Aitutaki was inaugurated in December 1951. The service was originally direct from Nandi in Fiji to Papeete, Tahiti; an intermediate stop at Pago Pago, Eastern Samoa, was added in September 1961. The service to Tahiti was discontinued in January 1964 following France's withdrawal of air traffic rights.

The service to Norfolk Island, formerly conducted by the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, was taken over by Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. from 1 November 1955.

In March 1964 a weekly service to New Caledonia was instituted in place of a service previously run by a French airline.

In September 1963, TEAL signed a contract with the Douglas Aircraft Co. of California to purchase three Series 52 DC 8s. These new jets will come into service late in 1965 with the opening of the new international airport at Mangere.

The following routes were being operated in February 1964.

Route No.RouteRoute MilesScheduled Frequency Up to:
1Auckland-Sydney1,3335 return flights weekly
2Auckland-Brisbane1,4122 return flights weekly
3Auckland-Melbourne1,6291 return flight weekly
4Auckland-Nandi1,3266 return flights weekly
5Auckland-Norfolk Island6602 return flights weekly
6Wellington-Sydney1,3865 return flights weekly
7Wellington-Brisbane1,5591 return flight weekly
8Wellington-Melbourne1,6041 return flight weekly
9Christchurch-Sydney1,3212 return flights weekly
10Christchurch-Melbourne1,4952 return flights weekly
11Nandi-Pago Pago (American Samoa)8211 return flight weekly

Revenue traffic statistics for the years ended 31 March 1962 and 31 March 1963 are given below.

Item1961–621962–63
Hours flown11,3529,935
Miles flown3,793,6243,327,095
Passengers114,295108,891
Passenger-miles156,812,628148,006,508
Available seat-miles253,374,274230,837,870
Passenger load factor (per cent)61.8964.2
Cargo (000) lb –
    Freight1,9651,828
    Excess baggage157155
    Mail1,243926
Ton-miles flown (000) –
    Passenger13,85413,211
    Excess baggage9694
    Freight1,2151,119
    Mail755554
Total ton-miles15,92014,978
    Available capacity ton-miles (000)29,13925,773
    Overall load factor (per cent)54.6358.1

The following is a summary of traffic statistics for Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. for the latest five years, and includes services flown by other airlines under charter to the company.

Year Ended 31 MarchHours FlownMiles Flown (000)PassengersFreight* lb (000)Mail lb (000)Passenger-miles (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Mail Ton-miles (000)

*Includes excess baggage.

†Includes excess baggage ton-miles.

19599,9582,46569,7211,03690994,827621534
196010,2792,70284,1301,5371,054115,271936631
196111,7313,425115,1092,3891,301158,2721,487786
196211,3523,794114,2952,1221,243156,8131, 311755
19639,9353,327108,8911,983926148,0071,213554

QANTAS Empire Airways Ltd. – QANTAS commenced operating across the Tasman on 30 October 1961 in association with TEAL on the eight routes served. Trans-Tasman revenue is shared with TEAL on a 40/60 basis. From Sydney QANTAS operates six flights weekly to London via the Middle East and three flights weekly via Fiji and the United States to London with jet aircraft.

British Overseas Airways Corporation – In April 1963 BOAC commenced a service two days a week from Auckland to London via the Middle East using jet aircraft.

Pan American World Airways, Inc. – On 6 June 1946 this airline recommenced services between Auckland and the United States of America. Stops on the route are now Fiji, American Samoa, Canton Island, and Honolulu.

Canadian Pacific Air Lines – Under the terms of the Air Transport Agreement of 1950 between New Zealand and Canada, Canadian Pacific Air Lines was selected as the Canadian airline to operate across the Pacific to New Zealand. The service was commenced in January 1952. At present there is a fortnightly return service between Auckland and Vancouver via Fiji, Canton Island and Honolulu.

Transports Aériens Intercontinentaux – On 5 February 1957 this French company commenced a weekly service linking Auckland with Noumea in New Caledonia. This service was suspended in January 1964.

Total Traffic Statistics for Overseas Airlines (CPAL, PAWA, TAI, and QANTAS) – Total traffic statistics for Canadian Pacific Air Lines, Pan American World Airways, and Transports Aériens Intercontinentaux to and from New Zealand for the year ended 31 March 1963 are given below, together with the total for 1961–62.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1963Total
QANTASPAWATAICPAL1961–621962–63
Entering New Zealand –
    Passengers27,2333,6041,8161,90617,19434,559
    Freight (tons)30877646185437
    Mail (tons)16356210101231
Leaving New Zealand –
    Passengers26,2112,6681,8791,32315,46332,081
    Freight (tons)19628294122257
    Mail (tons)8214113798

Entrances and Clearances of Aircraft in the Overseas Trade – The following figures supplied by the Customs Department give the number of aircraft entering New Zealand classified by the countries from which they arrived, and aircraft departing by the countries to which they departed, during the last two calendar years. Air freight carried is also shown.

Country from Which Arrived or to Which DepartedEntrancesClearances
NumberAir Freight (lb)NumberAir Freight (lb)
19611962196119621961196219611962
American Samoa6945103,330
Australia1,1781,3251,313,4041,594,5751,1651,330748,105903,402
Canada9750111,889115,609924722,78323,300
Fiji258304174,791138,20026531892,821130,767
France3110,8403356,930
Hong Kong51,270
Netherlands12,233276539,78080,786
New Caledonia21566,27211,251315138,79354,218
Norfolk Island334712,05610,275
Singapore1
Society Islands6141,4981,87251631411,348
United Kingdom3216
United States of America102101166,766188,4621029458,36362,766
Totals1,7311,9031,799,9652,061,1891,7201,9361,057,8891,271,187

AERO CLUBS – Practical interest in aviation was greatly stimulated by the first trans-Tasman flight of Kingsford-Smith and Ulm in 1928, and to this flight the aero-club movement largely owes its inception. The steady progress made by the movement was in a great measure due to the scheme initiated by the Government of subsidising a limited number of light aeroplane clubs.

On 1 April 1955 a revised scheme of financial assistance to aero clubs was put into operation. This scheme was reviewed in 1957, in 1960 and again in 1961, the subsidy to aero clubs being gradually reduced. In March 1962 the Government ceased granting financial assistance, but approved transitional arrangements whereby portion of the subsidy earned up to 31 March 1962 could be paid to all persons who qualified before 1 January 1963. During the year ended 31 March 1963 financial assistance to aero clubs and to pilots amounted to £13,379, compared with £26,966 in the previous year. At March 1963 there were 39 aero clubs affiliated to the Royal New Zealand Aero Club.

The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs for the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchClubs OperatingMembershipAircraft in UseHours FlownAb Initio Pupils Under Training
AssociateFlyingDualSolo
1959363,5564,00610810,36529,355734
1960363,5184,10710611,49127,713844
1961373,6134,39711713,55634,7941,010
1962373,4094,63611818,24744,8741,027
1963393,1895,14712717,98639,5571,113

LICENCES – A summary of licences and certificates current at 31 March 1963 is given below.

Flight Crew (ICAO) Type –Number at 31 March 1963
  Pilot licences –
    Student Pilot1,599
    Private Pilot1,755
    Commercial Pilot615
    Airline Transport Pilot206
  Pilot Licence Ratings –
    Instructor227
    Instrument321
    Compass13
    Chemical175
    Towing120
  Navigator Licences –
    Flight Navigator49
  Licences to Operate Radio Equipment in Aircraft –
    Flight Radio Operator5
  Flight Engineer Licences –
    Flight Engineer25
  Other Licences, Certificates, etc. –
    Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences364
  Aircraft –
    Certificates of Registration735
  Aerodromes –
  Public Licences40
  Air Service Certificates48

Chapter 12. Section 12 COMMUNICATIONS

12 A – POST OFFICE

INTRODUCTORY – Post Office history in New Zealand began in 1831 when the Postmaster-General for New South Wales commissioned a resident of Kororareka in the Bay of Islands to make up and receive mails.

With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes.

By 1858 seventy-three post offices had been opened to provide communications services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent Department of State. The Post Office had previously operated under the control of the Customs Department.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate Department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines, the opening of morse telegraph offices, and the laying and maintaining of lines of communication under Cook Strait to connect the telegraph lines of the North and South Islands. This Act vested the control of communication by electric telegraph in the new Department.

During 1881 the first New Zealand telephone exchanges were opened at Christchurch and Auckland. An amendment to the Electric Telegraph Act of 1875 had been passed in September 1880 extending the power of the Government, through the Telegraph Department, to control all electric communication by telephone and making it unlawful for any but the approved authority to establish telephone lines without express permission.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated at the beginning of 1881. The Postmaster-General became Minister of Telegraphs, and the Post and Telegraph Department was created to replace the two previous authorities. Under the Post Office Act 1959, which came into operation on 1 January 1960, the name of the Department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

Through its control of electric communications the Post Office has extended its functions to include communications by radio. In addition to administering New Zealand's radio regulations the Post Office transmitting and receiving stations bring New Zealand into the world radio communications network. The overseas telephone service was inaugurated with the Australian radio link in 1930 and since then New Zealand has extended the service to most countries in the world. A development in radio communication brought a radio-photograph service with Australia and the United Kingdom in 1947.

POSTAL BUSINESS – At 31 March 1962 there were 1,446 post offices in New Zealand. In addition, there were 160 offices at which telephone business only was transacted.

The following table shows the numbers of articles posted in the latest five years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters, Lettercards, and PostcardsAccounts, Circulars, Newspapers, Packets, etc.ParcelsTotal Articles Posted
million
1959204.7234.67.2446.4
1960210.3246.67.4464.3
1961224.262.87.8494.8
1962229.270.7.9507.2
1963239.9278.97.2526.0

Compared with the year ended 31 March 1962, letters, lettercards, and postcards posted during the year ended 31 March 1963 showed an increase of 10.8 million (4.7 per cent); and accounts, circulars, etc., an increase of 8.8 million (3.3 per cent). Parcel postings decreased by 748,431 (9.4 per cent) during the year.

The average numbers of letters, etc., posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1963 were: letters, lettercards, and postcards, 96.0, accounts, circulars, newspapers, packets, etc., 111.5, parcels, 2.9.

During the 1962–63 year, 741,583 lb of letters and 225,454 parcels were posted by inland air mails, and 321,688 lb of letters, 125,110 lb of newspapers and packets, etc., and 103,161 lb of parcels were posted by overseas air mail.

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY – The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural-mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. The growth of this scheme can be gauged from the following figures: 1921, 8,700; 1940, 32,382; 1947, 40,689; and in March 1963, 73,743 boxholders.

AIR MAILS: Inland – On 16 March 1936 the first regular air-mail services linking up larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin, and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the air-mail facilities were correspondingly expanded. The present network extends from Kaitaia to Invercargill.

The rate of postage for inland air-mail correspondence is 4d. for the first half-ounce and 2d. each additional half-ounce. For parcels up to 28 lb the rates range from 3s. to 15s. 6d.

The numbers of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand during the latest 11 years are shown hereunder.

Year Ended 31 MarchLettersParcels
(000)
195314,578150,680
195414,590151,222
195518,981168,521
195620,677167,486
195722,357161,599
195824,596184,185
195924,592185,100
196026,542197,827
196127,980225,049
196227,565226,417
196329,663225,454

Overseas:Trans-Tasman Air Services – The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights from New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service – This service is now operating daily via Sydney to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally two to three days.

Trans-Pacific Services – The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Air lines now operate six trips each week to San Francisco, and there is also a service between Auckland and Vancouver.

Pacific Island Services – Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand operated air services to Norfolk Island, Fiji, and American Samoa (Pago Pago). Local air services provide connections from Pago Pago to Apia, and from Nandi (Fiji) to Nukualofa (Tonga).

OVERSEAS PARCEL POST – Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest five years are contained in the following table.

YearOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  lb£ lb
1959399,5003,595,000582,875156,1001,404,900
1960410,4563,694,100492,388160,7971,447,200
1961440,2433,962,187726,857181,3471,632,123
1962464,6284,181,652710,740192,9431,736,487
1963510,0074,590,063664,430195,0801,233,920

NEWSPAPERS – In March 1963 there were 335 publications on the Post Office Register of Newspapers. Of these 45 are published daily, 13 being morning papers and 32 evening papers. Nine appear three times per week, 17 twice per week, 75 weekly, 27 fortnightly, 161 monthly, and one at irregular intervals; many of these are magazines rather than newspapers as popularly understood.

MONEY ORDER AND POSTAL NOTE SERVICES – Details of these services are now given.

Money Orders – New Zealand has reciprocal money-order agreements with all British Commonwealth countries and also with the United States of America, the Republic of Ireland, South Africa, and Tonga. Money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in any other country with which the United Kingdom has exchanges of money orders.

For payment within New Zealand the maximum amount for a single order is £100, but there is no limit to the amount which may be remitted. The commission is computed on each individual order. Commission on inland money orders is 7d. for the first £10 and 3d. for each additional £5 or part thereof. A money order may be transmitted by telegraph for the additional telegraph charge of 2s.

For money orders issued for payment overseas there is a limit for most countries of £40 for a single order. There are two special rates of commission, one rate applying to Australia (and countries advised through Australia), Fiji, Norfolk Island, and Tonga, and the other rate to all other countries.

During 1962, 1,677,251 money orders were issued in New Zealand for a total of £26,751,013, and of that total 67,030 orders of a value of £423,401 were issued for payment overseas. Money orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1962 numbered 25,093 and totalled in value £151,840.

Postal Notes – Postal notes in 40 denominations ranging from 1s. to £1 and for £2 are issued in New Zealand for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands. The commission payable is as follows: 1s. to 2s. 6d., 2d.; 3s. to 7s. 6d., 3d.; 8s. to 15s., 4d.; 15s. 6d. to £1, 5d.; and for £2, 6d.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are, therefore, a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1963, 2,584,442 postal notes valued at £1,514,632 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders – These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold in this country are 6d., 1s., 1s. 6d., 2s., 2s. 6d., 3s., 5s., 10s., 15s., and 20s. The poundage payable ranges from 2d. to 6d.

As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, particularly the United Kingdom.

During the year ended 31 March 1963 the Post Office sold 2,417,100 British postal orders valued at £632,643, and paid 109,550 orders valued at £127,708.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK – Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE SERVICES – Up to 31 March 1963 a total sum of £86,856,721 had been expended on telecommunication construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1962–63 was £6,932,536.

Details of telegraph and telephone services for each of the last five financial years are now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Paid Telegrams and Toll Messages Forwarded During the YearRevenue (Including Miscellaneous Receipts)Total Value of Business
Telegraph and TollTelephone Exchange
 million£££
195951.76,410,3128,769,03915,179,351
196055.56,951,0969,780,10916,731,205
196160.07,635,43610,320,26017,955,696
196263.68,374,88310,386,58318,761,466
196366.29,207,38311,426,87020,634,253

The number of telegrams forwarded annually exceeds 8.0 million, while the number of toll communications exceeds 58 million.

The charge for ordinary telegrams on weekdays is 1s. 3d. for six words or less, and 1d. for each additional word. The charge for letter-telegrams, which are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment, is a flat rate of 1s. 9d. for 22 words, and 1d. for each additional two words. On Sundays and departmental holidays the rate for ordinary telegrams is 2s. for six words or less, and 1 1/2d. for each additional word, the total charge being taken to the next penny where necessary. An additional charge of 1s. is made for an urgent telegram, irrespective of the number of words contained in the message.

There is an additional charge of 3d. on each telegram lodged by telephone.

A greetings telegram service was introduced on 1 June 1960. For an additional charge of 1s., telegrams are delivered on decorative stationery. In the first year 240,000 such telegrams were sent. During the year ended 31 March 1963, 294,000 greetings telegrams were sent.

The delivery of telegrams, especially in the larger cities, continues to have its problems because of the difficulties in the recruitment of staff for this work. To meet these difficulties the telephoning of telegrams was resorted to some years ago. The system provides also for the phoning in of telegrams for dispatch. Approximately 60 per cent of telegrams are now handled by telephone.

Machine-printing telegraphs operating at 45 words per minute were introduced on 5 December 1921. In 1929 a teleprinter circuit, working at a speed of 66 words per minute, commenced operation, and at 31 March 1963 there were 164 offices with teleprinter circuits.

The first voice-frequency telegraph system – of three high-speed channels between Wellington and Christchurch – was installed in 1938. Since then a network embracing all the larger provincial towns has been developed. At 31 March 1963 there were 752 channels and more are to be provided in the near future.

A leased teleprinter service for business organisations was begun in 1951. At 31 March 1963 there were 97 organisations leasing 51,113 miles of telegraph circuit. Annual revenue from this source was £299,529.

Until 1951 daily newspapers received their outside news over the public telegraph system but in that year their national organisation leased an extensive teleprinter network so that the news could be transmitted direct from Wellington into the various newspaper offices. Newspapers participating in this arrangement number 36.

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE – At 31 March 1963 there were 529 exchanges in New Zealand serving a total of 850,572 telephones. Of these exchanges 287 were manually operated, serving 217,229 telephones, or 26 per cent of the total, and 242 were automatic, serving 633,343 telephones, or 74 per cent of the total.

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service (the figures are as at 31 March of each year shown).

Item195519561957195819591960196119621963

*Represents separate instruments connected to main telephone system.

Exchanges405411440459478493501511529
Subscribers' main stations359,674386,732409,740434,804459,869491,773532,560571,917602,285
Service stations3,6873,7133,8583,9484,0734,2814,4754,6534,846
Toll stations1,6331,6051,5671,5311,5071,4901,4671,4811,451
Public call stations2,4502,5452,6752,8032,9123,0583,2313,4513,621
Extension stations125,463136,658147,872159,646170,777183,399201,145218,866237,223
Private telephone lines3,3863,2482,6272,4922,2042,0201,9191,5071,146
    Telephone station totals*496,293534,501568,339605,224641,342686,021744,797801,875850,572
Main stations installed during year42,73841,01140,15243,74445,36653,60365,91868,68365,969
Number of waiting applicants33,34433,86235,33034,50132,08728,71127,15219,10819,499

The total number of telephone stations shows an increase of 354,279, or 71 per cent, during the period covered by the table, the net gain for each of the last five years being 36,118, 44,679, 58,776, 57,078, and 48,697 respectively. The increase in subscribers' main stations during the period covered by the table amounted to 242,611, or approximately 68 per cent, while extension stations show an increase of 111,760, or 89 per cent.

The “party” line system of telephone service is used mainly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March 1963 the number of “party” lines was 56,037, serving a total of 183,534 stations.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1962), compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fourth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (41.80), Sweden (38.51), Canada (32.66), New Zealand (32.37), and Switzerland (31.90).

The first public call stations (coin-in-the-slot) telephones were installed at Wellington in August 1910, and 3,621 such instruments were in use throughout New Zealand at 31 March 1963. Of these, 2,888 take penny, sixpenny, and shilling coins and are used for making both local and toll calls and sending telegrams, while 733 take pennies only and are used for local calls.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, etc., of the telephone exchanges up to 31 March 1963 was £74,979,466.

The following table shows the classification of telephone exchanges and the annual rental rates for different classes of connection.

Class of ExchangeClass of ConnectionAnnual Rate Within Base-rate Area
BusinessResidential
  £ s. d.£ s. d.
Class I (All exchanges with more than 10,000 subscribers)Individual31 0 016 0 0
  (Typical exchanges are Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hamilton, Invercargill, Palmerston North, and Wellington)2-party23 15 014 0 0
 3-party21 0 013 10 0
 4-party18 5 012 15 0
 5-party15 10 011 5 0
 6–10 party14 10 010 5 0
Class II (Exchanges with 3,001–10,000 paying subscribers)Individual27 0 016 0 0
 2-party21 0 014 0 0
(Typical exchanges are Blenheim, Gisborne, Napier, Levin, and Timaru)3-party20 0 013 10 0
 4-party17 10 012 15 0
 5-party15 0 011 5 0
 6–10 party14 0 010 5 0
Class III (Automatic exchanges with 201–3,000 paying subscribers)Individual23 0 014 10 0
 2-party19 10 012 10 0
(Typical exchanges are Alexandra, Westport, Marton, and Titahi Bay)3-party18 0 012 0 0
 4-party16 10 011 5 0
 5-party14 0 010 0 0
 6–10 party13 0 09 5 0
Class IV (Other exchanges affording continuous service)Individual21 0 013 10 0
(Typical exchanges are Hokitika, Paekakariki, Picton, and Queenstown)2-party17 10 011 10 0
 3-party16 0 011 0 0
 4-party15 0 010 5 0
 5-party12 15 09 5 0
 6–10 party12 0 08 10 0
Class V (Exchanges observing restricted hours of service)Individual18 0 012 10 0
(Typical exchanges are Kawhia, Lawrence, Mangaweka, and Wanaka)2-party15 5 010 10 0
 3-party14 10 010 0 0
 4-party14 0 09 5 0
 5-party12 0 08 10 0
 6–10 party11 10 08 0 0

For stations located outside the boundary of the base-rate area of an exchange a milage rate is added to the general base-rate-area rental, depending on the distance by line measurement from the base-rate boundary to the respective subscriber's station.

TOLL SERVICE – Toll rates for distances up to 30 miles range from 5d. to 1s. 0 1/2d. for each three minutes or fraction. They are the same day and night. For distances over 30 miles, the rates range from 1s. 7d. to a maximum of 8s. for three minutes' conversation. These rates are increased by approximately one-third of the relative initial rate for each minute exceeding three. Between 6 p.m. and 8 a.m. on weekdays, and between midnight and 6 a.m. on Sundays and departmental holidays, the rates for calls over 40 miles are reduced and vary from 1s. 9d. to 6s. 1d. for three minutes' conversation, with a proportionate increase for each additional minute. Urgent calls are charged at double the rate for an ordinary call.

In addition to station-to-station calls other types of calls accepted are person-to-person, transferred charge, collect, fixed time, and contract. An additional charge is made for the first four mentioned. A reduction is made for contract calls.

OVERSEAS CABLE SERVICES – Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, this cable being duplicated in 1890. Subsequent developments were the opening in 1902 of the Pacific cable between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island, with a connection linking Norfolk Island to Brisbane; the laying of a cable direct between Auckland and Sydney in 1912; shifting of terminals from Wakapuaka to Wellington in 1917; laying a cable direct between Auckland and Suva in 1923, and duplicating the Suva-Canada cable in 1927. In 1929 a merger of British cable and wireless companies resulted in the overseas cable services being brought under the control of one authority (the private company of Cable and Wireless Ltd., with headquarters in London), following which one cable between Wellington and Sydney was abandoned, part of it being lifted for reuse, and the route of the other was altered to terminate at Auckland instead of Wellington. One of the two direct Auckland-Sydney cables later became faulty and has not been repaired, leaving only one direct cable link between Auckland and Sydney. Following upon a conference of representatives of Commonwealth Governments (including New Zealand) held in London in 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets of Cable and Wireless Ltd., in New Zealand, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and by the end of 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. There it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables to provide high quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, and Britain. This cable system will link New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, decreasing its dependence on the less reliable radio circuits; within a few years it will be supplemented by the South-East Asia Communications Cable which will extend the system from Australia via New Guinea and Sabah to Hong Kong and Singapore.

RADIO COMMUNICATION: Government Stations – The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911.

An event of major importance in the development of New Zealand's external telecommunication services was the opening of the Himatangi radio transmitting station in November 1953 thus providing for direct New Zealand - United Kingdom radiotelephone and radiotelegraph circuits. The receiving station complementary to the Himatangi transmitting station is Makara Radio.

The principal stations under the control of the New Zealand Government are at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Rarotonga and Niue in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations are established at certain lighthouses on the New Zealand coast and also on a number of adjacent islands. Marine radio beacons are operated at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Moko Hinau Island, East Cape, Portland Island, Stephens Island, Baring Head, Cape Campbell, The Brothers, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga Radio through small feeder stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Nassau, Palmerston Island, Penrhyn, Pukapuka Island, and Rakahanga. Small stations, in Western Samoa and the Tokelau Islands, at Aleipata, Atafu, Fagamalo, Fakaofo, Falealupo, Mulifanua, Nukunono, Poutasi, Salailua, Sataua, Satupaitea, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia Radio. Niue communicates with Apia Radio, Rarotonga Radio, and Wellington Radio.

By means of the radio stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the last three stations mentioned having direct communication with New Zealand. Direct communication is also available with Chatham Islands, Papeete (Tahiti), Nukualofa (Tonga), Noumea (New Caledonia), London, Sydney, and San Francisco.

Facilities exist for the dispatch of radiotelegrams to vessels at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia.

Other Cable and Radio Services – Telephone communication by cable and radio is now available to 75 countries, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships in New Zealand waters and in the Tasman Sea. International telex service is available from New Zealand to 43 countries. “Telex” is an abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service, which is a customer-to-customer service similar in all respects to the telephone toll service except that the subscribers communicate by means of page-printing teleprinters. The service commenced on 1 September 1960 with 14 subscribers, and there are now 56 subscribers.

The use of mobile radiotelephone services continues to grow. Post Office very-high-frequency service available from 34 base stations meets the mobile communication requirements of 1,121 subscribers operating 7,291 mobile units. A miscellany of private and government owner-operated stations provide mobile radiotelephone service through 1,716 base stations for a further 4,494 mobile units. Radiotelephone services continue to provide essential service for isolated communities which cannot reasonably be reached by landline – e.g., isolated settlers, alpine huts, etc. There is also a free radio-medical service for ships at sea and for lighthouses on the New Zealand coast for use in emergency cases.

Private Stations – Private radio stations are governed by the New Zealand Radio Regulations 1953.

Ordinary radio-receiving licences and television-receiving licences authorise reception from broadcasting stations, and may be obtained at any Post Office Savings Bank on payment of the prescribed fee. Further reference to these licences will be found in Section 12B, Radio and Television Broadcasting.

Licences for amateur stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued only to holders of amateur operators' certificates.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS – The receipts and payments of the Post Office for the latest two financial years are now shown.

      Receipts1961–621962–63

* Net figure – i.e., receipts less payments.

 ££
Postages7,093,6227,608,571
Money-order and postal-note commission114,075115,681
Private box and bag rents and rural-delivery fees170,408157,300
Miscellaneous receipts3,860,6733,865,309
Telegrams1,074,3621,107,101
Tolls7,271,3988,100,280
Telephone-exchange rentals10,386,58311,426,870
Overseas telecommunications399,732*501,097*
Totals30,370,85332,882,209
      Payments1961–621962–63
 ££
Salaries, wages, and allowances16,617,18,931,239
Overtime2,839,8422,742,149
Conveyance of mails—
  Overseas614,178741,584
  Inland1,434,0591,360,586
Maintenance and renewal of telecommunications system677,181783,564
Motor services, workshops, tools and plant1,381,5691,522,342
Post Office buildings658,936749,952
Miscellaneous1,950,9391,985,694
Interest on capital liability3,138,4173,825,656
Sick-benefit Fund44,01543,528
Government Superannuation Fund subsidy463,220479,572
 29,820,17033,165,866
  Less transfers to vote – Telecommunications Development2,171,6732,383,493
Totals27,648,49730,782,373

Receipts and payments for the latest 12 years are shown by the following figures:

Year Ended 31 MarchReceipts £Payments £
195213,081,27613,850,574
195313,705,43314,766,186
195415,991,90815,578,311
195517,995,30816,252,648
195619,071,22217,228,465
195720,545,53019,253,577
195822,740,77721,422,077
195923,370,20621,663,683
196025,221,38823,469,980
196127,162,79225,647,811
196230,370,85327,648,497
196332,882,20930,782,373

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS – Because it has numerous small offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government Departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various Departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts – For the following Departments: Agriculture (inspection fees, etc.), Education (child-welfare receipts and examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, including social security income tax under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (special milage tax on motor vehicles), Public Trust Office, State Advances Corporation (State rents loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation and National Provident Fund receipts).

Payments – Departments of Social Security (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Army, Air, Education (boarding-out orders), Labour (subsidised wage payments and military training medical examination payments), Maori Affairs (Maori trust payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government Superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other Departments), Ministry of Works, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine Department and the Civil Aviation Department on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as Registrars of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, also as Registrars of Electors.

Other activities, not strictly departmental, include the receipt of motor vehicles insurance (third-party risks) premiums under the Transport Act 1949, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting revenue for such outside bodies as the New Zealand Poultry Board, the New Zealand Trade Certification Board, the Armed Forces Canteen Council, and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

STAFF – The large volume and varied nature of the business of the Post Office entails the employment of a large staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. The staff at 31 March 1963 was as follows: Permanent, 22,123, temporary, 4,406 (a number of whom work part-time), non-classified, 438, total, 26,967. In addition there were 751 country postmasters and telephonists who acted as such in conjunction with other pursuits. There were also 32 officers of the Railways Department who acted as postmasters.

VEHICLES – The Post Office fleet consists of 2,966 vehicles – 1,604 trucks, 539 vans, 791 cars, and 32 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 369 vehicles are used for hire to other Departments, 1,970 for engineering construction work, and 627 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 23 million miles in the year ended 31 March 1963.

12 B – RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

INTRODUCTION – Before 1924 interest in radio broadcasting was confined mainly to that small section of the public engaged in the experimental transmission and reception of radio signals. As early as 1921 a system of “provisional permits” was adopted by the Post Office (then the Post and Telegraph Department) by which approved persons were permitted to erect and operate radio transmitting or receiving stations. In January 1923 regulations were gazetted which, on the approval of the District Radio Inspector and the Post Office, provided for the issue of operating licences to applicants furnishing a testimonial of personal character from a reputable citizen and paying the prescribed annual licence fee (5s. in the case of an amateur receiving station). So attractive were the prospects for experiment and entertainment in this field that there were 2,830 licensed amateur receiving stations by 31 March 1924.

By contrast the number of private low-powered broadcasting stations erected and operated was much lower, the development of this type of station being retarded chiefly through lack of funds. To ease the plight of broadcasting station operators and at the same time ensure reasonable performance standards, regulations taking effect from 1 April 1925 were gazetted increasing the annual receiving licence fee to £1 10s. and providing, amongst other things, for subsidy payments to broadcasting stations. These regulations also empowered the Minister of Telegraphs to contract with others to provide a broadcasting service in terms of a station in each of the four main centres. Details of the power and duration of transmission of these stations, a minimum of 12 hours weekly, excluding Sunday, and provision of a silent night each week, were also set out in the regulations.

Radio-broadcasting Company – The initial development of broadcasting on a Dominion-wide basis was confirmed by the agreement of the Radio-broadcasting Company of New Zealand on 1 August 1925 to establish and maintain an efficient broadcasting service for a definite period. The company purchased existing stations in the four main centres and began operation of its new stations at Auckland and Christchurch in August – September 1926. Stations at Wellington and Dunedin followed soon after. By the end of 1931 the number of receiving licences in the country had risen to about 70,000.

New Zealand Broadcasting Board – With the expiry of the Radio-broadcasting Company's contract in January 1932, control of the broadcasting service, under the Broadcasting Act 1931, was vested in the New Zealand Broadcasting Board. Existing plant was purchased from the company for the sum of £58,646, this sum being advanced by way of a loan from the Post Office.

One of the first actions of the Broadcasting Board was the setting up of a Commission to investigate broadcast coverage. As a result, the location of the four main station transmitters was changed and their power increased to improve reception throughout the country.

New Zealand Broadcasting Service – The Broadcasting Act 1936 abolished the New Zealand Broadcasting Board and vested control of the newly constituted National Broadcasting Service in a Minister of the Crown. Administration of the service was placed in the hands of a Director of Broadcasting, appointed by the Governor-General in Council. Permanent officers previously employed by the board became officers of the Public Service from 1 July 1936.

By the 1936 Act the Minister of Broadcasting was empowered also to establish and operate commercial radio stations broadcasting advertising matter. The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1937 provided for the establishment of a National Commercial Broadcasting Service which existed separately until it was abolished under section 4 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1943. On 26 August 1943 the two services were combined under the Director of Broadcasting.

The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1960 provided for the establishment of a television service to be operated by the Minister in Charge of Broadcasting in association with the existing broadcasting service.

NEW ZEALAND BROADCASTING CORPORATION – The Broadcasting Corporation Act 1961 repealed all previous legislation and established a Corporation of three members empowered from 1 April 1962 to take over and operate the existing service. Apart from this the Act provides that the Corporation may, after considering the services already available in any locality, call for applications and make recommendations to the Minister of Broadcasting on the granting of warrants for the establishment and operation of private broadcasting and television stations. The Corporation will exercise a continuing function of supervising and controlling programmes broadcast by any stations so licensed. The chairman of the Corporation is Dr F. J. Llewellyn, who is also chairman of the University Grants Committee.

RADIO – There are in New Zealand 39 medium-wave broadcasting stations and two short-wave transmitters of Radio New Zealand, the latter having 19 assigned frequencies. Two of the medium-wave stations (2XM and 4XD) are privately owned and operate with the assistance of a subsidy from the Broadcasting Account. Of those remaining, 21 stations – shown with an asterisk in the following list – broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays or on Christmas Day, Good Friday, or Anzac Day. Station 2YA maintains a daily 24-hour service apart from a shut-down once a week between the hours of 11.20 p.m. Sunday and 5 a.m. Monday.

A complete list of medium-wave stations follows.

MEDIUM-WAVE STATIONS
Call Sign and LocalityRadiated PowerFrequencyNormal Hours of Transmission per Week

*Broadcasts advertising material.

†Operates when 2YA broadcasts the proceedings of the House of Representatives.

 kilowattskilocyclesh min
1XA, Kaitaia*2.001,440116 30
1XE, Kaikohe*2.001,220116 30
1XN, Whangarei*2.00970116 30
1YA, Auckland20.00760121 20
1YC, Auckland10.0088042 0
1ZB, Auckland*10.001,070126 0
1YD, Auckland*2.001,25090 0
1ZD, Tauranga*10.001,00086 0
1XH, Hamilton*2.001,310123 30
1YW, Hamilton2.001,140121 20
1YZ, Rotorua10.00800108 30
1ZC, Rotorua*2.501,35086 0
2XG, Gisborne*2.001,010116 30
2XP, New Plymouth*2.001,370116 30
2YZ, Napier5.00860108 30
2ZC, Napier*2.001,280123 30
2XA, Wanganui*2.001,200116 30
2ZA, Palmerston North*2.00940123 30
2XB, Masterton*2.00840100 0
2YA, Wellington100.00570162 20
2YC, Wellington60.0066042 0
2YX, Wellington2.001,400
2ZB, Wellington*20.00980126 0
2YD, Wellington*2.001,13083 0
2XN, Nelson*2.001,340116 30
3YW, Westport2.001,460114 30
3YZ, Greymouth10.00920114 30
3YA, Christchurch20.00690121 20
3YC, Christchurch10.0096042 0
3ZB, Christchurch*10.001,100126 0
3YD, Christchurch*2.0063083 0
3XC, Timaru*2.001,160116 30
4YX, Alexandra2.00640122 0
4YA, Dunedin20.00780121 20
4YC, Dunedin10.0090042 0
4ZB, Dunedin*10.001,040126 0
4XD, Dunedin0.251,43014 0
4YZ, Invercargill5.00720114 20
4ZA, Invercargill*10.00820123 30

Of the two short-wave transmitters employed by Radio New Zealand, each has a power of 7.50 kilowatts, and frequencies used are in the 6, 9, 11, 15, and 17 megacycle bands. Frequencies are adjusted throughout the day as well as seasonally to give best reception in the target areas, 15.28, and 11.78 megacycles being commonly used for daily transmissions of the home service programme, and the additional one of 6.08 megacycles being employed for transmissions of special evening programmes to the Pacific islands and Australia. Broadcasting hours amount to approximately 15 1/2 hours daily to the Pacific islands and 12 1/2 hours daily to Australia.

Coverage of Medium-wave Service – The basic function of medium-wave stations in the programme coverage of New Zealand is as follows:

  1. Stations 1YA, 2YA, 3YA, 4YA, 1YZ, 2YZ, 3YZ, and 4YZ broadcast non-advertising programmes to listeners throughout the country.

  2. Stations 1YC, 2YC, 3YC 4YC and 2YX provide alternative non-advertising programmes to those of the YA and YZ stations in (a) but with slightly less extensive coverage.

  3. Stations 1ZB, 2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB, 1XH, 2ZC, 2ZA, 4ZA, 1YD, 2YD, 3YD, 1ZD, 1ZC, and 2XB present advertising programmes mainly of a light character, coverage being comparable with stations listed in (a).

  4. Stations 1XN, 2XG, 2XP, 2XA, 2XN, and 3XC serve the immediate locality of the centres in which they operate and present advertising and non-advertising programmes during specified hours. Within their coverage range these stations give alternative programmes to those provided by stations listed in (a), (b), and (c).

  5. Stations 1XA, 1XE, 1YW, 3YW, and 4YX are satellite stations rebroadcasting for local reception the programmes of more distant stations with which they are linked.

Coverage of Short-wave Service – Radio New Zealand broadcasts to the Pacific islands a daily home-service programme from 5 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 6 p.m. to 8.45 p.m. on two frequencies. Its transmission to Australia comprises a daily home-service programme from 8 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 9 p.m. to 11.45 p.m. on two frequencies. In addition to its large radio audience throughout the Pacific, Radio New Zealand has listeners as far distant as the United Kingdom, Sweden, France, the United States, and Japan. Radio New Zealand programmes illustrate many different aspects of life in this country.

National Programmes – Programmes from national non-commercial stations include, as well as all types of music, plays, short stories, serials, sports commentaries and results, talks, documentaries, women's programmes, children's educational and entertainment programmes, news and devotional programmes.

All proceedings of the House of Representatives are broadcast from Station 2YA. During broadcasts of Parliament the scheduled programmes of Station 2YA are broadcast by Station 2YC, and those of Station 2YC transmitted by Station 2YX.

Time signals from the New Zealand Time Service are broadcast every day from Station 2YA or 2YC. The signals take the form of a series of six “dots” at intervals of one second, the last “dot” denoting the exact minute. Fuller details of this time service may be obtained from the article published in Section 40 (Miscellaneous) of this Yearbook.

Commercial Programmes – Commercial stations broadcast music, serials, variety and quiz programmes, sports commentaries and results, children's and women's programmes, news and other spoken programmes.

A brief historical outline of the commercial stations is given in the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

TELEVISION – The relatively high cost of establishing television in New Zealand has been the main reason for the delay in providing this service. Few countries of such a small population are so isolated and beyond the reach of the stimuli and assistance which arise from telecasts in a neighbouring country, with opportunities for sharing programmes, relays, and so on. In addition, the hilly terrain in some parts of the country presents difficulties in the attainment of a comprehensive coverage.

However, in August 1958 the Postmaster-General and the Minister of Broadcasting jointly announced that, on a recommendation of the Inter-departmental Committee on Television (established in 1949) and with the advice of the New Zealand Radio and Television Manufacturers Federation, it had been decided to establish the 625 line system as the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made on such matters as the likely coverage of TV transmitters, the determination of suitable transmitter sites, the provision of a TV coverage plan, and the relative suitability of different operating frequencies. Channel 2 Auckland, which was originally opened in 1959 as an experimental television station, began its regular programme service on 1 June 1960 with a weekly two-hour transmission. By November 1960 the hours of telecasting had increased to two and a half each evening, Monday to Friday. On 1 January 1961 telecasting on seven nights a week began.

Television stations commenced transmissions in Christchurch on 1 June 1961, Wellington on 1 July 1961, and in Dunedin on 31 July 1962.

Television Programmes – Film purchased overseas makes up a substantial portion of TV programmes. Nevertheless all stations are active in the exploitation of New Zealand news and talent as much as possible. An analysis of TV programmes for a week in May 1962 showed that of the total hours then telecast 35.9 per cent were devoted to news, talks, and information programmes (including religion), 5.3 per cent to variety, 10.2 per cent to drama, 12.3 per cent to comedy, 12.9 per cent to adventure and westerns, 11.5 per cent to mystery and crime, and 11.9 per cent to children's programmes. From the beginning of 1963 the pattern of programme interest has been markedly affected by the use of three mobile outside broadcast units.

Extensions to coverage – The Corporation is currently surveying for transmitter sites to extend TV coverage to other densely populated areas of New Zealand. These additional transmitters will relay existing stations.

As a temporary measure, the Corporation has laid down a policy whereby it will license low-power translators to serve fringe-area localities until permanent high-power regional transmitters are operating. The arrangement is that the Corporation takes out the transmitting licence and comes to an agreement with a non-profit society of local interested persons to provide the translator equipment and to maintain it.

Details of television broadcasting stations in operation at the four main centres are as follows.

TELEVISION STATIONS
Call Sign and Location of StudioRadiated PowerFrequencyNormal Hours of Transmission per Week
VisionSoundVisionSound
 kilowatts megacycles hr min
AK TV 2, Auckland10.02.055.2560.7535 0
WN TV 1, Wellington10.02.045.2550.7535 0
CH TV 3, Christchurch10.02.062.2567.7535 0
DN TV 2, Dunedin1.00.2555.2560.7535 0

The hours of telecasting are from 6.00 p.m. to 11.00 p.m. each evening from Monday to Saturday, and from 5.30 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. on Sunday. Advertising content is included on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday evenings and from 8.30 p.m. to 11.00 p.m. on Wednesday, all other programmes being non-commercial.

ORCHESTRAS: Symphony Orchestra – Formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra, this is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished soloists from other countries and choral groups appear regularly with the Orchestra, and free concerts for school children are an established part of its tour programme.

Concert Orchestra – A concert orchestra was formed in 1962 to support national and local musical organisations and to provide orchestral music for the smaller communities outside the touring schedule of the Symphony Orchestra. It has an establishment of 25 players.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER – Programmes and advance information for all radio and television stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The Listener also publishes interviews, talks and discussions, fiction, poetry and criticism. It gives much attention to the arts and to the broader aspects of life in New Zealand.

Financial Statistics – The following tables show the financial results of the principal activities of the New Zealand Broadcasting Service for three financial years, and the first year of operation of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

Item1959–601960–611961–621962–63

NOTE – Minus sign (-) indicates an excess of expenditure over revenue.

*Includes television (£12,256 in 1960–61, £54,133 in 1961–62, £45,562 in 1962–63).

      Non-commercial Activities
National radio –££££
  Expenditure on programmes182,725213,730231,478215,359
  General administrative and running expenses587,571647,879673,401645,797
  Post Office charges for licence fee collection111,932115,819124,00070,101
  Depreciation135,504119,372121,332185,218
 1,017,7321,096,8001,150,2111,116,475
  Less recovery from commercial radio for provision of technical facilities and services128,080*138,944*179,738*117,425
Net expenditure889,652957,856970,473999,050
Revenue922,989954,9531,000,837958,319
    Balance of revenue over expenditure33,337-2,90330,364-40,731
National television –
    Expenditure on programmes14,90686,492131,160
    General administrative and running expenses3,02229,728126,322269,124
    Post Office charges for licence fee collection1,1506,43710,355
    Provision of technical facilities and services2736,12827,06622,781
    Net expenditure3,29551,912246,317433,420
    Revenue32,489155,845525,536
    Balance of revenue over expenditure-3,295-19,423-90,47292,116
      Total surplus non-commercial activities30,042-22,326-60,10851,385
      Commercial Activities
Commercial radio –
    Expenditure on programmes141,616147,784185,191202,398
    General administrative and running expenses928,8501,036,2821,120,7561,372,480
    Provision of technical facilities and services128,080126,688125,60571,863
    Net expenditure1,198,5461,310,7541,431,5521,646,741
    Revenue1,646,3161,767,0181,997,4332,139,378
    Net surplus before tax447,770456,264565,881492,637
Commercial television –
    Expenditure on programmes14,90582,786131,364
    General administrative and running expenses30,878213,995385,631
    Provision of technical facilities and services6,12827,06722,781
    Net expenditure51,911323,848539,776
    Revenue919394,275521,710
    Net surplus before tax or deficit-50,99270,427-18,066
New Zealand Listener
    Printing, publishing, and distribution costs73,82375,48599,457108,147
    General administrative and running expenses38,16840,52451,99852,565
    Net expenditure111,991116,009151,455160,712
    Revenue118,207118,664143,656144,393
    Net surplus before tax6,2162,655-7,799-16,319
  Total net surplus before tax453,986407,927628,509458,252
  Provision for taxation225,345205,493313,814228,574
  Net surplus after tax228,641202,434314,695229,678
  Orchestra and concert activities –
    Net expenditure160,541144,474169,019226,975
      Less concert proceeds68,50237,50652,42160,649
      Balance of expenditure92,039106,968116,598166,326
      Summary
  Non-commercial activities surplus30,042-22,326-60,10851,385
Commercial activities surplus228,641202,434314,695229,678
 258,683180,108254,587281,063
    Less concert activities92,039106,968116,598166,326
  Net surplus166,64473,140137,989114,737

In the table for national radio the amount recovered from commercial activities on account of provision of technical services provides for Head Office engineering overhead and services, allowance for depreciation on assets in use commercially, and share of the costs of interference suppression and frequency measurement. From 1962–63 this charge relates only to use of assets.

There are two principal sources of revenue, radio and television-licence fees and radio and television advertising. While licence fee revenue is credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, a common fund is in fact operated, all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. However, the commercial surplus is subject to taxation without set-off from any deficit arising from the non-commercial activities, and the Symphony Orchestra and concert presentation.

Revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest four financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1959–601960–611961–621962–63
 ££££
Radio-licence fees857,053886,915950,220912,778
TV-licence fees32,489155,845523,169
Radio advertising1,526,5861,643,3911,875,1702,026,707
TV advertising393,758513,476
Totals2,383,6392,562,7953,374,9933,976,130

Licence Statistics – The licence fee for a receiving station is £1 10s. a year.

A licence issued for a radio receiving station situated in a family residence is sufficient in respect of all radio receivers in that residence other than those owned and used by subtenants or lodgers occupying part of the premises in the residence.

Free licences are issued to blind persons and institutions for the blind, as well as to public hospitals and orphan and other charitable institutions where radio or television receivers are used for the benefit of patients or inmates. Free licence privileges are also extended to the operation of radio or television sets in schools for educational broadcast purposes. The total number of free licences issued for each of the last five years, at 31 March, was: 1959, 2,932; 1960, 2,992; 1961, 3,134; 1962, 3,188; and 1963, 3,366.

A penalty is attached to the operating of unlicensed radio or television apparatus. Requirements with respect to licences are set out in the Radio Regulations 1953.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonCanterburyOtagoNew Zealand TotalLicences per Hundred of Population
1953173,008169,91885,41563,515491,85624.4
1954178,499171,93887,01864,301501,75624.8
1955183,812173,83687,75363,542508,94323.88
1956188,775176,13687,94564,296517,15223.76
1957191,138175,63888,17764,825519,77823.40
1958206,755184,85390,27967,420549,30724.4
1959215,242189,16393,68269,077567,16424.38
1960219,918193,19793,94470,344577,40324.36
1961224,491193,62597,49271,437587,04524.32
1962224,739202,701101,67372,428601,54124.28
1963227,745207,348102,03673,601610,73024.1

A summary of radio licences in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1963 follows.

DistrictReceiving LicencesRadio DealersPrivate ExperimentalOtherTotal Licences
AmateurResearch
Auckland227,7451,2151,1298864230,241
Wellington207,3481,0091,1517259209,639
Christchurch102,0365515391525103,166
Dunedin73,601395304222574,347
Totals610,7303,1703,123197173617,393

A summary of television licences in force in New Zealand follows. The licence fee is £6 10s. a year.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinOther CentresTotal Licensed Sets in New ZealandNumber of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences
19614,8084,808211
196214,3024,0414,784421223,343842
196340,92115,04815,3743,6496,84781,8395,976
196468,05228,40126,5529,87734,862167,74413,558

12 C – NEWSPAPERS, LIBRARIES, CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS – There are eight daily newspapers in the four main metropolitan areas with a total circulation of 707,000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are 32 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 287,000. Non-daily newspapers have a circulation of 904,000.

When circulation figures for daily newspapers are related to population figures, it is found that New Zealand has 387 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. The latest comparative figures for other countries include United Kingdom, 514; Australia, 358; Canada, 231; United States, 326; U.S.S.R., 172; Sweden, 462; Norway, 377; Denmark, 353; and France, 252. (Source: UN Compendium of Social Statistics: 1963.)

Statistics compiled from various sources disclose that from 1840 to 1940 altogether 468 newspapers (of all categories) were established in New Zealand. The acceleration of motor transport had a speedy and decisive effect on the small-town press. Many local papers which, by publishing once, twice, or three times a week, had been serving adequately the needs of a district and backblocks were unable to survive when the city papers were able to reach remote settlements within a few hours of publication, offering to country dwellers such superior attractions as daily publication, full services of New Zealand and world news, sporting news, and attractive magazine features. Under the steady pressure of competition, mergers were effected in a number of provincial towns to reduce the quota of papers, generally to a single daily.

The circulation of all periodicals is not known, but for 114 periodicals (not including two national weeklies classified as newspapers) the circulation is 1,592,000. (These statistics are compiled from information gathered by the Association of New Zealand Advertisers.)

The total number of magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals published (but not necessarily all sold) in 1961–62 was 18,014,000.

Advertising – The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table, along with the selling value of the newspapers and periodicals at the factory door.

Type of PublicationAdvertising RevenueSelling Value
1960–611961–621960–611961–62
 ££££
Newspapers, daily9,712,83410,097,7662,716,8872,807,559
Newspapers other than daily726,189748,3271,021,9111,018,980
Magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals272,421307,907364,482372,727

LIBRARIES – New Zealand is fairly well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a well developed system of inter-library cooperation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of interlibrary loans.

National Library Service – The establishment of a National Library Service by the Minister of Education in 1945 followed a recommendation by the New Zealand Library Association. The National Library Service has four divisions – the Country Library Service, the School Library Service, the National Library Centre, and the Library School.

Country Library Service – The Country Library Service, founded in 1938 under the control of the Minister of Education, has been extended through district offices in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15,000, loans are made from book vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the four main centres, receive assistance under certain conditions. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of £3 for 50 changed three times a year to form their own small local libraries. Eight specially equipped vans, each carrying 1,600–2,000 books, including novels and books on many subjects, travel over the whole territory. Visits are arranged to allow libraries of boroughs and county groups to make their own exchanges every four months. In between visits, books are sent by post from the headquarters and district offices to libraries requesting them. Hampers of books are sent to isolated groups of readers who cannot be reached by van.

Librarians are encouraged to visit the offices of the Country Library Service to see the range of books available and to discuss problems of administration. On visits of book vans, field librarians help to keep librarians in touch with developments in service. During times of reorganisation, assistance in staffing is given. In this way local authorities are helped and encouraged to meet the minimum standards for public libraries participating in the Country Library Service.

Free public libraries which extend their service to general hospitals in their area receive special collections of books for the use of patients. A library service is given to lighthouses, and a service to Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, and New Zealand Forest Service camps has been given since 1949. Tuberculosis patients in sanatoria and in tuberculosis wards of general hospitals are served from a special collection of books built up to meet their particular needs. Psychiatric hospitals receive collections of books which are exchanged regularly. Prisons and borstal institutions receive books and change them on the four-monthly visits of the travelling book vans.

The number of libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1963 was as follows: free libraries, 132; subscription libraries, 930; groups, 26; Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, and New Zealand Forest Service camps, 61; tuberculosis sanatoria, 6; psychiatric hospitals, 13; hospitals, 31; prisons and borstal institutions, 14.

School Library Service – The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development, and arranging for their distribution and circulation to schools. It thus supplements the library resources of individual schools from its large pool stocks of books.

Services at present available can be broadly defined as: (i) general exchanges of books; (ii) an information and request service; (iii) assistance to schools in organising their books for use; and (iv) the provision of book lists.

By constant scanning of the output of printed material, by long-term buying plans, and by the regular publication of book lists, the service has set standards of book selection and coverage, and brings to the notice of those concerned the worth-while books appropriate for their purpose.

National Library Centre – The National Library Centre's main functions, developed in conjunction with the Book Resources Committee of the New Zealand Library Association, are concerned with the national system of interlibrary loan and various associated bibliographical projects. The National Union Catalogue, now containing over half a million entries, is a record of the whereabouts in New Zealand libraries of the country's holdings of non-fiction. Work on the retrospective completion of the union catalogue, apart from current maintenance, is still continuing. The Union List of Serials available also in published form, is a similar record of the serials, including periodicals, held in the major libraries in the country. The Centre maintains a retrospective and current National Bibliography of all New Zealand publications and a central cataloguing procedure for current publications. The headquarters collection of the service, maintained by the Centre as a national lending collection, now amounts to about 185,000 volumes. The Centre in conjunction with the New Zealand Library Association endeavours to ensure the availability in the country of at least one copy of all books of consequence in the English language. In the case of expensive sets there are ways of ensuring in marginal cases that only one is acquired and alternatively attempts are made to obtain one set or copy of out of print material necessary for research. The Centre acts also as the purchasing agent for Government Departments operating within the Public Account.

Library School – The New Zealand Library School offers a professional course to those holding university degrees or with equivalent education leading respectively to the diploma or the certificate of the New Zealand Library School. The course lasts from March to December. The possession of either qualification, followed by three years' satisfactory work in libraries, entitles a librarian to apply for the Associateship of the New Zealand Library Association. The school was established in 1946, and 315 students had been given professional training by the end of 1963. Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of teachers' training colleges. Since 1952, Part Two of the New Zealand Library Association's General Training Course has been carried out by a five weeks' course at the school. Facilities for training are offered to students sponsored by UNESCO and by countries participating in the Colombo Plan.

Beginning in 1960, the New Zealand Library School has published numbers in its Bibliographical Series and Studies in Library Administration.

In 1961 a study group was convened by the school on free and rental policy in public libraries; and the papers prepared, together with a report of the meeting, have also been published by the school.

Census of Libraries, 1959 – The quinquennial census of libraries was taken for the year ended 31 March 1959. The census covered a total of 286 libraries comprising three national libraries, 21 university libraries (including the libraries of other institutions of higher education), 98 special libraries, and 164 public libraries. This census differed from the previous one taken in 1954 when only public libraries were included.

There is no comprehensive national library in New Zealand, but the three libraries listed as national libraries – the General Assembly Library, the Alexander Turnbull Library, and the National Library Service – perform most of the functions of a national library.

The university libraries (including other institutions of higher education) comprised the libraries of the four universities with six libraries in close association, the libraries of six teachers' training colleges, the libraries of the two university colleges of agriculture, together with one library closely associated, and the libraries of two theological colleges.

The special libraries were, for the purpose of this census, divided into (a) libraries of learned societies, etc., and of commercial interests and (b) libraries of Government Departments. There were 22 libraries in the former category and 76 in the latter.

Public libraries (those controlled or largely supported by a local authority) showed an increase of 26 over the 1954 census – 164 as against 138.

The following are summarised tables of the results of the 1959 census. Full details have been published in a separate report dealing with this subject, prepared by the Department of Statistics.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES – BOOK STOCK AND CIRCULATION
Class of LibraryNumber of LibraryBook Stock at 31 March 1959Circulation During Year
BooksSerialsPamphletsTotalItems Lent Outside the Library*Items Lent to Other Libraries*Items Borrowed From Other Libraries*

*Items include books, serials, and pamphlets.

†Total does not balance as in some instances information was incomplete.

National libraries3983,76627,00880,2481,091,02231,286120,2785,173
University libraries21406,97291,92691,403818,189296,5095,2755,418
Special libraries–
  Learned societies, etc.22113,69552,51425,872225,94332,8811,2191,175
  Government Departments76361,162321,774424,1931,110,004348,9586,97417,801
    Totals, special libraries98474,857374,288450,0651,335,947381,8398,19318,976
      Grand totals1221,865,595493,222621,7163,245,158709,634133,74629,567
PUBLIC LIBRARIES – BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1959
Public Libraries in Areas With a Population of –Number of LibrariesOwn StockFor Reference Only (Included in Own Stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJunior
Pay CollectionFree FictionFree Non-fictionFictionNon-fiction

*Total does not balance as one library gave total only.

50,000 and over21104,204307,107545,692107,71046,8321,111,54556,6251,18916,102
20,000 and under 50,0001139,014107,712180,61154,84220,472402,65122,3055,78310,516
10,000 and under 20,0001234,71635,43061,08426,9075,150163,2872,72017,8647,698
3,000 and under 10,00050109,84691,82857,64735,5245,860311,705*3,57828,67610,652
Under 3,0007081,66590,34035,34717,4773,322228,1512,86031,0258,300
Totals164369,445632,417880,381242,46081,6362,217,339*88,08884,53753,268
PUBLIC LIBRARIES – BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE
Public Libraries in Areas With a Population of –Number of LibrariesOwn StockCountry Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed From Other Libraries
Pay CollectionFree FictionFree Non-fictionPeriodicals

*Total does not balance as in some instances information was incomplete.

50,000 and over211,748,5681,466,6141,137,945422,4981,265,9766,041,6014,890115,2641,9765,196
20,000 and under 50,00011730,2661,269,168514,918130,228708,7163,353,29627,77341,7984624,208
10,000 and under 20,00012666,002436,404358,67686,178400,3071,947,56760,84939,357236,584
3,000 and under 10,000501,065,150583,767372,76962,189381,4842,465,359142,58185,7423259,325
Under 3,00070704,312338,997123,11521,887159,8291,353,864*161,99358,0581837,467
Totals1644,914,2984,094,9502,507,423722,9802,916,31215,161,687*398,086340,2192,96932,780
NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES – FINANCE FOR YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1959 
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesReceiptsExpenditure
Grants from Controlling AuthorityOther ReceiptsTotal ReceiptsSalaries and WagesBooks and PeriodicalsOther Library MaterialOther Operating ExpensesCapital ExpensesValue by Gift and ExchangeTotal Expenditure
  ££££££££££
National libraries3158,6511,485160,136112,09256,4981,6448,097..8,330186,661
University libraries2171,2649,00580,26969,64854,6602,05412,12229,8998,990177,373
Special libraries– 
    Learned societies, etc.2217,2344,96122,1959,6669,6972792,5471,8074,90828,904
    Government Departments7661,27326,26587,53885,62754,4404669,956..10,041160,530
      Totals, special libraries9878,50731,226109,73395,29364,13774512,5031,80714,949189,434
Grand totals122308,42241,716350,138277,033175,2954,44332,72231,70632,269553,468
PUBLIC LIBRARIES – FINANCE FOR YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1959
Libraries in Areas With a Population of–Number of LibrariesAmount Levied for Library PurposesReceiptsExpenditure
Grants from Controlling AuthorityOther ReceiptsTotal ReceiptsSalaries and WagesBooks and PeriodicalsOther Operating ExpensesTotal Operating ExpensesSpecial Works and Capital ExpenditureTotal Expenditure
  ££££££££££
50,000 and over21282,679291,66178,180369,841172,38280,30190,353343,03625,614368,650
20,000 and under 50,0001132,83063,04844,922107,97057,63232,47217,760107,8644,935112,799
10,000 and under 20,0001231,71243,77319,80263,57531,35819,01612,76063,1343,07566,209
3,000 and under 10,0005029,66476,14534,194110,33936,71027,18412,65376,54734,223110,770
Under 3,0007013,25522,58123,25445,83518,35716,4206,58841,3653,10744,472
Totals164390,140497,208200,352697,560316,439175,393140,114631,94670,954702,900

International Statistics on Libraries – The following tables compiled from published UNESCO statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers and book circulation. (Source: Statistics on Libraries, UNESCO, 1959.)

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearType of DataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecial

*Estimated.

†In 1949.

‡In 1955.

§Books and pamphlets only. This library's holdings total 35,332,000 documents.

New Zealand2.31959Libraries32198
   Volumes (000)1,0918181,336
Australia901954Libraries111350*
   Volumes (000)4001,319..
Canada14.81953Libraries1268332
   Volumes (000)..7,6304,232
South Africa12.91952Libraries224..
   Volumes (000)598975..
United Kingdom51.21956Libraries8458858*
   Volumes(000)9,64819,19013,654*
United States of America168.21956Libraries11,832..
   Volumes (000)10,77§125,000..
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes

*Estimated.

†For 100 libraries only.

‡Number of public library systems operating 31,957 service points.

    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand2.319591642,21749215,162
Australia9.01954320*3,340*..5,264
Canada14.819537658,4051,672..
South Africa12.919523333,29832510,230
United Kingdom51.2195657363,40013,570398,730
United States of America168.219567,500157,22425,361348,606

CINEMAS – Statistics relating to cinemas are normally collected every alternate year. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion-picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item “Rent” under “Theatre expenditure” does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings from 1938–39 (the first year these statistics were collected) to the latest collection.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsAverage Admission Price*Admissions Per Head of Mean Population

*Including amusement tax.

  (000)£££d.No.
1938–3957629,8091,893,61746,8381,846,77915.218.5
1939–4057431,1712,009,66253,7831,955,87915.519.
1940–4157231,4922,107,44358,1462,049,29716.19.3
1941–4254831,2182,133,52369,7992,063,72416.419.
1942–4352334,0342,421,05887,6092,333,44917.20.8
1943–4452538,2572,803,086121,1692,681,91717.623.4
1944–4555135,5202,588,111110,2412,477,87017.521.3
1945–4656836,9662,817,646131,1992,686,44718.321.6
1947–4857034,0782,634,730123,0342,511,69618.618.9
1949–5060036,3532,789,696135,6842,654,01218.419.3
1951–5258936,3423,131,550205,4672,926,08320.718.6
1953–5458237,3683,679,540300,4443,379,09623.618.
1956–5757837,5964,482,651369,9584,112,69328.617.
1958–5954738,2084,850,483425,4344,425,04930.516.6
1960–6154540,6325,395,899476,2304,919,66931.917.0
1962–6349137,5845,067,672439,7794,627,89332.415.0

The survey for the year ended 31 March 1963 revealed that there were only 491 theatres, compared with 545 in 1961, at the time of the preceding survey.

Cinema attendances in New Zealand during the year 1962–63 were 3 million fewer than when the previous survey was made in 1960–61. Total paid admissions in the North Island dropped from 29.7 million to 27.4 million, while in the South Island attendances fell from 10.9 million to 10.2 million. The average number of admissions per head of mean population fell from 17 in 1960–61 to 15 in the latest survey.

The following statistics for the last three collections cover the operations of all classes of cinemas – viz, (a) those operating six days per week; (b) those operating on odd days per week; (c) circuit, or itinerant operators.

Item1958–591960–611962–63
Cinemas –
    Screening six days per week206217204
    Screening odd days per week298294254
    Circuit433433
Totals547545491
Cinemas according to seating accommodation –
  Other than circuits –
    Under 200899270
    200 and under 500206206170
    500 and under 1,000170179184
    1,000 and under 1,500282525
    Over 1,5001199
Circuit cinemas433433
Totals547545491
Seating accommodation (all cinemas) – 1958–591960–611962–63
    Seats, under 2s. (excluding amusement tax)No.63,86757,13556,970
    Seats, 2s. and under 3s. (excluding amusement tax)No.144,656147,866132,711
    Seats, 3s. and under 4s. (excluding amusement tax)No.34,19535,48438,842
    Seats, 4s. and over (excluding amusement tax)No.14,96516,72217,838
TotalsNo.257,683257,207246,361
Item 1958–591960–611962–63
Number of paid admissionsNo.(000)38,20840,63237,584
Average admission charge (including amusement tax)d.30.531.932.4
Admissions per head of mean populationNo.16.617.015.0
Number of performances for yearNo.155,273162,006155,546
Average attendance per performanceNo.246251242
Average seating capacity per hallNo.471472502
Average number of screenings per week –
  Cinemas –
    Screening six days per weekNo.11.011.311.5
    Screening odd days per weekNo.2.22.22.4
    CircuitNo.1.31.01.3
Persons engaged –
  Full time – MalesNo.550547595
      FemalesNo.444441475
  Part time – MalesNo.1,0831,1071,012
      FemalesNo.1,5241,6511,522
TotalsNo.3,6013,7463,604
Item1958–591960–611962–63

*Includes drawings of working proprietors.

Revenue – £(000) 
    Admission receipts (including amusement tax)4,8505,3965,068
    Screen advertising135150212
    Other receipts119112154
Totals5,1045,6585,434
Expenditure –
    Salaries and wages*1,0811,2011,166
    Film hire1,3191,4501,383
    Advertising324344359
    Amusement tax425476440
    Rent361368384
    Repairs and maintenance180222165
    Depreciation161162133
    Other expenses517688833
Totals4,3684,9104,862

Classification by Statistical Areas – The following two tables show some of the principal statistics of cinemas for 1962–63 by statistical areas. It will be noticed that admissions in North Island districts are higher per person than in the South Island, with the notable exception of Westland. In total, attendances in the North Island represented 15.5 visits a year to the cinema for every member of the population as against 13.4 visits in the South Island. The popularity of the cinema is most pronounced on the West Coast. Admissions per person in the Westland statistical area were 20.4, far exceeding those of other districts, and approximately 36 per cent higher than the average attendance for New Zealand.

Statistical AreaPopulation 1 April 1963Number of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per head of PopulationGross Admission Takings

*Based on mean population in this case.

   No. of Seats(000)d.No.£(000)
Northland88,9003712,1231,12427.812.6130
Central Auckland551,5468651,8377,92936.814.41,217
South Auckland –
    Bay of Plenty370,1008236,7275,74429.215.5698
East Coast47,100115,18283327.917.797
Hawke's Bay120,2002611,0791,99930.016.6250
Taranaki102,4002311,5151,65228.416.195
Wellington494,9007347,1138,15132.216.51,092
Marlborough23,80072,84340431.214.053
Nelson65,500187,28694628.414.4112
Westland24,800145,70050529.620.462
Canterbury359,8735927,7484,59735.012.8670
Otago181,3003318,3042,31934.12.8329
Southland98,000228,9041,38228.14.162
Totals2,533,419491246,36137,58432.415.0*5,068
Statistical AreaAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Net Admission TakingsNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 £(000)£(000)£(000)Per CentNo.No.No.
Northland101203025.36,788166327
Central Auckland1021,11434330.733,481237603
South Auckland – Bay of Plenty5364516425.423,923240448
East Coast8892831.53,178262471
Hawke's Bay222287633.57,892253426
Taranaki171785128.46,974237501
Wellington9999430230.431,905255645
Marlborough5481021.82,010201406
Nelson101023231.24,173227405
Westland6571628.02,695187407
Canterbury6360719131.518,425250470
Otago322989331.49,063256555
Southland141484631.35,039274405
      Totals4404,6281,38329.9155,546242502

Classification by Urban Areas – Statistics have been prepared for the principal urban areas for the latest year and are shown in the next table. The Hutt urban area has been included with Wellington for the purposes of these statistics.

This table shows that admissions per head of population are nearly 13 per cent higher in Wellington and Auckland than the two South Island urban areas of Christchurch and Dunedin. On the other hand, average admission charges are higher in the South Island, as is the average attendance per performance.

Seating accommodation of cinemas as a proportion of population shows Wellington to have one cinema seat for each 10.2 persons. Auckland and Dunedin come next equal with one seat for every 11.0 persons, while Christchurch is relatively low with only one seat for every 15.1 persons. Dunedin has the largest average attendance per performance and then follow Christchurch, Wellington, and Auckland.

Urban AreasPopulation 1 April 1963Number of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of PopulationGross Admission Takings
 (000)No.No. of Seats(000)No.d.No.£(000)
Auckland4825643,7387,42817037.415.41,157
Wellington (including Hutt)2613625,5164,63418234.817.8672
Christchurch2332215,3663,24021137.213.9502
Dunedin107119,7791,63016737.915.2257
  Totals 1,08312594,39916,93317936.715.62,589
Urban AreasAmusement TaxNet Admissions TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as Proportion of Net Admission TakingsNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceProportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 £(000)£(000)£(000)Per CentNo.No.No.Per Cent
Auckland981,05932530.729,65025190927.6
Wellington (including Hutt)6261018330.117,83426088929.2
Christchurch4945314932.811,32928688132.5
Dunedin252337532.25,5612931,05427.8
  Totals2342,35473231.164,37426391128.9

Classification of Cinemas – The following table shows the classification of cinemas according to number of screening days per week and of circuit operators.

ScreeningNumber of CinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeGross Admission Takings

*Twelve circuits.

 No.No. of Seats(000)No.d.£(000)
Six days per week204162,54632,91620233.34,568
Odd days per week25478,2164,3965625.8472
Circuit33*5,5992714824.327
  Totals491246,36137,58415332.45,068
ScreeningAmusement TaxNet Admission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Net Admission Takings
 £(000)£(000)£(000)Per Cent
Six days per week4054,1631,24429.9
Odd days per week3343913230.0
Circuit225728.9
  Totals4404,6281,38329.9
ScreeningPersons EngagedNumber of Performances for YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceProportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.Per Cent
Six days per week4654155281,179121,84427086531.2
Odd days per week1225746633631,45214037437.4
Circuit831872,25012123651.1
  Totals5954751,0121,522155,54624275731.9

Cinema Attendance in Principal Countries – The table below shows the number of admissions per head in the years quoted in a number of selected countries. These figures are taken from the United Nations Statistical Yearbook.

CountryYearNumber of Admissions
Total (Million)Per Head
Australia195821021.3
Austria196110014.2
Belgium1960808.8
Bulgaria196111814.8
Canada19601186.5
Czechoslovakia196017712.9
Denmark1960449.6
France19613277.1
Germany, East196023813.8
Germany, West19615189.2
Hong Kong19596522.8
Hungary196113513.5
Ireland, Republic of19613813.5
Israel1959.603818.5
Italy195974515.1
Japan19618639.2
New Zealand19633815.0
Norway1961349.4
Russia (U.S.S.R.)19603,84917.7
Spain195936512.2
Sweden1961506.6
Switzerland1961407.3
United Kingdom19605029.6
United States of America19612.16511.8
Yugoslavia19601307.0

Chapter 13. Section 13 PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY*

Table of Contents

PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY INDEXES – Growth rates in a national economy constitute the most important single class of economic indicator. Growth is the result of many factors but attention has been focussed in recent years on labour productivity, that is, the relation between output and labour input.

As a basis for improved measures of productivity, the Department of Statistics has prepared a new volume of production index. The new index, known as the Index of Production, measures the output of all goods and services produced by the economy. Its complete coverage and concept of net output bring it into line with the approach to national income and sector accounts. The indexes for the value and volume of production, which were compiled by the Department for over 30 years and were printed on pages 410 and 411 of the 1963 issue of the Yearbook, are now obsolete and they will no longer be continued. Not only does the new index produce a more comprehensive volume of production measure, but it also provides the basis for a productivity index known as the Index of Productivity. The two indexes not only provide measures of the country's economic growth, but they also give the Court of Arbitration a measure of productivity for its wage claim deliberations. The Court is now specifically required to have regard to productivity when considering an application for a general wage order.

The advantages of the Index of Production covering the whole productive process is obvious. For one thing services of all kinds are of major importance in present day economic life and obviously must be adequately covered by indexes representative of the whole production structure of the economy. The weighting of the index is still based upon the pattern derived for the 1954–55 Inter-Industry Study, and the weights for each indicator are derived from the net output and depreciation represented by that indicator in 1954–55. The divisions for the sector indexes are based upon the industrial division of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification which, in turn, is based upon an industrial classification recommended by the United Nations and which is being universally adopted by other countries. The proportionate weighting is now as follows:

 Weight per cent
Primary industries (including farming, fisheries etc., forestry and logging, and mining)22.8
Manufacturing21.6
Building and construction8.2
Electric power and gas1.6
Services45.8
 100.0

Production Index – The following are the figures for the new index equated to Base 1954–55 = 1000.

YearIndex
1954–551000
1955–561041
1956–571061
1957–581119
1958–591152
1959–601199
1960–611273
1961–621321

*Methodological improvements adopted for the 1962–63 compilation have resulted in small revisions in the series in this section. The revised series are shown in Latest Statistical Information.

Over the seven years studied, the index increased by 32.1 per cent, an average rate of approximately 4.1 per cent each year. The year 1955–56 gave an increase equal to this average, but in 1956–57 there was a fall in building activity, and small gains in other sectors were not sufficient to offset it. The following year 1957–58 saw a rise in the farming group which was mainly responsible for the rise of the main index by 5.5 per cent. The latter half of fiscal year 1958–59 was a period of restraint; there was a slackening in building and construction and in the services group (notably wholesale and retail trade) and the index rose by 2.9 per cent in this year. 1959–60 was a year of recovery with an average rise of 4.1 per cent. This was followed in 1960–61 by the biggest rise in the period covered, when a sharp increase in manufacturing was mainly responsible for an overall rise of 6.2 per cent. In 1961–62 the increase, 3.8 per cent, was quite close to the average for the period. The following table shows the sector indexes:

MAJOR GROUP INDEXES

Group1954–551955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–611961–62
Farming10001022103911151171118912391266
Forestry and logging10001053104010611126123512611276
Fisheries, etc.10001045105310961104115211941143
Mining and quarrying10001113118811761242128914091339
Manufacturing10001048106511391203124413661436
Power and gas10001091113812901281143515251654
Building and construction10001109113111661191133413761436
All services10001031105210961107114812141260
  Total All Groups10001041106111191152119912731321

The table shows the moderate but steady progress in the output of farming although there were surges in 1957–58 and in 1960–61. During the seven years covered it showed a rise of 26.6 per cent, which was below the rise for all groups. The forestry and logging group shows an expansion to meet the growing capacity for logs and pulp wood at Kawerau and Kinleith mills after 1957–58. Over the last four years mining reflects an increase in demand for road metal and aggregate, also the increased demand for coal following the opening of the steam generating station at Meremere in 1958. Power and gas increased by 65 per cent over the seven years. The manufacturing, and building and construction groups each registered the substantial gain of 43.6 per cent over the period. In regard to the former it should be noted that a portion of manufacturing (notably freezing works and dairy factories) is concerned with the processing of farm products, where the growth is not as large as in other portions of the sector. Fluctuations in manufacturing and building and construction contributed largely to the slowing down of 1956–57 and to the years of peak activity, 1957–58 and 1960–61.

Service industries may be said to be of two kinds, those for supplying the needs of persons in their private capacity directly, and those which service industries of all kinds. The volume index for these service industries covers many activities such as wholesale and retail trade, transport and communication, finance, education, and personal services. During the period it rose by 26 per cent, a rate of growth not as great as those of the commodity producing industries, but one which was responsive to changes in activity over the years. The reason for this could, to a very large extent, be found in the inclusion of wholesale and retail trade where activity was dependent to a large extent on the tempo of other industries and the amount of imports available for use.

Productivity Index – The productivity index shows changes in volume of output per person engaged and is obtained by dividing the volume of production index by an index of employment. The index of employment is an index of the total labour force for the year, including working proprietors but excluding armed forces and unemployed.

Production YearIndex of ProductionIndex of EmploymentIndex of Productivity
1954–55100010001000
1955–56104110201021
1956–57106110391021
1957–58111910611055
1958–59115210861061
1959–60119910991091
1960–61127311251132
1961–62132111511148

Comparing the index of production with the index of employment shows how the average output per head varied over the period. The productivity index is more sensitive to changes in the economic tempo than is the index of production. In 1956–57 there was no increase in productivity, but in 1957–58 there was a gain of 3.3 per cent. Then 1958–59 was another year of low productivity gain, while the succeeding year gave an increase slightly less than that of 1957–58, and the gain in 1960–61 was of 3.8 per cent. In the latest year 1961–62 the increase was 1.4 per cent. Over the period covered productivity has increased by 14.8 per cent, which represents an average annual rate of increase of 2 per cent.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT IN CONSTANT PRICES – The index of production, covering national output in its entirety, and allowing for the input of goods and services by individual producing units, provides material with which the gross domestic product in constant prices is obtained. With only minor modification, particularly the inclusion of the service of defence, it can be converted into an index of real gross domestic product.

YearIndex of ProductionIndex of Real Gross Domestic Product
1954–5510001000
1955–5610411040
1956–5710611059
1957–5811191116
1958–5911521149
1959–6011991196
1960–6112731268
1961–6213211316

An examination of these two indexes, shows that the major influences on their movements are identical.

Gross domestic product in current prices, can be obtained from gross national product by allowing for net income accruing to overseas residents. Gross national product in current prices has been obtained by the Department of Statistics for many years in its annual compilation of the national income and expenditure, and the correction to obtain gross domestic product is derived from balance of payments data.

In the various tables which follow, current value figures for national income and for balance of payments have been derived from the estimates made as at 31 March 1962.

YearGross National ProductGross Domestic Product
 £(m.)£(m.)
1954–55930936
1955–56982987
1956–571,0301,036
1957–581,0911,097
1958–591,1351,144
1959–601,2211,227
1960–611,3051,320
1961–621,3461,356

The index of real gross domestic product can then be used to derive gross domestic product in constant prices and, by allowing for the share of output accruing overseas, real gross national product can also be obtained. This is done in the following tables where both the gross domestic product and the gross national product are expressed in 1954–55 prices.

YearIndex of Real Gross Domestic ProductGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesGross National Product at 1954–55 Prices
  £(m.)£(m.)
1954–551000936930
1955–561040973968
1956–571059991985
1957–5811161,0451,039
1958–5911491,0751,066
1959–6011961,1191,114
1960–6112681,1871,173
1961–6213161,2321,223

There are two advantages in compiling these two important national income aggregates in constant prices. In the first place the elimination of price movements from them, as from any other national income data, does give a better idea of changes in their real value from year to year; second, expressing a volume of production index in value terms, in this instance constant values, does enable it to be compared with other economically significant statistics expressed in similar values. This gives a further dimension to the statistics that an index number alone does not possess, and thereby adds to their usefulness as economic statistics.

Gross domestic product is the value of all goods and services produced by the economy during the year. The total value of goods and services available for internal use either for personal consumption, Government use, capital formation or stock accumulation can be obtained by deducting from the total gross domestic product at current prices, that portion which is exported, and adding the value of goods and services imported. In the following table exports and imports of goods and services are derived from the figures for balance of payments for 1961–62.

YearGross Domestic ProductExports of Goods and ServicesImports of Goods and ServicesValue of Goods and Services Available
  £(m.) 
1954–55936253273956
1955–569872802991,006
1956–571,0362952961,037
1957–581,0972933271,131
1958–591,1442842891,149
1959–601,2273322731,168
1960–611,3203103391,349
1961–621,3563133401,383

Just as gross domestic product and gross national product corrected for price changes are better indicators of the volume of production and the level of economic growth, so also if the goods and services available for internal use are expressed in constant prices, a better idea of the volume of goods and services available, and the economic welfare of the country can be obtained. Therefore, in the following table, corrections are made to eliminate price changes from the value of imports and exports, so that the value of goods and services available, in 1954–55 prices, can be obtained from gross domestic product also in 1954–55 prices.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesImports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesGoods and Services Available for Use at 1954–55 Prices
  £(m.) 
1954–55936253273956
1955–56973278299994
1956–57991293288986
1957–581,0452973141,062
1958–591,0753262821,031
1959–601,1193372711,053
1960–611,1873243311,194
1961–621,2323493321,215

Although a comparison of the gross domestic product with the value of goods available gives some indication as to whether or not the country is living within its means, the omission of certain balance of payments data, notably transactions in investment income and unilateral transfers, does limit its value. On the other hand, if exports and imports are corrected for price changes and compared with the gross domestic product in constant prices, this provides a useful measure of welfare in the volume of goods and services available for internal use. It can be seen from the above table that, although the volume of exports has increased considerably, the volume of imports has not increased to such an extent. This is due in part to the fact that over the years the prices of imports have been rising at a faster rate than the prices of exports. Indeed, the price level of exports has fallen over the years but import prices have risen steadily. In order to assess the loss caused by this deterioration in the terms of trade, the following table shows gross domestic product at constant prices corrected for the terms of trade. From gross domestic product at constant prices there is deducted that portion which is exported and added back the amount of imports that can be exchanged for these exports. By comparing the gross domestic product at 1954–55 prices with the corrected figure it is seen that there has been a steady loss in purchasing power of the gross domestic product over the years, the worst years being a loss of £60 million in 1958–59, and a loss of £51 million in the latest year.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1945–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of TradeEffective Gross Domestic Product
  £(m.) 
1954–55936253253936
1955–56973278273968
1956–57991293280978
1957–581,0452972711,019
1958–591,0753262661,015
1959–601,1193373171,099
1960–611,1873242921,155
1961–621,2323492981,181

By making this correction to the gross domestic product at 1954–55 prices, a much better picture can be obtained of the purchasing power, both here and abroad, of the income it represents.

The final table uses figures shown in previous tables. It is intended to be a summary of the previous paragraphs and to enable the significant aggregates to be compared one with another.

YearGross Domestic Product at Current PricesGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of TradeImports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesEffective Gross Domestic ProductGoods and Services Available for Use at 1954–55 Prices
   £(m.)   
1954–55936936253253273936956
1955–56987973278273299968994
1956–571,036991293280288978986
1957–581,0971,0452972713141,0191,062
1958–591,1441,0753262662821,0151,031
1959–601,2271,1193373172711,0991,053
1960–611,3201,1873242923311,1551,194
1961–621,3561,2323492983321,1811,215

Gross Domestic Product at Current Prices is the total value of goods and services produced by the national economy in any particular year.

Gross Domestic Product at 1954–55 Prices is the gross domestic product from which price changes since the base year have been eliminated to enable its real value in terms of goods and services to be evaluated.

Exports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 Prices is that portion of the gross domestic product at constant prices which is exported.

Exports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of Trade – This is the value of imports at base year prices (i.e., 1954–55) that can be obtained in exchange for the exports of that year.

Imports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 Prices – This is the value of goods and services at base year prices that were actually imported during the year.

Effective Gross Domestic Product – This is the gross domestic product at 1954–55 prices to which a correction has been made to allow for the purchasing power in overseas markets of that portion which is exported. The correction is the same as that used to adjust exports of goods and services for changes in the terms of trade.

Goods and Services Available for Use at 1954–55 Prices is obtained by deducting exports of goods and services from the gross domestic product at 1954–55 prices and adding imports of goods and services at 1954–55 prices.

While all these figures cannot be regarded as exact measures, they reveal certain trends in the national economy. Thus while it can be said that production and productivity have grown steadily over the period, deterioration in export prices and hence in the terms of trade has reduced the benefits of increased production. It also shows why New Zealand is so dependent on her overseas trade to maintain her standard of living and economic development.

Chapter 14. Section 14 FARMING

14 A – GENERAL

SOILS AND LAND USE – Soil is the product of its environment – of the rock waste which is the parent material, of the climate under which it weathers, of the kind of topography upon which it is situated, of the vegetation under which it develops, and of the length of time during which it has been developing. In New Zealand, the wide variety of conditions under which the many kinds of rock are transformed into soil results in a complex pattern. Yet it is a complexity showing regularities and relationships that enable the soils to be grouped and classified. The conditions that control soil formation tend also to govern the kind of land use. Thus a close relationship between soils and land use arises in two ways – from characteristics inherent in the soils themselves and from environmental factors such as the climate and topography. Maps showing the pattern of soils and of land use are published in A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand (1959). Soils are shown in two divisions: (a) zonal soils, and (b) intrazonal and azonal soils; and descriptions of the location, properties, and productive capacities of the different soil types in New Zealand are now given.

Zonal Soils – If the soils formed from unusual parent materials, e.g., volcanic ash, and those occupying special sites, such as steep slopes and swampy hollows, are set aside, a simple pattern of zonal soils is revealed. It consists of the brown-grey earths of the semi-arid areas where the rainfall is less than about 20 inches a year; the yellow-grey earths of subhumid areas where the rainfall is approximately 20–40 inches a year; the northern, central and southern, and high-country yellow-brown earths respectively of the humid regions where the rainfall is well distributed and is greater than approximately 40 inches a year; and the podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols where an acid litter of decomposing vegetation and high rainfall result in excessive leaching. Zonal soils comprise 18 million of the country's 66 million acres.

The brown-grey earths (1 1/2 m; 1/2 m acres*) occupy the dry inter-montane basins of Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains where rainfall is insufficient for plant requirements for most of the year. They are generally rich in plant nutrients and are weakly acid to alkaline, in places with salty patches. Many of them are stony. Their chief need is more water but irrigation must be practised with care to avoid waterlogging or spreading salts. They produce fine wool and store sheep and, where irrigated, fat lambs; lucerne is grown and, in favoured spots, stone fruits and brassica and other seed crops.

The yellow-grey earths (2 1/2 m; 3/4 m acres) are the seasonally dry soils of southern Otago, Canterbury, Wairarapa, Hawke's Bay, and Manawatu, where rainfall is inadequate for plant growth for a third to half of the year. They are moderately to weakly acid, and the older soils have a thick hard silt-pan in the subsoil. Fat-lamb farming is the principal use with mixed arable farming on the drier soils and some dairying on the moister soils. Stony soils related to the yellow-grey earths (1 1/2 m acres) cover much of Canterbury Plains; they are used for sheep farming including fat lambs; with irrigation, they carry over four ewes per acre and grow cereal and pasture seed crops.

*Where two areas are given in parentheses after particular types of soil they refer to easy and hilly land respectively, and are usually expressed in millions of acres.

The rainfall of the yellow-brown earths is usually adequate for plant growth for most of the year. The high-country yellow-brown earths (1/2 m; 1 m acres) of the cold upland basins east of the Southern Alps are developed under tussock at high elevations. They have yellow friable subsoils and are moderately acid and strongly leached. Where oversown with clovers they respond to molybdenised superphosphate and sulphur. They are used mostly for wool production and some store sheep. The southern and central yellow-brown earths (2 m; 4 1/2 m acres) of the cool and mild districts like Southland and Wellington were formed under forest and have nutty subsoils. When sown to pasture with lime and superphosphate (in places molybdenised), they are used for dairying and fat lambs on the rolling land, and for wool production, store stock, and some fat lambs on the more hilly slopes. Cattle are also ran to help control pasture growth and prevent its reversion to scrub and fern. The associated podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (140,000; 200,000 acres) are best developed in Southland. They are formed under rimu-kamahi forest and are very strongly leached with grey acid structureless topsoils and with iron pans in the subsoils in places. They are being brought into pasture for sheep and cattle grazing. Waterlogged counterparts of these soils, the gley podzols or “pakihi soils” (3/4 m; 100,000 acres) occur in Westland where the rainfall is 100 inches or so per year. They have structureless subsoils and their chief problem is one of drainage to remove the excess water. They are difficult to utilise once the forest has been removed. The northern yellow-brown earths (1/2 m; 3/4 m acres), formed under mixed forest in the warm moist climate of North Auckland, are mostly heavy clays. The more fertile soils are moderately acid but support good pastures when top-dressed with lime and phosphate, in places molybdenised; the rolling land is used for dairying and fat lambs, the hills for sheep and cattle grazing. The less fertile soils support fair pastures when top-dressed with lime and superphosphate; on the easier land many dairy- and fat-lamb farms are situated, but pastures on the hill country are less easy to maintain.

The northern podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (1/2 m; 300,000 acres) have thin grey structureless topsoils overlying a grey siliceous horizon, and are strongly acid and very low in plant nutrients. Where formed under kauri they are known as “gumlands”. In places, especially where the soils are sandy, farming should be approached with caution because subsoil pans of humus and iron impede drainage; otherwise with fertilisers the soils can be made to support good dairy pastures.

Intrazonal and Azonal Soils – The intrazonal soils include the soils from less-common parent materials and those influenced by high ground water; and the azonal soils are youthful owing to recent renewal by sedimentation, volcanic eruptions, or erosion.

Rendzina and other lime-rich soils, mostly from limestones, occur both in subhumid areas (100,000 acres) such as near Oamaru, in North Canterbury, and in Hawke's Bay, and in the humid areas (1/4 m acres) particularly North Auckland. They are fertile, with deep, dark granular topsoils. In the drier areas, they are used for intensive arable farming and sheep farming and, near Oamaru, for poultry farming; in the humid areas, for dairying and fat lambs.

The yellow-brown sands (3/4 m acres), from coastal sand drifts of various ages, occur on sandhills which dry out excessively in summer and on sand plains where ground water approaches the surface in winter. The drier soils are used for grazing; the soils with moister subsoils, after fertilising with phosphate and potash, are used for sheep farming and dairying. Where the subsoils are loose, blowing is a problem.

The yellow-brown pumice soils (2 m; 2 m acres) of central North Island are formed mostly of two volcanic ash showers that fell 800 and 1,700 years ago. Their topsoils are mostly sands or sandy loams, and the subsoils pumice sands and gravels. Because the cattle and sheep became bush sick these areas were difficult to farm for many years and large areas were planted in exotic forests. However, the ailment is now overcome by topdressing with cobaltised superphosphate and, except where droughty, the soils can be converted into good farmland. In addition to phosphate they need consolidation and, after continued use, potash topdressing. The yellow-brown loams (4 m acres) are derived mostly from fine-textured ashes erupted by volcanoes in central North Island and by Mount Egmont and occur around the margin of the younger pumice soils. They are very friable loamy soils, respond well to superphosphate topdressing, and give slight to good responses to lime; potash responses are expected to increase with continued use. The soils are used mainly for dairying and fat-lamb production. The red and brown loams and brown granular clays (1 1/4 m acres) are formed from basalts and andesites and are rich in iron and aluminium. They are friable soils with strong structure and a marked power to fix phosphates. The younger, more fertile soils (1/2 m; 1/4 m acres) respond to superphosphate and lime, those from basalt also respond to potash; they are used for dairying, fat-lamb production, and sheep grazing, and in places for market gardens and orchards. The older soils have lower natural fertility and include the strongly acid granular soils and the moderately acid ironstone soils; they carry fair pastures when topdressed with lime, phosphate, and potash and, on the acid soils, with molybdenised superphosphate.

The organic soils (1/2 m acres) are peaty and occur mostly in the Auckland district. Where mellow and fertile they can be farmed satisfactorily, but the peats of acid bogs require special treatment. The gley soils (3/4 m acres) are formed under the influence of groundwater which causes the formation of grey subsoils commonly mottled with rust colours. They, too, occur mostly in the Auckland district, and when drained are used for dairying and fat-lamb production.

Recent soils from alluvium (1 1/2 m acres) are formed from flood sediments on river flats. For the most part they are fertile, deep loams, but some are gravelly with excessive drainage. They are used mainly for fat lambs and dairying; also, in drier areas, for cereals, pasture and vegetable seed crops, pulse crops for canning, pip and stone fruits, small fruits, and tobacco.

Recent soils from volcanic ash (1 3/4 m acres) occur mostly around the active volcanoes of Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu, and also around Mount Tarawera. Where they cover the pumice soils their cobalt content offsets the deficiency in the pumice.

Steepland soils occupy about half the area of New Zealand, being most extensive on the axial ranges, and in north-west Nelson and east Taranaki. Although showing characters related to the zone where they occur they are for the most part shallow and their subsoils vary widely in fertility according to the underlying rock. They are relatively unstable and are periodically renewed by erosion. When the plant cover is disturbed by man the erosion is accelerated and the results affect not only the hillsides but also the rivers and river flats. Areas occupied by these soils are: steepland brown-grey earths, 1/2 m acres; steepland yellow-grey earths, 1/2 m acres; high-country steepland yellow-brown earths, 4 1/2 m acres; other steepland yellow-brown earths, 14 m acres (including 2 m with high natural fertility); and podzolised steepland soils, 6 1/4 m acres. The podzolised steepland soils are largely in forest, and occur mainly in western Nelson, Westland, and western Southland, at altitudes from 5,000 ft in the north to 3,000 ft in the south. Above these levels there are 2 3/4m acres of poor wet soils largely in subalpine scrub and tussock, and grading up to the alpine barrens (3 3/4 m acres) at elevations where vegetation is sparse or absent and much bare rock and ice are present.

New Approach to Land Use – The rapid increase in knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to land use. In the early thirties the use of land was still guided by the art of judging its capabilities from external appearances and a general knowledge of farming and local conditions. This method had its successes but in places failed badly, for example, in parts of the country, pastures could not be maintained and farm land was abandoned. The need for solving such problems led to the improvement in ways of recognising and mapping the soils so that their properties and uses could be determined. Today, land use is guided for the most part by the capabilities of the soil type as revealed by investigation. The reliability of predictions made in this way has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency. It reflects the modern swing from farming as a traditional art to farming as an up-to-date science.

NATURE OF FARMING – The natural tussock grassland, which occurs mainly on the hilly and mountainous country to the east of the Main Divide of the South Island, is used for extensive pastoral farming, where the main product is wool and in some instances store sheep, while on the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are additional products. The third type of grassland, that sown after ploughing, is found on the flat and gently undulating country of both Islands and is used mainly for the production of meat and dairy produce. Here farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime and trace elements. However, with the advent of mechanisation, and, more particularly, the use of aircraft for topdressing hill pastures, considerable areas of surface-sown grassland have been topdressed in recent years. This treatment of country otherwise inaccessible to normal topdressing methods, coupled with oversowing of grass, is resulting in considerable improvement to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

The North Island – Many parts of the North Island have proved very suitable for dairying because of the temperate climate, a fairly high rainfall well distributed over the year, and land reasonably flat and of average to good quality. Approximately 88 per cent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, Central Auckland, South Auckland – Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington Statistical Areas. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as one cow per acre, and annual production as high as 200 to 350 lb of butterfat per acre. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is associated with dairying, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty. Sheep farming is carried on throughout the Island, but it is most concentrated in Rangitikei-Manawatu and on the eastern section from the Wairarapa, through Hawke's Bay, to the hill country north of Gisborne.

The South Island – Sheep farming is practised in practically all parts of the Island east of the Southern Alps. The tussock grasslands, particularly on the higher parts, carry about one sheep to 10 acres, whereas improved pastures heavily topdressed carry six or more sheep to the acre. On the easier hill country, in addition to returns from wool, a considerable portion of the revenue comes from the sale of store sheep, which are purchased by the farmers on the plains and undulating country for fattening and for flock-replacement purposes.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 89 per cent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley acreage is in these districts. On the majority of the cereal-producing farms sheep and lambs are also fattened. Considerable areas (approximately three-quarters of the New Zealand acreage) of rape, kale, turnips, and swedes are grown for summer and winter supplementary feed.

Dairying is very localised and is concentrated near the cities to cater for whole-milk requirements. Districts where herds are run for dairy-factory supply are the plains areas of Southland; parts of Nelson and Westland; and Banks Peninsula, in Canterbury. Less than 10 per cent of the dairy cows are in the South Island, and less than one-sixth of the beef cattle.

CLASSIFICATION OF HOLDINGS BY PRINCIPAL FARMING ENTERPRISES – The collection of farm production statistics in 1960 was carried out as New Zealand's part of the World Census of Agriculture. Detailed information has been published separately in the report on the New Zealand Census of Agriculture, 1959–60.

For purposes of fuller analysis of the New Zealand results than is customarily given in Statistical Area (previously Land District) tables, counties with some affinity as to farming types, etc., have been regrouped to form what have been designated “Regional Areas”, and certain tables given in Sections 14B and 14C of this volume are set out on this basis. The following sets out in detail the content of these regional areas.

Regional AreaCounties Included (as at 1960)
NorthlandMangonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangarei, Hobson, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata.
South AucklandManukau, Franklin, Raglan.
Waikato and Hauraki LowlandsWaikato, Waipa, Otorohanga, Hauraki Plains, Piako, Matamata.
Cape ColvilleGreat Barrier, Coromandel, Thames, Ohinemuri.
Central PlateauTauranga, Rotorua, Taupo, Whakatane.
Westland UplandsWaitomo, Taumarunui, Clifton, Waimarino.
TaranakiTaranaki, Inglewood, Egmont, Stratford, Eltham, Waimate West, Hawera.
East CapeOpotiki, Matakaoa, Waiapu, Uawa, Waikohu, Cook.
Hawke's BayWairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Patangata.
RangitikeiPatea, Waitotara, Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina.
ManawatuDannevirke, Woodville, Oroua, Manawatu, Kairanga, Horowhenua, Pahiatua.
WairarapaEketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Wairarapa South, Akitio.
FeatherstonHutt, Makara, Featherston.
NelsonWaimea, Golden Bay, Buller, Murchison, Inangahua.
MarlboroughSounds, Marlborough, Awatere, Kaikoura.
WestlandGrey, Westland.
North CanterburyAmuri, Cheviot, Waipara.
FoothillsAshley, Oxford, Tawera, Selwyn.
Canterbury PlainsKowai, Rangiora, Eyre, Malvern, Paparua, Springs, Ellesmere.
ChristchurchWaimairi, Heathcote, Halswell.
Banks PeninsulaMount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa.
MackenzieMackenzie.
South CanterburyAshburton, Geraldine, Levels, Waimate, Waitaki.
OtagoWaihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka.
Central OtagoManiatoto, Vincent, Lake.
SouthernBruce, Clutha, Southland, Wallace.
RemainderChatham Islands, Stewart Island.

There have been changes in county structure which have affected the boundaries of regional areas and these have been taken into account now that the classification of holdings has been revised.

Figures for 1959–60 as to the number of holdings of various principal types of farming enterprises in the several regional areas (each Island separately) are here presented. (“Principally” means 75 per cent or more; “predominant” means 50–74 per cent; “mixed” means approximately equal; “general mixed” covers three or more types with none predominant.)

Regional AreaPrincipally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep PredominantCropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (including Horticulture, Timber, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
Northland5,3971,371492382911658111589811,55710,604
South Auckland2,3571,681127167604912143643172414,492
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands5,9621,382128374107117531742322728,657
Cape Colville5891572769202521541681,130
Central Plateau2,12666854228621031422463804764,161
Western Uplands3421,5562813086821542401012222,608
Taranaki3,20966622166609863451041024,481
East Cape5391,06856842646665836922012702,542
Hawke's Bay2572,045474652551198537593582053,365
Rangitikei5542,0173991987999173946533,123
Manawatu1,9201,733621371171217013835150754,441
Wairarapa3611,010374393449351040141,642
Featherston275454833231228167378991
  Totals, North Island23,88815,2081,0931,9818419864911841066893,0373,73352,237
Marlborough2027241047181417021623989561,452
Nelson6255486412959708750341485071672,488
Westland214227137659161980116874
North Canterbury155074298188132923193820
Foothills45331691611103920196012641
Canterbury Plains47848318353921362145196217256522,302
Christchurch12148144238962618830459
Banks Peninsula75259722241610226164443
Mackenzie2251693109217345
South Canterbury3321,8731947102361,335175415271383595,047
Otago2301,07823212523988727278741,892
Central Otago16663851126251015162731,032
Southern1744,35129311418191777814662571646,760
Remainder85211641136
  Totals, South Island2,52711,4023396997344123,2694488068752,32285824,691
  Totals, New Zealand26,41526,6101,4322,6801,5751,3983,7606329121,5645,3594,59176,928

GROSS FARMING INCOME – Gross farming income is the value of the output of the farming sector. A general revision of this statistical series was made in 1963 and the succeeding three tables give the revised form. The three divisions that were in force for many years – (a) Agricultural (b) Pastoral, (c) Dairying, poultry and bees – have been replaced by a classification comprising seven groups more closely identified with particular products. Statistics of quantitative farm production and prices received by farmers constitute the basic data used in the computation of estimates of aggregate receipts from sales of farm produce. Such charges as sales commissions and producer boards' levies, forming part of the value of the finished products but not of returns to the farmers, are excluded. The figures do not purport to show the aggregate net income from farming after all expenses of farm operations have been met. They are intended to afford an indication of the return available to farmers as a whole to meet current expenses of farm operation, interest payments, other costs, and to provide an income for themselves and their employees.

Except in the cases indicated in the next paragraph, no attempt has been made to exclude from the scope of the compilations that portion of marketable farm produce which may be consumed on the farm. Similarly, that portion of farm produce which is sold to other farmers as material for further farm production is in general included. For example, the value of production of grass seeds is included under the heading “Grain and field crops”, although – except for exports – almost the whole of this crop is used for the sowing or renewal of pasture lands. An exception, however, occurs in the case of inter-farm sales of livestock, whether the animals are purchased for breeding or fattening, as no data are available on which to base an estimate of the aggregate annual value of such sales. With this exception, the totals shown for all farm produce thus represent the total income (including receipts from sales to other farmers), plus certain allowances for farm produce used on the farm. On the other hand, products of kitchen gardens and of other activities more intimately associated with the home than with the farm do not come within the ambit of this inquiry.

Production of green-fodder crops, turnips, and mangolds is not included. The view taken is that production of these crops is a normal and essential part of farm routine to be regarded more in the nature of a farm cost than as production of a salable commodity. Consequently, the unknown – but, it is believed, very small – proportion sold of the total production of this class of farm produce is omitted from the totals shown. It is arbitrarily assumed that 20 per cent both of grasses and clovers cut for hay, and of oats cut for chaff or hay, come within the scope of this inquiry, the remainder being omitted for reasons similar to those advanced in the case of green fodder, etc.

The division into seven groups – Grain and field crops; Horticulture, poultry and bees; Wool; Mutton and lamb; Beef; Dairying; and Pigs – has been made entirely on the nature of the produce. The principal items included in grain and field crops are cereals, peas, potatoes, onions, hay sold commercially, and grass seeds. The second group covers the produce of commercial gardens, vineyards, orchards, hop and tobacco gardens, together with honey and eggs. For both these groups transport charges from farm to market, and commission on sales are, as far as possible, excluded.

For the wool group only the production of shorn wool is counted. It is valued at the average prices realised at sales or wartime appraisals during each season, the aggregate arrived at representing the value of wool produced in each season at the average sale or appraisal prices ruling during that season. These prices are, of course, based on wool sold during that season which may not include all wool shorn during that season, and most certainly includes carryovers from previous seasons. Deductions are made to cover the cost of the transport of wool to sales, the Wool Board levy, broker's commissions and other charges for receiving into store, cataloguing, etc., and for such services as binning, reclassing, and skirting when performed by brokers.

Slipe wool is not included in the wool group but under the heading for mutton and lamb as it is associated with the sales of sheep for the production of meat. The mutton group includes the value of lambs and sheep slaughtered as well as taking account of changes in the number of sheep on the farms at the end of each season. The value of the animals is assessed on the basis of live values at freezing works, but deductions are made for the cost of transport from farms and for commission. The killing year is based upon a year ended 30 June.

The beef group comprises the value of all cattle slaughtered for meat except bobby calves. Vealer calves are included as are culls from dairy herds. The value for the group is completed by allowing for changes in the number of beef cattle on the farms at the end of the season.

The largest single item in the dairying group is the payout to suppliers during the season by factories producing butter, cheese, and dried milk, etc. The basis of valuation is at the farm gate, estimated allowance for the cost of milk transport to cheese factories being deducted. The estimate of the value of raw milk for human consumption at farm-gate prices is included, as well as the value of bobby calves slaughtered. Account is taken of the valuation of the number of dairy cattle.

The final group consists of all pigs slaughtered valued at farm-gate returns, with an allowance made for changes in the number of pigs.

The following table shows the figures of gross farming income for the past 16 production seasons as well as for the pre-war year 1938–39. The second part of this table gives the relative contributions of each of the seven groups in each year in the form of percentages of the total of all farm production.

YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce

*Provisional.

£(million)
1938–394.76.39.312.26.628.32.469.8
1947–489.712.927.726.27.148.72.9135.2
1948–4911.313.629.127.77.054.73.3146.7
1949–5011.614.946.934.39.062.93.5183.1
1950–5112.515.0113.665.712.168.24.2291.3
1951–5211.319.554.438.813.576.14.7218.3
1952–5311.920.364.046.822.390.05.9261.2
1953–5416.219.471.252.418.189.35.7272.3
1954–5515.920.775.856.022.484.55.6280.9
1955–5616.120.871.555.818.488.56.2277.3
1956–5714.822.591.562.020.989.65.7307.0
1957–5814.822.668.958.931.593.85.9296.4
1958–5915.921.865.253.033.786.46.1282.1
1959–6019.623.584.749.634.093.76.6311.7
1960–6121.125.279.154.627.592.37.1306.9
1961–6221.130.376.946.329.887.97.5299.8
1962–63*21.532.190.257.828.789.26.9326.4
Percentages
1938–397913179413100
1947–4871020195362100
1948–498920195372100
1949–506826195342100
1950–514539234231100
1951–525925186352100
1952–535825189342100
1953–546726197332100
1954–556727208302100
1955–566826207322100
1956–575730207292100
1957–5858232011322100
1958–5968231912312100
1959–6068271611302100
1960–617826189302100
1961–62710261510292100
1962–63*71028189272100

The following diagram shows the comparative rates of growth for the farming groups.

GROSS FARMING INCOME

Index numbers have also been compiled showing the movements in volume of farm production both in total and for the same component groups as previously defined. For the compilation of these index numbers computations have been made for each season showing what the aggregate annual values would have been had 1938–39 prices been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production; for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The coverage of the pastoral production groups includes allowances for changes in the numbers of livestock on farms.

In the following tables index numbers of value and volume on the base: 1938–39 (= 100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year changes.

YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce

*Provisional.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1947–48206205298215108172121194
1948–49240216313227106193138210
1949–50247237504281136222146262
1950–512662381222539183241175417
1951–52240310585318205269196313
1952–53253322688384338318246374
1953–54345308766430274316238390
1954–55338329815459339299233402
1955–56343330769457279313258397
1956–57315357984508317317238440
1957–58315359741483477331246425
1958–59338346701434511305254404
1959–60417373911407515331275447
1960–61449400851448417326296440
1961–62449481827380452311313430
1962–63*457510970474435315288468
INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1947–4812815510812411310570114
1948–4913715211012210111474118
1949–5012915711612911112275124
1950–5113814811713311912585127
1951–5212415512413112412577127
1952–5311715412713014313688133
1953–5413216013014312712985133
1954–5512116014014515512790136
1955–5610816914315215013187139
1956–5713516815415015113178141
1957–5813016615616917614186151
1958–59134169169186176140105157
1959–6016317217618918113792159
1960–6117917618319917214392166
1961–6216320618420919614096170
1962–63*175236197211193144101177

Over most of the period reviewed in these tables, up to 1956–57, the general upward movement in prices resulted in the value series outstripping the volume series. Since then, however, generally falling prices have arrested the upward trend in total value, in spite of the continued increase in volume of farm production. Wool prices have been a major factor affecting the pastoral and all farm produce value series, their influence being clearly seen in the indices.

Over the 24-year period the average annual increase in the volume series has been 2.4 per cent compound. For the latest five years the compound rate of increase was 3.2 per cent annually.

FARM PRODUCTION: EXPORTS AND NEW ZEALAND CONSUMPTION – Estimates of the relative importance of exports and of consumption within New Zealand in the disposal of farm produce have been compiled by utilising the statistics of gross farming income in conjunction with statistics of trade in farm products.

In the paragraphs covering the statistics of gross farming income it is explained that these estimates were framed on the basis of “on the farm” values in order that they might indicate the gross receipts by the farmer, after making provision for transport charges and other expenses incurred in the marketing of produce.

In compiling the statistics of the relative importance of the New Zealand market and of export markets for farm products the value of exports has been assessed at the “farm” value of the commodities concerned, and not at the f.o.b. declared value for export. This adjustment has been made in order to ensure that both sets of statistics from which the comparison is made are on the same value basis. It will be realised, then, that the figures given in this statement indicate the proportions of total gross returns to farmers arising from farm products exported and from consumption of such products within New Zealand.

The figures of the return to farmers in respect of New Zealand consumption of farm produce have been obtained by deducting exports from total production. In these compilations exports of dairy products have been converted to a butterfat equivalent, the returns to farmers being computed on the basis of butterfat payout; while the slaughterings represented by exports of meat products have been taken as the basis on which to estimate farmers' receipts from exports of meat. In certain instances where statistics of stocks are available adjustment has been made for the carryover from one season to another. It has been assumed that stocks of wool, frozen meat, and butter and cheese carried over are held for export, and that other stocks are subsequently consumed within New Zealand.

Any lack of correspondence between the statistics of production and of trade will affect the accuracy of these estimates. Statistics of production relate to the production year for each commodity, or group of commodities, coming within the scope of this investigation. As the production years do not cover identical 12-monthly periods, the aggregate of production of farm produce includes statistics for a number of yearly periods ending in different months. Exports during any one year do not consist entirely of commodities produced within the same 12-monthly period to which the export statistics relate. The value of changes in number of livestock on farms is, on account of the complexities otherwise involved, wholly applied to the New Zealand consumption figure. The effect of these various factors is, however, minimised by taking averages for five seasons.

The following table shows the quinquennial periods, except for the latest period covering seven years, the proportions of gross farming income arising from exports of farm produce and from consumption of such produce within New Zealand.

Gross Farming Income1931–32 to 1935–361936–37 to 1940–411941–42 to 1945–461946–47 to 1950–511951–52 to 1955–561956–57 to 1962–63
 per cent
All farm produce –
  From exports666767717068
  From New Zealand consumption343333293032
    Totals100100100100100100

DAIRY PRODUCTION – NOTE—The figures from (and including) 1961–62 onwards are for the year ended 31 May; those for the earlier years are for the year ended 30 June.

The total butterfat production “at the pail” during the 1962–63 dairy season is estimated to have amounted to 567.6 million lb, an increase of 12.7 million lb, or 2.3 per cent, above the 1961–62 figure of 554.9 million lb.

The quantity of butterfat processed by dairy factories in 1962–63 is estimated at 496.1 million lb, compared with 484.6 million lb processed by factories during 1961–62.

Variations over the last 10 years in total butterfat production, including estimates for butterfat in milk and cream sold for human consumption, used and lost on farms, etc., are shown hereunder. The table also gives the number of dairy cows recorded as in milk, and estimates of the average butterfat production per cow “at the pail”, which are derived by the New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board from data concerning tested herds.

YearTotal ButterfatDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow

*Relates to holdings of 10 acres and over, whereas figures for earlier years relate to holdings of one acre and over.

 Million lb(000)lb
1953–544971,999251
1954–555071,995256
1955–56530..269
1956–575241,998266
1957–585581,967285
1958–595571,931293
1959–605471,887*288
1960–615571,929*287
1961–625551,968*280
1962–635681,997*282

The next table shows the estimated production and utilisation of butterfat during each of the last five seasons. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board.)

Utilisation1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63

*Includes small quantities of creamery fat used in whey buttermaking.

†Including residual fat in skim-milk from home separation.

 million lb
Creamery buttermaking*403.5384.3387.4383.2x394.9
Cheesemaking76..983.989..090.9x88.3
Whole-milk products6.58.18.37.9x10.2
    Total486.9476.3484.7482.0x493.4
Residual fat in skim-milk products2.52.42.62.62.7
  Total processed by dairy factories489.4478.7487.3484.6x496.1
Consumed as milk, cream, or ice cream47.248.349.750.351.3
Farm butter0.20.20.20.20.2
Fed to stock14.614.114.114.2x14.4
Wastage5.55.45.55.55.6
  Total production “at pail”556.9546.7556.8554.8x567.6

Changes in the usage of butterfat in dairy factories over recent years are indicated by the percentages in the following table.

UsagePercentage of Total Butterfat
1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
Butterfat received into factories from farms and used for –
  Buttermaking82.980.779.979.580.0
  Cheesemaking15.817.618.418.9x17.9
  Whole milk products1.31.71.71.6x2.1
    Totals1000100.0100.0100.0100.0

The 1962–63 season saw a reversal of the switch from butter to cheese which had been evident over the three previous seasons following the increased differential paid for butterfat used in cheese manufacture. In 1959–60, 83.9 million lb, or 17.5 per cent, of total fat was used in cheesemaking. In 1960–61 the fat so used rose to 89.9 million lb, or 18.2 per cent of total fat, and there was a further rise in 1961–62 to 90.9 million lb fat or 18.8 per cent of total fat. In 1962–63 largely as the result of a deliberate diversion to buttermaking during the closing months of the season, fat used for cheesemaking dropped to 88.3 million lb, or 17.8 per cent of total fat.

Creamery butter production during 1962–63 amounted to 214,006 tons, being an increase of 6,549 tons, or 3.2 per cent on the previous season's total of 207,457 tons. Whey butter manufacture amounted to 3,041 tons, a decrease of 197 tons, or 6.1 per cent, from the previous year's total of 3,238 tons. Cheese manufacture totalled 98,443 tons, a decrease of 2,154 tons, or 2.1 per cent, from the previous season's total of 100,597 tons.

Of the other dairy products, skim milk powder rose by 9,035 tons, or 21.6 per cent, to 50,790 tons. Production of other products increased, buttermilk powder by 483 tons to 17,875 tons (an increase of 2.8 per cent), while casein production for 1962–63 at 35,705 tons was 313 tons more than the previous record figure of 35,392 tons in 1961–62. The output of condensed and powdered whole milk for 1962–63 was 14,409 tons, 459 tons (3.3 per cent) lower than for 1961–62.

Production by dairy factories during the last five seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
 ions (000)
Creamery butter218.7207.9210.2207.5214.0
Whey butter2.93.13.33.23.0
Cheese85.393.399.1100.6x98.4
Condensed and powdered whole milk13.816.516.714.914.4
Skim-milk powder40.649.242.941.850.8
Buttermilk powder16.515.917.117.417.9
Casein27.124.530.635.435.7

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION

The New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board, which combines the former New Zealand Dairy Board and the former New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission, was set up under statute in 1961 and is comprised of 13 members. It is empowered to deal with the quality improvement (e.g., the testing for production, the development of artificial breeding, and research and experimental work) of dairy stock and pigs or the produce derived from them. The Act further empowers the Board to promote and organise the circulation of information relating to the bobby calf and pig industries; it can promote consumption of dairy or pig products through advertising and can regulate and control the marketing of bobby calves and vells.

The Boards production and administration section is financed by a levy on dairy produce. It shares with the Government the management and finance of the Dairy Research Institute, and, with the Government, the New Zealand Meat Producers Board, and the New Zealand Wool Board, the control of the Veterinary Services Council.

The Board is also represented on the Dairy Products Prices Authority, the Dairy Industry Loans Council, the Meat Producers Board, the Pig Producers Council, the Bobby Calf Pools Central Executive, the Dairy Factory Managers Registration Board, and on a committee which examines improvements in manufacture.

The Dairy Industry Act 1952 with its amendments, regulates the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture, under proper sanitary conditions, of dairy produce - i.e., milk, cream, butter, cheese, and any other product of milk or cream - intended for sale for human consumption within New Zealand or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises, or of the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection therewith, may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the inspector, and until so remedied their use in the production of dairy produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorised to condemn any dairy produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy produce is prohibited.

Dairy produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking. The export of butter containing more than 16 per cent of water or less than 80 per cent of butterfat is prohibited. The export of cheese of which the water-free substance consists of less than 50 per cent of fats wholly derived from milk is also illegal.

The Cooperative Dairy Companies Act 1949 provides for the registration of cooperative dairy companies.

MEAT PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL - Meat production for the seasons ended September 1961, 1962, and 1963 shows the total carcass weight of meat to be 757,700, 821,200 and 827,700 tons respectively. The following table shows in summary form production and disposal of meat for the years 1957–58 to 1961–62. Carcass meat is shown at bone-in weight.

Product and Use1957–581958–591959–601960–611961–62
 tons (thousand)
 Production   
Beef244.9211.3212.8212.0252.6
Veal23.422.823.424.529.2
Mutton121.4168.4169.3168.4175.6
Lamb231.4255.3271.7281.1289.2
Pig meat-
  Porker12.819.517.515.315.5
  Baconer23.118.919.921.421.6
  Chopper2.22.82.72.32.5
    Total carcass meat659.1699.0717.2725.1786.0
Edible offal28.632.335.532.735.2
    Total production687.7731.3752.8757.7821.2
 Disposal   
Exports and ships' stores441.8485.5491.9495.1542.8
For canning8.77.711.39.210.1
Local consumption237.1238.1249.6253.4268.3
    Total production687.7731.3752.8757.7821.2

MEAT PRODUCTION

Meat consumed in New Zealand during 1961–62 represented approximately 32.9 per cent of total production. The total consumption per head at 244.6 lb, was an increase of 12.7 lb per head on the previous year. The figures in the next table give actual consumption during the years ended 30 September, by classes of meat.

ProductLocal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Population
1959–601960–611961–621959–601960–611961–62
 tons (000)lb
Beef96.697.0108.191.490.097.9
Veal6.67.19.06.26.68.2
Mutton86.084.886.581.478.778.3
Lamb15.115.519.814.314.417.9
Pig meat-
  Porker14.712.813.313.911.912.1
  Baconer18.320.520.617.319.018.7
  Chopper2.42.12.52.32.02.3
  Total carcass meat239.6239.8259.8226.8222.6235.2
Edible offal11.110.010.410.59.39.4
    Grand totals250.7249.8270.2237.3231.9244.6

Details of sources of supply for local consumption in 1961–62 are given in the following table. Figures for meat export works include those for a few bacon works. In the case of registered abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses, edible offal has been estimated at 4 per cent of total carcass weight excluding pig meats.

ProductRegistered AbattoirsMeat Export WorksRural SlaughterhousesFarmsTotal
tons
Beef64,11336,1686,6211,208108,110
Veal5,3793,1731063879,045
Mutton36,78929,6653,95716,04086,451
Lamb5,75712,1502081,64119,756
Pig meat-
  Porker7,8014,48452651913,330
  Baconer2,62617,99020,616
  Chopper5181,9752,493
  Total carcass meat122,983105,60511,41819,795259,801
Edible offal4,4865,49043810,414
    Totals127,469111,09511,85619,795270,215

The following table shows the numbers of the different classes of livestock slaughtered for food during each of the last 11 September years. The figures are for total killings – i.e., they include export works, abattoirs, rural slaughterhouses, and an allowance for killings on farms.

LIVESTOCK SLAUGHTERINGS

Year Ended 30 SeptemberSheepLambsCattleCalvesPigs
Carcasses (000)
19535,63212,3006521,236740
19545,46713,3247801,330760
19555,73313,9929001,435778
19565,88614,8071,0001,406816
19575,30114,3391,0471,407751
19585,08115,8831,1061,314768
19597,45918,3559621,222883
19607,35619,2839561,234863
19617,28919,8469951,299839
19628,002x21,518x1,224x1,413x850x
19637,22021,3081,2821,412921

Meat intended for export from New Zealand is slaughtered at meat export slaughterhouses, of which 37 are at present operating. They are licensed annually under the provisions of the Meat Act 1939 and regulations thereunder, which also authorise officers of the Department of Agriculture to inspect all meat whether for export or for local consumption.

The supervision of grading of meat for export is one of the responsibilities of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board. Grading at each freezing works is carried out, after slaughtering and dressing, by graders employed by the concern operating the freezing works. Supervising graders of the Meat Producers Board are allotted to each group of works to ensure uniformity of grading.

To supply meat for the larger urban centres there are at present 41 abattoirs operating, the larger ones being organised on the same lines as meat export works, and the supply is augmented by meat drawn from export works. At rural slaughterhouses meat is killed for consumption in small country towns and rural districts. Many farmers, particularly on sheep farms, kill their own meat.

To regulate and control the marketing of bobby calves, Bobby Calf Committees were established in 1938 and are now governed by the Bobby Calf Marketing Regulations 1955 under the control of the Dairy Production and Marketing Board.

WOOL PRODUCTION – Although about fifth in order in actual size of flocks, New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. New Zealand specialises in the production and export of crossbred wool. With the exception of a small annual consumption by local mills the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported. The quantity on a greasy basis used by local manufacturers in the post-war period until 1957–58 ranged between 10,700,000 lb and 13,500,000 lb, rising to 14,400,000 lb in 1958–59, 15,500,000 lb in 1959–60, 17,000,000 lb in 1960–61, 20,200,000 lb in 1961–62, and dropping to 17,960,000 lb in 1962–63.

The following table shows for the last 11 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per pound of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per lb of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price per Pound (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 lb (m)d.£(m)
195341846.1980.4
195442650.2589.2
195545549.6794.2
195646246.1988.9
195749154.76112.0
195849641.1685.1
195954036.0781.2
196057744.65107.3
196158840.3498.8
196258739.1895.8
196362042.84110.7

On account of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

WOOL PRODUCTION

An analysis' of wool sold at New Zealand auctions, according to quality groups, is given in the following table.

Quality Group1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
BalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total SalesBalesPercentage of Total Sales
60–64's and up13,6671.115,2731.311,3300.914,0441.115,1531.2
60's10,4720.911,2600.910,0180.87,4590.68,9150.7
58–60's, 58's, and 56–58's89,2697.495,2707.878,2716.390,7997.289,3076.8
50–56's and 56's116,5839.7123,83110.2109,1688.7120,8729.6123,0339.4
52's50,2034.255,6594.646,8063.750,5294.054,0864.1
50's147,95912.3155,34212.7149,19611.9149,77911.8136,86510.5
48–50's187,04915.6176,42514.5150,25512.0123,8809.8137,32110.5
46–50's and 48's377,68731.5387,32231.8448,91635.9464,65736.8439,90033.6
46–48's150,53812.6143,60211.8165,79813.3171,36213.6202,06915.4
46's and lower56,9094.754,8104.579,1666.370,1125.5102,7897.8
  Totals1,200,336100.01,218,794100.01,248,974100.01,263,493100.01,309,438100.0

The Wool Industry Act 1944 provided for the establishment of the New Zealand Wool Board, replacing the New Zealand Wool Council established under the Wool Industry Promotion Act 1936. The Board's principal concern is the promotion of the wool industry, particularly in regard to markets, scientific and industrial research in relation to wool and sheep with a view to improvement in quality and quantity, and the discovery of new or improved methods of utilisation. Specific matters in relation to which the Board may be called upon to exercise certain functions are the production, handling, pooling, appraising, storage, distribution, marketing, and disposal of wool. The Board is empowered to act in combination or association with other bodies established outside New Zealand functioning on similar lines, such as the International Wool Secretariat and the Wool Bureau, and with the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and the New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board. It is also represented on the Wool Commission established by the Wool Commission Act 1951. To provide funds for the Board to carry out its functions the Wool Industry Act authorises a levy on all wool produced in New Zealand, the rate of the levy to be fixed each season by the Board. Under the Wool Commission Act, payment of this levy is at present suspended, the expenses of the Board and of the Commission being met, half from a charge imposed by regulation under that Act on all wool exported or used in New Zealand, and half from accumulated funds of the Commission. The charge is at present 15s. per bale, having been doubled in 1963 to help meet promotion expenses of the International Wool Secretariat, and an additional charge of 8s. 6d. per bale applies at the start of the 1964 season.

In December 1960 there was set up the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand supported by the Wool Board and the Government (through the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). The main object of the organisation is to promote and conduct research into the properties of wool, but it may also study problems of handling, storage, transport, marketing, and related matters.

References to the activities of the Wool Commission set up under the Wool Commission Act 1951 are to be found in Section 21.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE – The Department of Agriculture has existed as a separate Department since 1892 and has been instrumental in building up farm production. The principal functions of the Department, as set out in the Department of Agriculture Act 1953, are (a) to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; (b) to promote and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture, the Department of Agriculture provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Divisional Directors of Animal Health, Meat, Dairy, Farm Advisory, Research, Wool, Horticulture, and Administration. While the service is primarily educative, the Department administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Under the Meat Division all meat killed at meat export slaughterhouses and abattoirs is inspected, and all meat intended for local consumption is graded by the inspection staff.

The Animal Health Division is responsible for the control of infectious diseases of livestock, and vaccination and testing are carried out to prevent and eradicate certain serious stock diseases. Special attention is given to herds supplying milk for human consumption. Livestock husbandry forms an essential part of the extension service provided by this Division. All stock exported and imported is examined by the Division's veterinarians. Instruction is given in poultry keeping. The Division is concerned with the control of noxious weeds and, with the Rabbit Destruction Council through district rabbit boards, in the eradication of rabbits.

The Port Agriculture Inspection Service was established in 1960 to take over both plant and animal quarantine work. Officers of this service handle all aspects of agricultural import work at major ports and airports.

Work at Ruakura has been concerned to a large extent with animal nutrition under conditions of grassland farming, and Wallaceville with disease and diagnostic work. Additional diagnostic stations are now established at Ruakura and at Taieri, near Dunedin. Associated with Ruakura are the hill country research station at Whatawhata, near Hamilton, and the substation at Manutuke, near Gisborne.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, milk powder, and casein is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy produce is inspected and graded before shipment and a close supervision is exercised over butter and cheese at all stages of manufacture. Dairy farm premises are inspected, and the Division is responsible for the registration of town milk supply premises. It also provides technical advice on market milk treatment. The Division has laboratories at Auckland, New Plymouth, and Wallaceville which provide a comprehensive examination of dairy products as a background to its control of dairy produce quality. The Division is responsible for the registration and licensing of dairy factories, approval of their design, general suitability, and economic justification.

The Farm Advisory Division is concerned with advisory work in soil management, crop and pasture production, and farm management. A field staff of farm advisory officers acts as a link between the research stations and the farmers and also carries out cooperative field trials and demonstrations on farmers' properties. The Division has special sections devoted to seed certification and crops, field experimental work, pastures, soil conservation, farm management and economics, rural sociology and home economics, and farm engineering and machinery. Soil testing and assistance with farm drainage work are both undertaken on a fee-paying basis. The Division controls the following stations: Seed Testing Station, Palmerston North; Experimental Area, Marton; Phormium plantation, Moutoa; Flock House Farm of Instruction, Bulls; and the following soil-conservation demonstration farms and areas: Waerenga-o-kuri, Tangoio, Makara, Cannock, Wither Hills, Moutere Hills, Adair, Tara Hills, Mid-Dome, Lake Cameron, and Wairakei.

In 1963 the Director of Ruakura Animal Research Station was given additional responsibilities as Director, Agricultural Research, and all research stations of the Department were brought under his control as a Division, with headquarters at Ruakura and Assistant Directors of Animal Research and Soils Research and a Superintendent, Field Research, all stationed at Ruakura.

To provide a more comprehensive, intensified instruction service to help sheep farmers improve wool production and quality and to raise the general efficiency of sheep husbandry, a Wool Division has been established as an expansion of the previous sheep and wool instruction staff.

The Horticulture Division provides an advisory service to fruitgrowers, market gardeners, nurserymen, flower growers, and beekeepers. Its officers inspect market gardens, nurseries, and apiaries for disease, and grade pip fruit for export and home consumption. At Te Kauwhata Experimental Station investigations are carried out into grape and wine production. In 1961 a horticultural laboratory was established in Levin, the objects being to create a diagnostic section for plant pests and diseases detected at ports of entry or on post-quarantine material.

The Department's Editorial Section is responsible for the production each month of the Journal of Agriculture, which has a very wide circulation amongst farmers. In addition, a large number of bulletins on special subjects are produced.

The Department is also concerned with many of the issues relating to the marketing of primary products, both overseas and within New Zealand, as well as with general economic problems affecting farming industries as a whole.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH – Under the supervision of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research the Department devotes a large part of its activities to the promotion of agricultural research relating to most phases of agriculture.

The Soil Bureau has already made a survey of New Zealand soils which provides basic information on their most suitable use for agricultural and other purposes. It also undertakes research on the relationship of soil to problems of agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and also building foundations and engineering.

The Crop Research Division is concerned with producing new and improved varieties of field and vegetable crops suited for local conditions. Special attention is given to the development of disease resistance.

The Hop and Tobacco Research Stations, both of which are subsidised by the industry, investigate problems relating to the growing of these two crops, while the Fruit Research Division performs a similar function for the whole fruit industry.

The work of the Grasslands Division is directed towards improving the productivity of our pastures by breeding improved varieties of grasses and clovers and investigating the factors affecting their growth.

Closely associated with the Grasslands Division are the Plant Chemistry and Plant Physiology Divisions. The Plant Chemistry Division undertakes research on plant nutrition and metabolism with special reference to the relationship between pasture quality and animal nutrition and health It has developed an effective means of controlling bloat by using emulsified oils. The recently established Plant Physiology Division is studying the physiology of plant growth and reproduction with a view to determining the relative importance of the various factors which control these processes.

Farmers, fruitgrowers, and gardeners are assisted by the Plant Diseases Division, which investigates all types of plant diseases, with the object of bringing them under control. The Entomology Division studies New Zealand insects with special reference to those, such as grass grub, which attack agricultural crops. The Animal Ecology Division investigates the ecology of introduced mammals, such as the rabbit, with the object of discovering more effective methods of control.

The Wheat Research Institute, which like the Tobacco and Hop Research Stations is subsidised by industry, aims at improving the milling and baking qualities of the wheats produced in this country. A moisture-testing service helps farmers to determine when wheat crops are ready for harvesting.

The work of the Botany Division and the Applied Mathematics Laboratory has only an indirect bearing on agriculture. The Botany Division's function is to study all plant life in New Zealand, and in doing so it provides basic information of use to other divisions of the Department. The Applied Mathematics Laboratory assists other divisions by advising on the design of experiments so that these yield the maximum information.

Closely associated with the Department are a number of research associations and institutes which undertake research work of importance to agriculture. The Fertilizer Manufacturers' Research Association concerns itself with problems relating to the production, distribution, and use of fertilisers, the Wool Industries' Research Institute studies all aspects of wool manufacture, the Meat Research Institute studies problems affecting the meat industry, while the Dairy Research Institute investigates the production of milk in relation to feeding, breeding, and management of dairy animals and the manufacture of dairy products. It also investigates the building, design, and efficiency of dairy machinery.

The Value of Agricultural Research – The value of research to agriculture, which is not easy to assess in monetary terms, is reflected in the development of improved and higher yielding varieties of plants, in their more effective handling, and in the control of pests and diseases.

A soil survey of the whole of New Zealand has been completed, and the problems of mineral deficiency diseases such as bush sickness and dopiness have been solved. Tobacco research has resulted in the area of this crop being more than doubled and the yield per acre trebled. At current prices the increased yield is worth more than £1 million to the growers and tobacco growing has become one of the most prosperous of rural industries. The Hop Research Station has recently developed two new hop varieties of excellent quality and high yield, and with effective resistance to the serious disease, root rot.

Effective control has been secured over a wide range of plant diseases. Ball smut and loose smut of cereals have almost disappeared, dry rot of brassicas has materially lessened, and blast of stone fruit has been controlled. A method of controlling yellow dwarf virus in wheat has been developed which involves spraying the crop with insecticides to destroy the aphids which transmit the disease. The spraying of 20,000 acres last year gave an improvement in yield valued at more than £110,000. A system of certifying spray materials effective against a wide range of diseases of horticultural and garden crops has been devised. A most effective culture to promote lucerne growth has been found and maintained.

Numerous serious insect pests have been brought under control, and the diamond-back moth, white butterfly, and codling moth are not the menace they formerly were; DDT has been used effectively against grass grub, subterranean grass caterpillar, and ryegrass stem weevil. Damage to pasture by grass grub, conservatively estimated at £10 million a year, can be controlled if the proper routine is followed in the use of the insecticide. Biological methods of control of this insect are being investigated to supplement the chemical method and overcome the resistance problem which has arisen in some areas.

The work of the Grasslands and Crop Research Divisions has resulted in the development and expansion of a profitable farmseeds industry. Research into the breeding of new strains of pasture plants, and into the utilisation and management of pastures, has done much to enable New Zealand to lead the world in grassland farming, and raise its per-acre yield of meat and dairy produce. At a cost of £6,000, the Grasslands Division developed short rotation ryegrass which is now worth £150,000 a year in seed alone. Research leading to successful pasture establishment on pumice soils of the central North Island has greatly increased production in this area. Rape and turnip seed, hitherto imported from overseas, are now produced locally, as the result of breeding and selection work done by the Crop Research Division, which, in addition, has improved the quality of oats, barley, lupins, carrots, and lucerne.

Of particular interest are two new high-yielding varieties of potato – Tahi and Rua – developed by the Division to withstand wind, drought, and competition from weeds, and a new high-yielding, good quality variety of pea – Onward – which is also resistant to wilt.

In collaboration with the Wheat Research Institute this Division has bred several new varieties of wheat specially suited for local conditions. Aotea, released in 1957, has shown an increase in yield of more than 20 per cent over Cross 7, an improved variety developed 20 years previously. This increased yield has been worth more than £1 million in overseas exchange. A further significant development has been the combining of high yield and high quality in one variety – Hilgendorf (1961) – released in 1961, and which, if grown widely, should improve considerably the quality of New Zealand flour and bread.

The Institute has devised methods of utilising sprouted wheat and of controlling the vitamin B content of flour.

Corky pit of apples and other deficiency diseases of fruit have been overcome, and investigations in transport have vastly improved the quality of fruit arriving in the United Kingdom.

PASTURE GRASSES – Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend right on to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in cooperation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilisers, etc. The results are made available per medium of the Journal of Agriculture and such allied publications, as well as by special pamphlets which are distributed without charge. The farmer is thus enabled to avail himself of, and profit by, highly specialised knowledge and experience. In addition, a constant endeavour is being made not only to improve existing strains by such measures as seed certification and the provision of pedigree seed, but also to evolve new strains. At the beginning of the year 1962 there were 19,249,007 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 1,160,010 acres cut for seed, hay, or silage during the season).

The following table shows the respective areas under artificially sown grasses, tussock, and other naturally established native grasses. The figures for tussock and other native grasses have been included under “balance of land” in the table showing the condition of occupied land in Section 10A.

YearArtificially Sown Pasture GrassesTussock and Other Naturally Established Native GrassesTotal Area Under Grass*
Cut for Seed, Hay, or SilageNot Cut for Seed, Hay, or Silage

*Includes lucerne.

†Includes 201,934 acres also sown with crops.

acres
1957–581,220,48316,782,34713,206,70131,209,531
1958–591,201,62016,833,87113,186,26131,221,752
1959–601,142,87217,406,91513,035,54931,585,336
1960–611,206,43817,810,656*....
1961–621,160,01018,088,997....

TOPDRESSING (PASTURE LANDS) – An important characteristic of grassland farming is the use of an annual or semi-annual topdressing of artificial fertilisers. The chief fertiliser is superphosphate, which is manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials. Agricultural lime, produced locally, is also used in considerable quantities.

Topdressing in New Zealand is carried out mainly on sheep- and cattle-grazing areas, including, of course, dairy farms; the North Island, which contains 87 per cent of the total cattle, accounted in 1961–62 for 74 per cent of the area topdressed.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest five years.

YearGrassland Area Topdressed
With Artificial Fertiliser OnlyWith Lime OnlyWith Both Artificial Fertiliser and LimeTotal Grassland Topdressed

*From and including 1959–60 figures relate to holdings of 10 acres and over, whereas figures for earlier years relate to holdings of 1 acre and over.

acres
1957–587,309,985514,3411,433,3389,257,664
1958–597,174,256450,5911,177,1038,801,950
1959–60*7,140,228421,9081,335,1718,897,307
1960–61*8,208,571356,2991,249,2029,814,072
1961–62*8,530,121340,3511,132,31510,002,787

The productive capacity of fertiliser manufacturing plants has been increased in recent years with the establishment of three new works. The fall in the use of fertilisers in 1958–59 was attributable to a reduction in farm incomes.

The activities of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in the treatment of experimental plots from the various aspects of soil and crop requirements, and the subsequent data published thereon, have been an important factor in conveying to the farmer the many advantages to be derived from the scientific treatment of pastures.

While topdressing in the past was practically confined to sown grasses on the fiat and gently undulating country, the application of fertilisers to the surface-sown hill-country pastures in increasing quantities from aircraft has followed from the development of commercial aerial topdressing operations since 1949. Further information in this connection is contained in Section 11D.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC. – For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry from public funds. In addition, agricultural and pastoral education is assisted financially by grants to the agricultural colleges.

Subsidies reached their peak during the war and immediate post-war years, details of which are available in earlier issues of the Yearbook. In more recent years there has been a considerable curtailment of this type of assistance to farmers.

The following table shows the payments during the latest three years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1960–611961–621962–63
 £££
Carriage of lime44,12640,16340,572
Stock Act: compensation284,018390,057540,827
Compensation for loss of production, ex gratia payments for hardship from compulsory tuberculosis test75,31283,22993,543
Meat Act: compensation14,66813,73211,023
Subsidies to rabbit boards530,499595,457628,011
Grants to rabbit boards115,000126,500154,025
Cow-testing organisations26,58329,58329,583
Destruction of kea20310992
Veterinary Services Council50,00050,00050,000
Nassella Tussock Act: subsidies to boards69,55067,94071,720
Noxious Weeds Act: subsidies to county councils and road boards41,49543,57143,893
Compensation for scrapie disease2,0001,214
Emergency expenditure to assist primary producers20,1474,75052,033

Comment on some of the more important items is necessary to explain their origin and significance.

Lime Subsidy – Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed, and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. Farmers meet full transport costs and are entitled to claim a refund from the Department of Agriculture, at the same rates as applied up to 30 November 1959.

Rabbit Boards – In the post-war years a determined effort has been made to rid the country of rabbits which were lowering the carrying capacity of farmland and causing a loss of production running into many million pounds in value annually. Rabbit-infested areas were brought under rabbit board control. In 1948 there were 47 boards in the South Island and 61 in the North Island covering 18 million acres. By 1962 there were 131 South Island and 49 North Island boards covering 42 1/2 million acres. Rabbit board rates paid by some 40,000 farms are subsidised by the Government, which also makes grants to rabbit boards. Good progress has been made towards the eradication of the rabbit and this goal is now in sight in many areas. Rabbit boards may undertake opossum and wallaby control.

Other Items – Most of the remaining subsidies represent attempts to deal with specific problems of disease and pest control which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups. Under this heading come such items as compensation for diseased stock under the Meat Act and the Stock Act, and destruction of kea, etc. Subsidies of this nature are mostly charges against the vote of the Department of Agriculture. They are not recoverable except in the case of compensation paid for diseased stock under the Stock Act, where a partial recovery is obtained by the sale of by-products from condemned stock in certain cases.

FARM MACHINERY – The results of a full census of farm machinery taken in 1950 have been published in earlier volumes of the Yearbook.

The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where a comparison is available for the years 1947, 1950, 1952, 1957, 1960, and 1961. The figures for 1960 onwards relate to holdings of 10 acres and over, whereas figures for earlier years relate to holdings of 1 acre and over.

Type of Machine194719501952195719601961

*This item covers only those machines actually used for threshing wheat or oats during the year specified.

†Estimates, in 1953, 52,495; 1954, 55,623; 1955, 62,137; 1958, 73,499; 1959, 75,291.

‡Stationary shearing machine plants only.

§Electric motors of over one-quarter horsepower only.

Milking machines32,59636,36837,56338,76436,721..
Cream separators48,19454,421....30,608..
Shearing machines-
  Plants14,56418,79120,81026,59228,92229,902
  Stands33,90740,53644,472..61,637 
Agricultural tractors21,15634,91845,73471,45678,41580,817
Rotary hoes and garden tractors1,6463,0934,380......
Electric motors82,721110,683123,439139,080122,758§ 
Internal-combustion engines23,10929,92629,052   
Threshing machines*1,6411,9001,965......
Header harvesters..3,1213,130..4,746..

The figures show a continuation of the trend towards more intensive mechanisation of farm work that has been in evidence over a considerable period.

Milking Machines – Information concerning milking machines on farms was first collected in 1919, in which year there were 7,577 plants recorded. Since that year the use of milking machines has expanded rapidly. Of the 1,905,534 cows in milk on 31 January 1952, 1,799,375, or 94 per cent, were on holdings employing milking machines. In 1951 the corresponding percentage was 94 and in 1942, 87. At the end of January 1960 there were 36,721 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 183,329 sets of cups. There were also 30,608 cream separators used.

Agricultural Tractors – During the 20 years from 1942 to 1962 the number of agricultural tractors employed on farms rose from 13,967 to 84,156. These figures do not include rotary hoes or garden tractors, which showed an increase from 813 in 1942 to 4,380 in 1952.

The number of holdings on which tractors were located in 1952 was 38,434 out of a total of 90,288. The 6,046 cases in 1952, in which there were more than one tractor on the farm, were made up as follows: two tractors, 5,110; three, 720; four, 157; five or more, 59.

The classes of tractors on farm holdings of 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries are given in the following table.

 As at 31 January 1962
NumberPercentage of Total
Diesel oil –
  Crawler6,2037.37
  Wheel23,26527.65
    Total, diesel oil29,46835.02
Petrol or kerosine –
  Crawler4,9685.90
  Wheel49,72059.08
    Total, petrol or kerosine54,68864.98
      Total, tractors84,156100.00

Header Harvesters – There has been a rapid expansion in the use of header harvesters since their introduction to New Zealand in 1930. The number of header harvesters on holdings of 10 acres or over outside borough boundaries as at 31 January 1960 was 4,746.

14 B-CROPS

GENERAL – Crops grown in New Zealand are in general able to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc., though a substantial proportion of wheat requirements is imported.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities with a favourable climate. In addition to meeting local demand, there is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Home gardens supply a considerable proportion of family requirements of vegetables, but there is a substantial area planted in market gardens, both inside and outside borough boundaries, to meet the needs of a growing population. Potato production is normally adequate but has occasionally to be supplemented by imports. The production of onions has been largely sufficient for local requirements of recent years. Minor quantities of onions are occasionally imported from the Northern Hemisphere.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. The supply of supplementary fodders is adequate both in quantity and in quality, so that New Zealand imports stock food to a very minor extent only.

Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seeds, which are now grown almost entirely in New Zealand. There is a small import of certain classes of seeds, but this is almost negligible in relation to requirements; on the other hand, an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds has been developed.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION – Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplying in 1961–62, 66 per cent of New Zealand's wheat yield, 47 per cent of the oats threshed, and 73 per cent of the barley yield. Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough, Wellington, and Otago, Canterbury alone producing 64 per cent of the total yield. In the season 1961–62, 57 per cent of the area closed off for production of grass seed was in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury statistical area also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington statistical area, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland. The Pukekohe district also provides that city with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington city draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both cities with these vegetables. Further large areas are utilised for these purposes in the Hastings district of Hawke's Bay, which is also the largest contributor of canned or processed vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near the cities, and on the rich soils near Christchurch over 1,000 acres are devoted to this purpose; also to the immediate south of Oamaru and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin there are other areas aggregating more than 1,000 acres. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are famed for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance in central Auckland and Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The areas devoted to each of the principal crops in the 1961–62 season and the percentage distributions for each crop by statistical areas and North and South Island are given in the following table.

CropArea (New Zealand)NorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland Bay of PlentyEast Coast.Hawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonNorth Island
 acres   percentage   
Wheat186,2881.30.14.35.7
Oats for threshing34,6820.2 0.30.12.02.6
Barley77,1160.30.92.70.210.114.2
Maize7,3442.51.011.681.63.10.2100.0
Peas (not canning)28,0300.12.413.115.6
Oats for chaff, hay, or silage18,2691.40.84.40.21.82.99.020.5
Oats fed off, cut green, abandonded, etc.29,0300.90.21.60.22.91.05.011.8
Rape for fodder130,6150.20.11.30.34.30.14.110.4
Chou moellier, kale for fodder138,0020.31.411.50.412.84.527.258.1
Grasses, clover, and lucerne for seed146,1260.20.10.90.82.60.12.67.3
Grasses and clovers for hay and silage867,6026.47.644.20.52.012.16.479.2
Lucerne for hay or silage146,2820.20.17.60.22.70.52.213.5
Swedes191,5510.50.214.00.71.62.95.625.5
Turnips226,2541.31.711.20.83.51.77.327.5
Turnips and rape mixed41,9490.40.12.00.32.20.33.08.3
Potatoes22,5061.113.55.01.05.21.219.246.2
Vegetable crops for processing4,5730.12.91.225.353.90.31.985.6
Peas for vining (including canning and quick freeze)11,7840.32.07.149.41.460.2
Fruit crops in commercial orchards16,0793.715.15.32.521.20.20.848.8
Vegetable crops in market gardens13,2702.425.98.42.512.50.516.368.5
CropArea (New Zealand)MarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandSouth Island
 acres   percentage   
Wheat186,2882.70.265.814.910.794.3
Oats for threshing34,6821.50.347.315.832.597.4
Barley77,1163.12.673.36.40.485.8
Maize7,344
Peas (not canning)28,03016.40.463.72.71.284.4
Oats for chaff, hay, or silage18,2692.52.30.635.919.019.279.5
Oats fed off, cut green, abandoned, etc.29,0366.73.30.554.816.46.588.2
Rape for fodder130,6153.30.850.124.610.889.6
Chou moellier, kale for fodder138,002101.10.113.611.314.841.9
Grasses, clover, and lucerne for seed146.1263.71.056.715.415.992.7
Grasses and clovers for hay and silage867,6020.91.90.95.84.76.620.8
Lucerne for hay or silage146,2825.41.00.149.023.67.486.5
Swedes191,5510.61.31.315.120.136.174.5
Turnips226,2541.71.91.141.715.710.472.5
Turnips and rape mixed41,9492.20.81.026.021.640.191.7
Potatoes22,5061.12.839.06.74.253.8
Vegetable crops for processing4,5731.54.12.84.51.514.4.
Peas for vining (including canning and quick freeze)11,7849.816.313.60.139.8
Fruit crops in commercial orchards16,0793.324.55.31800.151.2
Vegetable crops in market gardens13,2700.88.59.212.80.231.5

A detailed analysis of arable cropping farms in 1959–60 was undertaken as part of the World Census of Agriculture. The following table compiled from the results of this analysis shows the distribution of crops by regional areas. The dominance of the South Island, with 76 per cent of the crop area is clearly shown.

Regional Area*Type of Farm
Principally (75% or More) Dairy FarmingPrincipally (75% or More) Sheep FarmingPrincipally (75% or More) Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy Predominant (50%–75%)Sheep and Dairy with Sheep Predominant (50%–75%)Mixed Dairy and Sheep (Approximately Equal)Sheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant (50%–75%)

*For details of counties included see page 403.

  North Islandacres in crops
Northland5,8102,096454520932737
South Auckland6,5025,62748591167209189
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands20,50311,1212502,23075561134
Cape Colville1,269349111735236
Central Plateau6,9625,1195931,01450545482
Western Uplands1,20114,574146436505415314
Taranaki8,6472,631875520740717
East Cape1,4965,408159214462171,356
Hawke's Bay1,33235,8633902952832763,647
Rangitikei2,37421,4721766416695713,116
Manawatu12,69317,7275701,4881,1831,0742,647
Wairarapa2,55914,928456443112552,480
Featherston2,4516,05647390368691,470
    North Island totals73,799142,9712,8979,3915,1444,86715,359
  South Island
Marlborough1,62112,280923561111668,802
Nelson2,4785,3741318577597062,044
Westland1,2421,79446959791147
North Canterbury30221,885125631314515,088
Foothills27223,150192106531879,774
Canterbury Plains5,59527,7787846593722529,026
Christchurch852288131007159243
Banks Peninsula171283209219282
Mackenzie-10,9556,054
South Canterbury3,51793,580356903,766509131,440
Otago2,60435,304343203842616,179
Central Otago14023,0402157140383,328
Southern2,100164,5761145,51312,0033,22352,094
Remainder54
    South Island totals20,894420,3411,0189,24119,2565,785264,354
    New Zealand totals94,693563,3123,91518,63224,40010,652279,713
Regional Area*Type of Farm
Cropping and Sheep with Cropping Predominant (50%–75%)Mixed Sheep and Cropping (Approximately Equal)General Mixed Farming (Three or More Types) None PredominantOther (Including Horticulture, Timber, etc.)Idle and UnusedType Group totals

*For details of counties included see page 403.

  North Islandacres in crops
Northland4219300289,804
South Auckland2602162332,85116,893
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands181254438236,460
Cape Colville3931,932
Central Plateau83352,8541217,938
Western Uplands3161319717,856
Taranaki124415013,067
East Cape1,6471,2361,2941,4051814,496
Hawke's Bay2,4278321,1742,021348,543
Rangitikei422387223330,054
Manawatu473299568835539,562
Wairarapa1314024688222,305
Featherston58656711,041
    North Island totals5,0413,3006,03611,08066279,951
  South Island
Marlborough9733,65487829829,231
Nelson9287642,7212,93619,698
Westland61164,417
North Canterbury1,0682,0141,431942,323
Foothills8831,7547982662237,988
Canterbury Plains10,72917,2629,8513,89012105,848
Christchurch2691793781,461223,971
Banks Peninsula15812841,049
Mackenzie3041,4068331519,567
South Canterbury14,64338,19716,1263,09411305,608
Otago2052697255311467
Central Otago54961636426328,556
Southern5938262,472725244,239
Remainder54
    South Island totals31,30266,95336,64613,50868889,366
    New Zealand totals36,34370,25342,68224,5881341,169,317

STATISTICS – Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the Report on the Farm Production Statistics of New Zealand issued annually by the Department of Statistics. It should be noted that, unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in this subsection for years up to and including 1958–59 relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. Commencing with the year 1959–60 a change was made in the coverage so that it included only holdings of 10 acres and over situated outside borough boundaries.

BUSHEL WEIGHTS – For statistical and other purposes it is times necessary to convert bushel units to a weight basis. For New Zealand produce and fruit, conversion is effected by using the following weights per bushel for the commodities mentioned.

ProduceWeight of BushelFruitWeight of Bushel
 lb lb
Wheat60Apples40
Oats40Pears38
Barley50Quinces40
Maize56Peaches42
Peas60Nectarines42
Ryecorn56Apricots42
Beans65Plums42
Grass seed20Cherries42
  Oranges42–43
  Lemons (uncured)42

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION – A general summary of the areas under cultivation during each of the last 11 years is given in the following table. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside borough boundaries up to the year 1958–59. From 1959–60 the coverage was changed to holdings of 10 acres and upwards outside borough boundaries. (The effect of this change on comparability is not great. In 1956–57 although some 13 per cent of holdings outside boroughs were 1 and under 10 acres, in nearly all items the percentage in this group was less than 1 per cent. Exceptions were market gardens, orchards, nurseries, and potato and onion cropping.)

YearPasture Land*Field CropsPlantationsOrchardsLying FallowOther Cultivated LandTotal Cultivated Land

*Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or silage, which have been included in field crops.

†Includes market gardens and nurseries (previously in “Other Cultivated Land”), and in 1960–61 and 1961–62 excludes domestic orchards.

‡Areas in residences, private grounds, gardens and domestic orchards are excluded.

acres
1952–5316,574,4392,131,170949,53321,464173,626111,36419,961,596
1953–5416,573,0042,060,678967,66621,246144,328111,98619,878,908
1954–5516,557,8192,141,623962,59221,998161,201116,13619,961,369
1955–56..............
1956–5716,346,7492,427,189915,13219,944163,60497,01719,969,635
1957–5816,561,6882,296,429906,21920,518173,378100,08620,058,318
1958–5916,614,0712,344,175921,86420,292138,05499,12320,137,579
1959–6017,200,6362,312,189944,06530,675126,02288,89420,702,481
1960–6117,616,6362,426,387938,35032,768138,757..21,152,898
1961–6217,885,6302,378,997991,09520,666142,913..21,419,301
1962–6317,954,9682,594,2571,024,35331,948123,133..21,728,659

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS – The following table shows the areas under each of the principal field crops for the years stated.

Crop1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63

*Including turnips and rape mixed.

†Rape, kale, and chou moellier only.

‡Includes linseed, mangolds, and tobacco.

 acres
Wheat135,583166,317191,172191,486230,491
Oats93,59580,56393,44281,98764,600
Barley63,58773,06179,28189,77997,429
Maize12,13414,66914,03014,69815,753
Peas for threshing26,08028,37028,31428,03029,824
Linen flax761699526651501
Potatoes23,79621,41022,33422,50622,409
Turnips and swedes*444,210436,738448,489459,754426,923
Onions1,3051,2751,5441,4341,880
Vegetable crops for processing13,75210,92411,57516,35716,095
Green fodder288,311297,317287,992268,617251,076
Grasses, clovers, and lucerne for seed173,438133,516212,106146,265,520
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage891,634870,098835,857867,602962,142
Lucerne for hay or silage136,548139,258158,475146,282159,637
Other crops39,44137,97441,25043,68849,997
  Totals2,344,1752,312,1892,426,3872,378,9972,594,257

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops for grain or fodder. A considerable portion of the area under cereal crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff, hay, or silage, or is fed off. In regard to peas it should be noted that additional areas of this crop for domestic consumption in the form of green peas are included under market gardens and crops for processing.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS – Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per acre of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas

*Estimated.

Areas for Threshing
 acresacresacresacresacres
1952–53127,22549,08755,3345,97327,265
1953–54113,81320,52968,4794,06230,889
1954–55103,98931,16441,6743,15429,506
1955–5668,47942,16849,195..25,239
1956–5765,74356,49659,7765,48624,759
1957–5883,93629,98165,8816,34631,876
1958–59132,91334,01153,6206,61226,080
1959–60163,15833,52462,4978,33828,370
1960–61186,78843,46265,5926,56028,314
1961–62186,28834,68277,1167,34428,030
1962–63225,74820,87787,4327,89829,824
1963–64*203,00024,00084,0008,000 
Total Yields
 bushelsbushelsbushelsbushelsbushels
1952–534,525,2982,385,1292,139,886349,194614,417
1953–544,783,227945,3863,335,399259,248953,749
1954–554,113,4441,602,0581,991,875201,913885,432
1955–562,658,4281,947,4042,031,526..634,846
1956–572,950,2732,888,3102,854,592313,486845,644
1957–583,727,1171,460,1493,552,229302,6181,046,847
1958–596,038,8221,575,7552,661,090378,908829,852
1959–608,700,1991,825,1043,136,837702,668923,810
1960–619,309,1182,349,3513,415,661403,710930,736
1961–627,835,4081,886,0603,560,550544,695762,961
1962–639,156,2961,028,2004,201,650608,9221,000,502
1963–64*9,947,0001,344,0004,536,000  
Yields per Acre
 bushelsbushelsbushelsbushelsbushels
1952–5335.5748.5938.6758.4622.54
1953–5442.0346.0548.7163.8230.88
1954–5539.5651.4147.8064.0230.01
1955–5638.8246.1841.30..25.15
1956–5744.8851.1247.7557.1434.16
1957–5844.4048.7053.9247.6932.84
1958–5945.4346.3349.6357.3131.82
1959–6053.3254.4450.1984.2732.56
1960–6149.8454.0652.0761.5432.87
1961–6242.0654.3846.1774.1727.22
1962–6340.5649.2548.0577.1033.55
1963*49.0056.0054.00  

WHEAT – With a view to reducing imports of wheat, the Wheat Research Institute and the Crop Research Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research have been endeavouring to encourage the growing in New Zealand of better-quality varieties suitable for modern mechanised bakeries. Tests of flour from commercial crops have confirmed the outstanding baking quality of Hilgendorf wheat released in 1947. In an endeavour to encourage the growing of this variety, and so help to bring about an improvement in flour and bread quality, a premium of 1s. per bushel was payable to farmers on all crops of Hilgendorf wheat handled by the Wheat Committee. The premium was further increased to 2s. per bushel from the 1957–58 season, which produced a temporary increase in the proportion of Hilgendorf grown. A higher producing variety known as Hilgendorf (1961) has now replaced the original variety.

Wheat production dropped away between 1955 and 1958. With an immediate target of 150,000 acres the Government increased the price of wheat grown in the South Island by 2s. a bushel and in the North Island by 6d. a bushel from the 1958–59 season. Current prices are 13s. 6d. a bushel in the South Island and 14s. 6 1/2d. in the North Island. The introduction of these prices was an attempt to reduce the steadily increasing wheat imports which over the three years ended 1958 averaged 10,080,000 bushels annually.

As a result of the increase in the overall price of wheat, combined with the release of the high yielding varieties Arawa and Aotea, and also to other economic factors, the acreage threshed has increased throughout recent years from 83,936 acres in 1957–58 to 225,748 acres in 1962–63. It is estimated that 203,000 acres were threshed in the 1963–64 season.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat during the last 33 seasons, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

AREA AND YIELDS OF WHEAT FOR THRESHING

Wheat Committee – Control of the importation of wheat and flour and of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Committee. The operations of this Committee, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, and bakers, with the Minister of Industries and Commerce as Chairman, and his nominee from the Department of Industries and Comment as Deputy Chairman, are governed by the Board of Trade (Wheat and Flour) Regulations.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Committee through the agency of the grain merchants acting as brokers for the Committee. The Committee is responsible for the importation of any wheat and flour and the distribution of imported poultry wheat in the North Island; in the South Island poultry wheat is not controlled. Its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat and the sale of flour to merchants, bakers, pastrycooks, grocer, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand approximates 14 million bushels – some 9 1/2 million bushels being required for flour, and the balance for poultry food and seed. Over the five seasons ending with 1962–63 the annual local production of wheat has averaged 8,207,968 bushels, while imports over the five years ended 1963 averaged 6,684,424 bushels annually.

Varieties of Wheat – The choice of wheat varieties for sowing is influenced by their suitability to local conditions of climate, soil type, etc. Wheat growers receive valuable guidance regarding suitable varieties as the result of research work and field trials undertaken by the Crop Research Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Wheat Research Institute, and the Department of Agriculture. The survey of varieties of wheat grown for threshing is now carried out each year. The 1963 survey which related to wheat sown in 1962 and harvested in 1963 showed the following results.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production

*Area of wheat threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 225,748 acres which produced 9,156,296 bushels.

Aotea140,0065,436,49266.8638.83
Arawa37,9921,748,65521.5146.03
Cross 712,477571,1847.0245.78
Hilgendorf4,170145,6421.7934.93
Gabo1,78954,9890.6830.74
Festival1,70658,3180.7234.18
Other varieties2,469115,5591.4246.80
  Totals200,609*8.130,839100.0040.53

OATS – The area under oats declined steadily after the Second World War, the greatest decrease being in oats for chaff, hay, and silage. This decline resulted largely from the replacement of horses by tractors.

Varieties of Oats Threshed – A survey covering the season 1962–63 gave the following results:

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production

*Area of oats threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 20,877 acres which produced 1,028,200 bushels.

Onward9,525555,42868.1458.31
Algerian2,87890,51911.1031.45
Grey winter2,11173,0448.9634.60
Black1,03649,6076.0947.88
Dun50818,2452.2435.92
Other white56128,3193.4750.48
  Totals16,619*815,162100.0049.05

More than half a million bushels of oats are milled each year to produce some 2,600 tons of rolled oats, and 3,100 tons of oatmeal and proprietary oaten foods.

BARLEY – Prior to 1945 considerable quantities of barley were imported, mainly for use as stock food. In recent years domestic production has been sufficient. In the 10 seasons 1952–53 to 1961–62 the average area of barley sown was 70,000 acres, of which 60,000 were harvested for grain, most of the remainder being used for green feed. In the 1961–62 season there were 3,560,550 bushels of barley threshed and 4,201,650 bushels in the 1962–63 season. During 1962–63 1,540,867 bushels were used for malting and 599,672 bushels for stock food.

The area harvested in 1962–63 was 87,432 acres and in 1963–64 it was estimated that 84,000 acres would be threshed.

Varieties grown in the 1962–63 season were as set out below.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production

*Area of barley threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 87,432 acres.

Research32,8381,539,77044.2146.89
Kenia26,7351,280,78536.7847.91
Carlsberg11,387609,87817.5153.56
Other varieties1,49252,2271.5035.00
  Totals72,452*3,482,660100.0048.07

PEAS – The area of peas for threshing has fallen considerably since the peak of 50,000 acres averaged over the three seasons 1946–47 to 1948–49, the average area for the five years 1958–59 to 1962–63 being 28,124 acres. There have been fluctuations in the export figures for this commodity. In 1949 nearly 850,000 bushels were exported, whereas by 1953 the amount had fallen to approximately 370,000 bushels. Over the five years 1959 to 1963 exports averaged 315,773 bushels annually.

Varieties of peas grown in the 1962–63 season were as under.

VarietyArea (Acres)YieldAverage Yield per Acre (Bushels)
BushelsPercentage of Total Production

*Area of peas threshed in survey by varieties; total area threshed was 29,824 acres which produced 1,000,502 bushels.

Garden varieties17,894613,73171.7634.30
Field varieties –
Blue Boiling1,15937,9814.4432.77
Maple4,404138,44016.1931.44
White2,03065,0627.6132.05
  Totals25,487*855,214100.0033.55

The foregoing figures exclude green peas grown for market or processing (e.g., canning and quick freezing). There has been an increasing use of quick-frozen peas since they were introduced to the New Zealand market a few years ago, and apart from a large local consumption of these and canned peas New Zealand also exports large quantities of both commodities. A peak quantity of 9,685,000 lb of canned peas was exported in 1956, the bulk of which went to the United Kingdom. There has since been a decline in the exports of this commodity, the figures for the last five years being: 1959, 3,530,000 lb; 1960, 2,287,000 lb; 1961, 775,241 lb; 1962, 134,973 lb; and 1963, 1,547,568 lb. Also 27,961 cwt of frozen peas were exported in 1960, 30,459 cwt in 1961, 14,535 cwt in 1962, and 29,104 cwt in 1963.

POTATOES – The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of seven members, three of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, three nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Federation (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal functions of the Board are to ensure that adequate supplies of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the Board may impose a levy not exceeding 30s. per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the Board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

The Board undertakes to compensate contract growers for any declared unsold number one grade contract produce held by growers at the end of the season. For the 1963–64 season the rate involved varies according to varieties from £11 to £14 per ton in the South Island and £13 to £16 per ton in the North Island. These rates are the same as for the previous season.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest five years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Acre

*From 1959–60 figures are not strictly comparable with earlier years due to a change in coverage from 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries.

 acrestonstons
1958–5923,796149,9266.30
1959–60*21,410156,8077.32
1960–6122,334190,4388.53
1961–6222,506191,2448.50
1962–6322,409181,4258.10

The estimated area for 1963–64 was 24,000 acres.

ONIONS – Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest five years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Acre

*From 1959–60 figures are not strictly comparable with earlier years due to a change in coverage from 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries.

 acrestonstons
1958–591,30511,9599.16
1959–60*1,27515,24211.95
1960–611,54418,12511.74
1961–621,43413,7459.59
1962–631,88021,00311.17

In earlier years the production of onions was rarely sufficient to supply domestic requirements. As onions are a semiperishable commodity it was found convenient to export in the flush of the New Zealand season, and to obtain supplies from overseas later in the year. However, a considerable improvement has been effected in the keeping qualities of the varieties grown, and insignificant quantities of onions have been imported into New Zealand for some years. In the year ended 30 June 1963 exports amounted to 2,313 tons.

LINSEED – The area under this crop has fluctuated considerably over a long period. The highest level of 24,437 acres was reached in 1951–52. Reduced world prices, among other factors, led to a sharp contraction in the area planted in the 1953–54 season, only 2,822 acres being sown. This area gave a yield of 29,022 cwt of seed at an average of 10.28 cwt per acre. There was a partial recovery in the 1954–55 season, when 7,741 acres were harvested for a total yield of 77,588 cwt. Because of falling overseas prices the sole processing plant for linseed oil at Dunedin closed down at the end of 1954, but reopened again in 1957 in order to conserve overseas funds. In the processing of linseed, the linseed oil is extracted while the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock feeding. A small quantity of unprocessed linseed is also used for this purpose.

Varieties of linseed grown in the 1962–63 season were as follows:

VarietyAreaYieldAverage Yield per Acre
WeightPercentage of Total Production

*This is the total area surveyed. The total area of linseed grown in the 1962–63 season is not available.

 acrescwtper centcwt
Redwood12,133139,38078.9611.49
Rocket3,48132,03118.159.20
Others4395,1062.8911.63
  Total16,053*176,517100.0011.00

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS – Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In mid winter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses part of its nutritive value. During these periods it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or silage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures for the latest six years of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops.

YearGrasses and Clovers, Including Lucerne for Hay or SilageCereal CropsRape, Kale, and Chou MoellierSwedes, Turnips, and RapeTotal Area of Fodder Crops*

*Excludes small areas of other minor fodder crops.

   acres  
1957–581,010,81474,110277,748429,3861,792,058
1958–591,028,18277,743288,311444,2101,838,446
1959–601,009,35667,093297,317436,7381,810,504
1960–61994,33275,523287,992448,4891,806,336
1961–621,013,88472,520268,617459,7541,814,775
1962–631,121,77962,266251,076426,9231,862,044

In 1962–63 grasses and clovers cut for hay or silage totalled 962,142 acres and lucerne 159,637 acres. Oats was the only cereal crop utilised in any quantity for this purpose. Oats also was the principal cereal crop fed off to stock. The area of oats cut for chaff, hay, or silage or fed off amounted to 43,240 acres. The principal green-fodder crops apart from oats are rape (115,282 acres) and chou moellier including kale (135,794 acres). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in New Zealand, the total area sown in these crops in 1962–63 being 426,923 acres (including 36,407 acres of turnips and rape mixed).

SEED CERTIFICATION – The Department of Agriculture has a seed certification scheme covering such crops as potatoes, wheat, perennial ryegrass, Italian ryegrass, short rotation (H1) ryegrass, cocksfoot, timothy, browntop, Phalaris tuberosa, white clover, cowgrass (broad red clover), Montgomery red clover, subterranean clover, oats, barley, ryecorn, sweet blue lupins, onions, chou moellier, rape, kale, turnip, and swede seeds. Selected strains are multiplied under the Department's certification scheme through the stages of certified “Pedigree” seed and certified “Mother” seed to certified “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” seed. These seeds are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED – Of the total area of grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for seed during 1962–63, 86 per cent was provided by the statistical areas of Canterbury, Otago, and Southland.

The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, distinguishing the principal varieties, during each of the latest five years for which figures are available, are given in the table following. (Figures are not available for 1959–60.)

Crop1957–581958–591960–611961–621962–63
Ryegrass –acres
  Perennial41,96040,65167,53135,35591,397
  Italian6,0106,6358,2864,9908,830
  Short rotation (H1)15,70717,53222,94116,30121,518
Cocksfoot9,13910,82611,89811,52813,573
Chewings fescue3,9313,6933,7752,8442,683
Crested dogstail8,4576,6316,4346,1118,280
Red clover (including cowgrass)27,38019,28120,07114,89217,957
White clover65,89744,06150,93739,73283,831
Lucerne12,7377,96810,0916,8699,535
Other grasses and clovers18,45116,16010,1427,5047,916
    Totals209,669173,438212,106146,126265,520

Quantities (in dressed weights) of grass and clover seeds treated by machine dressing plants for the latest three years are given below.

Type of SeedUnitQuantity (Year Ended 31 October)
196119621963
Ryegrass –
  Perennialbush1,359,191837,5681,854,186
  Short rotation (H1)bush497,199345,029434,040
  Italian (including W. Wolths)bush161,992103,306184,814
Cocksfootlb1,970,7551,808,5243,349,530
Chewings fescuelb378,618347,695347,379
Crested dogstaillb1,081,7591,321,5631,571,185
Brown toplb188,004201,025315,562
Timothylb958,764728,232558,356
White cloverlb5,412,4654,8609,466,143
Suckling cloverlb360,638137,372265,496
Suckling white mixturelb548,818289,408545,064
Cowgrass (including broad red clover)lb1,550,0091,071,1931,188,757
Montgomery red cloverlb627,3371,238,8311,607,907
Lucernelb457,140461,927664,200
Other grasses and cloverslb220,046184,723295,471

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of this issue.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS – The acreages for market gardens, plantations, etc., for the latest seven years are given below. Forest Service plantations are covered by these figures. It should be noted that the statistics relate only to holdings of 1 acre or more outside boroughs up to and including 1958–59 and holdings of 10 acres and over outside boroughs from 1959–60. In the case of market gardens, nurseries, and private gardens the 1959–60 to 1961–62 figures are not comparable with earlier years for this reason. In 1956–57 the area of market gardens in the 1 and under 10 acre group represented 19 per cent of the total acreage; in the case of nurseries the percentage was 21 per cent and for private gardens 5 per cent. Plantations were scarcely affected, being well under 1 per cent. Figures include berry-fruit gardens. The table has been compiled from farm production statistics.

YearMarket Gardens*NurseriesPrivate Gardens, etc.Plantations

*Excluding crops for processing.

†Separate figure not available; market gardens, nurseries, and orchards, 30,675 acres.

  acres  
1956–5713,5292,80580,683915,132
1957–5813,5652,90983,612906,219
1958–5913,3282,98482,811921,864
1959–6088,894944,065
1960–6111,5401,354x..942,427x
1961–6213,2701,317..991,095
1962–6313,7791,431..1,024,353

Market Gardens – The Vegetables Levy Act 1957 provides for the collection of a levy from vegetable growers in respect of the sale of certain vegetables in order to provide funds for the benefit generally of vegetable growers. All vegetables except potatoes are covered by the Act. The Department of Agriculture estimates that approximately 2,770 growers were gardening an area of approximately 36,700 acres in 1962. Processing firms are estimated to have used produce from approximately 18,600 acres to meet the mounting local and export demand for processed vegetable products.

Commercial berry-fruit gardens are surveyed every five years by the Department of Agriculture, the last such survey being in 1960. The areas then being grown were raspberries, 498 acres; strawberries, 300 acres; black currants, 51 acres; gooseberries, 48 acres; boysenberries, 25 acres; and loganberries, 13 acres. The production of berry fruits in the 1962–63 season were raspberries, 965 tons; strawberries, 1,565 tons; black currants, 68 tons; gooseberries, 71 tons; boysenberries, 71 tons; and loganberries, 48 tons. The greatest concentration of gardens is in Canterbury, near Christchurch, and at Waimate, with a combined total of 281 acres. Raspberries account for most of the 188 acres in the Nelson Province. The mixed-berry gardens of the Wairarapa total 112 acres. In the vicinity of Auckland city some 79 acres of strawberries are grown. Other major centres of berry-fruit growing are Central Otago, 68 acres; Manawatu, 57 acres; and Hawke's Bay, 59 acres. Gooseberries are little grown commercially except in the Wairarapa (39 acres). These estimates include those grown in boroughs. The only berry fruit for which there is an organised marketing scheme is the raspberry, for which local marketing committees have been established in Nelson (since 1940) and in Canterbury and Otago (since 1950), while a Central Council of Raspberry Growers was created by the Raspberry Marketing Regulations 1950 to coordinate marketing by the three district committees.

Nurseries – Since 1939, owners or occupiers of nurseries raising for sale certain specific trees, shrubs, and plants have been required to register their nurseries before being permitted to sell trees or plants. The number of nurseries so registered at 31 December 1962 totalled 526 and these covered 1,688 acres.

Home Garden Production – Home garden production, on which a question was asked for the first time at the 1956 Census, is dealt with in the next table. This question was not asked again in the 1961 Census.

Proportion of RequirementsPotatoes GrownOther Vegetables Grown
Number of HouseholdsPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumber of HouseholdsPer Cent of Total Specified
All48,0848.7345,4988.27
Three-quarter24,2934.4154,3959.88
One-half46,2518.4069,90112.70
One-quarter56,86610.3356,60410.29
Under one-quarter101,28818.40107,32919.50
Nil273,81149.73216,63039.36
Not specified12,45912,695
  Totals563,052100.00563,052100.00

Of the specified cases 49.73 per cent of householders did not grow potatoes and 39.36 per cent did not grow other types of vegetables.

Of the total households where a return was made 62 per cent kept a garden and 38 per cent had no garden. Where only 37 per cent of dwellings with one occupant returned “yes”, this rose sharply to 59 per cent of households with two occupants. The proportions answering “yes” to this question increased continuously from two to six occupants, and declined from seven occupants onwards.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY – Because of New Zealand's geographic position the climate is varied and favours the production of a wide variety of fruits. Apples and pears are the main fruits, the principal growing areas being Nelson and Hawke's Bay. Peach and plum orchards are distributed over Nelson, Hawke's Bay, Central Otago, and near Auckland. Central Otago, with its hot summers and severe winters, produces the greater part of the English plums, apricots, and cherries. The coastal strip from North Auckland, through the Bay of Plenty, to Gisborne is sufficiently mild for the production of citrus and other subtropical fruits such as passionfruit, tree tomatoes, and Chinese gooseberries.

The area in commercial holdings of 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries returned as under fruit trees was given as 16,738 acres at 31 January 1963.

The Orchard Levy Act 1953 provides for the levying in each year by the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation of an amount not exceeding £2 10s. on occupiers of orchards containing no fewer than 120 fruit trees. This levy (at present £2 10s.) is used as required in assisting and developing the organisation of producers in the industry.

During 1958 the Department of Agriculture made the second comprehensive field survey of fruit trees in commercial orchards. (It is proposed to continue to carry out similar surveys every five years.) This survey covered all orchards with 100 or more deciduous fruit trees, over 50 citrus trees, or over half an acre in berry fruits, grapes, subtropical fruits, and mixed orchards of half an acre and over. The Horticulture Division of the Department of Agriculture has supplied the following numbers of fruit trees of principal kinds in commercial orchards based on 1958 survey figures: apple, 1,087,116; pear, 144,701; quince, 6,073; peach, 306,902; nectarine, 32,235; apricot, 121,426; plum, 104,744; cherry, 19,091; lemon, 41,235; orange, 40,616; grapefruit, 48,651; mandarin, 13,213; tangelos, 1,037.

A survey by the Department of Agriculture in 1960 of all vineyards containing at least half an acre of vines covered 168 vineyards. The total area in grapes was estimated at 958 acres, comprising 863 acres in wine grapes, 72 acres in outdoor table grapes, and 23 acres devoted to grape-juice production. Vineyards were mainly in Auckland (425 acres), Hawke's Bay (387 acres), Waikato (63 acres), Gisborne (45 acres), Northland (21 acres), Thames (10 acres), Bay of Plenty (3 acres), and South Island (4 acres). In 1962 there were 155 licensed winemakers who produced 1,206,202 gallons of grape wine, 3,325 gallons of grape-juice beverage, 51,070 gallons of fruit wine, and 11,160 gallons of cider. Grape-wine production consisted of 172,302 gallons of unfortified table wines, i.e., under 25 per cent proof spirit, and 861,598 gallons of fortified wines, over 30 per cent proof spirit. The estimated area in glasshouse vineries in 1962 was 416,820 square feet. The main centres of grape growing were: Auckland, 204,300 square feet; Canterbury, 54,000 square feet; Manawatu, 53,700 square feet; and Oamaru, 40,700 square feet. Approximately 197,400 square feet of glasshouse vineries have been adapted for early market and 219,420 square feet for late market. In 1962 grapes used for winemaking were estimated at 4,900 tons. There were 200 tons of outdoor table grapes and 190 tons of glasshouse grapes marketed for dessert purposes.

Apples and Pears – A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Board appears in Section 21.

Quantities of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Board in the last five seasons are given below. These figures exclude direct sales from fruitgrowers to the public.

SeasonApplesPearsTotal
  bushel cases 
19581,605,086365,8451,970,931
19591,525,400447,6001,973,000
19601,461,100356,6001,817,700
19611,680,000478,3002,158,300
19621,577,805441,9662,019,771

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board and exported to the United Kingdom and elsewhere during the 1962–63 season, together with the total estimated production of each variety. Factories are given authority to purchase fruit for processing direct from the growers.

VarietyMarketed in New Zealand by the Apple and Pear BoardExported to United KingdomExported to Other CountriesEstimated Total Production*

*Estimated by Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture.

  bushel cases 
Apples –
  Sturmer Pippin296,700253,130129,315849,000
  Delicious307,70067,434141,319631,000
  Jonathan160,500104,719139,059468,000
  Grannie Smith245,40049,507157,273659,000
  Cox's Orange Pippin99,80089,3703,356254,000
  Ballarat Seedling31,00046,1453,144138,000
  Golden Delicious147,90043,79073,321303,000
  Gravenstein113,200194149,000
  Dougherty101,8003,3099,661135,000
  Others272,70055,91436,624487,000
    Totals, apples1,776,700713,318693,2664,073,000
Pears –
  William's Bon Chretien88,20019,836Nil273,000
  Winter Cole108,80061,99013,557204,000
  Winter Nelis68,5004,4996,58988,000
  Others91,60013,85115,532211,000
    Totals, pears357,100100,17635,678776,000

Stone Fruits – The 1958 survey by the Department of Agriculture revealed that nearly one-third of the total of 307,000 peach trees were in Hawke's Bay, and that, of the balance, some 76,000 peach trees were in the Auckland district. The estimated production of peaches and nectarines in 1962–63 was estimated by the Department of Agriculture as follows: For market, 538,000 bushels; for canning, 282,000 bushels; and for jam, 5,500 bushels. Production and disposal of other stone fruits for 1962–63 were estimated as follows.

DisposalApricotsPlumsCherries
  bushels 
For market167,300160,00015,850
For canning52,4008,700
For jam15,40014,700
For quick freeze
  Total production235,100183,40015,850

Citrus and Subtropical Fruits – Estimated quantities of citrus fruits marketed in New Zealand by the Citrus Marketing Authority, together with direct sales to the public by citrus growers, are given in the following table.

YearGrapefruitLemons*Sweet OrangesMandarins and Other Citrus Fruits

*Figures for lemons relate to packed /4 bushel cases.

bushels
1958130,50089,00014,8003,400
1959138,900119,20013,9004,500
1960150,700128,90018,1005,700
1961140,400120,80020,6007,700
1962154,20094,60018,7507,700
1963204,900149,50028,75010,300

Reference to the Citrus Marketing Authority is to be found in Section 21.

Estimated production figures for other subtropical fruits for 1962 are: tree tomatoes, 1,059 tons; passionfruit, 95 tons; Chinese gooseberries, 69 tons. Feijoas are not an important crop in New Zealand and annual estimates of the production of these fruits have been discontinued. The estimate for 1958 for this crop was 39 tons.

HOPS – Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea county. Production per acre usually ranges between 1,200 and 1,500 lb. In the 1963 season 2,252 bales were packed, which was 715 bales less than the previous season. The total crop produced in the 1963 season was 663,848 lb, as against 886,699 lb in 1962. Exports were 14,993 lb in 1962 and 15,407 lb in 1963. The advent of the new hop-picking machines in 1963 resulted in 49.6 per cent of the crop being machine picked.

A Hop Marketing Committee of six members (one Government and five producer) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing either locally or overseas of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO – Commercial tobacco growing is confined to those to whom licences are issued by the Tobacco Board established under the Tobacco Growing Industry Act 1935 to control the industry. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 5,506,537 lb of raw tobacco leaf was imported for the year ended 30 June 1963, with a value of £1,507,921.

With the following particulars relating to tobacco production, it should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres or over situated outside borough boundaries. (Source: New Zealand Tobacco Board.)

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea PlantedProduction*Estimated Value of Crop*

*Includes research and experimental crops.

  acreslb£(000)
1957–584113,2654,650,711962
1958–594373,5345,606,9511,157
1959–604683,7507,075,5771,537
1960–615494,1516,777,4001,467
1961–626134,6999,327,3812,058
1962–637295,3578,947,7891,972

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 95.95 per cent and air-dried leaf for 4.05 per cent of the 1962–63 crop.

PHORMIUM TENAX – Certain areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered by natural stands of Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax), once used by the Maoris for many purposes and one of the earliest of this country's exports. Only a small proportion of the natural area is millable but this, together with an estimated planted area of about 3,000 acres, produces some 5,000 tons of fibre and tow. The industry provides at least one-third of the local requirements of woolpacks while large supplies of rope were produced during the war. Prior to the war the export trade diminished on account of competition from Manila hemp and Mexican sisal, and has been discontinued in recent years.

LINEN FLAX – Under the stimulus of wartime shortages linen-flax areas in New Zealand, which commenced with 403 acres in 1939–40, grew to a peak of 21,067 acres in 1942–43, but by 1953–54 only 1,886 acres were being grown. In 1955 the Linen Flax Corporation decided to concentrate operations in the Geraldine district and much smaller acreages have since been grown.

Areas for the last five seasons are: 1958–59, 761 acres; 1959–60, 669 acres; 1960–61, 526 acres; 1961–62, 651 acres; and 1962–63, 501 acres. The 1962 harvest yielded 1,628 tons of straw.

Production from the single factory still operated by the Linen Flax Corporation has been as follows:

Product19581959196019611962
   tons  
Straw processed1,2331,5261,4811,2571,373
Scutched fibre128156168143158
Seed131169151112175
Tow5754345544
Linmeal8810510271110

There is a strong demand for all linen fibre produced in New Zealand from a local manufacturer of twine who uses this kind of fibre in the making of twine for closing bags and bales and for rolling meat, and for other purposes which require a twine made from a strong durable fibre.

14 C – LIVESTOCK

SUMMARY OF LIVESTOCK – Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the Report on the Farm Production Statistics of New Zealand issued annually by the Department of Statistics. This publication also contains the summary tables appearing in parliamentary paper H. 23, which is devoted exclusively to a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns. It should be noted that, unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in the tables in this subsection for years up to and including 1958–59 relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. Commencing with the year 1959–60 a change was made in the coverage to holdings of 10 acres and over situated outside borough boundaries.

The numbers of livestock of various kinds at each of the latest four annual enumerations available were as shown in the following table, while figures over a longer period are shown in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook. Dairy cows in milk, total cattle, sows, and total pigs are as at 31 January; sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season ending in the year stated; breeding ewes and total sheep are as at 30 June.

Livestock1960196119621963

*Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.

Cattle (including dairy cows)5,991,9386,445,7896,597,9136,690,964
  Dairy cows in milk1,886,6721,928,7881,968,0941,997,253
Sheep (including lambs)*47,133,55748,462,31048,987,99250,190,284
  Breeding ewes*32,632,78433,591,98333,944,79034,988,968
  Lambs tailed during season31,116,53531,990,72233,588,73533,695,859
  Lambs shorn during season11,179,88711,649,58212,016,75912,458,114
  Sheep shorn during season44,010,09244,590,29844,860,47645,697,884
Pigs (total)660,261655,432685,541766,025
  Breeding sows87,82483,97984,49997,039

The next table shows the percentage distribution of the various kinds of livestock in each statistical area and Island. The figures reveal that the dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island, which has 87 per cent of the total cattle and 91 per cent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that over half the milking cows of New Zealand are in the area comprised of the statistical areas of Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland – Bay of Plenty. Taranaki and Wellington are practically equally important as regards the number of cows in milk; between them they account for nearly one-quarter of the total.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows two years old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland – Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with two-fifths of the Mew Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by East Coast and Northland in that order. These five districts together depasture 77 per cent of breeding cows reserved for beef production.

Pig farming is largely an adjunct of dairy farming, and consequently the distribution closely follows that of dairy cattle. Thus Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland – Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 59 per cent of the pig population and Wellington for 11 per cent. Taranaki, however, which is mainly a cheese producing district, has 14.9 per cent of New Zealand's milking cows, but only 12.7 per cent of the pigs, while Nelson, Westland, and Canterbury, which together have only 5.2 per cent of the cows in milk, have 10.5 per cent of the pig population.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland – Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay, in that order, these six districts accounting for 84 per cent of the total sheep population in 1963.

Statistical AreaDairy Cows, and Heifers Two Years Old and Over (In Milk)Beef Breeding Cows, Two Years Old and OverTotal CattleBreeding SowsTotal PigsSheep Shorn*Lambs Shorn*Lambs Tailed*

*Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed during 1962–63, remaining particulars for stock at 31 January 1963.

per cent
Northland13.28.410.416.015.82.83.82.4
Central Auckland9.12.75.811.411.92.22.72.0
South Auckland – Bay of Plenty42.122.632.033.331.513.820.913.3
East Coast0.712.46.11.11.04.27.23.3
Hawke's Bay2.115.69.32.12.011.716.810.7
Taranaki14.93.18.810.812.73.04.33.0
Wellington9.517.614.511.110.615.924.314.5
  North Island91.682.486.985.885.553.680.049.2
Marlborough0.61.61.11.61.52.51.42.1
Nelson1.71.11.43.13.61.21.01.0
Westland0.81.11.01.21.50.30.30.4
Canterbury2.75.74.25.65.417.07.018.9
Otago1.24.42.71.61.412.54.312.6
Southland1.43.72.71.11.112.96.015.8
  South Island8.417.613.114.214.546.420.050.8

SHEEP – In recent years each annual count has revealed increased numbers of both breeding ewes and total sheep and the percentage increase has been substantial. Over the decade from 30 June 1953 to 30 June 1963 the total number of sheep increased by 38.7 per cent.

At 30 June 1963 the number of breeding ewes was 34,988,968 and the total number of sheep 50,190,284. These totals were 3.08 and 2.45 per cent greater respectively than those of the previous year.

It is interesting to note the increasing proportion of breeding ewes to total sheep. Forty years ago 49 per cent of the total flock numbers were breeding ewes. This proportion had risen to 61.75 per cent by 1937, and to 63.47 per cent by 1947. The proportions as at 30 June 1961, 1962, and 1963, were 69.32 per cent, 69.29 per cent and 69.71 per cent respectively. These changes in the composition of flocks provide the basis of the greatly increased sheep numbers now being recorded.

The following table shows the number of sheep shorn during the 1959–60 season in regional areas classified according to the special farm types used in the 1959–60 World Census of Agriculture. (“Principal” is used where the activity is 75 per cent or more of the farming enterprise, “predominant” where it is 50–74 per cent, “mixed” where two activities are approximately equal, and “general mixed” where there are three or more types with none predominant.)

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
 Sheep Shorn
Northland88,3401,158,21783,15098,59164,64681,2152,893
South Auckland24,5281,176,70413,13640,82533,70224,38110,021
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands78,1111,656,49618,544119,78090,13560,5601,775
Cape Colville16,939116,8033,32318,52014,03111,207
Central Plateau52,277681,73430,20159,25238,27447,0878,930
Western Uplands15,9351,900,11414,07630,26755,76544,04312,635
Taranaki54,011627,2332,47542,96138,84043,8073,226
East Cape18,9761,848,23625,62614,67812,73526,28133,938
Hawke's Bay10,6443,838,30441,14010,94944,31375,846116,616
Rangitikei18,6963,121,48114,36029,83867,48431,003123,088
Manawatu34,4171,880,3536,11240,09876,92256,82379,613
Wairarapa9,9571,565,86564519,76523,32713,70662,862
Featherston8,641685,1708,57212,61720,0517,12948,673
Marlborough8,148923,5891,52110,2298,7096,190161,980
Nelson13,158327,9683,05528,36129,54323,88636,737
Westland5,91679,87516,81511,4062,6855,916..
North Canterbury3,022936,5276505116,1162,351218,708
Foothills1,103565,100252,1759,9622,567105,691
Canterbury Plains6,840450,6617995,32018,3507,026277,021
Christchurch1,12326,8995051,5821,2339952,512
Banks Peninsula2,877223,6413655,05317,8484,1386,004
Mackenzie484,7002,48596,776
South Canterbury9,8412,496,0311,0545,83179,1109,1371,505,808
Otago3,8131,324,7735475,06412,7038,405115,586
Central Otago4781,289,6374,2181,1738,36295174,674
Southern7,5685,275,5252,08684,291346,83967,4541,099,744
Remainder114,164231,500290
    Totals495,35934,775,800293,000699,1601,125,670662,3944,205,511
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal

*For list of counties included see page 403.

 Sheep Shorn
Northland2259,0087,2861171,643,485
South Auckland1,5102,82014,6163,498231,345,764
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands26033037,3474,046142,067,398
Cape Colville5,6285,809192,260
Central Plateau493624,041191,2021,133,083
Western Uplands1,59534021,2471,3292,097,346
Taranaki1,09424,0279,622847,296
East Cape4,3819,39161,79630,9282,086,966
Hawke's Bay9,8009,98343,04820,200204,220,863
Rangitikei1002,86423,6541,411303,434,009
Manawatu4,8073,56732,2735,8112,220,796
Wairarapa2553,7299,4403191,709,870
Featherston1971,6264792,680
Marlborough6,92629,65510,0151,3901,168,352
Nelson10,8379,65230,81711,3545525,373
Westland1,169481124,263
North Canterbury7,06320,15317,703731,212,877
Foothills5,14212,56510,000151714,481
Canterbury Plains40,532113,60953,6371,597975,392
Christchurch1,0861,1002,06743039,532
Banks Peninsula1,420572998485263,401
Mackenzie2,19913,00411,04660610,270
South Canterbury69,103279,564158,8057,2444,621,528
Otago1,1603,1118,11911,82811,495,110
Central Otago2,1366,7315,0837,4721,400,915
Southern3,9819,71044,8428,51236,950,555
Remainder250116,227
    Totals174,342533,602710,623334,41421744,010,092

The same classification is also used in the table which follows showing the number of lambs tailed during the 1959–60 season in regional areas.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
 Lambs Tailed
Northland44,971714,43730,12561,98634,77550,9741,560
South Auckland15,443822,8635,45331,17324,43617,4186,805
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands50,9181,342,26711,70198,44569,59046,2031,136
Cape Colville9,28760,9211,34411,0758,5287,976
Central Plateau32,135494,42616,83643,43629,38632,3035,790
Western Uplands9,8131,138,7906,38921,28537,88527,6927,006
Taranaki34,537455,0131,62435,25832,89735,6053,033
East Cape9,851982,20014,8517,6026,16315,22017,924
Hawke's Bay6,1282,580,79419,8126,66828,10936,14490,224
Rangitikei11,5262,081,5227,15921,79751,96624,60895,637
Manawatu22,1681,430,7943,49730,65163,32343,21674,637
Wairarapa4,093985,73172214,15616,87510,20043,209
Featherston4,979436,8395,0138,62713,7054,22330,682
Marlborough3,510471,6072506,1654,6684,282105,467
Nelson7,714182,3211,95817,44515,07013,07824,367
Westland5,14062,99114,5969,9561,7995,337
North Canterbury2,318591,3352503925,4491,888179,455
Foothills820362,5562,0077,8442,41092,411
Canterbury Plains5,389386,8039306,09318,4566,246273,360
Christchurch70021,6943861,6809941,0762,453
Banks Peninsula2,452175,9553775,34716,1823,800 5,958
Mackenzie247,75192568,060
South Canterbury5,4411,760,9145195,46871,7467,3411,372,425
Otago2,575873,9044474,0669,7437,41289,716
Central Otago309694,8921,3479767,20831052,560
Southern7,0774,428,67738487,490326,59168,094933,093
Remainder36,41521550
    Totals299,29423,824,462145,970539,265904,863473,0563,576,968
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal

*For list of counties included see page 403.

 Lambs Tailed
Northland34,5082,52420975,930
South Auckland4091,8258,6802,41529936,949
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands29029,3813,2421,653,173
Cape Colville4,1003,574106,805
Central Plateau241414,95387,300756,603
Western Uplands1,14123012,1959711,263,397
Taranaki76615,9984,609619,340
East Cape1,3983,57431,52915,23261,105,550
Hawke's Bay4,7715,79823,30813,8582,815,614
Rangitikei1101,77118,7388692,315,703
Manawatu2,0971,33823,9591,8211,697,501
Wairarapa1622,6857,2772051,085,315
Featherston27216504,311
Marlborough5,76223,4557,25744632,467
Nelson6,5307,43619,8106,6975302,431
Westland1,068415101,302
North Canterbury6,77518,59916,025133822,619
Foothills3,64012,6987,673145492,204
Canterbury Plains40,371121,52855,874385915,435
Christchurch9851,4511,82727533,521
Banks Peninsula1,5004861,231259213,547
Mackenzie1,9659,3487,80255335,906
South Canterbury67,186266,189140,0696,0723,703,370
Otago9281,9307,5257,9161,006,162
Central Otago1,2225,0303,9245,342773,120
Southern4,0567,94142,1655,7065,911,274
Remainder36,986
    Totals151,032494,382536,903170,2806031,116,535

In the following table total sheep distribution is shown by Islands, the figures including sheep in boroughs.

YearNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal Sheep at 30 June
NumberPer Cent of TotalNumberPer Cent of TotalNumber

*The change from Land Districts to Statistical Areas in 1961 resulted in the transfer of Chatham Islands from North Island to South Island area from that date.

195925,885,74655.2220,990,47644.7846,876,222
196026,264,19755.7220,869,36044.2847,133,557
1961*26,499,36554.6821,962,94545.3248,462,310
196226,513,32654.1222,474,66645.8848,987,992
196327,011,90353.8223,178,38146.1850,190,284

A similar table showing breeding ewe distribution by Islands is now given.

YearNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal Breeding Ewes at 30 June
NumberPer Cent of TotalNumberPer Cent of TotalNumber

*See note to previous table.

195917,168,06753.9614,648,02646.0431,816,093
196017,703,74054.2514,929,04445.7532,632,784
1961*18,016,58353.6315,575,40046.3733,591,983
196217,991,83653.0015,952,95447.0033,944,790
196318,437,09552.6916,551,87347.3134,988,968

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding ewes, dry ewes, and ram, wether, and ewe hoggets in New Zealand for the latest eight years, together with a broad classification into stud and other groups for the years 1952, 1957, and 1962. Figures are at 30 June. The statistics of breeds of sheep are collected at five-yearly intervals.

YearRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe

*Change in classification.

Totals
1956729,1652,495,28427,015,612477,271206,6942,712,8506,618,61240,255,488
1957770,7392,261,99428,899,470430,539234,2962,786,0056,998,96542,382,008
1958805,4612,600,58030,875,704445,850269,3793,092,9487,936,00846,025,930
1959836,5612,438,09931,816,093494,574278,1322,880,2178,132,54646,876,222
1960860,4612,324,06432,632,784508,518270,4592,545,0477,992,22447,133,557
1961882,0522,179,33733,591,983521,800268,7882,724,4418,293,90948,462,310
1962899,7192,281,25433,944,790549,057266,9472,724,9198,321,30648,987,992
1963902,2062,256,91834,988,968516,763262,8502,721,2878,541,29250,190,284
Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
195212,828331,1805,937118,675129,810598,430
195717,045440,6625,503153,037167,532783,779
196224,636507,5496,851182,784195,779917,599
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but Not Entered in Flock Book
1952*587,5452,393,10517,804,304356,55442,4071,997,0314,482,90027,663,846
1957720,3301,969,95424,698,756352,03672,1642,336,0206,095,52336,244,783
1962833,9532,012,33029,034,965449,51075,2072,288,6747,279,97541,974,614
Crossbred Sheep
1952*31,713586,0514,827,85688,2436,320592,906988,9057,121,994
195733,364292,0403,760,05273,0009,095449,985735,9105,353,446
196241,130268,9244,402,27692,6968,956436,245845,5526,095,779

The 1962 classification of reeds shows that of the 48,987,992 sheep in New Zealand 35,936,339 (73.36 per cent) were Romneys and 6,095,779 (12.44 per cent) were crossbreds. The remainder were composed principally of Corriedale 2,457,976, half-bred 2,217,396, Southdown 955,956, and Merino 916,782.

There has been a steady increase in the average flock size over the last three years which follows a period of three years when there was little change. A classification by size of flock for the last five years is now given.

Size of Flocks19591960196119621963
1–994,5684,7534,8214,6054,816
100–1993,0503,0792,9762,9132,741
200–4996,6696,6026,4896,2136,067
500–9999,0238,9658,7498,5008,092
1,000–1,4997,4227,5557,6647,8317,815
1,500–1,9994,4384,4574,6894,7464,911
2,000–2,4992,2972,2522,3652,3982,572
2,500–4,9992,9202,9733,0883,2083,359
5,000–7,499463429463474528
7,500–9,999121140152141151
10,000–19,999111116115121125
20,000and over1919252321
Total flocks41,10141,34041,59641,17341,198
Average flock size1,1411,1401,1651,1901,218

CATTLE – Numbers of cattle by categories are now listed.

Dairy stock –
  Cows and heifers, two years old and over –19621963
    Cows in milk during season1,968,0941,997,253
    Heifers not yet in milk60,76161,283
    Cows not in milk during season, but intended to be used again for dairying25,81617,798
  Heifers –
    One and under two years old498,016483,837
    Under one year old495,899483,544
  Bulls and bull calves intended for dairy breeding86,96589,342
      Totals, dairy stock3,135,5513,133,057
Beef stock –
  Breeding cows and heifers, two years old and over1,302,2821,339,919
  Cows, two years old and over, not used for breeding74,50268,375
  Heifers –
    One and under two years old373,069385,956
    Under one year old455,931547,705
  Steers and bulls of all ages1,256,5782,215,952
      Totals, beef stock3,462,3623,557,907
      Totals, cattle6,597,9136,690,964

The following table shows the number of holdings with dairy cows in milk, grouped according to size of herd in milk, for the three last intervals for which such information is available. The figures relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

YearHoldingsTotal Holdings With 10 or more Cows in Milk
With 10–19 CowsWith 20–29 CowsWith 30–39 CowsWith 40–49 CowsWith 50–59 CowsWith 60–69 CowsWith 70–79 CowsWith 80–89 CowsWith 90–99 CowsWith 100 and Over
19524,3684,5365,5275,2454,4383,6652,5121,7261,1052,53235,654
19573,4773,5634,5494,8354,5894,3053,0712,0231,3513,09434,857
19602,5792,8023,6654,2154,1993,9862,9152,1481,2893,35331,151

The following table shows the number of cows in milk in regional areas at 31 January 1960 classified according to the special farm types used in the 1959–60 World Census of Agriculture.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
 Cows in Milk
Northland270,1262,21555021,6413,2557,6212
South Auckland126,7632,3051808,3741,6962,09115
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands450,3062,74925527,0895,206,867147
Cape Colville34,508269294,1476941,450
Central Plateau146,5031,51216116,1712,8975,09690
Western Uplands18,0362,503155,3322,6522,87414
Taranaki222,1901,635811,4551,8054,95639
East Cape26,2612,236333,6507101,64457
Hawke's Bay10,5043,402371,7971,2621,53887
Rangitikei30,3063,995914,6112,2182,888217
Manawatu107,3133,378848,4623,4105,41772
Wairarapa20,6101,685124,1401,1731,38571
Featherston16,432941142,57684559231
Marlborough8,122886101,573241448237
Nelson22,376655114,9651,1581,83078
Westland10,293107693,075191582
North Canterbury19487225893158390
Foothills8997217309235192194
Canterbury Plains15,19669523974594471687
Christchurch4,518921256301453
Banks Peninsula2,671411582567942725
Mackenzie4221116
South Canterbury9,2402,77061,0491,1215992,693
Otago8,2311,27115692352506155
Central Otago3711,108518213258115
Southern5,8155,538510,3855,9495,1411,300
Remainder10183
  Totals1,567,78444,4741,628143,79638,71654,9766,835
Regional Area*Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal
 Cows in Milk

*For list of counties included see page 403.

Northland24,31349084310,299
South Auckland331,0421994142,702
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands1,773125494,631
Cape Colville497100441,698
Central Plateau11,7353395174,510
Western Uplands2697104232,231
Taranaki9051503243,146
East Cape38301,1961032135,979
Hawke's Bay2259463881019,269
Rangitikei34081744,754
Manawatu431,04632129,221
Wairarapa3252229,423
Featherston51181321,513
Marlborough2258303811,908
Nelson61301,639500133,304
Westland46112114,395
North Canterbury205416222,005
Foothills11421945512,860
Canterbury Plains1633162,737102121,959
Christchurch22114235,186
Banks Peninsula10255,150
Mackenzie212533609
South Canterbury1977842,23120720,897
Otago21020312211,559
Central Otago716914852,138
Southern1013921135135,213
Remainder1113
  Totals5991,48723,2293,0041441,886,672

The same classification is also used in the table which follows showing the total number of dairy cattle in regional areas at 31 January 1960.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
 Dairy Cattle
Northland424,6787,1452,14835,9155,86912,8673
South Auckland189,4556,56672713,4363,1483,58562
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands663,83619,2171,52445,27610,49212,141315
Cape Colville53,387778397,1681,4902,447
Central Plateau229,8765,53739226,8036,0338,931148
Western Uplands27,6376,260209,5035,2295,22323
Taranaki328,46911,7526818,9544,4229,132179
East Cape40,5663,924975,8751,2552,708104
Hawke's Bay15,8995,637502,9212,0522,497159
Rangitikei46,1528,5811457,3004,1864,997450
Manawatu162,2298,63425613,2955,8808,987268
Wairarapa30,4692,989226,5192,0772,285118
Featherston24,7702,223183,9071,45998283
Marlborough12,1611,467222,472366700455
Nelson33,4171,145437,5761,9112,712147
Westland15,8681841054,840291943
North Canterbury2871,440386165265814
Foothills1,4771,3129488410333396
Canterbury Plains22,7131,247551,4991,0468041,372
Christchurch6,036226383515923738
Banks Peninsula4,12991581,3411,29581764
Mackenzie7254244
South Canterbury13,6214,99981,5631,9269215,088
Otago11,5242,411371,053606764294
Central Otago5211,84414247237137197
Southern8,11110,8391015,3499,6967,7062,543
Remainder216106
Totals2,367,288118,2135,858233,74771,61093,12113,564
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal

*For list of counties included see page 403.

 Dairy Cattle
Northland28,3223,162262500,373
South Auckland109102,6972,4268222,229
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands12225,2434,55122762,651
Cape Colville1,061598566,973
Central Plateau14,9919078283,627
Western Uplands111,550236355,695
Taranaki62,9111,8335377,731
East Cape71581,9752124156,886
Hawke's Bay311067791301730,278
Rangitikei685557172,730
Manawatu9131,63452420201,749
Wairarapa1336648745,246
Featherston1001449033,776
Marlborough421116171518,428
Nelson93452,600762550,456
Westland919341122,475 
North Canterbury3310427153,473
Foothills18773647754,966
Canterbury Plains3436354,698203134,616
Christchurch552225487,279
Banks Peninsula3206168,794
Mackenzie52411631,121
South Canterbury3711,4703,94639234,305
Otago32133427017,317
Central Otago13271337083,448
Southern12191,404228355,920
Remainder2234
  Totals1,2002,87147,93016,9494252,972,776

The following table shows the number of beef breeding cows in regional areas at 31 January 1960 classified according to the special farm types used in the 1959–60 World Census of Agriculture.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
 Beef Breeding Cows
Northland4,73158,64120,4852,3481,8092,039259
South Auckland34241,2751,511257484268198
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands1,03542,1822,1718181,46140065
Cape Colville4824,049532181328353
Central Plateau1,28731,4872,518522896684397
Western Uplands2879,9911,6413631,1461,516328
Taranaki44815,625160258125153
East Cape390114,4783,8861314661,129751
Hawke's Bay157124,0463,370351,1663,9031,232
Rangitikei10869,6401,3691652281161,399
Manawatu33136,8701,535101602388707
Wairarapa6855,89218442338391,217
Featherston4720,6251,60588327478
Marlborough6211,0373,0171110135853
Nelson2247,422701207227256282
Westland1883,6114,4852589085
North Canterbury13,777404404
Foothills3,262412256
Canterbury Plains231,4118939240
Christchurch43473815
Banks Peninsula3,64713431014 
Mackenzie4,692501
South Canterbury1015,4761108207353,169
Otago610,0535213847510
Central Otago6,77943040141
Southern1638,349649181,018942,897
Remainder1,61663
  Totals9,987816,28051,1455,53911,71111,90216,302
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal

*For list of counties included see page 403.

 Beef Breeding Cows
Northland5,5547801196,657
South Auckland281086412645,363
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands1,56528549,982
Cape Colville200506,175
Central Plateau1,19517,50256,488
Western Uplands129281585,968
Taranaki7089741918,974
East Cape2443,8332,3948127,512
Hawke's Bay33261,9871,363137,318
Rangitikei83963,429
Manawatu18973618341,480
Wairarapa25158,031
Featherston622,879
Marlborough1027115,154
Nelson6844369379,837
Westland1284368,894
North Canterbury415414,383
Foothills632723,815
Canterbury Plains705221982,124
Christchurch1219435
Banks Peninsula93,898
Mackenzie962455,534
South Canterbury182809041420,231
Otago112711,213
Central Otago2815887,584
Southern11125590343,401
Remainder11,626
  Totals27269121,18223,34628968,385

The same classification is also used in the table which follows showing the total number of beef cattle in regional areas at 31 January 1960.

Regional Area*Principally Dairy FarmingPrincipally Sheep FarmingPrincipally Beef FarmingDairy and Sheep with Dairy PredominantSheep and Dairy with Sheep PredominantMixed Dairy and SheepSheep and Cropping with Sheep Predominant
 Beef Cattle
Northland26,869157,79561,2068,1736,7966,588472
South Auckland3,660112,67610,5951,0902,1011,036613
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands11,306151,53817,1455,1185,2232,455119
Cape Colville3,01612,2283,5529671,2981,296
Central Plateau5,81088,93911,3142,5712,4282,375928
Western Uplands454231,7945,5921,4583,7514,420729
Taranaki3,82047,1701,2003432,4851,80821
East Cape1,339300,89110,5976541,2783,1212,847
Hawke's Bay1,006369,30213,5413173,20911,3725,539
Rangitikei873275,1806,5319592,4796856,720
Manawatu2,441132,0428,6438762,2862,5673,231
Wairarapa489147,8936724999362133,513
Featherston52258,3974,38279508713,110
Marlborough51230,6769,8221572931232,619
Nelson2,39221,6163,7171,3421,0181,043941
Westland1,69911,20415,2541,585280375
North Canterbury3835,42928111129632,262
Foothills239,6101144610415997
Canterbury Plains6554,62390420136661,486
Christchurch871,44166844110121
Banks Peninsula35114,67655718372518389
Mackenzie11,4591,393
South Canterbury41846,1308121661,01616312,885
Otago21229,1851,621108119702,046
Central Otago3220,3921,277711531405
Southern304113,4951,9287805,26367510,696
Remainder4,5301208
  Totals68,3282,440,311191,92527,51444,03740,83263,782
Regional Area*Cropping and Sheep with Cropping PredominantMixed Sheep and CroppingGeneral Mixed FarmingOther (Including Horticulture, Timbers, etc.)Idle and UnusedTotal

*For list of counties included see page 403.

 Beef Cattle
Northland15,5652,40842285,914
South Auckland86192,2851,1303135,294
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands15,9439852199,835
Cape Colville1,2162,051325,627
Central Plateau3,74646,7672164,880
Western Uplands63303,063139251,493
Taranaki1752,7891,34961,160
East Cape1504889,5356,24820337,168
Hawke's Bay1612275,6843,7291414,088
Rangitikei631,591163295,244
Manawatu611132,8677944155,925
Wairarapa192914155,159
Featherston72267,098
Marlborough711064344544,858
Nelson1962421,59546934,571
Westland26401427631,257
North Canterbury108866738,978
Foothills5432901411,900
Canterbury Plains2324001,396419,959
Christchurch113392512,559
Banks Peninsula28379917,180
Mackenzie26660713,725
South Canterbury2191,6284,28619267,915
Otago17451,31314934,885
Central Otago32732384222,707
Southern124561,3175795135,222
Remainder114,561
  Totals1,5154,04668,93167,850913,019,162

For dairy stock the Jersey breed, with 78.6 per cent of all dairy stock in 1962, is predominant, while the main beef stock breeds are Aberdeen Angus (74.5 per cent), Hereford (16.3 per cent), and Shorthorn (5.4 per cent).

PIGS – The 1963 figure of 766,025 pigs showed an increase of 11.7 per cent compared with the 1962 figure and a decrease of 4.3 per cent compared with the peak figure of 800,802 in 1936

At 31 JanuaryBreedings Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs

*Gilts 6 months old but under 12 months intended for breeding numbered 34,466.

195887,925539,887627,812
195992,970598,598691,568
196087,824572,437660,261
196183,979571,453655,432
196284,499601,042*685,541
196397,039668,986766,025

Particulars as to pig breeds collected in 1950 showed that the principal distinctive breeds were Berkshire (6.6 per cent) and Tamworth (5.5 per cent), but over 80 per cent of the pigs in New Zealand were classified as crossbreds.

HORSES – Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,000 was recorded, there has been a steady decline in the number of horses in New Zealand. The greater part of the decrease has occurred in horses of the heavy type and has been accompanied by a marked increase in the use of mechanical traction for farm work, the number of agricultural tractors on farms in 1952 being 46,000 as compared with 14,000 in 1942. By 1959 the number of heavy-type horses had fallen to 28,500, while tractors had increased to 75,300. Hacks and light working horses have decreased to a much lesser extent over the period. No annual information has been collected since 1960 owing to the decline in numbers.

DOGS – A count of dogs registered during the year ended 31 December 1962 showed that there were 203,636 dogs registered in counties, of which 134,618 were in the North Island and 69,018 in the South Island. The total number of dogs registered in boroughs was 47,770, in town districts 662, and in road districts 459. Unregistered dogs and those up to six months old are not included in these figures.

POULTRY – The following table shows the numbers recorded at the censuses 1921–61. All references to fowls, ducks, etc., are intended to cover both male and female birds.

CensusNumber of Households Keeping Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or TurkeysTotal Number of Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or TurkeysFowlsDucksGeeseTurkeys

*Excluding Maori flocks.

April 1921*145,9933,991,0093,491,567379,98846,23473,220
April 1926*158,8563,781,1453,308,384352,03043,87976,852
March 1936166,3544,019,0763,488,516377,79166,66786,102
September 1945159,3334,470,3664,070,683319,91841,90337,862
April 1951180,7234,199,5903,829,481260,65958,47450,976
April 1956192,7364,485,5714,160,424210,71860,93853,491
April 1961163,4764,525,3974,183,563202,24573,45766,132

The comparability of the foregoing figures is affected by two important considerations, the first being that the figures from 1951 onwards include only birds aged four months or over, while the 1945 figures cover birds of all ages. At earlier censuses the question was for the number of birds – no reference being made to age. The second factor is that the census of 1945 was taken in the spring, whereas the other censuses were taken in the autumn.

Poultry farming is regarded as a definite branch of the farming industry. Those keeping poultry may be classified under three groups, namely – commercial poultry farmers, sideline poultry producers, and household poultry keepers. As might be anticipated, the last-named group is by far the largest. Taking only fowls into consideration, 148,116, or 92.5 per cent, of the flocks comprised less than 25 birds.

Sideline poultry producers are those with flocks of over 100 birds but fewer than 1,000. These flocks are usually kept by people as a sideline to augment their incomes received from other daily employment. In 1961 there were 773 flocks of over 1,000 birds forming the basic commercial units of the poultry industry. Of these, 506 ranged from 1,000 to 1,999, 178 from 2,000 to 2,999, 54 from 3,000 to 3,999, and 35 exceeded 4,000. The vast majority of household poultry keepers and sideline producers depend upon commercial poultry farms for annual replacement stock. Again the commercial and sideline groups sell their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns. Egg production has been steadily increasing, sales through licensed distributors rising from 20,418,919 dozen in 1960–61 to 22,790,010 dozen in 1961–62, and 25,755,333 dozen in 1962–63. It is estimated that approximately 40 to 45 per cent of the total egg production passes through these channels.

Poultry farming is confined largely to egg production, but units are now being established for the production of table poultry, and attention paid to the production of “broilers” or 3 to 3 1/2 lb live weight chicken. Until recently, table poultry was almost entirely a by-product of commercial egg production.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, the largest numbers being concentrated around Auckland, Christchurch, and Oamaru. Duck-egg farming is carried on only to a limited extent and is centred mainly around Auckland. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Until about 1950, White Leghorns were almost the only breed used for commercial egg production but crossbred birds are now by far the most popular birds for egg production. The pure breeds mated to produce these crossbreds are White Leghorns, Australorps, and Rhode Island Reds.

Khaki Campbell and Runner ducks are mainly used for egg production, while Khaki Campbell, Muscovy, and some Pekin ducks are marketed as table birds. There is little organised turkey production.

There is a definite trend towards specialisation among commercial producers in the poultry industry. Whereas it has been common practice in the past for many commercial producers to carry out breeding, egg production, and the sale of young growing pullets, there is at present a move towards specialising in any one of these aspects of poultry farming. Thus, many commercial egg producers no longer attempt to breed replacement stock but buy day-old pullets each year to replenish their flocks. Recently serious consideration has been given by the larger specialist poultry breeders to modern breeding methods based upon present-day knowledge of poultry genetics. A group of poultry breeders are at present employing the services of a consultant geneticist to evaluate the results obtained with their breeding flock and to advise on poultry-breeding procedure. Finally, a limited number of commercial poultry producers are specialising in rearing day-old chicks for sale as perching pullets to householders and sideline producers. These specialist pullet rearers normally carry no birds for egg production or breeding.

Poultry Control – The Poultry Act 1924 and the Poultry Amendment Act 1961 provide for the control of poultry diseases and the sanitary conditions under which incubators are operated and where eggs for human consumption are held on poultry farms. Provision can also be made under these Acts to control the grading, packing, and handling of table poultry for consumption in New Zealand and the killing, processing, and packing of table poultry for export. Every owner of poultry is required to report to the nearest office of the Department of Agriculture any outbreak or suspected outbreak of disease in a flock and to comply with the directions of an inspector (usually a poultry instructor or veterinarian) for the control of the outbreak. It is an offence to offer diseased poultry for sale.

In order to provide finance for the organisation and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in 1933 and a poultry board constituted of two Government and four producer members. The Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry run, which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than 25 head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. The fee payable annually is 2s. 6d. if the flock is in excess of 24 but does not exceed 100 head. For each additional hundred (or part thereof) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this Yearbook.

BEES – The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are particularly favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey for the local and export markets.

Production for the year ended 31 May 1963 was estimated at 6,009 tons of honey and 210,315 lb of commercial beeswax, approximately 129 tons of honey and 4,515 lb of beeswax more than the previous season.

Over the past five seasons the annual export of honey has averaged 1,714,825 lb. There is wide variation in the production of honey due to climatic changes from season to season. As only surpluses are exported this causes variations in the quantity exported each year.

Exports of honey for the latest five years ended 31 December are given below.

YearQuantity lbValue £
19591,493,43980,594
1960944,96454,003
19611,611,994100,655
19622,107,200114,534
19632,416,530142,049

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that at 31 May 1963 there were 4,701 beekeepers with a total of 13,071 apiaries and 183,875 established hives. Fifty-eight per cent of hives and 57 per cent of apiaries were in the North Island. Following is a summary of these registrations showing beekeepers in groups according to the number of hives kept.

Group1–5 Hives6–29 Hives30–250 Hives251 Hives and OverTotal
Beekeepers3,2438783562244,701
Apiaries3,9131,1961,8356,12713,071
Hives established6,87710,14430,132136,722183,875

Under the Apiaries Act 1927 stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foulbrood, bee moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register all apiaries of one or more hives, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used, box hives being prohibited.

The introduction of bees, and used appliances for the keeping of bees, into New Zealand, and the harvesting of their products, is prohibited save with the prior consent of the Minister of Agriculture. The consent of the Minister in regard to used appliances is restricted to such appliances as are necessary to serve as containers for bees so introduced.

In view of the greatly increased amount of crop spraying for weed and pest control it has been necessary to bring down regulations prohibiting the application to cruciferous and leguminous field crops of sprays and dusts that are toxic to bees at any time during the period between 1 September in any year and 31 March in the following year when the crop is in flower, except with a permit issued by the Department of Agriculture.

Reference to the activities of the Honey Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this issue.

Chapter 15. Section 15 FORESTRY

Table of Contents

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION – New Zealand, except in certain limited areas*, possesses a climate favourable to forest growth, and in ancient times the land was almost entirely forest clad. Volcanic action in the central North Island, decreasing rainfall in the east of both islands, and cultivation and use of fire by the Maoris substantially reduced the forest area; nevertheless, the first white settlers found a land which may have been two-thirds covered by dense forest.

In the early days of settlement the demand for timber was met by exploitation of the kauri forests of the far north. These forests were almost completely destroyed by logging and subsequent burning of the cut-over areas. Wide areas of podocarp-broadleaf forest in both islands were cleared, often without extraction of timber, to make way for farms. Although Acts of Parliament passed in the 1870s and 1880s made provision for the setting aside of forest reserves, there was little interest in conservation, and land-clearing operations extended well beyond the limits now considered desirable in the public interest. Towards the end of the century the need to conserve the forests of the high mountain watersheds was recognised. National parks, scenic and “climatic” reserves amounting to about 2 million acres, in all constituting 3.1 per cent of the land area of New Zealand, had been set aside as “permanent forest” by the early 1900s.

In 1909, in addition to this “permanent forest”, there were more than 7 million acres of privately owned forest (including forest on Maori land) and nearly 8 million acres of Crown-owned forest. The whole of these latter areas was open to exploitation and the forest was being rapidly destroyed in the production of the annual cut of some 400 million board feet of timber. Although some “State forests” had been proclaimed, the name did not, as now, imply forest preservation, and the State forests were subject to the same lifting of reservations and the same destruction as other forests on Crown land. Milled areas were either sold for settlement or replanted with exotics.

It was at that time universally believed that the indigenous timber trees were too slow growing to have any place in schemes of forest management for continuous yield, that New Zealand's millable indigenous forests would be exhausted some time in the 1940s, and that future timber supplies must come from imports and from the exotic plantations which the State had been steadily establishing since 1898. In 1913 a Royal Commission on Forestry recommended extension of the permanent forests of the mountainous regions by nearly 2 million acres. However, it sanctioned the continued destruction of the indigenous milling forest on the ground that no land should be permitted to remain under forest if it could be “occupied and resided upon in reasonably limited areas”. The Commission recommended greatly increased State plantings of exotics (especially radiata pine and eucalypts) to provide for future needs, but the rate of planting remained the same (about 2,000 acres a year) until the 1920s.

The First World War brought a timber famine and high prices. Awakened public opinion, alarmed at the prospect of the exhaustion of indigenous timber supplies within a generation, demanded a new approach to the question of forestry. The full impact of the recommendations made by overseas professional foresters who had from time to time reported on the forests at the request of the Government was at last felt. In 1919 the Commissioner of State Forests formulated a policy of permanent dedication to forest management of all Crown forested lands valuable chiefly for forestry and timber production, and of extended State planting to provide supplementary timber supplies.

In 1920 a new administrative agency, the State Forest Service, was created to carry out this policy. At its head, as Director of Forestry, was placed a highly trained and experienced forester. Professional forestry officers were appointed, and henceforward the forests were to be managed on scientific principles.

*The exceptions are: land above 4,000–5,000 ft (North Island), above 3,500–4,500 ft (South Island), and above 1,000–1,500 ft (Stewart Island), and parts of the eastern South Island.

In the period 1923–36 State planting was greatly expanded, 376,000 acres being planted with exotics. In the same period afforestation companies created 297,000 acres of exotic forest. This activity was designed to provide exotic forests whose produce would offset the forthcoming acute shortage of native timber. The resulting forests are characterised by lack of variety in age and species (88 per cent of commercial plantings were radiata pine), by large areas which are poorly stocked, owing to unsuitable siting and the use of inferior strains, and by lack of silvicultural tending. Since 1937 the Forest Service has gradually been correcting this by establishing a wider range of species, by using the best seed, and by paying attention to correct siting and tending. A Forest Biology Survey has been established to operate a sentinel service for the detection of incipient insect or fungal epidemics.

Owing to the ever-present threat of disease in the exotic plantations, the Forest Service is preserving, as a safeguard, as much as possible of the indigenous forests which, by reason of their adaptation to the country and their tremendously varied composition, are much less vulnerable.

The indigenous forests are still, despite the greatly increased use of exotic timber, being depleted at the rate of some 30,000 acres a year to provide some 300,000,000 board feet of timber annually. However, as public acceptance of exotic timbers becomes more complete, it will be possible to reduce the output of indigenous timber to a level at which cutting is more in line with conservation policy.

FOREST RESOURCES: Forest Produce Supplies – The salient features of the supply situation are:

  1. Of the remaining indigenous forest some 1,800,000 acres contain timber merchantable by today's standards. It has been estimated that the amount is 3,000 million cubic feet, representing 19,300 million board feet of sawn timber. In addition, there are about 1,100,000 acres of exotic forests, of which some 1,000,000 acres are classed as productive.

  2. The indigenous forests, from which 20 years ago 86 per cent of rough-sawn timber supplies were obtained, at present supply approximately 42 per cent. In 20 years' time they are expected to provide about 14 per cent. In the distant future the amount of produce obtained from them will depend upon the successful introduction of management practices.

  3. It can be expected that a high proportion of the exotic forests will be worked on a sustained-yield basis. Besides supplying 58 per cent of the rough-sawn timber cut at present, they yield in addition 45 million cubic feet of pulp logs, veneer logs and smallwood.

  4. Imports of timber have varied from 30 to 60 million board feet during the past 10 years. They are composed of special-purpose timbers – large-dimension Oregon pine for structural use joinery timbers, and Australian hardwood poles and sleepers.

  5. While supplies of produce from indigenous forests will decrease in the future, the area in exotic forests and the produce from them will increase. Timbers from exotic species could also in time largely replace imported timber and, provided the increase in forest area is sufficient, will provide a substantial amount of produce for export.

Extent of Forested Land – All readily accessible native forests have now been cleared, and forested land is reduced to about a quarter of the total land area. Nevertheless, this portion represents a very large area as the following table of land categories shows.

Type of LandArea, in AcresPercentage of Total Land Area
Forested land15,396,00023.2
Non-forested land50,103,00075.5
Minor islands205,0000.3
Water area687,0001.0
  Total land area (including water surfaces)66,391,000100.0

The best use of the 15,400,000 acres of forested land will be decided, within the framework of the forest policy already outlined, by the location, tenure, and economic value of its component parts.

Classification of Forests – More than three-quarters of the New Zealand forest area is in merchantable forest. This is mainly Crown-owned, indigenous forest, and, because it covers much of the remoter mountainous and high-rainfall country, its primary function is that of soil protection and water regulation. Nevertheless, it includes considerable areas of potentially productive forest land which could, in the distant future, be placed under production management. Such management would always be subordinate to the protective functions of this class of forest.

“Merchantable” forests are more diverse in tenure and composition than the unmerchantable forests because they include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, of which nearly half are owned privately or by local authorities. Fully merchantable indigenous forests have receded well in advance of close settlement, and the largest areas are now on Crown lands and Maori lands in regions (especially on the West Coast of the South Island) little suited to other forms of land use. The distribution of merchantable exotic forests has been influenced mainly by the availability of cheap, undeveloped land in the period (1900 to 1935) when most of these forests were established. Hence there is a preponderance of exotic forest (State owned and private) on the volcanic plateau of the North Island.

The distribution by area of forested land in 1960 is shown by the following table.

Class of Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
 acres (thousand)
Accessible and/or merchantable forests –
  State forests1,6705102,180
  Unoccupied Crown land190190
  Freehold and leasehold land5705401,110
  Maori land360360
  Reserves180180
    Totals2,9701,0504,020
Inaccessible and/or unmerchantable forests –
  State forests5,3001005,400
  Unoccupied Crown land1,4001,400
  Freehold and leasehold land1,6001,600
  Maori land800800
  Reserves2,4002,400
    Totals11,50010011,600
    Totals, all forested land14,5001,10015,600

Botanical Composition of Forests – The indigenous forests of New Zealand may be grouped very broadly into two main formations, mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern-beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech (Nothofagus).

In general terms, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. Their upper altitudinal limit becomes gradually lower from north to south. The beech forests are the forests of the south, of the high mountains and of the drier lowlands. But the beech species are absent from many localities, e.g., Stewart Island and Mt. Egmont, where their presence might be expected. There are also extensive areas, especially in the north-west and south-west of the South Island, and on the mountain ranges of the North Island, where the two types mingle to form forests of very varied composition.

Most of the mixed forest has been cut over for timber and cleared for farming purposes, whereas the southern-beech forest, because of the difficult topography and the poor soils on which it most frequently grows, is largely intact. The following description gives in more detail the distribution and the present state of the main forest communities.

Kauri forest (mixed temperate evergreen forest in which kauri is the dominant species) once occupied much of the area north of a line joining Port Waikato to Tauranga, but, except for limited reservations and small pockets, it has disappeared. The main secondary tree species are taraire and tawa. Mixed podocarp forest (the principal podocarp is rimu; the important secondary ones, totara, matai, and miro) was found at all latitudes in the three main islands. The heaviest commercial stands were on flat or near-flat sites; in steeper country timber trees thinned out and secondary species became more plentiful. The remaining forest of this type consists of pockets which will be worked for a few decades to come, some large areas on steep country, such as the Urewera, which can be classed mainly as protection forest, and fairly extensive forests in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island which contain most of the remaining indigenous-softwood supplies. The main species of broad-leaved trees in these forests are kamahi, tawa, and rata. Kahikatea forest occupied low-lying swampy river silts, but this has almost disappeared to make way for farming.

Bog forests, whose dominant trees are smaller podocarps of the silver-pine group, occupy limited areas mainly in the central North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island. They have largely been cut over, at least once, for posts and sleepers.

Although most southern-beech forests can be classified as protection forests, there remain large areas in more accessible regions which have been cut over and are regenerating, or which have not yet been cut over and will be reserved for sustained-yield management. Where southern-beech forest is present in the more accessible areas of the North Island and northern Marlborough-Nelson, the species are hard beech (Nothofagus truncata) and black beech (N. solandri). Red beech (N. fusca) abounds in the less accessible upper areas, where it is usually accompanied by the silver beech (N. menziesii), the main tree at high altitudes. In rather dry places mountain beech (N. cliffortioides) replaces silver beech. On the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps there was once a belt of mountain-beech forest, but all except pockets of this has been burnt. On the western side of the Alps, beech forest is absent from the Taramakau River southwards for one hundred miles. In western Otago and western Southland silver beech is the main forest tree, with fair areas of mountain beech and small pockets of red beech. At the lower elevations silver beech is extensively milled and much of the forest has disappeared.

Important forest trees at high elevations, not already mentioned, are kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii) and thin-bark totara (Podocarpus hallii).

In the undisturbed indigenous vegetation there were limited transition areas between tussock grassland and forest proper that carried manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides), and sometimes bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum). With the destruction of much tussock grassland and forest, these belts have extended, and manuka has even occupied extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from any original manuka stands. These stands are important because they are often a stage in succession back to mature forest. Manuka is also a very useful fuel.

Much land now classified as forest consists of a second growth of broad-leaved shrubs and trees which have come in after milling operations or on abandoned farm land.

Exotic plantations over 10 acres in extent now total some 930,000 acres, besides which there is a large total acreage of smaller farm woodlots and shelter belts. These areas of exotic species already provide nearly half of the country's timber requirements, and before many more years have passed must supply most of it. In some poorly forested districts shelter belts now provide a large part of the local timber supply.

Most of the larger exotic plantations are in the central North Island region. They were established with radiata pine (Pinus radiata) between the years 1925 and 1935. Other plantations are scattered throughout the country, although there are still some timberless districts with few plantations, notably Taranaki, Poverty Bay and the east coast, and South Canterbury.

NATIONAL FOREST ADMINISTRATION: Forest Authority – The administration of State forests and afforestation activities was for many years under the control of the Department of Lands and Survey. But in 1918 the office of Commissioner of State Forests was separated from that of Minister of Lands, and in 1919 a forestry subdepartment was formed. In 1920 the State Forest Service was established as a separate Department of State, which was given statutory recognition and administration authority by the Forests Act 1921–22. The Forests Act 1949 consolidated previous legislation and changed the title of the Minister from Commissioner of State Forests to Minister of Forests, and that of the State Forest Service to the New Zealand Forest Service. The Act provides for the appointment of a Minister of Forests, a Director-General of Forests, Conservators of Forests, and other officers. The Minister may delegate such of his powers as he thinks fit. The Act prescribes that the Forest Service shall have under the direction of the Minister exclusive responsibility in carrying out all matters of forest policy affecting State forest land and shall have exclusive control and management of:

  1. All State forest land, whether for the production of timber or other forest produce, or for the protection of the land with a view to water conservation or soil stabilisation, or for ensuring the balanced use of the land, or for scientific purposes, or for recreational or amenity purposes not prejudicial to forestry;

  2. The establishment, culture, and maintenance of forests on State forest land, and the harvesting, utilisation, transport, sale, or other disposal of forest produce from State forest land;

  3. The granting of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities under the Act;

  4. The enforcement of the conditions of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities granted under the Act or any enactment repealed;

  5. The collection and recovery of all purchase moneys, rents, fees, royalties, charges, and revenues of the Service; and

  6. Generally the exercise of all powers, authorities, and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister or the Forest Service by the Act.

Central control of the Forest Service is exercised by the Director-General of Forests from the head office in Wellington. A Conservator of Forests, who is the local representative of the Director-General, controls each of the seven conservancies into which New Zealand is divided. Forest Rangers, responsible to the Conservators, have charge of districts, which are subdivisions of the conservancies. Each district contains one or more managed forests.

State Forests – State forests are administered under the authority of the Forests Act 1949. The powers conferred by this Act to deal with forest produce are subject to the provisions of the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Mining Act 1926, and the Petroleum Act 1937. Section 23 of the Mining Amendment Act 1934 provides for the payment to the Crown of compensation for damage resulting from mining operations to any land vested in the Crown. Such compensation in respect of State forests may be claimed by the Minister of Forests from time to time as damage is caused.

The Minister of Forests also administers the Waitangi Endowment under powers set out in the Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33.

Mining Privileges and Coal-mining Rights – Under the Coal Mines Act 1925 and the Mining Act 1926 a mining privilege or coal-mining right over State forest land may not be granted except with the consent in writing of the Minister of Forests and subject to such conditions as he may impose. Notwithstanding anything in the Mining Act 1926 or in any licence, lease, title, right, privilege, or other authority under those Acts granted after the Forests Act 1949 came into force, no person may cut or remove any timber or other forest produce on or from State forest land except in accordance with the provisions of the Forests Act 1949.

Regulations – The Forests Act 1949 authorises the appointment by regulation of committees to advise the Minister of Forests on specified matters. Regulations issued under this authority are the Timber Production Advisory Committee Regulations 1949, the Sirex Advisory Committee Regulations 1950, the Forest and Fire Publicity Committee Regulations 1952, and the Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee Regulations 1952.

Other regulations in force are the Sawmill Registration Regulations 1952, the Timber Regulations 1948, the Forest Service Fees and Charges Regulations 1953, and the Forest Produce Import and Export Regulations 1956.

Noxious Animals Act 1956 – This Act transfers to the Forest Service the responsibility for controlling and eradicating noxious wild animals, and confers on the Minister of Forests the appropriate powers. These activities were formerly carried out by the Wildlife Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs under the Wildlife Act 1953; but the Forest Service, being responsible for the welfare of the forests and having a greater knowledge of their needs, is now considered to be the more appropriate authority. The Noxious Animals Amendment Act 1962 enlarges the scope of noxious-animal control exercised by the Forest Service.

The Opossum Regulations 1953 continue in force as if they had been made under the Noxious Animals Act 1956, and are now administered by the Forest Service.

Fire Prevention and Control – The Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955 and the Fire Services Act 1949 provide for fire prevention and control throughout New Zealand.

The Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955 makes each county council a fire authority for the county area under its control, and provides for the setting up of rural fire districts each administered by a committee, or by the Minister of Forests, as fire authority. The Minister of Forests is the fire authority also for almost all unoccupied Crown-owned land outside rural fire districts. Rural fire districts, soil-conservation districts, most unoccupied Crown-owned land, and urban fire districts are excluded from the control of county councils. Regulations in force under this Act are the Rural Fire Committee Regulations 1949 and the Forest and Rural Fires Regulations 1956, which replace the regulations of 1951.

The Fire Services Act 1949 provides for the protection of urban districts.

FOREST MANAGEMENT: Objectives – In the field of production forestry, as distinct from protection forestry, the management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards two ends:

  1. To protect, conserve, and, if possible, perpetuate the remaining indigenous forests of the country.

  2. To create an exotic estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce, and to provide an exportable surplus.

Indigenous Production Forests – Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve regulation and restriction of the permissible annual cut, protection against fire, a careful watch for trespass and the prosecution of offenders caught, rigid insistence on close utilisation, both of forests and forest products, and finally block sales of carefully measured and appraised standing timber. Of these measures the last one is particularly important. The system of block sales introduced by the Forest Service in 1921 is in sharp contrast to the previous method of “royalty payment off the saw”. The present system encourages close utilisation since the sawmiller is required to pay for all timber measured; the previous one encouraged unnecessary waste both in the forests themselves and in the subsequent milling processes. A large part of the indigenous-forest officers' work is in the routine administration of the block sale system, i.e., in the careful measurement and appraisal of trees for sale and in the periodic and equally careful inspection of milling operations to ensure that waste is not taking place.

Of equal importance to this policy of “conservation through close utilisation” is that of rationing the cut of indigenous timbers so that the remaining supplies, particularly of high-quality wood, are spread out over as long a period as possible instead of being used up in a very short time. To this end the Forest Service formulates working plans for all major State forests and through them regulates, both by individual forests and by districts, the amount of timber that may be cut annually. So far as may be practicable, consideration is given to the essential timber requirements of a district and to the extent to which these requirements can be met by the substitution of exotic timbers.

At the same time the possibility of ultimately regenerating podocarp forests and bringing them into a productive state is far from being overlooked. Research into the ecology of the natural forest associations and into the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species is being pursued. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate, which means that clear felling, or any condition that allows exposure and desiccation, must be avoided. In consequence, felling in narrow strips has been introduced in commercial logging in Westland, and trials by the Forest Service of other forms of partial felling are planned. Protection from fire and grazing after logging are standard measures which encourage development of natural second-growth associations which should in time act as nurse crops for podocarp seedlings.

Parallel to the policy of rationing the cut is that of making long-term log and timber sales. This has the effect of giving stability to sawmilling industries and to the communities dependent upon them. In one or two places further stability is being sought by the practice of interplanting logged areas with exotic species (mainly Douglas fir and western red cedar), combined where possible with the planting of adjacent areas of open country. By this means a sustained yield, part exotic and part indigenous, can be achieved, and the sawmilling industries and communities can look forward to a life in perpetuity.

The kauri forests, now only remnants of the vast forests from which timber was first felled in quantity in New Zealand, are owned principally by the State. The remaining kauri stands show promise of being amenable to sound forestry management. Bleeding for gum, which damaged many trees in the past, is forbidden. The annual cut is strictly rationed. Wherever kauri is felled a portion of the growing stock in young vigorous trees is left as a reserve. Young pole stands are silviculturally treated to free them from competition and improve growth. Natural regeneration is assisted and encouraged, and planting extends the species on to lands which have not held kauri for generations. A small but regular cut of this valuable species is assured, and forests for the future are being established and cultivated.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests of New Zealand on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both the major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to grow on a medium-length rotation (100–130 years); and both show their optimum development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. There are many large areas of virgin forest still intact, and, in the case of red beech, extensive stands of pole forest which have originated as a result of fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer, whose browsing may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

Exotic-forest Management – The establishment of State exotic forests dates from 1896 when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, and proceeded at a slow rate until 1922, by which time 47,000 acres had been established. The formation of the New Zealand Forest Service as a separate Department of State in the early twenties coincided approximately with an afforestation boom, and in the period 1923–36 no less than 376,000 acres were planted. Since then plantings have been on a modest scale, but in pursuance of the policy of doubling the exotic forest estate by the end of the century, the rate of planting is now being increased (from 12,000 acres in 1961 to a target of 20,000 acres in 1965).

In the earlier years the areas selected for planting were often chosen with little consideration for the suitability of the site for tree growing or for the proximity of the forests to existing and future markets. As a result there have been some partial or complete failures, and the geographical distribution of the forests leaves much to be desired. These faults are now being corrected by the establishment of new forests in timber-hungry districts and by the careful selection of areas where the climate, soil, and topography are all favourable to tree growth.

The original plantations contained a great variety of species, most of the common timber trees of Europe being represented as well as many from America and Australia, particularly eucalypts and North American conifers. In general, except locally and on very good sites, the European hardwoods such as ash, oak, and sycamore were failures; and of the multitude of eucalypts tried, only a few proved suited to New Zealand conditions. The standard European softwood, Scots pine, was a complete failure, as were many of the American pines, firs, and spruces. Norway spruce promised well for some years, but was finally wiped out by insect attack. Austrian pine was planted extensively in the earlier years and developed into very poor stands; much later, similar results were obtained from extensive plantings of the scopulorum variety of ponderosa pine, and even worse results from the wide-scale and indiscriminate attempts to establish California redwood. The successes, however, were no less numerous than the failures, and before long it became fairly obvious which would be the most suitable and profitable species. Pride of place went to radiata pine, which showed the ability to grow rapidly on a wide range of sites and to produce fine stands of timber. It became, and still is, the major exotic conifer of New Zealand. Other major species, planted according to site, are Douglas fir, Corsican pine, and ponderosa pine. Of recent years the southern pines – loblolly, slash, and long-leaf pines – have found a place in the more northerly forests. Minor species planted on a restricted scale are lodgepole, strobus, and patula pines, larch, Japanese cedar, Lawson cypress, macrocarpa, and western red cedar.

The estimated species distribution in State and private plantations of major areas* at 31 March 1962 was:

SpeciesAcres (000)Percentage
Radiata pine56265
Ponderosa pine809
Corsican pine647
Douglas fir627
Others and mixtures10112
  Totals869100

In spite of failures New Zealand now has a large and valuable exotic-forest estate which is providing more than one-half of the annual sawn-wood requirements and, in addition, is supporting a large and growing pulp and paper industry. Qualitatively the forests leave much to be desired. Their various shortcomings, due largely to past mistakes, now present problems which will tax the ingenuity of the forestry profession to the utmost. Specifically, management of the State exotic forests is rendered difficult and complex by reason of:

*Major area: 50 acres and over held by one owner.

  1. The Bad Age-class Distribution: Sixty-five per cent of the total radiata pine area was planted in one 10-year period. In the absence of tending this will result in a corresponding peak in production of mature timber, leading to utilisation difficulties. The position is much the same with the other major species.

  2. The High Proportion of Radiata Pine: Some 60 per cent of the total area is in radiata pine, but the proportion in some individual forests and in some districts is much higher. A greater diversity of species would enable a wider range of forest products to be supplied and would lessen the risk of insect or fungal attack on an epidemic scale.

  3. The Considerable Areas of Low Productivity: The maximum value from the soil is not being obtained in areas which are occupied by poor species such as P. poderosa var. scopulorum, Austrian pine, some races of lodgepole pine, eucalypts, etc. Their replacement by more valuable species must be undertaken.

  4. The Low Stocking of Many Areas: Two causes are responsible – the practice during the boom afforestation period of planting at a wide initial spacing, and the failure during the same period to plant up gaps in the original establishment. The resultant trees are often open grown and branchy, and are producing firewood and pulping material rather than sawlogs.

  5. Lack of Tending: Large areas formed before the Second World War have received little treatment since planting. Low pruning has been carried out over several thousand acres, but thinning has been badly neglected. As a result, the final-crop trees of many forests are failing to produce the quantity and the quality of wood they are capable of.

For these reasons management activities in State exotic forests are directed towards getting a better distribution of age classes in the next rotation, which entails felling some stands before they are mature and leaving others to be carried on to over-maturity, towards converting areas of low productivity to well stocked stands of more valuable species, and above all towards catching up with arrears of thinning. At the same time all these activities must be integrated with utilisation projects so that the demand for forest products can be met and forest industries can have continuity of supply; and they must be so planned as to fit into long-term schemes for sustained-yield operation. Working plans, which when approved have ministerial authority, are prepared for all exotic forests, with the object of coordinating all these operations for a term of five to 10 years. They also embody long-term plans of 20 to 30 years or even longer.

Large-scale clear felling in State exotic forests began in 1939 and has been confined almost entirely to radiata pine. Natural regeneration has frequently followed logging, and second-rotation crops have been established.

Production from State exotic forests is now over 45,000,000 cubic feet annually and is increasing rapidly. Sawlogs account for the greater part of this yield, but many other types of forest produce are included, notably pulpwood, posts, poles, mining timber, fencing materials, and firewood. This diversity of produce permits the utilisation of trees of widely varying dimensions, a very necessary condition in operations designed to improve the quality of maturing timber stands.

Protection-forest Management – The vegetation of the mountainous areas – forest, scrub, and sub-alpine grassland – is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand; for many of the rivers that bring water to low-lying farm lands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the steep, mountainous back country. These mountains receive frequent heavy falls of rain and are mostly formed of rocks that erode easily when exposed to heavy rain and low temperatures. It is only the blanket of montane vegetation that, by absorbing much of the rainfall and by stabilising unconsolidated rocky slopes, prevents the low-lying districts surrounding the lower courses of the rivers from being frequently subjected to disastrous flash floods, and the river channels from becoming choked with the products of erosion. Hence this vegetation of the mountain regions is called “protection forest”, a term that also includes the protective scrub, grass, and other vegetation that exists above the timber line.

The Forest Service controls some six million acres of protection-forest land, and the main function of the Protection Forestry Section is to manage the mountain lands in the national interest by maintaining the protective vegetation in good condition. The greatest threat to this vegetation is from the large numbers of browsing animals that were introduced many years ago, and which in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate have multiplied excessively. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is the control of these noxious animals. Protection-forestry rangers are trained in field biology, in field geology, and in watershed and range management. They make careful observations of the effects of browsing on various plants and from these observations are able to estimate whether or not the animals are increasing or decreasing in number in any area.

The control of noxious animals is a huge task, and catchment areas where animals are troublesome are divided into classes of priority for purposes of control, depending on the condition of the vegetation, the seriousness of erosion, and the economic importance of the catchment.

The Protection Forestry Section works in close association with the Forest Research Institute, which maintains a special branch for the investigation of such features of catchments as the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climates and rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in and methods of control of animal populations.

Recreation in Forests – As the population increases and as the cleared land becomes more firmly occupied by agricultural interests, so does the call on the recreational resources of the forests become greater. Weekend hunters head for the forest to shoot deer and pigs; fishermen frequent the streams; trampers wander along the many tracks; and alpinists climb through the forest to the heights above. The Forest Service caters for this demand in popular forests by establishing regular patrols, clearing and maintaining tracks, making camping sites and fireplaces, and (with the help of tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts and erecting bridges. Several areas are being developed in this way as forest parks, which, although primarily protection forests, will also provide recreation facilities.

Protection of Forests and Timber: Protection Against Fire – The fire-protection policy of the Forest Service follows from the premise that fire is the greatest single menace to forests and protection vegetation in New Zealand; within a few hours fire can undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance.

The fire risk in New Zealand cannot be measured by comparing the generally adequate and well distributed rainfall experienced in most districts with conditions in countries where droughts are frequent and severe and the summers normally hotter and drier. New Zealand is a mountainous country and the characteristic high winds and strong sunshine will dry out the forest vegetation on exposed situations even in the heavy rainfall areas in a remarkably short time.

Although widespread dangerous fire conditions occur only infrequently there are few seasons during which there are not dry spells or near droughts in some part or other of the country, and very high fire hazards develop.

The peculiar feature of many New Zealand forest species in being extremely exacting in their requirements for regeneration to take place is of special significance. Forest fires in most countries mean the loss of a crop; in New Zealand a severely burnt forest usually means a destroyed forest. Even the beech species, which will regenerate freely under favourable conditions, can only do so after a severe fire under circumstances which are often quite fortuitous in character. Virgin mixed temperate forests admittedly do not burn readily during normal seasons, but the greater proportion of the remaining forests of this type have been logged for the commercial species. As cut-over forests they are very inflammable, and when burnt become waste lands.

The consequences of the relatively small fires which occur all over the country every normal season are as serious in the long run as the spectacularly large fires common in some countries. The losses are cumulative because most of our forest species lack the powers to recuperate from fire damage.

The existing areas of protective vegetation on the headwaters of the main rivers are inadequate for the purposes of soil and water conservation. Unless these protective areas are themselves protected and allowed to extend, abnormal flooding with costly river-control schemes will continue to be a heavy drain on the resources of the country.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the whole of New Zealand, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, and national parks. The organisation has also the responsibility of securing coordination and uniformity in the administration of the Forest and Rural Fires Act by other fire authorities.

An efficient fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the Department has fire-fighting responsibilities, according to the needs of each district. This reaches its highest level of organisation in the larger exotic forests, where standard Forest Service lookout cabins equipped with fire finders, radio, and telephones are located. Trained fire-fighting crews with modern equipment can be brought into action at a minute's notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial patrols operate during each fire season in the important Rotorua area.

The provision of a fire-hazard prediction and warning service is an essential function of the fire-protection organisation. There is a nation-wide network of “fire-weather” and radio stations, and the fire-hazard situation in any part of the country is known at the Head Office of the Forest Service in Wellington each day during the fire season (October to April) within an hour of the weather observations being taken at the stations. This enables appropriate action, such as advice to fire authorities and broadcasting of warnings, to be taken.

The legislative provisions for fire protection are outlined earlier.

Protection Against Noxious Animals – Under the authority of the Noxious Animals Act 1956 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, thar, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause significantly affects the economic welfare or scenic resources of the country. Responsibility for the control of opossums and wallabies on pastoral lands has, by amendment to the Rabbits Act 1955, passed to rabbit boards. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service deals with opossum and wallaby control.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the regeneration of forest trees and of ground-cover vegetation in production as well as in protection forests. The natural forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by such ground-browsing animals as deer and goats, while simultaneously the upper storey is being adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Damage by deer and opossums in commercial exotic forests over the past few years has made it necessary to extend control measures into these forests.

Though hundreds of thousands of noxious animals are destroyed each year and though modern facilities, such as the dropping of supplies by parachute to field parties in remote and mountainous regions, are made use of, the task of control is arduous and dangerous, and overall progress is slow.

An attempt is being made to encourage the sportsman and private hunter to take a more active part in the control of noxious animals. Mass-killing methods more effective than killing with the rifle are necessary and the possibilities of employing these are being investigated. Poisoning on an operational scale is being used against deer in selected areas.

Control of Insects and Fungi – Sound silvicultural practices are the first line of defence, rendering trees less vulnerable to attack.

Biological control over insect pests is exerted by their natural enemies, insect or fungal parasites. Introduced species frequently come into the country without their natural enemies; part of the work of the biologist is to breed and liberate the latter.

Chemical control is an emergency measure to deal with outbreaks. It includes spraying of affected forests from aeroplanes, chemical treatment of nursery soils, and the dipping of timber to prevent attack by bark beetles and fungi.

Observers of the Forest Biology Survey maintain a constant watch on the exotic forests and on woodlots and shelter belts, and it is planned to extend this surveillance to the indigenous forests. The observers send thousands of representative collections of insects and fungi to the Biology Survey laboratory at the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, where the material is identified and studied. Thus any incipient epidemics can be detected in time for effective control measures to be taken; and much information is accumulated which helps to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine – In keeping with current world trends, the Forest Service has developed an efficient quarantine service which covers all timber entering or leaving New Zealand.

In the past, this country has enjoyed comparative freedom from introduced insect pests, but the ever increasing tempo of international trade has multiplied the chances of accidental importation of harmful insects. Timber quarantine as practised in New Zealand embraces all imported timbers (including sawn, hewn, and natural-round produce), ship's dunnage, and imported cases and crates. These are inspected, and if necessary are treated to destroy harmful insects.

The same care is given to export timber, which must be completely free of insect attack before export is permitted.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes – Sand-dune fixation is under the joint control of the Department of Lands and Survey and the New Zealand Forest Service. The objective is twofold: the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land, and the establishment of production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones and on areas that have no agricultural or pastoral potential. Six schemes are in operation – at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Waitarere, and Santoft – the total gross area of which is more than 75,000 acres. About 15,000 acres of trees have been planted. Much of the area permanently fixed with trees will become productive forest in years to come.

RESEARCH – The complexity of the many indigenous-forest and exotic-forest problems requires the maintenance of an organisation to ensure the continuity and coordination of research effort. Since 1947 all forestry and forest-products research (including research on noxious animals) administered by the Forest Service has been undertaken or coordinated by the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. In addition, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the universities, and private industrial organisations undertake research into certain aspects of forestry and forest products.

The scope of research in progress at the Forest Research Institute can be illustrated by reference to the work of its six branches.

Silviculture

  1. Development of national arboreta and herbaria of forest vegetation.

  2. Intensive ecological studies of indigenous and exotic forests, to develop silvicultural systems as a basis for sustained-yield management. Forest-soils investigations with particular reference to long-term changes in pumice soils, and to the effect of fertilisers on soils: the improvement of nursery techniques through weed control and chemical treatment.

  3. Studies of growth and financial yield of the more important exotic conifers, under different thinning and pruning regimes.

  4. Research into methods and species for the rehabilitation of logged indigenous forests.

Forest Management

  1. The compilation of volume tables for standing forests and logs; yield tables for exotic species; studies of conversion factors and log scaling; the investigation of assessment techniques.

  2. The maintenance of permanent sample plots in commercial forests.

  3. The conduct of a national survey of exotic forests to make possible sound management of the present resource and realistic planning for the future.

Forest Pathology – Studies of all factors affecting the health of forest trees and the maintenance of the forest-biology survey to provide an early-warning system of insect and fungal epidemics.

Forest Tree Improvement – Research on the origin and quality of seeds; provenance and species trials; selection and breeding of improved strains of trees; and the establishment of seed orchards.

Protection Forestry

  1. Through the Forest and Range Experiment Stations at Rangiora and Napier, the branch conducts research into the present condition of, and trends in, protection forests and the mountain-range country associated with them (subalpine scrub, alpine grasslands, etc.).

  2. Aspects of forest/animal interaction are studied to form a basis for the control of noxious animals. Animal populations and control measures are investigated in conjunction with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Department of Agriculture.

Forest Products – Research is based on the physical and mechanical evaluation of the timbers, both indigenous and exotic, which must gradually replace the widely used indigenous softwoods and imported forest products. Studies of wood use, preservation, and seasoning provide bases for standard specifications and codes of practice, while investigations of wood extractives, carried out in cooperation with the Division of Forest Products of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (Melbourne) and with the New Zealand universities, attempt to explain the reasons for durability and to interpret phylogenetic relationships. The effects of provenance and silvicultural treatment on wood quality are also examined.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY – The Forest Service recruits rangers and professional officers as technical trainees at the age of 16 to 20 years. They work for one year in the forests, after which future forest rangers attend a ranger school for two years. Those selected as forester trainees are assisted in obtaining a B.Sc. degree leading to postgraduate study at an overseas forestry school. Others selected as administrative trainees study for qualifications in arts or commerce.

To build up a permanent and efficient skilled-labour force, the Forest Service now recruits each year about 80 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a two-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the two woodsman schools at Kaingaroa and Golden Downs, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests. The Forestry Training Centre at Rotorua regularly offers the timber industry courses in timber grading, timber inspection, and other forestry operations. A continuous series of courses is provided for Forest Service staff on all phases of Forest Service activity.

The Government also offers bursaries to help science graduates not in its employ to qualify at recognised overseas forestry schools. Other scholarships for study or for research are available from a private fund.

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Extension Services – Private planting commenced as early as 1855 and for some years afterwards was encouraged by grants of land or money. In 1916 the State commenced selling trees to private planters at very cheap rates and then assisted further by appointing extension-forestry officers. In 1931, after strong representations from the Horticultural Trades Association, the sale of trees was discontinued and extension-forestry work became part of the duties of Forest Service field staff. Recently, discussions with the association resulted in a plan of cooperation between the State and the trade for the supply of planting stock in bulk lots. The sale of cheap trees, coupled with a revival of interest through the activities of farm-forestry associations newly established throughout the country, has resulted in an increase in extension-forestry work.

Forest Taxation – The value of standing trees does not increase any assessment for land tax and local body rates and, since 1949, concessions have been made in connection with income tax. Expenditure incurred in planting, protecting, and maintaining shelter belts and woodlots has since that year been allowed to be charged against income for tax purposes. At the same time income from the intermittent sale of farm trees could, on application to the Commissioner of Taxes, be spread over a period of five years in order to mitigate the effects of the higher graduated tax. In 1960 the timber value of trees growing on a deceased's estate was exempted from death duties. This exemption removes the fear of a crippling burden on the estate and the possibility of the forced sale of a perhaps immature plantation.

Farm Forestry Finance – Prior to the Farm Forestry Act 1962 difficulty was experienced in obtaining finance for forestry purposes. This Act provides for the granting of loans to private owners towards the cost of establishing and tending new plantations and the tending of those already existing. The scheme came into operation in 1963.

Private Forest Estate – The National Exotic Forest Survey has found that forest holdings other than State forest amounted, in 1962, to 545,000 acres in the following ownership categories: other Government departments 17,000 acres; local authorities 44,000 acres; afforestation companies 282,000 acres; and private persons (mostly farmers) 202,000 acres.

Afforestation companies boomed in the 1923–30 period, when huge areas, mostly of radiata pine, were planted. Utilisation, which has been in operation for some time now, is endeavouring to bring this short-period establishment into a normal series of age gradations and the area cut over is already being regenerated.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES – Indigenous forests from which timber is sold are revenue producing. Exotic forests become revenue producing as they come to maturity and, indeed, a few of the older exotic forests have already reached this stage. Overall, at present more money is being spent on the establishment and tending of forests than is obtained in revenue.

Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry is met in full from the Consolidated Fund, as distinct from the development of State forests for subsequent management, which is financed from the Public Works account.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
 £(000)
Consolidated Fund expenditure2,7472,9513,2683,3643,630
  Less receipts1,2311,4481,6331,5221,474
    Required from Consolidated Fund1,5161,5031,6351,8422,156
Public Works Account expenditure1,7691,9803,0662,7152,879
  Less receipts1,7801,8442,0512,3092,317
    Loan moneys requiredCr. 111361,015406562
Net finance required from Government funds1,5051,6392,6502,2482,718

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood – Up until World War II the indigenous sawlog was the main product of the New Zealand forests. In the 1930s changes developed both in the source of raw material as well as in the type of product required. The easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin, and in the years 1936–39 the exotic log took its place as a raw material. During that period, of the 60 million cubic feet per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 10 million cubic feet came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total removals of roundwood had gone up to 81 million cubic feet with 29 million cubic feet from the exotic forests.

Today the forest industry comprises some 625 sawmills, 8 plywood and veneer plants, a fibreboard mill, a particle board mill, and 5 pulp and paper mills. The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries.

ROUNDWOOD PRODUCTION IN MILLION CUBIC FEET

(Excluding Firewood)

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
194851.429.380.7
195158.841.099.8
195655.768.0123.7
195955.683.9139.5
196058.6103.9162.5
196155.1112.8167.9
196254.2118.2172.4
196346.5120.3166.8

Sawn-timber Production – By far the most important of the exotic timber species is radiata pine, which accounts for about 95 per cent of the total cut of exotics; larch, eucalypts, Douglas fir, and a few other species are produced only on a minor scale. Less than half the country's timber requirements now come from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber from 1921 onwards.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal

NOTE – Quantities have been rounded to the nearest million board feet. (Board feet are units of 12 in. by 12 in. by 1 in.) In some cases this rounding off results in a total disagreeing slightly with the total individual items shown in the table.

board feet (million)
192129010300718308
1926335734210111353
19312081322199230
1936249342831010293
1941277543311112343
19462269732319322345
195130119049232436528
195627530558043346626
196128739267832436714
196227837865633437693
196324337361625328643

The growth of exotic-timber production compared with the relatively steady production of indigenous timber is shown in the following diagram.

PRODUCTION ROUGH SAWN TIMBER

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past five years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19591960196119621963
 board feet (million)
Rimu and miro220232220214190
Matai3536323228
Totara131313139
Kahikatea1820211816
Tawa1519171713
Beech141412139
Other indigenous55443
Totals, indigenous319339319311268
Exotic pines303334374359354
Douglas fir713121415
Eucalypts33332
Other exotic55654
  Totals, exotic318355395381375
Totals (all species)637694714692643

The Pulp and Paper Industry – The New Zealand pulp and paper industry is now equipped for the substantial utilisation of the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are five plants, three of which are integrated with sawmilling. The integrated plants are pulping radiata pine logs from their own or from State exotic forests.

The basic products of the industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of pulp in New Zealand.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
ChemicalMechanical

NOTE – Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

 tons
1940217
194515,434
195021,438
195543,20429,568
1958118,63690,801
1959131,357103,512
1960140,057102,715
1961152,009109,399
1962154,086121,503
1963168,108135,419

All mechanical pulp is used in the manufacture of paper, paperboard, and fibreboard, but there is a deliberate surplus of chemical pulp for export. (See table later on Trade in Pulp and Paper.)

Production figures of pulp products in New Zealand are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther PaperPaperboardFibreboard
 tons
19406,2536,620
19456,33514,2846,862
19507,11114,67613,526
195522,49417,77920,591
19569,00028,15420,22521,340
195752,70030,83824,73221,415
195864,70037,99828,28221,000
195975,30043,86432,48423,030
196076,10049,16836,41724,830
196189,30052,79639,16325,533
196291,800x56,49040,54031,560
1963113,700108,84027,250

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following diagram.

PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. – This company was formed in 1952 to utilise timber from the Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical encouragement and financial backing were given by the New Zealand Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill came into operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 36 million board feet of sawn timber in one shift, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 200,000 tons of newsprint, 80,000 tons of chemical pulp, and 150,000 tons of mechanical pulp.

In 1959 the Bowater Group obtained an interest in the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., taking over the management and development of the mill and the world sales of all its products.

For details of the history of the Murupara scheme see the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. – This public company is already utilising over 30,000,000 cubic feet of timber a year from its own 176,000 acres of radiata pine forest. Plant capacity is 55,000 tons of kraft, printing, and writing paper, 108,000 tons of kraft pulp, and 80,000,000 board feet of sawn timber per annum. In addition, the company is equipped to convert 10,000,000 board feet of timber into wooden cases and to produce 50,000,000 square feet of veneer, 37,000 tons of fibreboard, and 25,000,000 multi-wall paper bags. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, and sawmill is located at Kinleith, near Tokoroa, while the fibreboard, multiwall paper bags, and wooden cases are manufactured in Auckland.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., which is now a subsidiary of New Zealand Forest Products, operates two paperboard machines, with an annual production capacity of 45,000 tons. The company manufactures its own mechanical and semi-chemical pulp, and is self-sufficient for more than 90 per cent of its raw materials.

The company owns its own radiata-pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 23 miles to the mill over its private railway line. An associated company, Whakatane Timber Mills Ltd., has its modern sawmill located near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd., owns a mill making tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co's plant at Kawerau. The mill has a production of between eight and nine thousand tons annually. It draws pulp, water, and steam supplies from the Tasman company.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, has been in operation for more than 80 years. Its three machines produce a wide range of papers from fine tissues to heavy krafts, as well as paper felt, pressings, and manilas for special trade requirements. The mills are being modernised to enable production to be diversified and substantially increased. A mill for making mechanical pulp has been installed: its output supplements purchased supplies of New Zealand made sulphate pulp, imported sulphite pulp, and waste paper. Annual production capacity is 13,000 tons of kraft and other papers.

Plywood and Veneer Manufacture – Six factories are engaged in the manufacture of plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1962, when reduced to a uniform basis of 3/16 ft in. thickness, was 52.9 million square feet. Three other plants produce veneer only. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1962–63 was 189.3 million square feet (1/16 in. basis).

For the most part logs from the indigenous forests form the basis of the plywood and veneer industry, though the peeling of exotic species, particularly radiata pine, shows a good deal of promise and is increasing steadily in importance. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers purchasing State indigenous forest to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Species of logs used and quantities of plywood and veneer produced are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVolume of Logs UsedValue of Logs UsedProduction
RimuKahikateaRadiata PineOtherImportedTotalPlywoodVeneer
 cubic feet (thousand)£(000)million square feet
19589891214771601,74741338.8..
19599731175111981,79946840.0149.7
19601,0551685601001131,99651343.1169.2
19611,0672623951011431,96857148.0176.2
19621,010178728931632,17260752.9189.3

Production of Round and Split Produce – Considerable quantities of native timbers have been required in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements. Thinnings and small-diameter logs from exotic forests are now making useful contributions towards satisfying those needs, and ensure the operation of preservative-treating plants.

Wood Preservation – Apart from plants treating round produce, for ground-contact use, with creosote and oil-soluble preservatives, the more recent establishment of plants for treatment of sawn timber with water-soluble preservatives has permitted far greater use in buildings of the non-durable grades and species from both indigenous and exotic forests.

In the year ended 31 March 1962 the production per head of preservative-treated sawn timber in New Zealand was 91 board feet. House construction has traditionally been based on the use of heartwood of the indigenous softwoods, this having excellent durability, strength, and stability. Where sapwood of these timbers was used extensively, insect borers have been troublesome. Particular emphasis on the significance of borer attack led to the progressive adoption of preservative treatment of such wood, as its use became more general owing to the depletion of indigenous resources. The further diminution in supply of both heartwood and sapwood indigenous softwoods has in turn stimulated the use of exotic conifers for which preservative treatment against both decay and insect attack is justifiable and technically easy.

Much controversy arose regarding the effectiveness of various preservatives and types of treatment and the extent to which treated timbers should be used in a building. This controversy retarded development in new methods of timber preservation and, in order to resolve the conflicting opinions, the Government in September 1955 issued the Timber Preservation Regulations, under which was set up the Timber Preservation Authority. The main functions of this Authority are to decide what shall be authorised preservative treatments and to establish and administer such inspectorial and advisory service as is necessary to ensure that treatments are in accordance with its authorisations. Eleven organisations, including five Government Departments, are represented on the Authority and the inspection is done on behalf of the Authority by the New Zealand Forest Service. The Authority has recently published a book containing the approved specifications and methods for timber preservation.

Collection of statistics on wood preservation was introduced in 1955 and the following table shows the importance of this industry.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal

*Mainly boron.

board feet (thousand)
1954–55536,98461,48468,520
1955–567,30781,96789,274
1956–578,82983,79292,621
1957–58521,63783,522105,163
1958–5947,18796,584143,770
1959–603070,889105,837176,756
1960–611294,895120,007214,914
1961–6293,873127,801221,674
1962–63391,242120,333211,579

In addition to the above, 2,968,000 cubic feet of roundwood, such as poles and fencing materials, was treated by the open-tank method, by diffusion, and by pressure impregnation in 1962–63.

Employment Statistics – The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 October in the years stated. (Source: Labour and Employment Gazette, Department of Labour.)

At 15 OctoberForestryLoggingSawmillingPulp and Paper IndustryOtherTotal

*Included in Other.

NOTES
1. “Forestry” includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.
2. “Logging” includes felling, cutting, and haulage.
3. “Pulp and Paper Industry” includes manufacture of pulp and conversion of pulp into paper, paperboard, fibreboard, and paper products (excluding stationery).
4. “Other” includes plywood and veneer manufacture, timber merchanting, and other wood-using industries.

19461,8071,760*1,86815,04920,484
19502,1332,202*2,22218,07424,631
19552,2072,8426,3283,57313,67928,629
19572,4462,6805,9344,12913,63328,822
19582,5642,7386,2214,52014,12430,167
19592,8862,7026,1394,80314,36930,899
19602,9452,5636,4315,16014,89731,996
19613,0792,5466,3585,31615,35632,655
19623,4472,4216,2105,56215,07932,719

OVERSEAS TRADE – Although durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as railway sleepers, large poles, cross-arms, and wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc., increasing use is being made of preservative-treated softwood timber for these and other uses in which structural timbers are subject to severe service conditions. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to Japanese oak for the furniture trade and to small quantities of other species for specialty purposes.

While exports of indigenous timbers in recent years have virtually ceased owing to the conservation of these timbers for home consumption, there is now an established market in Australia for radiata pine. Trade with Japan in pine logs is a recent development.

Tables giving details of the external trade in timber now follow. The value of imports is the current domestic value in the country of origin; the value of exports is free on board at the port of shipment.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES

Calendar YearSawn TimberSleepersLogs and PolesTotal, All Timber
Australian HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal

*Douglas fir, redwood and cedar.

board feet (million)
195810.014.93.15.032.912.14.949.8
19595.513.31.53.623.95.44.233.5
19608.716.61.54.331.17.65.844.5
19619.821.31.15.237.49.87.754.9
19626.017.20.44.828.43.35.236.9

NOTE – Figures have been adjusted to include items not given in board feet in published statistics.

TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES

Calendar YearIndigenous TimberRadiata PineOther ExoticsTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs
SwanCases

NOTE – Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

  board feet (million)  cubic feet (million)
195727.22.10.629.929.9 
19580.433.44.91.339.640.11.1
19590.341.34.54.950.851.05.0
19600.440.63.63.047.247.64.3
19610.226.83.71.532.032.29.2
19620.226.64.21.932.732.99.3

EXPORTS OF TIMBER: DESTINATION

Calendar YearAustraliaPacific IslandsOther CountriesTotals
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

NOTE – Logs are included (volume expressed in board feet, solid volume).

 bd.ft. (million)£(000)bd. ft. (million)£(000)bd. ft. (million)£(000)bd. ft. (million)£(000)
195728.58211.474.01130.0896
195835.71,0574.424613.713453.71,438
195946.91,4454.122260.2537111.22,204
196044.71,3693.418351.654399.72,095
196128.88493.4181110.41,158142.62,188
196228.68404.3240111.21,254144.12,334

Total production of the pulp and paper industry will almost fully meet New Zealand's requirements, limit imports of these products, and leave a considerable surplus for export of some of the major products such as newsprint and sulphate pulp.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the latest five years.

EXTERNAL TRADE IN PULP AND PAPER

Calendar YearWood PulpFibreboardPaper and Paperboard
NewsprintPaperboardOther PaperTotal

*In 1,000 square feet.

†Includes all other paper exported, but not manufactures of paper and paperboard; values include items for which no quantities are given. Basis for valuation: Exports – free on board at port of shipment; Imports – c.d.v. in country of origin.

Imports
tons
19588,5461,195*24,1523,35030,36857,870
19598,78855*19,5783,01432,45055,042
196012,054687*31,6093,49827,42362,530
196113,497702*26,7744,42732,60963,810
196214,525127*10,58030,69841,278
Value £(thousand)
1958381151,3814294,3706,180
195932611,1143774,3525,843
196051181,7064504,0006,156
196161861,4135494,6786,640
196260125674,3634,930
Exports
tons
195868,9631,133*41,7371,0961,60144,434
195976,8261,952*43,6621,9022,33847,901
196070,150948*49,4131,8824,05055,345
196163,601911*46,17515382247,150
196270,1341,836*41,4931,06742,560
Value £(thousand)
19582,725192,632811732,885
19592,921322,7161182453,080
19602,802173,0801233443,547
19612,516172,703121052,820
19622,834272,2981282,426

FOREST TREES AND TIMBERS – Detailed information is contained in publications of the New Zealand Forest Service, including Forest Trees and Timbers of New Zealand (Entrican, Hinds, and Reid); Exotic Forest Trees in New Zealand (Weston); The National Forest Survey of New Zealand, 1955, Vol. I: The Indigenous Forest Resources of New Zealand (Masters, Holloway, and McKelvey); The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Principal Indigenous Woods of New Zealand (Entrican, Ward, and Reid); New Zealand Building Timbers (Reid); and the annual reports of the Forest Service and Forest Research Institute.

Chapter 16. Section 16 FISHERIES

Table of Contents

GENERAL – The fishing industry in New Zealand is based on the bottom-dwelling or demersal species of fish caught by trawling, Danish seining, lines and nets. Trawling is by far the most important method, producing approximately 74 per cent of the total catch, line methods 14 per cent, net and other methods 7 per cent, and Danish seine 5 per cent. The efficient motor trawler ranging in size between 50 ft and 60 ft with a crew of two or three men has come to be the type of vessel mainly used by the industry.

In New Zealand the fishing industry consists of a relatively large number of operators. It is widely dispersed around a number of smaller ports as well as the main ports. The industry is built around the handling and selling of fresh fish in the main, as opposed to processing fish. Exports are relatively limited.

Controls governing the fishing industry have been based mainly on conservation which, over the years, has come to mean a steady level of catch of each individual species rather than a full economic utilisation of available resources.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. Tuna species occur both in the inshore and in the oceanic waters around New Zealand but tuna fishery has not been developed in accordance with the probable density of these species. Fishermen are now looking for these fish and catches are rising significantly.

The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow water, and, except for groper and ling, which are fished for by means of deep long lines, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 80 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, hake, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet, and seines are also employed principally for the capture of flat fish and snapper.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Marine Department.

The principal regulations dealing with fisheries are set out hereunder. Comprehensive series are the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950, the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1951, and the Commercial Fishing Regulations 1963. Under the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations are issued a number of modification notices which deal with particular aspects – e.g., permissible length of different classes of fish to be taken – while the various acclimatisation societies' rules are issued under the authority of these regulations. The Sea Fisheries (Boats and Licences) Regulations 1951, the Oyster Fishing Regulations 1946, and the Whitebait Fishing Regulations 1951 are directly relevant to the fishing industry. Other regulations include the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, the Quinnat Salmon Regulations 1940, the Fish-pass Regulations 1947, and the Toheroa Regulations 1955.

Fishing Industry Select Committee – A Select Committee of 12 members was set up in December 1961 to inquire into and report upon the fishing industry in New Zealand. This Committee sat during 1962 and its report was tabled in the House just before the close of the session. All aspects of the industry were studied and the findings of that Committee should have a far-reaching effect on the future development of the fishing industry in New Zealand. The Government announced in November 1963 that £140,000 was to be spent on fisheries research as a further step in implementing the recommendations of the Select Committee.

Fishing Industry Board – In 1963 there was passed a Fishing Industry Board Act, providing for the establishment of a seven-member board with the principal function of promoting the expansion and development of the fishing industry, marketing and standards of hygiene and packaging, continuity of supply, coordination within the industry, cooperation of research and means of financing development.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES – As at 31 December 1962 there were 1,570 licensed fishing boats. Of these boats 579 earned more than £1,000, 145 earned more than £500 but less than £1,000, and 846 earned less than £500 during the 12 months ended 31 December 1962.

The estimated total quantity and value of the principal classes of fishery products marketed in the years 1961 and 1962 were as follows.

ProductUnitQuantityValue
1961196219611962
    ££
Wet fishcwt528,632554,6541,626,9301,772,628
Whitebait (West Coast South Island only)cwt1,69575366,44444,276
Oysters (dredged)sacks108,91769,018228,726151,840
Oysters (rock)sacks3,0713,08810,49711,704
Musselssacks40,97634,72431,24626,205
Crayfishcwt79,39890,018847,1591,070,888
Whale oiltons68625641,16015,360
Fish liverslb328,495302,72926,49324,478
  Total value2,878,6553,117,379

In the most important group, “wet fish” (i.e., all the ordinary fishes caught by all the methods of fishing), the annual totals for the successive years were as follows.

YearTotal QuantityTotal ValueYearTotal QuantityTotal Value
 cwt£ cwt£
1945331,773558,4041954414,1221,195,568
1946380,321660,0961955435,3351,299,494
1947438,300802,4961956450,8901,356,556
1948446,265838,3341957498,3021,503,914
1949449,903864,3321958494,1731,586,300
1950440,179918,0511959517,9171,543,021
1951408,365949,5511960542,5061,675,330
1952408,8581,079,0991961528,6321,626,930
1953435,4971,200,0381962554,6541,772,628

Kind or Class of Wet Fish Caught – The following table shows the quantity and value of each kind of “wet fish” caught during 1961 and 1962.

Snapper was again the principal “wet fish” taken in 1962 and exceeded tarakihi by 36,316 cwt-The snapper catch was 8,901 cwt and tarakihi 6,868 cwt above the 1961 catch. Tarakihi and snapper comprised 51.14 percent of the total “wet fish” landed in 1962.

Kinds or Class of FishQuantityValue
19611962196119621961196219611962
 cwtper cent£per cent
Snapper151,070159,97128.5828.84403,353432,14024.7924.38
Tarakihi116,787123,65522.0922.29321,153354,71019.7420.01
Gurnard51,59752,9209.779.5492,08095,1165.665.37
Trevally40,89049,2987.738.8850,26161,0903.093.45
Blue cod30,80626,2175.824.7277,846118,0394.786.66
Hapuku23,67523,0864.474.16153,815154,5579.458.72
Elephant fish19,35822,7743.674.16109,461122,2506.736.90
Flounder14,09414,8112.672.67134,345144,7668.268.16
Pioke11,01512,9432.102.3333,88743,2202.082.44
Sole13,66411,4922.5920799,21890,8546.105.12
Moki8,9299,2771.702.6721,46222,7731.321.28
Shark7,1186,9731.351.2517,83619,0701101.07
Red cod4,7765,9340.901.079,98912,8180.610.72
John Dory5,6075,4091.060.9817,08916,1861.050.91
Ling5,8155,2681.100.9520,92719,1271.291.08
Mullet4,5333,7550.860.6813,48711,4530.830.65
Barracouta5,4523,4001.030.618,1612,9820.510.17
Whiptail2,1652,9510.410.533,1973,9080.200.22
Hake1,6022,7600.300.506,54511,1230.400.63
Warehou1,7222,2330.330.403,9625,1150.240.29
Butterfish,8442,1910.350.3911,12513,4740.680.76
Kahawai1,0161,5260.190.271,1051,7320.070.10
Eel9011,1320.170.203,1923,1430.200.17
Mixed rounds9781,0540.180.192,4952,6040.150.14
Monkfish5347180.100.131,6601,8060.100.10
Herring8096290.150112,2181,6560.140.09
Kingfish5056270.090.111,2381,4940.080.08
Parore2435900.050.113398020.020.04
Brill3133030.060.052,5352,7870160.16
Mackerel1282170.020.041652470.010.01
Skate1101190.020.021942040.010.01
Tuna17930.02452780.01
Trumpeter56820.010.022953390.020.02
Conger eel6176001001193127001 
Garfish (piper)67690.020.012813300.020.02
Sardine329350.061,7011680100.01
Whiting9231339
Maomao7171857
Perch12133028
Creamfish18111412
Frostfish12 
Bonita (Brama)12 
  Totals528,632554,654100.00100.001,626,9301,772,628100.00100.00

Methods of Capture – A table showing the total quantity of “wet fish” caught in 1962 by each of the common methods of fishing is shown below, with the figures for 1961 included for comparison.

Method of FishingQuantityValue
19611962196119621961196219611962
 cwper cent£per cent
Trawl382,788413,37872.4174.541,091,1411,177,82167.0766.44
Danish seine29,73027,2915.634.9270,31666,4114.323.75
Set and drag nets34,10036,3246.456.55159,535173,6819.809.79
Long and hand lines81,11376,52915.3413.79302,746351,57218.6119.83
Other methods9011,1320.170.203,1923,1430.200.19
  Totals528,632554,654100.00100.001,626,9301,772,628100.00100.00

The steam trawlers landed a total catch of 29,056 cwt, while motor trawlers landed 384,322 cwt.

Landings at the Ports – Ports where the total landed catch was in excess of 10,000 cwt are shown in the table below.

PortQuantityValue
19611962196119621961196219611962
 cwtPer Cent of Total£Per Cent of Total
Auckland124,424125,28323.5422.59286,375285,06317.6016.08
Napier45,24245,8098.568.26124,037124,9357.627.05
Timaru43,64447,4818.268.56186,840211,80811.4811.95
Gisborne40,61348,9987.688.8392,198112,9215.666.37
Wellington40,29351,9777.629.37143,271175,3748.809.89
Manukau35,45835,8486.716.4674,89575,5084.604.26
Tauranga23,10322,4644.374.0556,97355,3233.503.12
Nelson21,25919,1824.023.4659,48555,8903.653.15
Lyttelton18,99823,3893.594.2285,69199,4785.265.61
Chatham Islands18,16111,6543.442.1026,47754,7731.633.09
Thames13,21515,3942.502.7744,69350,2982.742.84
Port Chalmers12,78012,1932.412.2059,57048,4513.662.73
Bluff12,50014,8722.362.6845,71361,5822.802.58

The total quantity of fish landed at these ports was 474,544 cwt, which was 86 per cent of the grand total.

EXPORTS – The total value of fish and shellfish exported during 1962 was £1,649,829.

A table showing the principal classes of fishery products exported during each of the latest three years is set out below.

CommodityUnitQuantityValue
196019611962196019611962
     £££
Mussels, etc.cwt84127371,0971,633476
Fish, frozencwt68,37947,54253,258549,563406,337496,330
Crayfish, frozen including crayfish tailscwt25,21018,77326,805883,570753,6091,140,050
Fish, smoked, dried, etc.cwt1772833351,8573,2233,830
Fish and shellfish, cannedlb35,95416,36022,71017,3349,5789,143
  Total values 1,453,4211,174,3801,649,829

Fish-liver Oil – The quantity of fish livers processed during 1962 was 302,729 lb, 25,766 lb less than in 1961. The total oil produced was 17,156 gallons, a decrease of 1,626 gallons on the 1961 production. Of the oil produced, 10,103 gallons were exported, compared with 6,725 gallons in 1961.

The total weight of livers processed and the quantity of oil produced in each of the latest five years were as follows.

YearWeight of Livers Treated lbQuantity of Oil Produced gallons
1958348,63818,303
1959308,13016,762
1960308,37616,775
1961328,49518,782
1962302,72917,156

OYSTER BEDS – The principal oyster beds around the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland peninsula.

In South Island waters a close season is observed from 1 October to 14 February, and in North Island waters from 1 November to 30 April in each year. The taking of oysters is governed by the Oyster-fishing Regulations 1946, and vessels operating commercially are subject to the Sea-fisheries (Boats and Licences) Regulations 1951. During the 1962 season 69,018 sacks of oysters were dredged from Foveaux Strait, compared with 108,917 in 1961.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but, owing to stripping of the beds, close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock oysters from the North Island beds was undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited. In 1958 a change was made in the marketing procedure, and sales to the public through the oyster depot were discontinued. The total supply of oysters is now allocated direct to the trade in an endeavour to achieve wider distribution through the retail fish shops.

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

Rock oysters picked by the State in 1962 totalled 3,088 sacks, compared with 3,071 sacks in 1961.

CRAYFISH – Marine crayfish occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of crayfish is sold in local markets for domestic consumption, part is exported as frozen crayfish tails and whole crays, while a small quantity is canned.

With the development of the export of frozen crayfish tails to the United States of America and the high price received for this product, the increase in the catch of crayfish was phenomenal, until 1956. Catches in the following years up to 1960 showed a decline, but the rise in 1961 was doubled in 1962. Rises in catch were shown in the south of the South Island, and Wellington and Bay of Islands in the North Island. The catch of crayfish over the latest five years is as follows.

YearQuantityValue
 cwt£
195887,351728,637
195978,925665,166
196074,737708,775
196179,398847,159
196290,0181,070,888

WHALING – The 1962 total catch of 55 whales was the lowest recorded since 1929. The industry had been based on humpback whales and the fall in population of this species has made it apparent that operations could not continue economically on this basis. Preparations were therefore made for the Cook Strait whaling activity to work almost entirely on sperm whales. The Hauraki Gulf station has ceased operations.

SEALS – The taking of seals in New Zealand waters has been on a restricted scale during the last 50 years, these animals being placed on the protected list in 1894. No sealing was then allowed until 1913, when there was an open season, but with certain restrictions. From 1916 a close season was observed until 1922, when the taking of seals was again permitted, but only till 1924, since when a close season was observed until 1946.

A short restricted open season was permitted during 1946 by the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, but a close season is again being observed.

BIG-GAME FISHING – Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The world's record black marlin swordfish (976 lb) was caught off the Bay of Islands in February 1926.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1947, superseded by the regulations of similar title issued in 1950, were gazetted prohibiting the taking of these fish by other than rod and line, and stipulating that the line was not to be heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than four fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1962 season (from November 1961 to June 1962), big-game fish caught included 8 black marlin, 167 striped marlin, 4 blue marlin, 139 mako shark, and 795 other species. Figures for the 1961 season recorded 22 black marlin, 497 striped marlin, 18 blue marlin, 231 mako shark, and 826 other species.

WHITEBAIT – A fishery that is peculiar to New Zealand with regard both to the product and to the methods of operation, and carried on from July to November in the tidal reaches of many rivers, is the whitebait fishery. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and, over a period of years, produced an average of approximately 3,000 cwt of whitebait. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. In 1962, as a result of very poor runs in most parts of the West Coast the season was the poorest for some years. In Otago (from the Clutha River) and in the Bay of Plenty a decided improvement was shown.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES – Descriptions of native and acclimatised fishes have been given in the 1957 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

With the exception of the Rotorua Acclimatisation District in the thermal lakes region and the Southern Lakes District in the South Island, which are under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs, the local administration and management of freshwater fisheries are in the hands of acclimatisation societies.

The Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1951 contain provisions of general application with regard to limit bag, size limit, baits and lures, duration of season, etc., for Acclimatisation Districts. Such general regulations apply unless modification notices for particular districts are issued varying these limits.

A fishing licence, for which the fee for the season (opens 1 October and continues for seven months) is £2 10s., enables the holder to fish for acclimatised fish in any part of New Zealand except the Rotorua Acclimatisation District (which includes the Taupo Trout Fishing District) and the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District. For fishing in the Rotorua area and the Southern Lakes District the local licence fees are £2 10s. for all male adults, but in the Taupo area of the Rotorua Acclimatisation District, which is the most popular of all New Zealand angling resorts, the licence fees for each season are £3 10s. for male adults and £2 for females and males under 17 years, weekly licences are 15s. and 7s. 6d. respectively, and daily licences 5s. in all cases. For all acclimatisation districts there is a reduced scale of licence fees for female and juvenile anglers. Monthly, weekly, and daily licences are also available, while half-season, weekend, and single-river licences are optional in some districts. The open season for Lakes Taupo and Rotorua extends from 1 July to 30 June (a 12-month season).

The Fisheries Amendment Act 1953 provides for the establishment of fisheries experimental waters by Order in Council. In such cases the freshwater regulations applicable may be declared not to apply or to apply, subject to modifications. Under this authority, Lakes Waingata and Opouri, the Waitati and Horokiri Rivers and parts of some rivers in the Hawke's Bay Acclimatisation District were declared fisheries experimental waters in 1962.

The same amendment also enables the Governor-General under certain conditions to dispense with a close season for trout and salmon in any one or more years or to fix a close season of less than five months' duration for all or part of the waters of the district concerned. Special regulations provide for winter fishing for trout at Lake Tutira and parts of some rivers in Hawke's Bay; for perch at Lake Ratapiko, Taranaki, Lakes Pauri, Kowhata, and Whiritoa, Wanganui, and certain lakes in the Hawera District, also Lake Mahinapua, Westland.

Chapter 17. Section 17 MINERALS AND MINERAL PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

MINERAL PRODUCTION – New Zealand's mineral resources are limited, particularly as regards metallic ores.

For many years following the first discovery of gold at Coromandel in 1852, and later in the South Island, gold mining was of great importance to New Zealand's economy. From an output of 10,437 oz in 1857, gold production reached a peak of 735,376 oz, then valued at £2,844,157, in 1866. Since then a steady decline has resulted in gold production amounting to only 21,742 oz in 1962.

Coal has for many years been New Zealand's most important mineral, the value of production being £7,130,299 in 1962.

With New Zealand's increasing agricultural and industrial needs, quarrying has grown in importance over the past 20 years, production in 1961 being valued at over £9 million By far the largest contributor to non-metallic production is sand, rock, gravel, and aggregate for building purposes and road making, while limestone-quarrying is also an important industry.

The following table shows the production of metals and minerals during 1961 and 1962 from mines and quarries.

Mineral19611962
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 Fuels£ £
Coal2,924,725 tons8,229,3472,550,196 tons7,130,299
Petroleum (crude)153,650 gal7,006139,418 gal10,592
Condensate114,182 gal8,550
Natural gas5,101,400 cu. ft.1,4034,063,400 cu. ft.1,117
Metals
Gold28,294 oz353,56521,742 oz266,335
Silver805 oz227416 oz151
Copper ore102 tons2,000
Iron ore1,745 tons7,8061,501 tons9,093
Tungsten ore5 tons2,5008 tons2,280
Non-metallics
 tons tons 
Asbestos33316,36340821,244
Bentonite1,66121,5141,48819,202
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.411,577217,286316,1401
Clay for pottery, fillers, etc.4,62914,8687,219 
Diatomite3,53663,0301,87425,
Dimension stone16,12961,76616,01369,82
Dolomite3,55022,1885,74834,985
Limestone for agriculture895,122787,669844,354769,019
Limestone for industry49,24553,12242,02355,793
Limestone and marl, for cement1,212,569388,1401,093,871314,045
Magnesite5813,8356354,467
Perlite (processed value)3879,4233878,457
Pumice32,71218,74632,52221,404
Rock for harbour work491,051185,517398,30799,878
Salt5,01775,0008,90095,000
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate3,523,8362,475,9553,978,6682,647,052
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast12,050,4886,283,65314,060,8666,308,440
Sand for industry160,176110,12362,96930,909
Serpentine156,184285,720140,175181,421
Silica sand55,235107,70162,318117,876
Wollastonite670
  Totals19,803,67318,438,941

LEGISLATION – Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Bauxite Act 1959, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1926, the Quarries Act 1944, and the Petroleum Act 1937. The administrative agency is the Mines Department.

The Mineral Resources Committee, a sub-committee of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, has recently been reconstructed and its terms of reference include the determination of the direction of mineral investigations in relation to financial resources available and the possibilities of early economic development. The Committee also has a responsibility to encourage coordination between Government and private organisations in the search for and development of minerals of national industrial importance.

MINERAL RESOURCES

Adapted from A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand.

COAL – Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are–

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfield), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Minor coalfields from which coal is being mined, but which cannot be expected to provide an important contribution to coal resources, are–

Sub-bituminous Coal: Nelson (Puponga, Westhaven), Murchison.

Lignite: Canterbury (numerous small deposits), Otago, Charleston (Westport).

Coal Utilisation and Research – Coal utilisation and research is guided by two committees. They are:

Coal Mining Research Committee – The Assistant Under-Secretary of Mines, Assistant Secretary of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Chief Inspector of Coal Mines, and a research officer of the School of Mines, University of Otago. This committee is under the aegis of the Mines Department.

Coal Utilisation Committee – Deputy Secretary of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Chairman), Under-Secretary of Mines, Directors of Dominion Laboratory and Auckland Industrial Development Laboratory, Dean of the Canterbury School of Engineering, a representative of the Electricity Department, and representatives of coal wholesalers and retailers, and of the gas industry.

A technical subcommittee comprises officers of the Dominion Laboratory, Auckland Industrial Development Laboratory, Dairy Research Institute, and Mines Department. This committee and subcommittee are under the aegis of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

These committees are equipped to deal with the many problems facing the coal industry and to ensure as far as practicable that the fullest and most efficient use is made of our native fuel and power resources.

Inter-Departmental Committee on Fuel – This committee, which was set up in 1954, continues to do valuable work in ensuring the use of local fuels in Government and other public buildings and institutions where it is reasonable and practicable to do so.

Coal Advisory Services Association (Inc.) – The coal-mine owners and the coal merchants have established and support financially the Coal Advisory Services Association (Inc.). Its main objects are to:

  1. Promote the use of coal and to provide a consumer service for coal users.

  2. Advance the study and understanding of coal utilisation techniques.

  3. Disseminate and publicise information on coal and its efficient use.

This Association's offices are at Wellington and Dunedin.

Fuel Technology Service – The Mines Department has established a fuel technology service in Auckland and Christchurch to advise industrial and domestic consumers in the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources – In recent years the investigation of coal resources has been carried on in three phases: (i) mainly geological and chemical activities; (ii) detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (iii) investigations by deep-core drilling.

A fresh estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand was prepared in 1959 based on information obtained by the Mines Department and the Geological Survey. The classification accepted – “measured,” “indicated,” and “inferred” – is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and also accepted in the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey issued by the British Commonwealth of Nations Scientific Liaison Offices, London. These terms are simply defined as follows.

  1. “Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established. The computed tonnage and grade are judged to be accurate within limits, and no such limit is judged to differ from the computed tonnage or grade by more than 20 per cent.

  2. “Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples of measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

These clearly and specifically defined terms have wide international acceptance. The table below sets out the estimated coal resources of New Zealand.

LocalityMeasuredIndicatedInferred
 tons
 Bituminous
Buller29,600,00018,800,00015,000,000
Murchison110,000660,0001,300,000
Garvey Creek175,0003,000,0005,000,000
Greymouth11,000,00015,000,00030,000,000
 40,885,00037,460,00051,300,000
 Sub-bituminous
Northland100,000500,0003,000,000
Maramarua19,000,00036,000,00024,000,000
Huntly25,800,00099,170,00072,000,000
Kawhia260,000470,0006,000,000
Mangapehi1,800,000600,0003,300,000
Tatu (including Ohura)3,400,0001,100,00012,000,000
Waitewhena400,000900,00011,000,000
Mokau60,000,000
Nelson60,000130,0001,000,000
Buller Gorge100,0002,000,0008,000,000
Reefton1,670,0003,940,0008,000,000
Fletcher Creek3,000,000
Punakaiki2,000,000
Kaitangata1,920,000500,000500,000
Ohai7,720,0008,400,00090,000,000
Orepuki1,000,000
 62,230,000153,710,000304,800,000
 Lignite
Charleston6,000,0002,000,0008,000,000
Canterbury250,00020,000,000
North Otago250,0002,000,000
Central Otago250,00015,000,000
Green Island250,0003,000,000
Kaitangata3,300,00020,900,00075,000,000
Pomahaka60,000,000
Mataura Valley5,400,00020,200,000216,000,000
 15,700,00043,100,000399,000,000
   Summary: Measured118,815,000 tons 
     Indicated234,270,000 tons 
     Inferred755,100,000 tons 
     Grand totall,108,185,00tons 

Coal Consumption – The approximate distribution of coal consumption during each of the latest five years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports (including bunker coal for overseas vessels). Additional information on accumulating stocks of coal have led to a revision of this series.

User19581959196019611962
tons
Railways238,000227,000219,000216,000187,000
Gasworks271,000276,000277,000279,000262,000
Electric generation247,000357,000601,000602,000342,000
Households550,000540,000540,000535,000470,000
Factory industries –
  Meatworks158,000171,000155,000151,000121,000
  Dairy factories308,000301,000288,000290,000292,000
  Pulp and paper mills124,000126,000121,000125,000122,000
  Cement works176,000161,000158,000172,000186,000
  Other factories292,000284,000245,000215,000203,000
Other consumers328,000267,000314,000286,000250,000
    Total consumption2,692,0002,710,0002,918,0002,871,0002,435,000

Summary of Operations – The following table summarises coal-mining operations.

YearOutput (tons)Persons Ordinarily EmployedLives Lost by Accidents in or about Collieries
SurfaceUndergroundTotalsPer Million Tons ProducedPer Thousand Persons EmployedLives Lost
Prior to 1958140,982,858..........608
19582,720,0341,6623,0844,7464.402.5212
19592,809,5941,6172,9224,5391.420.904
19603,012,0431,5372,7644,3010.660.472
19612,924,7251,3562,6884,0440.690.492
19622,550,1961,3302,5223,8522.401.576
  Totals154,999,450…...634

Underground Mines – The following table gives particulars of the operations of underground mining during the last five years.

Calendar YearOutput (tonsMen Employed UndergroundTons per Man UndergroundMen Employed on SurfaceTons per Man on Pay Roll
19581,930,3013,0846261,168454
19591,921,3762,9226581,102477
19601,892,0302,7646851,070493
19611,813,6912,688675944499
19621,696,6882,522673912494

There were 98 underground mines in operation in 1962, and of these 22 operated by the State produced 1,143,487 tons of coal. Production from individual State mines is set out in the Mines Statement, parliamentary paper C. 2.

Opencast Mines – Production of coal from opencast mines in 1962 amounted to 853,508 tons, which was 257,526 tons less than the production in 1961. The proportion of the total production of coal obtained from opencast mines amounted to 33.5 per cent.

There were 50 opencast mines in operation in 1962, and of these nine operated by the State produced 301,067 tons. All of these State mines have come into production since the beginning of 1944. Details of opencast mining for the last five years are given in the following table.

YearOutput (tons)Men EmployedTons per Man Employed
1958789,7334941,599
1959888,2185151,725
19601,120,0134672,398
19611,111,0344122,697
1962853,5084182,042

Derived Products – Low-temperature carbonisation works, using then Lurgi process, established at Rotowaro, 70 miles south of Auckland, in 1931, produced during 1962, 11,829 tons of carbonettes, 223,184 gallons of tar and oil, and 1,419 tons of char from 22,561 tons of slack coal, which was part of the output of a group of local mines.

The Sockburn plant, near Christchurch, produced 21,119 gallons of tar and 5,530 tons of coke during 1962.

Mercer Power Station – This station, of 180,000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 700,000 tons of coal per annum. One-third of the coal used is from the Huntly coalfield plus some additional coal from mines elsewhere. The remaining two-thirds is being provided from the Maramarua opencast coalfield about 7 miles distant from the station.

State Coal Mines – The purchase of coal mines by the State which began in 1940, has left only two large private mines in production. A proposal to purchase all coal in the ground, including unworked coal, by the Coal Act 1948, was reversed by a change of Government when the Act was repealed.

During 1962 there were 31 State coal mines in operation and the average number of persons employed was 2,682.

The Paparoa State Mine was closed down on 20 March 1962 following the discontinuance of two major orders.

Financial – Sales of coal, etc., through the medium of the depots totalled 1,254,990 tons (value £5,825,121) for the year ended 31 December 1962. This compares with 1,422,107 tons (value £6,445,525) for the year ended 31 December 1961.

The operating loss for the year was £1,079,626, and with interest of £496,865 on loan capital the total loss was £1,576,491.

As interest could not be paid it was remitted under section 15 of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953.

Capital expenditure for the year was £261,078. Depreciation was £704,379 and the value of fixed assets was reduced to £5,101,773.

Accidents – The number of compensatable accidents at State coal mines for the year ended 31 December 1962 was 1,643, compared with 1,774 in the previous year.

Coal Mining Districts' Welfare and Research Fund – This fund, into which is paid a levy at the rate of 9d. per ton on coal other than lignite and 7 1/2d. per ton on lignite, is used for coal-miners' relief, provision of amenities, establishment and maintenance of rescue stations, research, and generally for the benefit of the industry.

Information concerning monetary benefits for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis or any other occupational disease or heart disease contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand appears in Section 6A – Social Security.

IRON RESOURCES – New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches – from Westport northwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tons of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tons of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tons in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. An Iron and Steel Industry Act was passed in 1959 and, after investigational work, the Government is initiating the formation of an operating company to develop an iron and steel industry in the South Auckland area. It is envisaged that plant capable of producing about 150,000 tons a year of a limited range of products could be in operation towards the end of 1966.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Production in 1962 was 1,501 tons.

URANIUM AND THORIUM – While the existence in minute amount of uranium- and thorium-bearing minerals in beach sands and alluvial deposits had been known for some years, it was not until 1955 that their occurrence in solid formation was discovered. The first discovery was made in a lode traversing the Hawk Crag Breccia at Batty Creek in the Buller Gorge. Following on this discovery prospecting of an area of Hawk Crag Breccia on the north side of the Buller River has revealed the presence of bedded mineralised horizons in the breccia containing uranium-bearing minerals and these horizons have been traced over considerable distances, the horizons proved to underlie extensive areas and the deposits to be of potential value. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush, the area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult, all of which was combined to make investigation work difficult until an access road was completed. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and, so far, ore has not been found rich enough to be worked economically at present price levels. Similar mineralised horizons have been found to exist in Hawk Crag Breccia situated in the headwaters of Bullock Creek and of the Porarari River in the Punakaiki area. Other areas containing Hawk Crag Breccia, particularly the area south of the Buller River, are known to contain similar mineralisation. Float boulders containing thorium minerals were located near the Haast River, South Westland, in 1955, but have not been traced to their source.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy. Rewards may be granted by the Minister of Mines for the discovery of uranium, thorium, plutonium, neptunium, or other prescribed substances. Prospectors must obtain a miner's right or a mineral prospecting warrant. No mining for any of the minerals is permissible except under a mineral licence.

GOLD – The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now almost confined to one dredge and the re-working of tailings from former battery sites.

The following table gives particulars of the estimated gold content of gold/silver/bullion production for the last three years.

Type of MiningQuantityValue
196019611962196019611962
 ozozoz£££
Quartz mining3423361424,2874,2171,740
Alluvial mining4865013905,6915,6844,770
Dredge mining32,49827,45721,210408,502343,664259,825
  Totals33,32628,29421,742418,480353,565266,335

SILVER – Most of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz mines of the Hauraki goldfields, where gold and silver were found alloyed. A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredges.

TUNGSTEN – The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, while the scheelite is most erratically distributed in the veins, with the greatest concentration of scheelite situated close to the surface or at shallow depth. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Owing to the price of tungsten ores continuing at a low level, scheelite mining is now on a much reduced scale.

In 1962, 8 tons of scheelite were produced as compared with 5 tons in 1961. Production was confined to the Glenorchy field in Otago.

COPPER – Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in many localities. It is estimated that the total production of copper to the end of 1962 amounted to 6,506 tons, valued at £126,302. The ore mined in 1962 contained 10 per cent copper and is used as an additive to fertilisers. The deposit is near Parakao and contains azurite and malachite, forms of carbonates of copper, as well as tenorite, an oxide of copper.

MANGANESE – Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Of recent years there has been some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore. There was no production of manganese in 1961 and 1962.

MERCURY – Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand, but only in a few localities is it found in quantities of economic importance. The most promising deposits of mercury ore in New Zealand are those of the Puhipuhi district, where for many years efforts were made to place the production of the metal on a commercial basis. During the war these efforts were revived and production recommenced, the ore being obtained by opencast mining and the mercury recovered in a modern treatment plant with a capacity of 50 tons of ore per day. Owing to the drastic slump in the price and the need for additional earth-moving equipment, operations were discontinued in 1945.

ANTIMONY – Small quantities of antimony ore have been won from deposits in the South Island, but there has been no production since 1953.

TIN – Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent.

PLATINUM – Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant, and production has now ceased.

PETROLEUM – Indications of the presence of petroleum are found on the surface in North Auckland, at Moturoa near New Plymouth and elsewhere in Taranaki, over wide areas on the eastern coast of the North Island, and in the South Island at Kotuku, near Murchison, and in the Cheviot district. After the passing of the Petroleum Act 1937 considerable interest was displayed by some of the major oil organisations, and practically all the potential oil-bearing lands in New Zealand were held under petroleum-prospecting licences.

Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is provided for in the Petroleum Act 1937. Current licences cover areas totalling 50,037 square miles.

Interest in the search for petroleum continues to run high. Geological and geophysical work (including seismic surveys) is being conducted by several licence holders in Northland, Waikato, Taranaki, Wellington, Gisborne, and Hawke's Bay Districts in the North Island, and in Nelson, Westland, Canterbury, and Southland Districts in the South Island.

Since the current search commenced a few years ago, deep wells have been drilled as listed.

Name of WellDepth in feetDate CompletedResult
Kapuni No. 1 (Taranaki)13,040October 1959Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 2 (Taranaki)13,762January 1962Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 3 (Taranaki)12,457June 1962Gas/condensate
Kapuni No. 4 (Taranaki12,800October 1962Gas/condensate
Mangahewa No. 1 (Taranaki)14,059April 1961Gas/condensate
Inglewood No. 1 (Taranaki)16,600June 1963Dry
Mangaone No. 1 (Gisborne)5,085May 1961Dry
Ruakituri No. 1 (Gisborne)9,005April 1962Dry

Preparations are in train for the drilling of further wells near Hamilton in the North Island and near Greymouth on the West Coast of the South Island.

The Kapuni wells drilled on a structure named Manaia have proved a field which should support a daily production of treated natural gas of approximately 35,000,000 cubic feet, having a calorific value of about 1,140 BTUs per cubic foot. From the raw gas it is expected that about 4,500 barrels of oil a day could be separated. The problem now is to discover economical ways of utilising the gas and research with this in view is at present in progress.

For many years small quantities of petroleum have been produced at New Plymouth. During 1962 the company operating at New Plymouth produced from four wells 139,418 gallons of crude oil and supplied 4,063,400 cubic feet of natural gas to the New Plymouth gas works. The total production of crude petroleum to 31 December 1962 is approximately 6,739,900 gallons.

Production for 1962 was 139,418 gallons of crude oil, which, along with 114,182 gallons of condensate from the Kapuni Wells, was refined into the following products.

 Gallons
Motor spirit75,320
Distillate12,825
Power kerosine43,350
Diesel oil44,990
Residual oil66,015
  Total242,500

BENTONITE – The most promising deposits of this mineral occur at Porangahau, in the Hawke's Bay district, and at Mangatu, near Gisborne. A deposit of bentonite at Hororata is being prospected. Bentonite is mainly used in the preparation of foundry moulding-sands and drilling muds, but the mineral has many other uses. The quantity of bentonite produced in 1962 was 1,488 tons of a value of £19,202.

PERLITE – During 1962, 387 tons of perlite were obtained from deposits at Atiamuri and processed at Wellington. The estimated value was £8,457.

ASBESTOS – Chrysotile asbestos occurs at several points in the massive serpentines of Nelson and Otago, but the only deposits of importance so far located are those of Upper Takaka in the Nelson district. In 1955 production of asbestos was resumed after a temporary cessation. The quantity of asbestos produced in 1962 was 408 tons valued at £21,244.

KAURI GUM – Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. During 1961,91 tons of kauri gum, valued at £13,183, were exported, and in 1962, 43 tons valued at £9,558.

PHOSPHATE – The occurrence of phosphate has been reported from many localities in New Zealand, but so far the deposits of Clarendon and Milburn have proved to be the only ones of economic importance but the more favourable sections of the deposits have been exhausted.

SERPENTINE – Serpentine, which in the South Island forms vast rock masses in Nelson and Otago, and which occurs in smaller amounts in the North Island, is now of value to the fertiliser industry in the preparation of serpentine superphosphate. Production at first was mainly confined to the smaller occurrences in North Auckland owing to ease of access and transport, but production is now made from much larger deposits at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, in the North Island, and near Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1962, 1,676,225 tons of serpentine had been mined, including 140,175 tons in 1962.

GREENSTONE – The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone”, occurs as rounded segregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply.

SALT – At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest six years is shown in the following table:

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tons£
195711,200151,200
19587,650107,100
195920,300275,300
196017,020256,500
19615,01775,000
19628,90095,000

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES – New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building stones scattered throughout both Islands. Their distribution is described in the 1958 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

STATE AID TO MINING – State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz, (1) geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) schools of mines; (4) subsidised roads to mining fields; (5) research by the Dominion Laboratory.

Geological Survey – Imperative to long-term assessment of New Zealand's mineral resources is an understanding of the country's geology. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Mines, Works, and other Government Departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems, and do not themselves maintain a geological staff.

The Survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the Survey studies and helps assess the country's mineral deposits and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has in the past done most of its regional geological mapping on a scale of one mile to the inch, about one-third of the country so far being covered by maps on this scale. Most of these maps have been issued in groups with a text describing the geology and mineral resources of the regions concerned. Paleontological bulletins are also issued. To speed the geological mapping of the country, the Survey in 1956 embarked on a programme to map the whole country on a less detailed scale by 1964. These new maps (scale of 1:250,000) are known informally as the “Four Mile” series. They each carry about 3,000 words of descriptive text in their margins; there will be 27 of them altogether. In this series 13 have now been issued. One-mile maps and bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency.

Mineral Resources Surveys – As well as its systematic geological exploration of the country, the Geological Survey makes detailed study of areas with mineral deposits of present or potential economic value. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Dominion Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identifications of rocks and minerals forwarded by Mines Department, prospectors, and others.

Metallic Minerals – In earlier years when gold was of major importance the Survey reported on most of the goldfields, several bulletins being published. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, and other metals have also been investigated over the years. Much field and laboratory work was done from 1955 to 1959 on the uranium deposits of the Buller Gorge and other West Coast districts (see 1959 Yearbook, pages583–4, for details). Recently the Survey has helped with prospecting of North Auckland bauxite and ironsand deposits on the west coast of the North Island.

Coal – Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, and mapping the coalfields in detail has been one of the Survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Preliminary assessment of the geology and coal quantities of some coalfields was made by the Survey earlier this century, but in 1936, after the setting up of a coal survey committee, intensive study was made of all New Zealand coalfields. Work has proceeded in cooperation with Mines Department and with the Dominion Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, where thousands of analyses of New Zealand coals have been made. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, and Kaitangata coalfields have been published, while those for the Waikato and Ohai fields will be the next to be issued. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, Survey geologists continue to help with a large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields.

Oil – The Government does not undertake oil exploration. Oil companies however draw on Survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial cooperation has usually developed between Survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps are deposited with the Government at the close of operations. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information supplied by the Survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki, which was rewarded recently by the discovery of a large reservoir of natural gas; of particular importance were the collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores. These greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate.

Other Non-metallic Minerals and Rock Products – So far as is possible with the staff available, the Survey advises Ministry of Works and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in whose utilisation the Survey has played a part.

In recent years interest has grown in the possibility of establishing electrochemical industries in this country, and the Geological Survey and Dominion Laboratory have helped in investigation of limestone and other raw materials for a calcium carbide industry, and of silica deposits suitable for manufacture of silicon, silicon carbide, and ferrosilicon.

Chapter 18. Section 18 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Table of Contents

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT – The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coach-building workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of a tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, Auckland, Wellington, and Canterbury are ahead of Otago.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle works), the sawmills, and the metal-working, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the volume of output of factories as a whole declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid drop in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing “non-farm” materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before – apart from the metal-working and vehicle factories which had improved their position significantly.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date they were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

The factories expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply; to make uniforms, weapons, and equipment for the armed forces and to supply New Zealand and allied troops with preserved foodstuffs and many other kinds of provisions and ordnance.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Industrial production as a whole continued to increase, but this was a time of readjustment and, within this general rising trend, some firms closed down or ceased production of certain lines, others sustained a fall in production or did not expand to the extent they otherwise would have done. As a whole, factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products and, to some extent, by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the food group increased its volume relatively slowly, the leather industry production fell (as a result of competition from imports and synthetics), while footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods also increased slowly, more or less in line with population growth. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. But it was the engineering factories that contributed most (as in past years) to the growth of manufacturing after 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicles.

The growth in production has been assisted by increases in manpower engaged and capital used. Since the end of the Second World War there has been a considerable amount of factory building and new machinery installed – for new industries as well as for the extension and improvement of existing industries. A measure of the increase in capital employed is that the value of land and buildings, plant, and machinery at the end of the production year for each person engaged was £436 in 1945–46, £633 in 1950–51, rising to £1,149 in 1956–57, £1,220 in 1958–59, £1,375 in 1960–61, and £1,496 in 1961–62.

The greater use of machinery for manufacturing during the last 20 years is illustrated also by the continuing rise in the average horsepower for each person engaged in manufacturing. In 1935–36 the average was 2.86; in 1945–46, 2.97; in 1955–56, 4.42; in 1960–61, 4.85; and in 1961–62, 5.14. This expansion has been helped by the growth in electric power generation and by the greater use of the individual drive technique. In the production year 1961–62 the use of electric motors in factories accounted for 95 per cent of the total rated horsepower for all types of engines employed in factories. The number and horsepower of steam, petrol, oil, and other non-electrical engines has declined absolutely as well as relatively.

Industrial progress has been rapid, but manufacturing in New Zealand is still organised on a relatively small scale. In 1961–62, 61 per cent of the factories employed 10 persons or less, a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of geographical configuration, many factories still supply small local markets. Although these small factories are numerous, they accounted for only 12 per cent of the total value of factory output. There were only 132 factories (1.47 per cent of the total) in 1961–62 where the number of persons engaged exceeded 200, but these factories accounted for 34 per cent of total value of output. Some were engaged in processing goods for export (37 were meat-freezing works).

Manufacturing plays a vital part in employment. In April 1963 about 26 per cent of the total labour force was employed in manufacturing industries. Of these, females comprised 23 per cent of the persons so engaged.

In the latter part of 1957 and in early 1958 the terms of trade changed substantially to New Zealand's disadvantage and a serious depletion of overseas reserves resulted from the effects of heavy importing in 1957 and the fall in price of our main export commodities. To reduce overseas expenditure and arrest this drain on the reserves New Zealand reintroduced comprehensive import controls, which became effective on 1 January 1958. An improvement in the terms of trade in 1959 and 1960 allowed some relaxation in import restrictions, but a further fall in export prices and a higher volume of imports forced the Government to revert in 1961 to stricter import control.

Because of the present and future importance of manufacturing industries in the employment of a rapidly increasing labour force and the necessity for these industries to expand their output of goods and to produce new goods in substitution of imports, imported materials for industry received considerable priority. Thus, it is estimated that materials and plant and equipment for manufacturing comprise directly about 51 per cent of total imports. It therefore seems desirable for manufacturing output to expand in depth as well as in breadth by increasing the New Zealand content of a range of manufactured goods. This would involve manufacturing in a number of industries being taken back to more basic stages rather than being, for example, the mere assembly of imported components; making greater use of New Zealand's already available raw materials, such as wool and timber; developing if possible any potential raw materials hitherto unexploited, such as iron ore.

Manufacturing industries responded admirably to the twin spurs of necessity and Government encouragement. Despite reduced imports and reduced internal demand in 1958, the volume of production rose by 5.5 per cent between 1957–58 and 1958–59. In addition to significant increases in output by existing industries such as woollen mills, clothing and footwear factories, the pulp and paper industry, rubber factories, and electrical machinery and appliances factories, a number of new industries were established and many new products made. These include the manufacture of steel drums, fork-lift trucks, water jet engines, forage harvesters and other agricultural machinery, launderers' washing machines and tumbler dryers, axminster carpets, wallpapers, kerosene heaters, household electric appliances, motor-vehicle components, soluble coffee, and glucose and dextrose.

In 1959–60 another rise of 4.4 per cent in the volume of production took place and this was followed by a rise of 9.4 per cent in 1960–61 and of 4.9 per cent in 1961–62. Of particular importance in 1961 were the opening of a factory to make most of New Zealand's needs of wire rope and another to roll aluminium sheet and foil. These were followed in 1962 by the opening of the merchant bar mill and factories making wood screws, high-speed twist drills, television tubes, and aluminium cables. Plans were also laid for the manufacture of vinyl tiles, roll-up flooring, various rubber and plastic products, precision formed nuts, narrow fabrics, carpet yarn and dyeing, beer cans, engine bearings, battery separators, stainless steel castings, and expanded production of motor-vehicle tyres, plywood, woollen yarn, bricks and refractories, veterinary and pharmaceutical preparations, leathercloth, motor scooters, electrical switchgear, moquettes, and bicycles.

During 1963, preparations were made to produce pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, air-conditioning equipment, nylon yarns and fibres, rigid PVC pipe, spectacle frames, motor-vehicle coil springs, and a variety of electrical control and switchgear.

RECENT AND PLANNED DEVELOPMENTS – There are plans for a number of basic industries which, when fully established, will greatly affect the pattern of manufacture in New Zealand. These are now set out.

Oil Refinery – In May 1959 the Shell Co. of New Zealand Ltd. announced its plans to build an oil refinery in New Zealand. Equity capital will be £6 million, of which 40 per cent has been subscribed in New Zealand, the balance being invested by the Shell Co. and the other four overseas oil companies operating in New Zealand. Additional short-term loan capital of £3.77 million brings the total capital to nearly £10 million. It is expected that production will begin in 1964 and that the output will be 2.2 million tons by 1967.

Because of the unusual pattern of demand for petroleum products in New Zealand – almost 50 per cent being for motor spirits and aviation gasoline – it is proposed to import enriched crude oil instead of the normal crude oil. This will enable the pattern of demand to be met at a lower initial capital cost than would otherwise be the case. The refinery will, however, be sufficiently flexible to use various types of crude oil and will be capable of expansion. Labour required will be about 350 persons. The refinery is being built at Marsden Point, Whangarei.

Merchant Bar Mill – A mill has been established in Auckland to make steel products from steel scrap collected in New Zealand. The mill has an output capacity of 50,000 tons a year on a one-shift basis and of 120,000 tons a year on a three-shift basis. A range of merchant bar products – rounds, angles, flats, and squares – is being produced. Capital is £4.1 million and about 60 per cent of the equity capital is held in New Zealand. Some 250 people are employed.

Aluminium Fabricating Industry – A United Kingdom subsidiary of a major Canadian aluminium-producing company has established an aluminium-fabricating plant in New Zealand to make various aluminium products from imported ingots. Employing about 300 skilled men, the plant has an initial production capacity of 5,000 tons a year of aluminium sheet and foil products. The capital cost is £2 million. The company is installing a 2,500-ton extrusion press at a cost of about £350,000.

Aluminium Smelting – The Government is proceeding with the £30 million development of the hydro-electric power potential of the Manapouri - Te Anau lakes and rivers systems and has given an undertaking to Comalco Aluminium Ltd. to provide power from this source for the purpose of developing an aluminium smelter in Southland. The vast industrial undertaking planned by Comalco would process alumina imported from the Weipa refining plant in Queensland, for sale on the world market. The capital cost of the smelter, which would provide employment for 6,000 persons, would be upwards of £60 million. The eventual output would be of the order of 250,000 tons of aluminium ingots a year.

Iron and Steel Industry – In October 1960, the Government set up the New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. Ltd. to study the feasibility of an iron and steel industry using New Zealand ironsands as its raw material.

Ironsands prospecting commenced with drilling at Raglan in November 1960 and the company proceeded with investigations into other material resources – such as coal and electricity – and with investigations into the economic aspect of an iron and steel industry. Sample quantities of ironsands were sent to the United States of America, United Kingdom, and Norway for experiment under regular production conditions. The company submitted its report to the Government in December 1962, recommending the early establishment of the industry in the South Auckland area. The report said that New Zealand could produce iron and steel products from iron sand by 1966, that the output at the first stage of production would amount to 150,000 tons and ultimately to 220,000 tons a year, that overseas expenditure would be saved to the extent of £5 million a year by 1968 and to £10 million a year by 1974 and that the capital required would be about £14 million.

A provisional board of directors is now preparing specific plans for establishment of the industry, for submission to the Government.

Pulp and Paper – There is increasing production of pulp and paper products. One manufacturer has installed a third papermaking machine and plans the installation of a fourth whilst the manufacturer of tissue grades is proceeding with the installation of a second machine. A second newsprint machine in another works began production in December 1962 and at full operational capacity the mill's output of newsprint will exceed 200,000 tons a year. More than 60 per cent of this will be sold in Australia. Other companies are expanding their production of paper products, building board, and packaging materials and are developing the production of specialised types of coated and laminated papers. Manufacture of wallpaper is also being increased substantially. Capital involved in recent and projected development of paper and allied production exceeds £18 million.

Wire Drawing Mill – Production commenced in 1963 of bright and galvanised wire from imported rod at a new Otahuhu factory. Total capital will be of the order of £1 million and will eventually be contributed by both overseas and New Zealand investors. The production capacity of the works is 40,000 tons.

Telephone Cables – A factory making underground and aerial cables and insulated wire for the transmission of signals opened at Christchurch in 1962. Its capital of £850,000 is held exclusively by overseas interests.

Wire Rope – The production of steel wire ropes is now undertaken at Auckland. Output meets New Zealand's requirements in the common types of round strand-wire ropes from 1/8 to 1 1/4 inches in diameter. Capital investment is about £600,000.

Nylon Yarns and Fibres – In 1963 two companies announced their intentions to establish nylon spinning plants at a combined capital cost of £4 million. The output of these mills will provide for the full needs of nylon yarns and fibres for the domestic market and should effect a saving of over £2 million a year in overseas funds. At the factory near Auckland production is expected early in 1965.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH FOR INDUSTRY – There is a growing recognition in this country of the importance of scientific research in industry. Even in the more highly industrialised countries, where the larger concerns are able to undertake their own research, some form of assistance to industry from Government research organisations is required. In New Zealand this is even more necessary, and a number of branches of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research carry out research and some service work for industry.

The Dominion Laboratory, in addition to doing testing work for other Government Departments, undertakes research on natural products and minerals. Typical examples are the pozzolanic materials, pumicite and diatomite, which have proved suitable for replacement of cement in big concrete works such as hydro dams. One of the projects of great value to industry was the design of an automatic gravity-feed stoker which handles non-coking coals much more efficiently than do ordinary underfeed stokers.

The Dominion Physical Laboratory does research and investigational work on physical and engineering problems. One of the laboratory's recent projects of interest to the building industry and particularly to structural engineers has been the development of an analogue computer which will enable an assessment to be made of the forces to which proposed buildings are likely to be subjected by earthquakes. Largely as a result of research carried out with this computer the laboratory is publishing a handbook giving information on the forces and movements to be expected in buildings during large earthquakes. Another project of general interest is the application of automation to the laboratory's own heat-treatment plant. The laboratory is looking into ways and means of applying this principle to other industries as opportunities arise.

In the development of electric power from geothermal steam these two laboratories worked in close collaboration with the Geological Survey and the Geophysics Division in providing the Ministry of Works with basic information required in the construction of the power station at Wairakei. Work by geologists and geophysicists indicated where boreholes should be dug, physicists advised on how to measure and control the pressure of the steam, while chemists showed how to clean the steam and prevent it from rusting the pipes. This station is today providing electric power for both primary and secondary industries in the North Island.

In all the branches of the Department already mentioned assistance to manufacturing industry constitutes only part of the work, but there is one branch, the Auckland Industrial Development Laboratories (AIDL), which was specifically set up to provide a research service for industry. Its present main fields of work are in foundry technology, fuel technology, and industrial measurement; product testing is carried out to assist local industry to manufacture to a standard of quality or performance. It seeks to ensure that science in industry is soundly based and endeavours to secure strong and healthy germination of research ideas. The policy followed is one of assistance and education, with encouragement to industry to obtain its own scientific control, development and research facilities.

RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS – Working in close collaboration with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are a number of cooperative research associations in which contributions from a particular industry are subsidised by the Government on a pound-for-pound basis. The idea of cooperative research was introduced in the United Kingdom towards the end of the First World War, and considerable success followed the formation of numerous research associations, which were encouraged and supported financially by the Government in the interests of national welfare. The same need existed in New Zealand during the Second World War. Industries were expanding through the war effort, and the Manufacturers Research Committee was set up in 1944 for the purpose of promoting research in New Zealand's manufacturing industries. Provision was also made for certain existing units of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research to be formed into incorporated research associations. Of the eight associations now operating as autonomous bodies, five are concerned with the problems of manufacturing industries.

The New Zealand Leather and Shoe Research Association (Inc.) undertakes research problems on behalf of fellmongers, hide processors, tanners, and shoe manufacturers.

The New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association, originally set up in 1945 to assist the development of the whitewares section of the clay industry, was in 1951 extended to cover the whole field of clay industries by including manufacturers of heavy clay products such as bricks, roofing tiles, field tiles, and refractories.

The Research Institute of Launderers, Drycleaners, and Dyers of New Zealand was established in 1947 to cater for commercial concerns engaged in laundering, drycleaning, and dyeing, manufacturers of laundry and drycleaning machinery and materials, and manufacturers, importers, and distributors of textiles.

The New Zealand Wool Industries Research Institute, established in 1937 as a unit of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and incorporated in 1945, is now concerned with research relating to all aspects of wool manufacturing from the raw wool to finished cloth.

The New Zealand Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association undertakes research on problems associated with the analysis, production, and use of fertilisers, and on materials used in their manufacture.

The Manufacturers Research Committee encourages the application of science in the development, extension, and modernisation of existing industries, and the establishment of further research associations. Industries too small to justify the formation of such associations may form an industrial research group. Under this scheme, firms in an industry cooperate on a programme of research carried out by a scientist in an appropriate Government laboratory.

SCOPE OF STATISTICS – Statistics of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the five-yearly population census; but, commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one, the results being published in the Report on the Industrial Production Statistics of New Zealand.

Commencing with the year 1951–52 factories have been classified according to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Apart from transfers within the framework of this series of factory production statistics, the adoption of the New Zealand Standard Classification meant the elimination from the series altogether of three important industries. These related to the logging operations of sawmillers, previously included in sawmilling, and the generation and supply of gas and electricity, accounting at that time for the activities of approximately 10,000 persons. Information on the generation and supply of gas and electricity is still the subject of an annual inquiry, but the results are no longer included in the series on factory production. Separate and detailed statistics for these industries are recorded in Section 20 of this Yearbook.

The statistics of factory production collected annually by the Department of Statistics embrace the activities of factories coming within the Manufacturing Division of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities, which is an adaptation of the United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification. The classification covers registered factories employing at least two persons (including the working proprietor) engaged in the manufacture, repair, or treatment of articles.

Industrial activities not covered by the survey of the Department of Statistics set out in this section are: bakeries; cake and pastry kitchens; boot repairers; watch repairers; bespoke tailors; dressmakers, milliners; abattoirs; railway and tramway workshops; naval dockyard; all one-man factories.

The exclusion of these activities from the scope of the statistical inquiry, and also of all persons engaged in factories in a purely distributive capacity, reduces the total manufacturing labour force from that quoted by the Department of Labour (233,700 – average of October 1961 and April 1962 surveys) to the figure recorded in these statistics for 1961–62 – 187,579. However, the proportion of factory production covered in this inquiry is much greater than the ratio implied by the above-mentioned totals, in that practically all of the establishments of any considerable size are included.

The year covered by these statistics is generally the year ending 31 March, but factories are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial year most closely corresponding to this period. In the case of the important semi-primary industries – butter, cheese, and other milk products, and meat freezing and preserving – the years correspond with the production seasons ending in May and September respectively.

GENERAL SUMMARY – The statistics in the following table illustrate the growth of New Zealand's factory production to its present standing. Where figures are not available, leaders have been inserted. Throughout this table the logging industry and gas and electricity supply are excluded.

YearNumber of EstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of OutputAdded ValueValue of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

*For the year 1915–16 and earlier years, figures refer to productive employees only.

†Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.

NOTE – Further figures for the year 1962–63 are given in the Latest Statistical Information Section at the back of this Yearbook.

  No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)
1900–013,05938,6512,8117,716..16,4858,7696,546
1905–063,38145,1983,59313,290..21,6108,3209,537
1910–113,42142,1424,35318,738..28,5699,83111,989
1915–163,65744,6735,31729,850..41,92412,07315,799
1918–193,38553,0627,64638,291..53,80615,51519,144
1920–213,89462,97211,75353,009..75,48922,47925,696
1925–264,64370,21214,14951,3037,26278,46827,16532,420
1930–315,04770,62513,88545,3148,44871,72126,40734,496
1933–344,88365,96110,72943,5137,53865,90822,39531,965
1934–355,12672,09511,69448,8358,16373,32024,48532,415
1935–365,39178,70113,09156,8598,66583,76626,90733,175
1936–375,58487,82216,29667,4969,77899,37931,88334,386
1937–385,78093,53418,70371,7509,808106,50234,75236,308
1938–396,00293,63819,92771,1739,316106,60835,43538,597
1939–406,19899,34921,89380,21010,345120,32440,11441,020
1940–416,252104,78424,30693,01311,203137,39944,38642,165
1941–426,225108,27526,81396,48212,047145,60849,12643,752
1942–435,985106,17929,427101,90012,541155,77953,87944,674
1943–446,062109,22131,398107,02713,626164,83757,81045,984
1944–456,340113,53434,197116,47614,556178,58662,11048,765
1945–466,847118,88637,910117,05915,312183,54266,48351,781
1946–477,498124,92541,488131,34817,279205,64974,30155,775
1947–487,822130,50447,940174,84520,077259,18184,33663,316
1948–497,852132,42751,402195,05321,955286,39691,34373,585
1949–507,815133,24556,231215,00924,140317,343102,33477,993
1950–518,113138,43565,005266,88528,867380,200113,31687,617
1951–528,546144,35275,029290,73131,940430,984140,25297,522
1952–538,511143,16478,483318,94935,258463,940144,992109,100
1953–548,377146,48886,621332,82540,263495,213162,389122,269
1954–558,366153,57598,413365,29947,853550,618185,318138,274
1955–568,515158,238107,939384,79456,541585,942201,148168,573
1956–578,488156,752110,948394,98859,902602,041207,053180,123
1957–588,529162,985119,989417,91866,052644,929227,011189,287
1958–598,565168,742128,278418,64770,321659,455240,807205,886
1959–608,550171,973136,176439,08872,841705,617266,529224,227
1960–618,745181,346150,575469,70378,998756,800287,097249,305
1961–628,981187,579161,532488,49086,795806,508318,018280,540
1962–639,034191,515169,927502,88195,141840,622337,741317,360

Production totals for 1961–62 rose by 5.1 per cent in volume of output over the previous year. The annual increases in volume of output for the two previous years were 3.5 per cent in 1959–60 and 9.8 per cent in 1960–61. All individual groups showed increases, the two largest being in the textile group (18.7 per cent) and in the electrical machinery and appliances group (11.8 per cent).

In the 8,981 establishments recorded in 1961–62 the number of persons engaged was 187,579, an increase of 6,233, or 3.4 per cent, over the 8,745 establishments from which returns were obtained in 1960–61. The amount of salaries and wages paid increased by £11.0 million, or by 7.3 per cent, and wage earners worked 27.8 million hours of overtime, an increase of 1.5 million hours, or 5.7 per cent. Cost of materials used rose by £18.8 million, or by 4.0 per cent; value of output increased by £49.7 million, or by 6.6 per cent; and added value increased by £30.9 million, or by 10.8 per cent.

The following table gives the main statistics by statistical areas for the year 1961–62.

Statistical AreaNumber of EstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of OutputAdded Value
TotalPercentage of Total
  No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)per cent
Northland2483,1692,65413,66219,3885,7261.8
Central Auckland2,29158,29549,843133,933227,64193,70829.5
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty1,08718,30916,71967,587106,71439,12812.3
East Coast1181,8801,5594,3527,2412,8890.9
Hawke's Bay3827,0786,21322,91834,64711,7293.7
Taranaki3706,1005,38126,58136,68510,1033.2
Wellington1,84338,04333,452102,042168,49466,45220.9
Marlborough1021,1869502,1633,8201,6570.5
Nelson2172,9032,3745,94011,1705,2301.6
Westland1071,1018832,0093,6481,6390.5
Canterbury1,29730,55125,24563,003110,05947,05614.8
Otago56013,30710,70226,43047,53921,1096.6
Southland3595,6575,55717,86929,46111,5923.7
  Totals8,981187,579161,532488,490806,508318,018100.0

Further analyses by industrial groups of the figures shown in this table will be found in the appropriate contexts in the following pages.

In the next table the statistics for the year 1961–62 are reclassified by employment districts of the Department of Labour, which provide a more comprehensive locality classification of manufacturing strength. The fairest guide to actual volume of production is the last column in the table on “Added Value”. This shows Auckland district's dominance in the manufacturing field, its production being more than the total for the South Island.

Employment DistrictNumber of FactoriesPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of OutputAdded Value
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotalPercentage of Total
  No.No.£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000) 
Whangarei2482,9102592,53312213,66219,3885,7261.8
Auckland2,29140,34917,94640,5329,311133,933227,64193,70829.5
Hamilton5777,0701,1636,58556335,18749,56014,3734.5
Paeroa1261,4133911,2921828,60911,2322,6230.8
Tauranga1531,4051551,240736,6319,3982,7670.9
Rotorua2446,2915956,62930517,42437,08119,6576.2
Gisborne1151,4474181,3591854,3277,1902,8630.9
Napier1641,9045371,8102618,34012,5274,1871.3
Hastings1643,5886683,51432713,20720,2087,0022.2
New Plymouth3594,5719444,28342723,63132,4768,8452.8
Wanganui2453,0888792,97939911,57417,8196,2451.9
Palmerston North4455,1241,6874,75975221,47232,62111,1493.5
Masterton1501,7433801,6471757,17210,7993,6271.1
Lower Hutt3569,0003,2539,8791,93541,99466,84924,8557.8
Wellington7028,9254,7719,1642,59823,91346,02122,1087.0
  Totals, North Island6,33998,82834,04698,20317,618371,076600,810229,73572.2
Blenheim1029432438331172,1633,8201,6570.5
Nelson1692,0634201,8191845,0989,4364,3381.4
Greymouth1551,3022191,162932,8515,3812,5300.8
Christchurch1,05318,8767,58517,9233,76151,12991,83940,71012.8
Ashburton751,0052539701303,0444,9441,9000.6
Timaru1692,3434892,2372248,83013,2764,4461.4
Oamaru601,1982919811313,3355,6852,3490.7
Dunedin5008,5973,2217,9951,59523,09541,85518,7605.9
Invercargill3595,2354225,35220517,86929,46111,5923.7
  Totals, South Island2,64241,56213,14339,2716,441117,414205,69788,28327.8
  Totals, New Zealand8,981140,39047,189137,47424,059488,490806,508318,018100.0

A further summary of the operations of factories is given below for the three latest years.

Item1959–601960–611961–62
Number of establishments 8,5508,7458,981
Persons engagedNo.171,973181,346187,579
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£136,175,840150,575,407161,532,207
  Materials£439,087,799469,702,860488,489,840
  Other expenses£72,841,27678,997,85886,794,795
    Totals£648,104,915699,276,125736,816,842
Value of output£705,616,999756,800,157806,507,593
Manufacturers' surplus£57,512,08457,524,03269,690,751
Value added in manufacture£266,529,200287,097,297318,017,753
Overtime worked by wage earnershrs.22,724,08226,277,23427,773,265
Volume index for industry: Base 1956–57 (= 1000)1169x1283x1349
Premises and plant –
  Value at end of year –
    Land and buildings£136,549,586154,118,168175,946,509
    Plant and machinery£87,677,46295,187,073104,593,962
  Capital expenditure during year –
    Land and buildings£10,364,66212,826,10016,778,500
    Plant and machinery£16,574,85721,476,01524,422,231

FACTORY PRODUCTION 1961–62 DISTRIBUTION OF FACTORIES, PERSONS ENGAGED AND OUTPUT BY EMPLOYMENT DISTRICTS – NORTH ISLAND

FACTORY PRODUCTION 1961–62 DISTRIBUTION OF FACTORIES, PERSONS ENGAGED AND OUTPUT BY EMPLOYMENT DISTRICTS – SOUTH ISLAND

The following table gives a summary of some of the principal production statistics for the year 1961–62 classified by individual industries. Totals for the industrial groups to which these industries belong are also shown.

IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
  Food Manufacturing Industries  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Meat freezing and preserving3718,38119,972120,41935,295
Ham and bacon curing481,2901,1639,6922,187
Sausage casings9206192704298
Processed cheese3503445890
Ice cream295834332,9411,479
Butter and cheese2412,9712,87675,5855,659
Milk products other than butter and cheese801,5141,52812,7334,417
Fruit and vegetable preserving342,1681,6929,1703,806
Fish preserving5442823151
Grain milling428897345,8661,756
Biscuits81,2659354,2652,162
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery481,9651,3466,6642,968
Feeds for animals and fowls403663233,599850
Food preparations n.e.i.591,5371,33711,6743,968
    Totals68333,22932,592264,00364,986
  Beverage Industries     
Winemaking44167156846392
Brewing of ale and stout171,2721,2669,2785,186
Malting41121121,133406
Aerated waters and cordials706975712,5541,327
    Totals1352,2482,10413,8117,311
  Tobacco Manufactures     
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes51,2259558,8522,513
  Manufacture of Textiles     
Woolscouring2148949815,4971,046
Woollen milling223,7032,6858,0804,509
Other spinning and weaving mills201,8321,5247,0793,358
Hosiery and other knitting mills854,4903,10611,8905,842
Phormium flax1513098331197
Linen flax134265439
Textiles n.e.i.235465213,1411,388
    Totals18711,2248,45846,07316,379
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Manufacture of Footwear, Other Wearing Apparel, and Made-up Textiles  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Leather gloves and apparel1214489328166
Men's and boys' outerwear1483,9862,2997,3403,326
Women's and girls' outerwear2895,3993,11310,0864,482
Underclothing431,6107882,8911,146
Hats, caps, and millinery591,0045751,718911
Corsetry251,3717812,1481,198
Neckties7189120460231
Shirts and pyjamas431,6539793,5071,404
Wearing apparel n.e.i.1184,2182,3898,0893,347
Fur coats and necklets26168119380204
Footwear (other than rubber)1265,5594,08412,4046,340
Canvas goods414463051,127496
Made-up textiles (other than wearing apparel)616954282,131839
    Totals99826,44216,06952,60924,090
Manufactures of Wood and Cork (Except Manufacture of Furniture)     
Sawmills4376,2265,55221,49311,620
Planing mills1442,0891,76612,1983,621
Joinery3993,8753,43511,9635,692
Wooden containers456475772,8961,074
Plywood and veneer86796502,8171,446
Wood products n.e.i.444113451,170612
    Totals1,07713,92712,32552,53724,065
  Manufacture of Furniture and Fixtures     
Furniture4584,3103,75210,9665,503
Mattress manufacture315924782,221885
Venetian blinds192241961,057377
    Totals5085,1264,42614,2446,766
  Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products     
Pulp, paper, and paperboard72,4683,01418,23412,549
Cardboard boxes, cartons, and paper bags522,0071,65310,4183,819
Paper products n.e.i.461,4911,1537,0682,687
    Totals1055,9665,82135,72019,056
  Printing, Publishing, and Allied Inds.     
Printing and publishing936,0955,79617,53511,972
Job and general printing3065,2384,43712,7607,758
Service industries for printing trade495835601,173921
    Totals44811,91610,79331,46820,650
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
Manufacture of Leather and Leather Products (Except Footwear)  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Tanning116476203,1651,201
Fellmongery71201141,055243
Leather goods809376341,915994
    Totals981,7041,3686,1352,439
  Manufacture of Rubber Products     
Motor tyres and tubes39221,1816,0233,184
Rubber goods (other than motor tyres and tubes)271,6871,4794,9662,714
Vulcanising and tyre retreading676426102,6141,455
    Totals973,2513,27013,6027,352
  Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical Products     
Chemical fertilisers121,3691,36111,8823,919
Vegetable and animal oils and fats364454352,326977
Ink10164141674385
Soap and candle124644063,3331,631
Paint and varnish319138856,5402,261
Pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics409416384,3281,835
Chemical products n.e.i.761,5201,3388,1593,442
    Totals2175,8165,20437,24214,450
  Manufacture of Products of Petroleum and Coal     
Petroleum and coal products131881792,580553
Bituminous paving and roofing materials292512441,937734
    Totals424394234,5171,288
  Manufacture of Non-metallic Mineral Products (Except Products of Petroleum and Coal)     
Structural clay products441,1041,0612,6962,416
Pottery, china, and earthenware66925391,107930
Cement67808385,4054,207
Glass and glass products591,3681,2414,2342,667
Concrete products3042,4312,2347,9794,426
Lime692912581,157783
Fibrous plaster744103631,022535
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.126206733,7591,501
    Totals5747,6967,20627,35917,464
IndustryNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Persons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of OutputValue Added in Manufacture
  Basic Metal Industries  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Basic metal industries811,0731,0834,9242,094
Manufacture of Metal Products (Except Machinery and Transport Equipment)     
Sheet-metal working1694,2683,89215,0617,301
Wire working456326042,8911,232
Nail making61291141,135215
Electroplating and metal polishing47450434946730
Metal products n.e.i.2334,5264,32416,8148,432
    Totals50010,0059,36736,84817,911
Manufacture, Assembly, and Repair of Machinery (Except Electrical Machinery)     
Agricultural and pastoral machinery759538126,9871,748
Machinery n.e.i.49810,3719,87031,25516,251
    Totals57311,32410,68238,24217,998
Manufacture of Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies     
Range making71,1519873,1851,597
Radio and television assembly and manufacture291,9611,4617,1742,632
Electrical machinery, appliances n.e.i.1202,8302,38011,3754,942
    Totals1565,9424,82721,7359,171
Manufacture of Transport Equipment     
Boat building and ship repairing651,0921,0372,3091,410
Motor-vehicle assembly153,0063,14930,6547,149
Motor-body building801,2841,1223,2451,663
Repairs to motor vehicles1,99716,47113,06140,28520,165
Aircraft maintenance and repair241,7811,7974,1752,987
Perambulators14176125371179
Transport equipment n.e.i.258717982,5691,565
    Totals2,22024,68121,08983,60835,120
  Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries     
Optical, surgical, and dental, etc., equipment25185151439241
Jewellery706054521,243698
Brushes and brooms134973371,282598
Toys and sports goods21418285911498
Manufacturing industries n.e.i.1482,6402,2439,1084,880
    Totals2774,3453,46812,9826,915
    Grand totals8,981187,579161,532806,508318,018

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES – The increases in the number of factories in the immediate post-war years were the highest recorded annually and compare with the percentage increases recorded after the First World War. Factors which operated after both wars included the re-establishment of businesses closed down during the war period, and the opening of new businesses by returned servicemen. In more recent years the shortage of labour in the principal centres has resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas. The 1961–62 survey covered 8,981 factories, the largest number included in any year.

The following table shows the number of factories in each statistical area.

Statistical AreaNumber of Factories
1958–591959–601960–611961–62
Northland3,4463,472230248
Central Auckland2,1952,291
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty1,0181,087
East Coast118118
Hawke's Bay383388397382
Taranaki361354363370
Wellington1,8031,8021,8151,843
Marlborough969096102
Nelson253240227217
Westland9597112107
Canterbury1,2341,2271,2751,297
Otago550543546560
Southland344337353359
  Totals8,5658,5508,7458,981

An analysis of the 1961–62 totals by industrial groups in the various statistical areas is given in the next table.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Number of Factories 1961–62
Food191198892698113
Beverages53615315820
Tobacco manufactures212
Textiles256527247
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods64143282419257
Wood and cork products (except furniture)41132225205651168
Furniture and fittings6173413239114
Paper and paper products4152129
Printing, publishing, etc.71234041510129
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)143232118
Rubber products4221422521
Chemicals and chemical products1741416861
Petroleum and coal products1121314
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.2987718432392
Basic metal manufactures13431219
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)6202322159106
Machinery (except electrical)1712687122321111
Electrical machinery and appliances3597446
Transport equipment994203953911599396
Miscellaneous products111792280
  Totals2482,2911,0871183823701,843
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.
 Number of Factories 1961–62
Food13224914635683
Beverages1731381135
Tobacco manufactures5
Textiles15135186187
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods3721566010998
Wood and cork products (except furniture)21565413866491,077
Furniture and fittings593852413508
Paper and paper products1764105
Printing, publishing, etc.365652813448
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)195498
Rubber products12165397
Chemicals and chemical products2429152217
Petroleum and coal products7442
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.7195994348574
Basic metal manufactures163281
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)142723415500
Machinery (except electrical)8114903231573
Electrical machinery and appliances307156
Transport equipment3464232691441232,220
Miscellaneous products2115012277
  Totals1022171071,2975603598,981

The number of factories and persons engaged are shown together in the following table, classified by industrial groups. Persons engaged include proprietors actively participating in their own businesses but exclude all persons engaged in selling and distribution. Figures for persons engaged refer to the average number over the whole year.

Industry GroupNumber of FactoriesNumber of Persons Engaged
1959–601960–611961–621959–601960–611961–62
Food72670468331,18431,51633,229
Beverages1201291352,0992,1642,248
Tobacco manufactures6551,2441,2051,225
Textiles1781881879,91410,70311,224
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,0161,02499825,08925,96526,442
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,0671,0981,07713,17913,91113,927
Furniture and fittings5004995084,9605,1325,126
Paper and paper products1031011055,3535,8645,966
Printing, publishing, etc.42243544810,83211,41411,916
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)9297981,5671,7081,704
Rubber products8687972,8723,0953,251
Chemicals and chemical products2192182175,5965,8385,816
Petroleum and coal products423942421422439
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.5275595747,1817,6507,696
Basic metal manufactures8185811,0201,0681,073
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)4294475008,8589,65910,005
Machinery (except electrical)5135305739,86910,77511,324
Electrical machinery and appliances1421501564,7115,5145,942
Transport equipment2,0312,0672,22022,19923,44324,681
Miscellaneous products2502832773,8254,3004,345
  Totals8,5508,7458,981171,973181,346187,579

Persons engaged are shown in the table below for the year 1961–62 classified into working proprietors, managerial and clerical staff, and wage earners.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical StaffWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
Food3,2541,09124,9583,92628,2125,01733,229
Beverages3501391,6441151,9942542,248
Tobacco manufactures85604146664997261,225
Textiles6143145,2695,0275,8835,34111,224
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,4831,0884,71019,1616,19320,24926,442
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,99730011,49313713,49043713,927
Furniture and fittings7301993,7604374,4906365,126
Paper and paper products6002553,8061,3054,4061,5605,966
Printing, publishing etc.1,4789547,7401,7449,2182,69811,916
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)180629015611,0816231,704
Rubber products4021442,2404652,6426093,251
Chemicals and chemical products9134543,3691,0804,2821,5345,816
Petroleum and coal products75203192539445439
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,0102376,0773727,0876097,696
Basic metal manufactures17236852131,024491,073
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,3874087,4517598,8381,16710,005
Machinery (except electrical)1,6624628,98221810,64468011,324
Electrical machinery and appliances6062533,5571,5264,1631,7795,942
Transport equipment4,2521,21618,84237123,0941,58724,681
Miscellaneous products4992182,2571,3712,7561,5894,345
  Totals21,7497,910118,64139,279140,39047,189187,579

Further information is given in the following table on persons engaged in 1961–62. Totals in each industrial group are shown by statistical areas.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Food9737,7332,8467252,9092,4274,737
Beverages197842284815165351
Tobacco manufactures131243851
Textiles142,69168123232662,229
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods13111,3221,1791444197405,733
Wood and cork products (except furniture)4231,8724,9741444254901,708
Furniture and fittings152,3441811322568994
Paper and paper products2,0482,07324381,079
Printing, publishing, etc.1423,6756351384313033,413
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)5860411188187
Rubber products20764115192426641
Chemicals and chemical products51,96627571622211,818
Petroleum and coal products16455710145
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.4942,62262039249109890
Basic metal manufactures4381312210202
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)455,0322827119872,205
Machinery (except electrical)1324,1811,215684054202,003
Electrical machinery and appliances111,8183381291,834
Transport equipment7235,8272,9643708568315,863
Miscellaneous products132,08022634191,160
  Totals3,16958,29518,3091,8807,0786,10038,043
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.
Food318791314,7032,7412,29533,229
Beverages75233282194342,248
Tobacco manufactures1,225
Textiles438113,5442,1208411,224
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods186691524,8731,37811626,442
Wood and cork products (except furniture)945594931,50862161613,927
Furniture and fittings16478837286925,126
Paper and paper products3151772125,966
Printing, publishing, etc.61144741,70293726111,916
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)359215371,704
Rubber products791,58032143,251
Chemicals and chemical products18386435521115,816
Petroleum and coal products4513439
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.41351261,4354943267,696
Basic metal manufactures2023381,073
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)67381,24177812210,005
Machinery (except electrical)9962651,72660534311,324
Electrical machinery and appliances1,2315815,942
Transport equipment2706661933,7001,43298624,681
Miscellaneous products59476251184,345
  Totals 1,1862,9031,10130,55113,3075,657187,579

The distribution of the sexes among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males. In the five years prior to the Second World War the proportion of female employees in factories was steady at approximately 25 per cent. After rising rapidly to a peak of 31.5 per cent in 1942–43 as a result of additional women being recruited for factory work and men being called for military service, the proportion then fell equally rapidly back to the pre-war figure. In 1961–62 the percentage was 25.2.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent; but the male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in great demand mainly on account of the importance of the clothing and textile industries. The majority of females in manufacturing industries are engaged in four classes: food; footwear and other wearing apparel; textiles; and printing, publishing, etc. In 1961–62 these classes accounted for 71 per cent of all females in factories. In two classes only did the number of females exceed the number of males – viz, tobacco manufactures, where there were 145 females to every 100 males, and footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., where there were 327 females per 100 males. The upper table on the previous page shows the average number of males and females engaged according to industry groups for the year 1961–62.

Further information is available in the table below on the extent to which females were engaged in factories in New Zealand for 1961–62. This table gives by statistical areas the number of males per 100 females engaged, and the total persons engaged per 1,000 of population.

Statistical AreaMalesFemalesTotalNumber of Males per 100 FemalesTotal Population at 1 April 1962Total Persons Engaged per 1,000 of Population
Northland2,9102593,1691,12487,80036
Central Auckland40,34917,94658,295225534,117109
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty16,0082,30118,309696361,50051
East Coast1,4624181,88035046,80040
Hawke's Bay5,7631,3157,078438117,50060
Taranaki5,1329686,100530101,30060
Wellington27,20410,83938,043251484,60078
Marlborough9432431,18638828,20042
Nelson2,4444592,90353264,30045
Westland9211801,10151224,80044
Canterbury22,2248,32730,551267352,38087
Otago9,7953,51213,307279178,40075
Southland5,2354225,6571,24195,60059
  Totals140,39047,189187,5792982,477,29776

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is given at five-yearly intervals from 1934–35 onwards. Figures for the two latest years are added. Since 1951–52 the series no longer includes certain sectors of production previously included – principal omissions being the logging activities of sawmills and the operations of gas and electric supply stations.

YearFactories With Persons Engaged Numbering –Total
10 or Under11–2021–5051–100Over 100
Number of Factories
1934–353,7257644961431425,270
1939–404,2189577722121836,342
1944–454,1391,0468332701976,485
1949–504,9931,4091,1063122078,027
1954–555,3501,4731,0203102138,366
1959–605,2421,6211,1083122678,550
1960–615,3101,6621,1573392778,745
1961–625,4911,6801,1863382868,981
Number of Persons Engaged
1934–3514,90111,32115,3099,71628,11179,358
1939–4017,21214,04823,31614,73739,409108,722
1944–4518,38215,54725,78718,80943,889122,414
1949–5024,48120,60834,38621,30443,530144,309
1954–5527,20621,43231,65021,80851,479153,575
1959–6026,92623,75534,10521,66665,521171,973
1960–6127,44124,39235,73123,35970,423181,346
1961–6228,05124,52036,86823,56374,577187,579

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged by the standards of highly industrialised communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing 10 persons or under accounted for 61 per cent of the total number of factories in 1961–62.

SALARIES AND WAGES – The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime, also amounts drawn in lieu of salary by working proprietors. The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups – executive, clerical, and wage earning), and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below.

YearMalesFemalesBoth Sexes
TotalAverageTotalAverageTotalAverage
 ££££££
1957–58102,240,30483917,748,949431119,989,253736
1958–59108,776,93786619,501,322452128,278,259760
1959–60116,076,160902x20,099,680464136,175,840792x
1960–61128,254,43994522,320,968490150,575,407830
1961–62137,473,68897924,058,519510161,532,207861

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may also be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years.

The amount of salaries and wages paid in each industrial group and in all industries during the last three years is given hereunder.

Industry GroupSalaries and Wages Paid
1959–601960–611961–62
 £(000)
Food28,76930,29632,592
Beverages1,8311,9802,104
Tobacco manufactures796869955
Textiles6,8717,6718,458
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods13,90815,20516,069
Wood and cork products (except furniture)11,02412,07912,325
Furniture and fittings3,8474,2484,426
Paper and paper products4,7615,5045,821
Printing, publishing, etc.9,02010,05310,793
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,1241,2891,368
Rubber products2,6942,9793,270
Chemicals and chemical products4,5585,0065,204
Petroleum and coal products378394423
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.6,0836,9767,206
Basic metal manufactures9171,0181,083
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)7,6678,7779,367
Machinery (except electrical)8,4979,69710,682
Electrical machinery and appliances3,5124,2174,827
Transport equipment17,16319,06921,089
Miscellaneous products2,7563,2473,468
  Totals136,176150,575161,532

In the following table an analysis is made of the 1961–62 totals according to statistical areas in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1961–62
 £(000)
Food8967,3372,8306842,7952,5434,758
Beverages147422084214249349
Tobacco manufactures***
Textiles*2,15947*216*1,713
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods597,187621732113923,482
Wood and cork products (except furniture)3261,7544,4881133644041,477
Furniture and fittings142,1241471117249883
Paper and paper products1,7272,565**949
Printing, publishing, etc.1343,3605331233582643,257
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*685*8**145
Rubber products17854105**23726
Chemicals and chemical products*1,713242*1932031,676
Petroleum and coal products163**8141
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.4682,5375963523096842
Basic metal manufactures*38530**199
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)404,777265*108672,052
Machinery (except electrical)1084,1041,127543623721,977
Electrical machinery and appliances91,4042381031,607
Transport equipment5355,0582,4202836666255,609
Miscellaneous products331,7742571342912861,610
  Totals2,65449,84316,7191,5596,2135,38133,452
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

*To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Salaries and Wages Paid 1961–62
 £(000)
Food311614284,7052,3912,69832,592
Beverages*4533255187*2,104
Tobacco manufactures955
Textiles*22*2,6251,455658,458
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods10035*3,0057746016,069
Wood and cork products (except furniture)714474551,34653354812,325
Furniture and fittings12386672216824,426
Paper and paper products2381121835,821
Printing, publishing, etc.56128631,48081522210,793
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)269203301,368
Rubber products**1,44829153,270
Chemicals and chemical products*33531474*5,204
Petroleum and coal products4412423
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.33368241,2074643057,206
Basic metal manufactures19732*1,083
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*63*1,1437221139,367
Machinery (except electrical)7353451,54954331610,682
Electrical machinery and appliances9535134,827
Transport equipment2125161433,1081,13977421,089
Miscellaneous products811186469871483,468
  Totals 9502,37488325,24510,7025,557161,532

A further analysis of salaries and wages paid is given in the table below for 1961–62, and shows the amounts paid to working proprietors, managers, clerical staff, and those paid to other employees, i.e., wage earners. As mentioned earlier, drawings in lieu of salaries are included for proprietors actively engaged in the business. Males and females are distinguished throughout.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical StaffWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1961–62
 £(000)
Food4,09259826,0101,89230,1022,49032,592
Beverages439801,524621,9631412,104
Tobacco manufactures12940404383532423955
Textiles8741954,8172,5725,6912,7688,458
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,9977384,1259,2096,1229,94716,069
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,3521659,7337512,08524012,325
Furniture and fittings9081113,1872204,0953314,426
Paper and paper products9291584,0586774,9868355,821
Printing, publishing, etc.1,9085337,4319219,3391,45410,793
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)244397962891,0403281,368
Rubber products552802,4152222,9673023,270
Chemicals and chemical products1,2462663,1605324,4067985,204
Petroleum and coal products104122931439726423
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,2621305,6581576,9202877,206
Basic metal manufactures2522180271,054281,083
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,8802426,8404058,7206479,367
Machinery (except electrical)2,1332578,16312910,29638610,682
Electrical machinery and appliances8091543,0598053,8689604,827
Transport equipment4,81263315,37726620,19089921,089
Miscellaneous products7061261,9936422,6997693,468
  Totals27,6304,579109,84419,480137,47424,059161,532

The following statement shows the average earnings of males and females for the past 10 years.

YearProprietors Actively EngagedManagers, OverseersAccountants, ClerksWage-earning EmployeesTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Average Salary or Wage
 ££££££££££
1952–53628436922568626354593324621331
1953–54746497995590688388640344672353
1954–557995431,072655733411697373730382
1955–568405971,127683794436741392777402
1956–578915621,179723822457764404804416
1957–589196211,241744848477797419839431
1958–599556691,298752880491821441866452
1959–601,0026521,359793927514853450902464
1960–611,0456891,424867971537893475945490
1961–621,0666941,4778851,006557926496979510

MOTIVE POWER – A supply of cheap motive power is a material element in industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The development of the country's electric power resources (as described in Section 20A) has been a major factor in industrial growth, especially as the rates compare very favourably with those in more highly industrialised countries.

The following table shows the number and aggregate horsepower of each class of engine used in factories in the years 1939–40, 1949–50, 1959–60, and the two latest years.

Class of Engine1939–401949–501959–601960–611961–62

*Included in “other”.

ElectricNo.32,01386,227165,797177,332187,237
 h.p.213,237399,925770,213827,999914,148
SteamNo.1,012*407363319
 h.p.49,769*18,37916,83315,279
Petrol and light oilNo.382*709745726
 h.p.9,546*14,27614,97916,828
Heavy oilNo.*265274251
 h.p.*16,40316,36415,668
OtherNo.1661,7291158273
 h.p.4,81356,1883,6113,2073,000
  TotalsNo.33,57387,956167,293178,796188,606
 h.p.277,365456,113822,882879,382964,923

The figures relating to horsepower represent the rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use for driving factory plant. Steam boilers and engines for generating electric power in own works are excluded.

The following table shows the types and rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use in the various industries during 1961–62.

Industry GroupRated Horsepower of Engines in Use
ElectricSteamPetrol and Light OilHeavy OilOtherTotal
Food214,6796,9151,1221,607102224,425
Beverages14,0841901414,288
Tobacco manufactures1,9771,977
Textiles34,4956922629635,545
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods16,3628815854216,664
Wood and cork products (except furniture)131,5075,9497,29110,0291,288156,064
Furniture and fittings16,6808516,693
Paper and paper products166,49532020415320167,354
Printing, publishing, etc.21,87572680177623,485
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)6,8501003017,251
Rubber products24,7847424,858
Chemicals and chemical products42,1513171,81438233544,999
Petroleum and coal products4,547932144,881
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.83,8295901,2821,60911587,425
Basic metal manufactures5,99322256,040
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)34,901205029035,513
Machinery (except electrical)36,5101,28690638,702
Electrical machinery and appliances10,397610,403
Transport equipment34,013582,128544636,299
Miscellaneous products12,01916101212,057
  Totals914,14815,27916,82815,6683,000964,923

CONSUMPTION OF COAL – During the year 1961–62, 987,225 tons of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production. Comparable figures for the two previous years were: 1960–61, 998,878 tons, and 1959–60, 1,027,427 tons. It is important to note that the new series of factory production statistics no longer includes the activities of the gas-making industry and electric generation and supply stations. These two industries for the year 1961–62 used 279,058 tons and 605,093 tons of coal respectively.

The following table shows for the year 1961–62 the consumption of coal by industrial groups.

Industry GroupTons of Coal Used
Food462,589
Beverages15,782
Tobacco manufactures401
Textiles59,252
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods2,199
Wood and cork products (except furniture)842
Furniture and fittings122
Paper and paper products125,368
Printing, publishing, etc.252
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)6,244
Rubber products20,846
Chemicals and chemical products23,646
Petroleum and coal products35,099
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.230,235
Basic metal manufactures184
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,561
Machinery (except electrical)754
Electrical machinery and appliances33
Transport equipment337
Miscellaneous products1,479
  Total987,225

Approximately 83 per cent of the amount of coal used is accounted for in three groups: food, paper and paper products, and non-metallic mineral products n.e.i. Individual industries using more than 10,000 tons of coal in 1961–62 are as follows.

IndustryTons
Milk products other than butter and cheese196,321
Cement171,823
Meat freezing and preserving129,159
Pulp, paper and paperboard125,309
Butter and cheese93,413
Structural clay products43,134
Petroleum and coal products34,793
Woollen milling33,138
Food preparations n.e.i.24,024
Brewing of ale and stout12,434
Hosiery and knitting mills11,662
Rubber goods other than tyres and tubes10,893

MATERIALS – The value of materials used does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry or industrial group and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. An example of the wide differences which may occur in the ratio of cost of materials to value of goods produced will be seen in the food group and the wood and cork products (except furniture) group. The values shown for materials used include the cost of containers and packing but exclude fuel costs.

Totals for the latest year show that the cost of materials used in food manufacture was £199,016,000, and the goods produced were valued at £264,003,000, while the materials used in the manufacture of wood and cork products cost £28,471,000 and finished goods produced were valued at £52,537,000.

The cost of materials used in each industrial group and in all industries for each of the latest three years was as follows.

Industry GroupCost of Materials Used
1959–601960–611961–62
 £(000)
Food200,953197,408199,016
Beverages5,2095,8966,500
Tobacco manufactures5,6116,3116,338
Textiles25,22126,95229,694
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods24,96027,14128,519
Wood and cork products (except furniture)23,97927,10928,471
Furniture and fittings6,5967,4587,478
Paper and paper products14,48715,78216,664
Printing, publishing, etc.9,44910,58210,818
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)3,1853,6293,696
Rubber products5,3786,3596,250
Chemicals and chemical products20,85422,64422,792
Petroleum and coal products2,3482,8633,229
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.8,3599,7109,894
Basic metal manufactures2,4422,7342,830
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)14,77317,41618,937
Machinery (except electrical)15,89019,88620,244
Electrical machinery and appliances8,71411,32212,564
Transport equipment35,82342,76348,488
Miscellaneous products4,8585,7376,067
  Totals439,088469,703488,490

An analysis by statistical areas of the cost of materials used for the year 1961–62 is given below.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Cost of Materials Used 1961–62
 £(000)
Food10,88539,92539,6982,66311,24120,52826,595
Beverages342,9044529439695751
Tobacco manufactures***
Textiles*7,808384*4,135*5,612
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods12612,5209011584257016,580
Wood and cork products (except furniture)7004,89310,6882788888263,598
Furniture and fittings193,73717411205591,453
Paper and paper products5,8555,596**3,001
Printing, publishing, etc.644,273327682841682,848
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*1,705*4**214
Rubber products471,629195**431,348
Chemicals and chemical products*6,8311,560*1,1031,5667,193
Petroleum and coal products1,123**231,617
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.6473,720953602561341,223
Basic metal manufactures*1,42022**420
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1239,954482*2121514,592
Machinery (except electrical)1237,8331,384735285864,355
Electrical machinery and appliances174,3235522173,763
Transport equipment8509,7703,84842891593821,217
Miscellaneous products273,7103705142,1137635,663
  Totals13,622133,93367,5874,35222,91826,581102,042
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

*To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Cost of Materials Used 1961–62
 £(000)
Food1,3213,01552820,03210,99511,591199,016
Beverages*71491,183437*6,500
Tobacco manufactures6,338
Textiles*28*7,3632,90595129,694
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods17856*5,3491,30610328,519
Wood and cork products (except furniture)971,0609212,62796992628,471
Furniture and fittings144371,1994471117,478
Paper and paper products1,05830361916,664
Printing, publishing, etc.2978231,64584117010,818
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)7196542703,696
Rubber products**2,79861276,250
Chemicals and chemical products*2001,5902,098*22,792
Petroleum and coal products238553,229
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.52446261,3486413879,894
Basic metal manufactures23122*2,830
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*87*1,9171,18022118,937
Machinery (except electrical)8378433,90583541820,244
Electrical machinery and appliances2,78590812,564
Transport equipment3337552766,0811,6521,42648,488
Miscellaneous products56241369351226496,067
  Totals2,1635,9402,00963,00326,43017,869488,490

A large proportion of the total cost of materials is accounted for by the food group, which includes the semi-primary industries dealing with meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and other milk products. In the latest year, for example, the cost of materials used by this group, £199,016,000, represented 41 per cent of the total cost of materials used by all industries, £488,490,000. For this reason, variations in the prices received for primary produce have a very marked effect on this total.

PRODUCTS – The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory door. It is the selling value at the factory to customers of all goods made or processed during the year after deducting all costs of selling and distribution.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value in recent years constitutes approximately three-fifths of the value of products. Where the products of one industry – for example, sawmilling – are treated again in other industries, such as furniture making, joinery, etc., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following table show the gross value of output for each industrial group and for all industries for the last three years available.

Industry GroupValue of Output
1959–601960–611961–62
  £(000) 
Food258,807250,473264,003
Beverages11,03012,65213,811
Tobacco manufactures7,6468,6668,852
Textiles38,30341,32746,073
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods45,17249,48252,609
Wood and cork products (except furniture)45,36350,28652,537
Furniture and fittings12,41914,04614,244
Paper and paper products31,21833,99635,720
Printing, publishing, etc.26,17929,67531,468
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)5,1826,0196,135
Rubber products11,52912,94713,602
Chemicals and chemical products33,89136,80137,241
Petroleum and coal products3,4163,9784,517
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.23,72526,45027,359
Basic metal manufactures4,2284,6534,924
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)28,70233,65336,848
Machinery (except electrical)29,71836,04638,242
Electrical machinery and appliances15,10219,35721,735
Transport equipment63,88374,37183,608
Miscellaneous products10,10411,92012,982
  Totals705,617756,800806,508

A similar analysis by statistical areas, but limited to the year 1961–62, is now given.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Value of Output 1961–62
 £(000)
Food12,45153,95845,8953,91016,39925,44336,445
Beverages735,4351,0822357552312,067
Tobacco manufactures***
Textiles*12,371460*4,519*9,060
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods22023,5151,8572747461,35311,860
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,2638,17820,3854891,5851,5096,208
Furniture and fittings366,996397264521272,816
Paper and paper products10,59416,436**5,049
Printing, publishing, etc.28910,6691,3862791,0076098,859
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*2,938*14**481
Rubber products1033,329427**972,937
Chemicals and chemical products*11,2102,422*1,6252,22312,291
Petroleum and coal products1,650**402,074
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.2,6908,9882,3521256833112,879
Basic metal manufactures*2,20868**793
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)17919,009958*4162768,944
Machinery (except electrical)31214,6053,1811571,1541,1627,845
Electrical machinery and appliances316,9909083666,746
Transport equipment1,66017,6197,6548521,9711,95831,901
Miscellaneous products827,3818468782,9681,3469,241
  Totals19,388227,641106,7147,24134,64736,685168,494
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal

*To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Value of Output 1961–62
 £(000)
Food1,9494,28358328,48716,51617,683264,003
Beverages*1941312,4031,085*13,811
Tobacco manufactures8,852
Textiles*65*12,1885,3951,08646,073
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods322105*9,5542,42818952,609
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2141,8751,8605,0401,9551,97552,537
Furniture and fittings3194142,24178523014,244
Paper and paper products1,6715571,04635,720
Printing, publishing, etc.1602871254,7202,44563331,468
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,1839953456,135
Rubber products**6,2931415713,602
Chemicals and chemical products*3442,7773,271*37,242
Petroleum and coal products370994,517
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1122,015723,8282,1461,15727,359
Basic metal manufactures57876*4,924
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*192*3,9882,42941236,848
Machinery (except electrical)2041701266,5991,77495238,242
Electrical machinery and appliances4,9101,78421,735
Transport equipment6281,50051011,3693,3952,59183,608
Miscellaneous products200462291,8622631,10712,982
  Totals3,82011,1703,648110,05947,53929,461806,508

ADDED VALUE – As indicated under the heading of “Products”, the value of output is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. In many cases by far the larger portion of the value of output represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the output, and is referred to as the “added value”.

The tables given herewith show the added value for each industrial group and for all industries for each of the latest three years, with an analysis of the 1961–62 totals according to the statistical areas in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupAdded Value
1959–601960–611961–62
 £(000)
Food57,85553,06564,986
Beverage5,8226,7567,311
Tobacco manufactures2,0352,3552,513
Textiles13,08214,37616,379
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods20,21222,34024,090
Wood and cork products (except furniture)21,38423,17724,065
Furniture and fittings5,8236,5886,766
Paper and paper products16,73118,21519,056
Printing, publishing, etc.16,73019,09320,650
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,9972,3912,439
Rubber products6,1516,5887,352
Chemicals and chemical products13,03714,15714,450
Petroleum and coal products1,0681,1151,288
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.15,36616,74017,464
Basic metal manufactures1,7861,9192,094
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)13,92916,23717,911
Machinery (except electrical)13,82816,16017,998
Electrical machinery and appliances6,3898,0359,171
Transport equipment28,06031,60835,120
Miscellaneous products5,2476,1836,915
  Totals266,529287,097318,018

The analysis for 1961–62 by statistical areas now follows.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Added Value 1961–62
 £(000)
Food1,56614,0336,1971,2475,1584,9159,850
Beverages392,5316301413591351,316
Tobacco manufactures***
Textiles*4,56376*383*3,448
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods9410,9959551163216525,280
Wood and cork products (except furniture)5633,2859,6972126976822,610
Furniture and fittings183,25922315248681,364
Paper and paper products4,73910,840**2,048
Printing, publishing, etc.2256,3951,0602117234426,010
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)*1,233*9**267
Rubber products561,699232**551,589
Chemicals and chemical products*4,379862*5226565,098
Petroleum and coal products527**17457
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.2,0435,2671,399654271761,656
Basic metal manufactures*78946**373
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)569,055476*2041254,352
Machinery (except electrical)1896,7721,797846265763,490
Electrical machinery and appliances152,6673561492,983
Transport equipment8107,8503,8064241,0571,02010,683
Miscellaneous products523,6714763658555833,578
  Totals5,72693,70839,1282,88911,72910,10366,452
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal

*To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in Miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Added Value 1961–62
 £(000)
Food6291,268558,4555,5216,09264,986
Beverages*123821,220648*7,311
Tobacco manufactures2,513
Textiles*37*4,8252,49013516,379
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods14348*4,2051,1228624,090
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1178159392,4139861,04924,065
Furniture and fittings175171,0423381196,766
Paper and paper products61325442719,056
Printing, publishing, etc.1312091023,0751,60446320,650
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)464341752,439
Rubber products**3,49580307,352
Chemicals and chemical products*1441,1871,173*14,450
Petroleum and coal products132441,288
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.611,569462,4801,50577017,464
Basic metal manufactures34654*2,094
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)*105*2,0721,24919117,911
Machinery (except electrical)12193832,69493953317,998
Electrical machinery and appliances2,1258769,171
Transport equipment2957462345,2881,7431,16535,120
Miscellaneous products14422939261414576,915
  Totals1,6575,2301,63947,05621,10911,592318,018

A final table on added value for 1961–62 has been compiled which classifies factories into several added value groupings, giving a general picture of size distribution.

Added Value GroupsEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials UsedValue of OutputAdded Value
TotalPer Person Engaged
£NumberNumber£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£
Under 5,0002,0676,3154,7627,98014,7616,7811,074
5,000–9,9992,21513,06310,18219,25635,10315,8471,213
10,000–19,9992,06322,60617,77541,82071,11529,2941,296
20,000–49,9991,58033,77126,84386,616134,74948,1331,425
50,000–99,99956023,91819,21367,882106,37738,4951,609
100,000–499,99940646,71239,817118,571201,20382,6321,769
500,000– 999,9994916,75616,75550,34285,18234,8402,079
1,000,000–2,499,9993821,31222,53784,435135,16850,7332,380
2,500,000 and over33,1263,64811,58722,85011,2633,603
  Totals 8,981187,579161,532488,490806,508318,0181,695

The development of factory production in New Zealand is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between cost of materials, added value, and value of output.

FACTORY PRODUCTION VALUE AND VOLUME OF OUTPUT

EXPENSES OF OPERATION – Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1961–62 amounted to £736,817,000, of which salaries and wages accounted for £161,532,000, cost of materials for £488,490,000, and other expenses for £86,795,000, while value of output totalled £806,508,000.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and cost of materials, by industry groups for the year 1961–62.

Industry GroupCoalElectricityCoke, Gas, Oils, etc.InsuranceInterest on Loans, etc.DepreciationRentRepairs and MaintenanceOtherTotal
 £(000)
Food2,1151,8726329437154,1842523,5244,22418,460
Beverages85127648599719403477252,292
Tobacco manufactures3151136741601054371734
Textiles2702691052142561,1781399141,3114,656
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods13242431942736786945241,7904,450
Wood and cork products (except furniture)45101395913791,2182361,3812,6017,059
Furniture and fittings1896127922171551334921,312
Paper and paper products5291,0033193025082,1601231,2091,6787,830
Printing, publishing, etc.2200501901731,1542414632,6405,111
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)2836104221803991130478
Rubber products101191679336439442687301,969
Chemicals and chemical products1202741092332361,268877221,5334,581
Petroleum and coal products23039221492968135411
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,2376045422482621,486711,3391,3177,107
Basic metal manufactures157593042822172170534
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)72581132343147582944261,9124,317
Machinery (except electrical)52351242782807272294711,7234,072
Electrical machinery and appliances1846410795378932099472,078
Transport equipment24241284843131,1436876883,6227,491
Miscellaneous products712647961064221502616381,853
  Totals 4,5316,7462,6724,5514,28618,5463,61213,16528,68786,795

CAPITAL INVESTED AND ASSETS – Information as to the amount of capital invested in manufacturing industries was collected for some years, but the figures obtained were found to be unsatisfactory. The chief factors militating against the collection of reliable information have been the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing.

A more satisfactory indication of the capital investment in a manufacturing industry is obtained from figures of manufacturers' fixed assets. Not only are the figures more reliable than those for capital invested, but they do not suffer from the understatement of capital (from the economic viewpoint) which occurs in those cases where the factory premises, or, in some few cases, even the plant, is not owned by the manufacturer, but is rented. In these cases an estimate of the value of the rented asset has been obtained by capitalising the annual rental shown. Approximations in the figures for fixed assets are also made where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, necessitating an apportionment as between the industries. In most instances, too, fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an overstatement due to insufficient allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, etc., or an understatement owing to appreciated site value, excessive allowance for depreciation, or currency depreciation resulting in the assets being understated in terms of their present earning capacity or replacement cost. It is necessary to bear in mind these limitations to the accuracy of the figures of fixed assets appearing in the following table, which shows the values of these assets for each of the last three years together with an analysis by principal industries for 1961–62. For the year 1961–62 information is also shown by industry groups of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations, together with totals for all industries for the two previous years. These latter amounts cannot be taken as the total capital expended by New Zealand manufacturers during the year, as they do not include capital expenditure of firms not yet in production.

Industry GroupCapital Additions and Alterations During the YearValue at End of Year (Including Estimated Value of Rented Assets)
Land and BuildingsPlant and MachineryTotalLand and BuildingsPlant and MachineryTotal
Totals –£(000)
  1959–6010,36516,57526,940136,55087,677224,227
  1960–6112,82621,47634,302154,11895,187249,305
1961–62–
  Food3,5215,2368,75741,29925,56466,862
  Beverages4618221,2825,2804,0599,339
  Tobacco manufactures493503997869841,770
  Textiles4871,4431,9307,1725,65012,823
  Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods5417501,29112,0254,23516,259
  Wood and cork products (except furniture)5861,0961,68210,0377,85017,887
  Furniture and fittings3682616294,1121,1205,232
  Paper and paper products2,9842,9515,93612,45011,54523,995
  Printing, publishing, etc.5861,6372,2239,4157,77617,191
  Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)83921751,2283981,626
  Rubber products1264545812,3251,7204,045
  Chemicals and chemical products1,2261,0142,24110,5295,39015,919
  Petroleum and coal products241031275515161,067
  Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.7562,7093,4658,2979,18917,486
  Basic metal manufactures1151142299695631,532
  Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,0192,0683,0879,9325,27815,211
  Machinery (except electrical)8709801,8508,5003,83712,338
  Electrical machinery and appliances9566711,6274,2961,6425,938
  Transport equipment1,4791,0142,49322,6445,19627,840
  Miscellaneous products5396581,1984,0992,0826,181
    Totals, 1961–6216,77924,42241,201175,947104,594280,540

MANUFACTURERS' STOCKS – A quarterly survey of manufacturers' stocks has been conducted by the Department of Statistics since 1957. The survey is carried out on a sample basis, the selection representing approximately 12 1/2 per cent of all the factories covered by the annual census of factory production. The number of establishments included in the sample is approximately 1,050 and their combined stocks as returned in the annual survey for 1959–60, when a revision of the sample was undertaken represented approximately 75 per cent of total manufacturers' stocks.

The following table compares in summary form the results of the quarterly surveys. In presenting the results, the chief seasonal industries – meat processing and dairy products manufacture – have been segregated to assist in the interpretation of movements in stock holdings. The heading “Materials” includes work in progress, fuel, and miscellaneous supplies.

 Total StocksMovement in Stocks at Annual IntervalsPercentage Movement in Stocks at Annual Intervals
 Finished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotal
Including Primary Produce
  Processing Industries£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)per centper centper cent
  31 March 196057,23388,132145,365+8,558+ 1,009+ 9,567+ 17.58+ 1.16+ 7.05
  31 March 196156,17897,284153,463- 1,055+ 9,152+ 8,098- 1.84+10.38+ 5.57
  30 September 196151,03297,750148,781+3,138+12,129+15,267+ 6.55+14.17+11.43
  31 December 196158,78595,244154,028+1,770+ 9,954+11,722+ 3.10+11.67+ 8.24
  31 March 196259,85694,501154,357+3,678- 2,783+ 894+ 6.55- 2.86+ 0.58
  30 June 196255,78893,032148,820+3,563- 2,995+ 567+ 6.82- 3.12+ 0.38
  30 September 196250,56893,991144,559- 464- 3,759- 4,222- 0.91- 3.85- 2.84
  31 December 196259,96593,073153,037+1,180- 2,171- 991+ 2.01- 2.28- 0.64
  31 March 196360.79695,845156,641+ 940+ 1,344+ 2,284+ 1.57+ 1.42+ 1.48
  30 June 196356,90998,317155,225+1,121+ 5,285+ 6,405+ 2.00+ 5.68+ 4.30
  30 September 196355,485100,411155,896+4,917+ 6,420+11,337+ 9.72+ 6.83+ 7.84
  31 December 196361,97198,393160,364+2,006+ 5,320+ 7,327+ 3.35+ 5.72+ 4.79
Excluding Primary Produce
  Processing Industries
  31 March 196028,51381,470109,983+2,755+ 363+ 3,117+10.70+ 0.45+ 2.92
  31 March 196129,71089,923119,634+1,197+ 8,453+ 9,651+ 4.20+10.38+ 8.77
  30 September 196132,46891,734124,202+1,469+12,015+13,485+ 4.74+15.07+12.18
  31 December 196131,85988,946120,805+1,827+ 9,828+11,654+ 6.08+12.42+10.68
  31 March 196232,10288,653120,754+2,392- 1,270+ 1,120+ 8.05- 1.41+ 0.94
  30 June 196233,79187,137120,928+3,749- 3,176+ 573+12.47- 3.52+ 0.47
  30 September 196234,93187,906122,837+2,463- 3,828- 1,365+ 7.59- 4.17- 1.10
  31 December 196234,54187,173121,714+2,682- 1,773+ 909+ 8.42- 1.99+ 0.75
  31 March 196335,04990,174125,223+2,947+ 1,521+ 4,469+ 9.18+ 1.72+ 3.70
  30 June 196336,15292,471128,623+2,361+ 5,334+ 7,695+ 6.99+ 6.12+ 6.36
  30 September 196339,65094,340133,990+4,719+ 6,434+11,153+13.51+ 7.32+ 9.08
  31 December 196337,27792,459129,736+2,736+ 5,286+ 8,022+ 7.92+ 6.06+ 6.59

More detailed information on stocks is given in the next table showing by industry groups comparative stock figures at the end of December for the years 1962 and 1963.

Industry GroupStocks at 31 DecemberIncrease or Decrease in Stocks, December 1962 to December 1963
19621963
Finished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotalFinished GoodsMaterialsTotal
Primary Produce Processing Industries
  Meat freezing, ham,£(000)
bacon, and casings16,2784,71820,99515,0374,69919,736-1,241- 19-1,259
Dairy9,1461,18210,3289,6561,23610,892+ 510+ 54+ 564
  Totals25,4245,89931,32324,6935,93530,628- 731+ 36- 695
Other food4,8466,91111,7575,7997,11712,916+ 953+ 206+1,159
Beverages2,0711,0393,1102,2041,1233,327+ 133+ 84+ 217
Tobacco manufactures6,0306,0305,8315,831- 199- 199
Textiles1,8727,5669,4381,9928,47710,469+ 120+ 911+1,031
Clothing2,8105,4068,2173,1215,5468,666+ 311+ 140+ 449
Footwear3251,4741,7993201,4671,787- 5- 7- 12
Wood manufactures4,2334,0038,2364,6624,2768,938+ 429+ 273+ 702
Furniture and fittings4162,4812,8964062,4492,855- 10- 32- 41
Paper and products2,3565,1167,4732,1995,8818,080- 157+ 765+ 607
Printing, publishing6454,8795,5245144,8145,328- 131- 65- 196
Leather and products2039221,1261798381,017- 24- 84- 109
Rubber products1,5611,8833,4441,4811,8523,334- 80- 31- 110
Chemicals and products4,6925,89010,5825,2556,28211,537+ 563+ 392+ 955
Petroleum, coal products3629181,2804497771,226+ 87- 141- 54
Non-metallic mineral products2,2583,1235,3812,3773,2365,613+ 119+ 113+ 232
Basic metal products2228861,1081648481,012- 58- 38- 96
Metal products1,4906,4367,9261,6677,1368,804+ 177+ 700+ 878
Machinery1,4866,4307,9151,6467,0188,664+ 160+ 588+ 749
Electrical products1,0894,6545,7431,1144,8595,972+ 25+ 205+ 229
Transport7929,34210,13386610,61511,481+ 74+1,273+1,348
Miscellaneous8101,7852,5968642,0162,881+ 54+ 231+ 285
    Totals34,54187,173121,71437,27792,459129,736+2,736+5,286+8,022
    Grand totals, all factory industries59,96593,073153,03761,97198,393160,364+2,006+5,320+7,327

ORGANISATION OF INDUSTRY – New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organised on a relatively small scale.

The law in New Zealand restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than 25 persons, a private company to not fewer than two or more than 25 persons, and a public company to not fewer than seven persons. Cooperation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of primary products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing.

Information as to the character of organisation of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1961–62 is given in the following table.

Character of OrganisationNumber of EstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials Used or Operated UponValue of Manufactures or ProductsAdded Value
TotalPer Establishment
  Number£(000)£(000)£(000)£(000)£
Private registered company6,231112,47194,429246,916424,690177,77428,531
Public registered company84760,70754,781152,655270,327117,672138,928
Individual9534,3683,2685,21310,3525,1395,392
Partnership5052,6842,1153,7257,2263,5026,935
Cooperative association3374,4824,34277,45487,1429,68728,745
Local authority and State1082,8672,5972,5276,7714,24439,296
  Totals8,981187,579161,532488,490806,508318,01835,410

As would be expected, the average size of establishments operated by public registered companies is larger than in any other type of industrial organisation, the added value per unit being nearly five times as high as that for private registered companies. Private companies, however, occupy a very high place, both numerically and in the share they contribute to the total added value created in New Zealand factories (55.9 per cent in 1961–62, as compared with 37.0 per cent in the case of public companies).

Since 1951–52, the first year of the new series, private and public registered companies have increased their combined share of added value from 87.8 per cent to 92.9 per cent. The separate share of public companies increased from 34.7 per cent to 37.0 per cent, and that of private companies from 53.1 per cent to 55.9 per cent. All other types of organisations listed recorded declines in their share of added value over this period.

VALUE AND VOLUME INDICES OF FACTORY PRODUCTION – Below is a table giving index numbers of added value, value of output, and volume of production based on the year 1938–39. This table commences with the year 1928–29 and runs through to 1950–51, at which stage a new series was commenced.

Production YearIndex Numbers of-
Value Added in ManufactureValue of OutputVolume of Production
Base: 1938–39 (= 100)
1928–29807971
1929–30837974
1930–31756869
1931–32625860
1932–33605863
1933–34646365
1934–35706974
1935–36777981
1936–37909392
1937–38999997
1938–39100100100
1939–40113113110
1940–41125129114
1941–42137136116
1942–43151145120
1943–44162154125
1944–45173166129
1945–46185171131
1946–47205191140
1947–48233238151
1948–49252263155
1949–50285290164
1950–51311345172

With the reclassification in 1951–52 a new series of index numbers was commenced and these are shown below. It should be realised in comparing the two series of index numbers that the latter excludes the activities of three important industries. These are the logging operations of sawmillers, previously included in the sawmilling industry, and the generation and supply of gas and electricity. However, the effect of the exclusion of these industries entirely from the newer series is not great, as the two series in the overlapping period recorded very similar movements.

Production YearIndex Numbers of-
Value Added in ManufactureValue of OutputVolume of Production
Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)
1950–51547632754
1951–52677716806
1952–53700771800
1953–54784823848
1954–55895915941
1955–56971973994
1956–57100010001000
1957–58109610711070
1958–59116310951130
1959–60128711721169x
1960–61138712571283x
1961–62153613401349

The table which follows sets out, by industry groups, index numbers of value of output, added value, and volume of output for the three latest years. It is not possible to arrive at volume of production index numbers for all the groups, for technical reasons, and consequently some have been omitted, but the total index number for the year is calculated in such a way as to include the groups which cannot be assessed separately.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION

Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)

Industry GroupValue of OutputValue Added in ManufactureVolume of Production
1959–601960–611961–621959–601960–611961–621959–601960–611961–62

*Indices not available for the groups, but allowed for in compiling total index.

Food1096106111181338122715031162x1187x1269
Beverage1064122113321173136114731003x10911153
Tobacco manufactures125914271458121614081502126814361490
Textiles1267136715241524167419081393x1494x1773
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods114412541333117713011403110611581198
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1243137814391230133313841086x1166x1174
Furniture and fittings119713541373117013241360***
Paper and paper products1398152316001401152515951405x1534x1587
Printing, publishing, etc.1254142215081257143515521235x1393x1410
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1267147215001324158616171130x1260x1306
Rubber products109112251287122313101462113712441337
Chemicals and chemical products1254136213781375149315241158x1274x1314
Petroleum and coal products141616491872142214851715***
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1280142814771280139514551274x1427x1439
Basic metal manufactures125113771457134614461578***
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)137416111764137115981763***
Machinery (except electrical)113913811465124214511616***
Electrical machinery and appliances141218102,033141017732,0241349x1652x1847
Transport equipment106312381391112812711412***
Miscellaneous products17052,0112,19117472,0582,302***
  Totals1172125713401287138715361169x1283x1349

OVERTIME – Details of overtime worked in factories by wage-earning employees are summarised in the tables given, which show, by industry groups, the hours worked during the latest three years. The averages given are calculated on the basis of the total number of wage earners engaged irrespective of the number who actually worked overtime.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage Earners (Both Male and Female)
1959–601960–611961–62
Food7,606,7577,601,0688,260,876
Beverages360,096397,796420,578
Tobacco manufactures181,693250,858309,327
Textiles1,024,1391,261,7501,371,624
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods673,986985,1281,010,569
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,425,6461,989,6541,771,107
Furniture and fittings469,302584,129588,827
Paper and paper products929,1171,034,4891,176,896
Printing, publishing, etc.1,016,4531,101,0121,146,655
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)162,775216,746228,454
Rubber products330,582468,948459,184
Chemicals and chemical products838,883838,354866,942
Petroleum and coal products55,69370,08673,681
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,512,8171,739,0061,797,888
Basic metal manufactures174,993209,858223,283
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,629,9091,929,3012,063,627
Machinery (except electrical)1,629,3941,900,0652,065,660
Electrical machinery and appliances483,557686,950728,651
Transport equipment1,865,6772,565,8182,679,289
Miscellaneous products352,613446,218530,147
  Totals22,724,08226,277,23427,773,265

The next table shows, by industry groups, the hours of overtime worked during 1961–62 by males and females separately.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage EarnersAverage Overtime Hours Worked by All Wage Earners
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
 (000)(000)  
Food7,799462312118
Beverages4111025085
Tobacco manufactures172137415206
Textiles1,08029120558
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods49651510527
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,766515434
Furniture and fittings5711815240
Paper and paper products1,06711028084
Printing, publishing, etc.1,01313413177
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1903921169
Rubber products4342519454
Chemicals and chemical products8204724344
Petroleum and coal products713221122
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.1,74751287138
Basic metal manufactures22326223
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,98579266104
Machinery (except electrical)2,04223227107
Electrical machinery and appliances62610217667
Transport equipment2,64138140104
Miscellaneous products4656520647
  Totals25,6202,15321655

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS – The following table, by assembling data from previous pages, affords an analysis of production costs in 1961–62, together with the value of output for each industry group and for all industries. In addition, by virtue of the complete details collected annually of the cost structure of goods produced in manufacturing industries, it is possible to give information on the surplus available to manufacturers prior to payment of dividends, taxation, and other appropriations. The only exception occurs in the case of cooperative dairy companies, which do not purchase milk and cream in the way that other manufacturers purchase raw materials. They collect the milk and cream from their shareholders, process it, and pay out to these shareholders the whole of the profits of the sales of the products, less amounts paid to reserves. Manufacturing surplus shown by these companies is therefore confined to the amount of these transfers to reserves and any undistributed profits.

In quite a number of cases, articles produced are transferred at cost to separate selling departments and warehouses, or to retail stores run by the same company or establishment. Where this is apparent, the company concerned is asked to substitute a commercial value for its production. The same procedure holds where a company controls more than one factory, and transfers the products of one to the other for further processing. It must be recognised that estimated values have to be accepted in many transactions of this type.

Industry GroupProduction CostsValue of OutputManufacturing Surplus
Salaries and WagesCost of All Materials UsedOther Expenses of OperationTotal
 £(000)
Food32,592199,01618,460250,069264,00313,934
Beverages2,1046,5002,29210,89613,8112,915
Tobacco manufactures9556,3387348,0288,852823
Textiles8,45829,6944,65642,80846,0733,264
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods16,06928,5194,44949,03752,6093,571
Wood and cork products (except furniture)12,32528,4717,05947,85652,5374,681
Furniture and fittings4,4267,4781,31213,21614,2441,028
Paper and paper products5,82116,6647,83030,31535,7205,405
Printing, publishing, etc.10,79310,8185,11126,72231,4684,746
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,3683,6964785,5426,135592
Rubber products3,2706,2501,96911,48813,6022,114
Chemicals and chemical products5,20422,7924,58132,57737,2424,664
Petroleum and coal products4233,2294114,0644,517453
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.7,2069,8947,10724,20727,3593,151
Basic metal manufactures1,0832,8305344,4474,924476
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)9,36718,9374,31732,62136,8484,227
Machinery (except electrical)10,68220,2444,07234,99838,2423,244
Electrical machinery and appliances4,82712,5642,07819,46921,7352,266
Transport equipment21,08948,4887,49177,06883,6086,540
Miscellaneous products3,4686,0671,85311,38812,9821,595
  Totals161,532488,49086,795736,817806,50869,691

LIST OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES PRODUCED IN RECENT YEARS – The following is a list of certain commodities produced in New Zealand during the four latest years.

Commodity1959–601960–611961–621962–63
ToastersNo.31,59252,36563,62044,164
IronsNo.34,77458,92052,53842,857
Jugs and kettlesNo.53,12256,09942,13253,066
RadiatorsNo.47,24589,016154,898136,208
Vacuum cleanersNo.37,28045,93150,45745,996
Washing machinesNo.38,08048,16439,50339,819
Refrigerators (home and commercial and freezers)No.49,62455,837x44,459x37,668
Electric rangesNo.32,96937,71041,51337,895
Electric rangettesNo.3,7564,1403,5193,296
RadiosNo.120,867138,255121,93883,186
Television setsNo.1,2159,32927,24063,989
BlanketsPairs204,620215,261221,276202,068
Floor coverings (textile top coverings)sq. yd.2,564,1353,576,5303,906,3664,077,127
Mattresses –
  Innerspring –
    SingleNo.48,14256,10861,22874,840
    DoubleNo.24,19225,42624,77027,927
  Soft filled –
    SingleNo.73,73975,30078,78277,507
    DoubleNo.16,96316,62715,53715,719
    InfantsNo.11,84810,32616,77013,552
Venetian blindssq. ft.3,628,5553,769,8963,284,2402,987,210
Newspapers produced –
  Dailiesthousand290,462298,704310,292316,401
  Other than dailiesthousand50,53950,73449,23850,224
Hot-water bottlesNo.354,632213,162306,382300,230
Soap –
  Toiletton3,3453,4333,6503,934
  Barton5,1975,2364,6734,607
  Powder and flaketon14,36114,75213,62314,266
Paints and enamelsgal (000)3,0333,1343,0163,096
Lacquersgal (000)256264270294
Toothpastecwt8,9179,63512,09411,827
Furniture and floor polishcwt22,07721,97216,21725,088
Shoe polishes and cleanerscwt3,4414,1464,4373,316
Water heaters –
  Under 10 gallonsNo.11,68713,64315,32714,812
  10 gallons and overNo.39,265x37,00439,52836,558
Sinks: stainless steelNo.38,62249,23244,41739,044
Sink tops: stainless steelNo.19,81520,26418,54923,415
WheelbarrowsNo.15,34017,23317,35520,572
Lawnmowers (hand and power)No.53,84558,10752,26654,286
Prams, pushchairs, strollers –
  Cane (inc. dolls')No.8,5958,4107,1586,741
  Other than caneNo.29,75632,31729,90930,818
ToothbrushesNo.1,863,2162,341,0082,207,2322,508,480

DETAILS OF CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES – The principal statistics regarding leading factory industries for the last three years available are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Report on the Industrial Production Statistics.

  1959–601960–611961–62

*Includes products of establishments classified in other industries

Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of establishments363737
Persons engagedNo.16,94117,27118,381
Production costs
  Salaries, wages£17,581,41318,485,24119,971,594
  Materials£85,230,20585,964,48385,123,697
  Other expenses£6,712,7547,315,6947,856,564
    Totals£109,524,372111,765,418112,951,855
Value of output£116,988,739112,242,666120,418,818
Value added in manufacture£31,758,53426,278,18335,295,121
Overtime worked by wage earnersh5,045,5744,912,4875,286,358
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 118812071282
Principal products –
  Meat –
    Lamb carcassesNo.18,843,57419,161,06420,611,673
 cwt5,333,2305,414,3155,522,848
    Mutton carcassesNo.4,283,9214,112,6044,819,871
 cwt1,939,1921,856,6962,102,219
    Boned muttoncwt158,179203,095125,999
    Mutton and lamb piecescwt45,10989,631127,155
    Beef quarters, shipped bone incwt1,231,4651,240,4431,319,350
    Beef quarters, without bonecwt48,12141,95053,082
    Boneless beefcwt966,3861,048,6151,343,213
    Bobby vealcwt170,397176,321186,307
    Other vealcwt75,84284,530120,532
    Porkcwt434,075433,440435,890
    Edible offalscwt658,620645,806724,902
By-products –
    Runners (not processed)No.4,050,8136,095,7324,729,508
    Casingsbundles4,361,6344,081,5864,827,107
    Woolly sheepskinsNo.178,857164,160174,634
    PeltsNo.24,212,94924,650,49727,020,796
    Cow hidesNo.454,715499,458630,117
    Ox and bull hidesNo.265,621252,396302,003
    Bobby calf hidesNo.1,135,2741,163,4291,250,465
    Other calf hidesNo.56,47160,08089,549
    Woollb62,300,58460,972,43659,927,754
Boiling-down products –
    Tallowcwt1,129,4391,255,6861,262,953
    Neatsfoot oilgal161,459134,929158,910
    Manurescwt692,825759,671724,889
    Livermealcwt15,47614,72413,866
    Meatmealcwt410,943497,190591,642
Canned and other preserved meats, pastes, extracts, and miscellaneous canningscwt112,764111,639127,093
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of establishments 464448
Persons engagedNo.1,0641,1921,290
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£903,0761,049,0221,163,166
  Materials£6,116,7227,140,2097,505,254
  Other expenses£419,275525,106590,954
    Totals£7,439,0738,714,3379,259,374
Value of output£7,842,6839,128,5259,692,130
Value added in manufacture£1,725,9611,988,3162,186,876
Overtime worked by wage earnersh197,137265,767272,960
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 111111251160
Pigs dealt with –
  CarcassesNo.440,936437,853438,522
  Cost£4,591,7604,816,8474,999,384
Principal products –
  Ham and baconcwt319,145331,542336,738
  Frozen porkcwt39,51331,99330,289
  Small goodscwt241,750245,957263,889
  Lard (edible)cwt12,60811,69210,769
Butter, Cheese, and Other Milk Products
Number of establishments –
  Butter and cheeseNo.260250241
  Other milk productsNo.1049580
Persons engagedNo.4,6244,5564,485
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£4,132,4204,371,0344,404,050
  Materials£83,894,66377,968,66078,241,696
  Other expenses£4,720,2124,749,1484,974,402
    Totals£92,747,29587,088,84287,620,148
Value of output£93,800,85387,683,65088,318,385
Value added in manufacture£9,906,1909,714,99010,076,689
Overtime worked by wage earnersh987,659993,5301,059,414
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 105410781082
Butterfat used –
  For creamery butterlb(000)381,652386,583382,544
  For cheesemakinglb(000)84,25687,20591,152
  For whey butter making –
    Recoveries from own wheylb(000)3,2181,5212,311
    Whey fat purchasedlb(000)2,3173,1223,797
    Second grade creamery butterfatlb(000)1181,175112
      Total for whey butterlb(000)5,6535,8186,220
Principal products –
  Creamery butterton207,694209,558207,524
  Whey butterton3,1003,2603,234
  Cheeseton93,11998,129100,676
  Condensed and powdered whole milkton17,42916,74614,861
  Skim-milk powderton49,30342,92441,730
  Buttermilk powderton16,24216,97017,702
  Caseinton24,45330,40135,750
Ice Cream
Number of establishments 343129
Persons engagedNo.546560583
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£384,614419,318432,933
  Materials£1,184,9631,364,1091,462,728
  Other expenses£398,060444,256523,166
    Totals£1,967,6372,227,6832,418,827
Value of output£2,304,9722,555,4292,941,455
Value added in manufacture£1,120,0091,191,3201,478,727
Overtime worked by wage earnersh42,73961,96664,303
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 113112721393
Main materials used –
  Milkgal476,050515,785570,166
  Creamgal51,04063,35356,015
  Ice-cream mixturecwt68,63481,55177,146
  Buttercwt15,40817,69720,058
  Skim-milk powdercwt15,22317,58018,729
  Sugarcwt35,18439,18344,387
Products –
  Bulk ice-creamgal(000)2,5542,7282,961
  Ice cream, cartoned, wrapped, chocolate-coated, etc.gal(000)2,3792,8723,103
  Iced lolliesgal(000)616574650
Grain Milling
Number of establishments 444442
Persons engagedNo.866868889
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£660,548694,581733,531
  Materials£3,824,1803,874,2934,109,751
  Other expenses£559,289627,647635,030
    Totals£5,044,0175,196,5215,478,312
Value of output£5,433,7785,584,5275,866,018
Value added in manufacture£1,609,5981,710,2341,756,267
Overtime worked by wage earnersh108,414118,162155,805
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 113511521201
Main materials used –
  Wheatbushel9,583,8119,542,6389,882,809
  Oatsbushel608,640571,830538,563
Principal products –
  Flourshort ton209,233210,676216,238
  Wholemeal, wheatmealshort ton7,9297,6948,380
  Bran and pollardshort ton59,95957,10560,622
  Breakfast cereals –
    Oatmeal, rolled oatsshort ton6,1855,7645,492
    Other (including cereals in biscuit, flake and puff form)*short ton7,9687,8278,811

*Includes dried vegetables.

Biscuits
Number of establishments 988
Persons engagedNo.1,1571,1951,265
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£803,596850,838934,707
  Materials£2,028,5322,002,8312,102,648
  Other expenses£495,477505,107554,948
    Totals£3,327,6053,358,7763,592,303
Value of output£3,793,3583,953,7234,264,826
Value added in manufacture£1,764,8261,950,8922,162,178
Overtime worked by wage earnersh278,178325,512300,563
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 106610791173
Main materials used –
  Flourshort ton11,35910,99111,436
  Sugarton4,0093,9113,970
  Chocolatecwt7,3529,11211,631
  Margarine, lard, confectionery fatcwt59,69254,94461,066
Biscuits manufacturedton17,21317,42018,798
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Sugar Confectionery
Number of establishments 434748
Persons engagedNo.1,8061,9451,965
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£1,123,8101,268,1811,346,406
  Materials£3,410,1453,705,1743,695,970
  Other expenses£625,927631,260752,292
    Totals£5,159,8825,604,6155,794,668
Value of output£5,828,3736,422,0956,664,317
Value added in manufacture£2,418,2282,716,9212,968,347
Overtime worked by wage earnersh171,312232,367258,722
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 111411841272
Main materials used –
  Sugarton10,01310,70611,314
  Cocoa beanscwt48,49149,22853,565
  Cocoa buttercwt10,85911,34210,861
  Glucosecwt69,67573,87572,687
  Nutscwt16,05725,01425,397
Confectionery manufactured –
  Chocolate and chocolate-coatedton7,3188,2828,911
  Sugarton10,53610,43910,970
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving
Number of establishments 373434
Persons engagedNo.2,0961,7422,168
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£1,528,3941,333,1741,692,109
  Materials£4,540,9354,091,5665,364,080
  Other expenses£1,147,8641,145,4261,282,955
    Totals£7,217,1936,570,1668,339,144
Value of output£7,538,4986,736,7219,170,225
Value added in manufacture£2,997,5632,645,1553,806,145
Overtime worked by wage earnersh517,772397,566551,615
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 132812441696
Main materials used –
  Fruit (fresh)ton11,55210,19516,811
  Vegetables and tomatoes (fresh)ton42,523*23,83753,252
  Sugarton5,2094,8685,711

*Includes production by establishments classified in other industries.

†In addition, in 1959–60, 115,355x gallons; in 1960–61, 138,693x gallons; and in 1961–62, 219,238 gallons were recorded by establishments classified in other industries.

Principal products –
  Canned fruitcwt158,957136,149180,917
  Canned beans in saucecwt54,28166,99576,596
  Canned peascwt98,19142,07899,910
  Canned green beanscwt3,8806,88426,952
  Other canned vegetables (not tomatoes)cwt29,18638,57667,482
  Tomato soupgal383,485429,693546,156
  Pickles and sauces*gal716,074741,099825,348
  Jams, jellies, and conservescwt85,43274,48888,102
  Canned spaghetti in saucecwt56,28377,38099,479
  Canned tomatoes (whole and halves)cwt34,37011,34822,847
  Quick-frozen vegetables –
    Peascwt157,228169,110186,331
    Beanscwt26,94926,96936,068
    Othercwt27,02710,81825,647
Breweries
Number of establishments 181717
Persons engagedNo.1,1961,2421,272
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£1,115,7041,202,1281,265,743
  Materials£3,268,9873,773,8994,092,763
  Other expenses£1,463,1751,683,1741,605,810
    Totals£5,847,8666,659,2016,964,316
Value of output£7,238,6368,422,1859,278,410
Value added in manufacture£3,969,6494,648,2865,185,647
Overtime worked by wage earnersh256,663283,625312,059
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 97210691120
Main materials used –
  Maltbushel1,280,7401,375,3311,449,426
  Hopscwt6,6617,3237,221
  Sugarcwt106,137124,829130,249
Beer produced for salegal47,570,48652,090,40054,664,680
Stout produced for salegal261,917345,817336,066
Aerated Waters and Cordials
Number of establishments 677070
Persons engagedNo.667661697
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£499,555526,120570,790
  Materials£933,282997,6721,227,054
  Other expenses£362,702379,219410,645
    Totals£1,795,5391,903,0112,208,489
Value of output£2,059,3132,298,2852,553,731
Value added in manufacture£1,126,0311,300,6131,326,677
Overtime worked by wage earnersh65,05270,83167,072
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 107911671338
Main materials used –
  Sugarton5,0255,4266,261
  Essential oils and essenceslb338,508380,655507,850
  Fruit extracts and juicesgal71,75170,32089,538
Aerated waters madegal7,302,0857,952,6349,217,473
Cordials madegal406,042425,380466,591

*Principal products shown for this industry include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes
Number of establishments 655
Persons engagedNo.1,2441,2051,225
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£796,223869,489955,467
  Materials£5,610,7466,310,9776,338,394
  Other expenses£621,912777,155734,473
    Totals£7,028,8817,957,6218,028,334
Value of output£7,645,5408,665,8348,851,713
Value added in manufacture£2,034,7942,354,8572,513,319
Overtime worked by wage earnersh181,693250,858309,327
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 126814361490
Tobacco leaf used in manufacturelb11,543,88512,806,97713,046,925
Cigarettes mademillion2,6533,1833,401
Tobacco madelb5,208,4505,189,3705,127,815
Woollen Milling
Number of establishments 202222
Persons engagedNo.3,2223,5593,703
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£2,214,7322,425,5072,685,175
  Materials£3,126,7163,333,6853,570,912
  Other expenses£1,003,5671,086,2371,216,587
    Totals£6,345,0156,845,4297,472,674
Value of output£6,992,8447,436,4258,079,749
Value added in manufacture£3,866,1284,102,7404,508,837
Overtime worked by wage earnersh450,082531,194583,836
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 153116471746
Main materials used –
  Wool fibres –
    Greasy and slipe woollb9,879,60510,624,04311,429,052
    Scoured woollb410,404528,967534,618
    Tops, noilslb1,177,5471,289,6621,264,268
    Woollen and worsted yarnlb165,055120,99399,510
  Non-wool fibres –
    Artificial and syntheticlb542,706528,802715,101
    Otherlb5,28031,76216,044
Principal products –
  Woollen clothyd, 54 in.1,496,6231,531,4481,547,306
  Worsted clothyd, 54 in.1,166,5871,084,3361,389,357
  Flannelyd, 54 in.368,825334,012292,891
  Blanketspairs204,620215,261221,276
  RugsNo.59,05871,16376,511
  Yam produced for sale or transfer –
    Fingeringlb984,4971,448,6541,388,691
    Machine knittinglb2,445,2572,323,4302,429,858
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills
Number of establishments 859185
Persons engagedNo.4,4124,4814,490
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£2,823,0423,007,0663,105,564
  Materials£5,001,6145,189,0166,047,639
  Other expenses£1,226,2071,395,2161,576,820
    Totals£9,050,8639,591,29810,730,023
Value of output£10,135,15610,499,37811,889,862
Value added in manufacture£5,133,5425,310,3625,842,223
Overtime worked by wage earnersh195,066259,011292,362
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 1472x1513x1683
Clothing
Number of establishments 762765732
Persons engagedNo.18,73319,28719,430
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£9,771,32710,641,88411,043,922
  Materials£18,340,32419,495,41020,193,815
  Other expenses£2,383,2522,627,0952,832,921
    Totals£30,494,90332,764,38934,070,658
Value of output£32,173,79434,729,72136,239,028
Value added in manufacture£13,833,47015,234,31116,045,213
Overtime worked by wage earnersh336,218486,529458,351
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 108511131121
Footwear
Number of establishments 121124126
Persons engagedNo.4,9455,2545,559
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£3,303,6463,678,2864,084,088
  Materials£4,726,4005,480,7026,064,201
  Other expenses£1,009,3511,146,6431,301,086
    Totals£9,039,39710,305,63111,449,375
Value of output£9,653,51911,058,77612,404,090
Value added in manufacture£4,927,1195,578,0746,339,889
Overtime worked by wage earnersh286,510436,242490,998
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 118013271460
Main materials used –
  Upper leathersq. ft.9,256,7249,448,5039,937,168
  Sole leatherlb2,698,3042,733,7552,442,912
  Synthetic soling materiallb967,2931,666,6062,404,384
  Feltsq. yd.91,294100,86762,506
Sawmills
Number of establishments 455464437
Persons engagedNo.6,2796,4686,226
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£5,425,7505,706,4085,552,395
  Materials£9,451,8369,932,8189,873,049
  Other expenses£4,103,1203,899,4914,278,541
    Totals£18,980,70619,538,71719,703,985
Value of output£20,876,77921,739,38621,492,769
Value added in manufacture£11,424,94311,806,56811,619,720
Overtime worked by wage earnersh558,832942,025620,411
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 116411951120
Rough-sawn timber producedthousand ft b.m.680,711698,438654,867
Planing Mills
Number of establishments 149147144
Persons engagedNo.1,8781,9422,089
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£1,453,9001,597,7931,765,855
  Materials£6,330,2927,234,6218,576,996
  Other expenses£681,491748,627946,702
    Totals£8,465,6839,581,04111,289,553
Value of output£9,124,86310,393,12212,197,911
Value added in manufacture£2,794,5713,158,5013,620,915
Overtime worked by wage earnersh201,697232,960329,476
Rough-sawn timber used in manufacturethousand ft b.m.128,311137,136155,774
Dressed timber produced –
  Floorboardsthousand ft b.m.32,61236,49736,576
  Weatherboardsthousand ft b.m.23,14124,47725,255
  Otherthousand ft b.m.55,60561,18172,762
Joinery work done£1,239,7021,337,3551,374,070
Joinery
Number of establishments 365391399
Persons engagedNo.3,4183,8153,875
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£2,802,8083,303,0033,435,133
  Materials£4,910,1756,417,6916,271,503
  Other expenses£780,096995,4901,053,901
    Totals£8,493,07910,716,18410,760,537
Value of output£9,387,21911,691,27211,963,374
Value added in manufacture£4,477,0445,273,5815,691,871
Overtime worked by wage earnersh476,825601,868601,302
Timber used in manufacturethousand ft b.m.64,17583,37482,466
Dressed timber produced –
  Floorboardsthousand ft b.m.4,1135,9966,895
  Weatherboardsthousand ft b.m.2,8344,4243,037
  Otherthousand ft b.m.3,6085,6345,362
Joinery and other woodwork£8,710,05910,621,42110,873,502
Furniture
Number of establishments 443448458
Persons engagedNo.4,1354,3064,310
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£3,223,6693,582,0163,751,971
  Materials£4,736,1735,443,2085,463,088
  Other expenses£763,695900,6751,002,009
    Totals£8,723,5379,925,89910,217,068
Value of output£9,378,44010,728,22210,966,088
Value added in manufacture£4,642,2675,285,0145,503,000
Overtime worked by wage earnersh397,145491,529503,406
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard
Number of establishments 667
Persons engagedNo.2,1712,5122,468
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£2,429,2082,936,0393,014,331
  Materials£5,385,0755,594,3495,684,668
  Other expenses£6,208,7356,013,3076,250,273
    Totals£14,023,01814,543,69514,949,272
Value of output£17,101,30818,124,36118,234,122
Value added in manufacture£11,716,23312,530,01212,549,454
Overtime worked by wage earnersh481,844524,211689,774
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 138814841502
Principal products –
  Newsprintton84,29492,59788,754
  Other paperton47,47152,14257,602
  Paperboardton37,76140,68638,595
  Fibreboardsq. yd. (000)8,1578,42610,082
  Wood pulp for saleton86,42683,85983,330
Cardboard Boxes, Cartons, and Paper Bags
Number of establishments 544852
Persons engagedNo.1,9172,0002,007
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£1,441,5151,575,4931,653,387
  Materials£5,353,9956,087,9356,598,828
  Other expenses£811,996995,058934,365
    Totals£7,607,5068,658,4869,186,580
Value of output£8,339,9859,458,74710,418,192
Value added in manufacture£2,985,9903,370,8123,819,364
Overtime worked by wage earnersh333,480393,684342,610
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 142916771822
Paper used in manufactureton10,47013,81514,258
Cardboard used in manufactureton37,97643,19747,588
Cardboard boxes, cartons, made£6,052,1636,532,4557,190,647
Paper bags, made£1,527,0242,090,6812,062,819
Printing and Publishing
Number of establishments 939693
Persons engagedNo.5,4635,8316,095
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£4,731,7415,349,8555,795,753
  Materials£5,027,6435,739,9445,562,711
  Other expenses£2,432,4202,780,2653,053,784
    Totals£12,191,80413,870,06414,412,248
Value of output£14,531,65116,852,10517,534,692
Value added in manufacture£9,504,00811,112,16111,971,981
Overtime worked by wage earnersh448,223454,523441,233
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 115113391318
Newsprint usedton56,58766,30464,477
Other paper usedton3,3993,6473,801
Job and General Printing
Number of establishments 289295306
Persons engagedNo.4,8715,0495,238
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£3,824,4684,183,7154,437,210
  Materials£4,227,9224,616,9505,002,899
  Other expenses£1,437,9411,607,2881,834,440
    Totals£9,490,33110,407,95311,274,549
Value of output£10,681,18111,738,50312,760,497
Value added in manufacture£6,453,2597,121,5537,757,598
Overtime worked by wage earnersh508,511580,534631,122
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 133614521533
Newsprint usedton1,5191,5181,664
Other paper usedton14,64315,43116,583
Cardboard usedton4,7165,1465,564
Tanning
Number of establishments 111011
Persons engagedNo.617633647
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£543,163587,427619,940
  Materials£1,836,3131,898,7171,963,217
  Other expenses£211,297206,566238,204
    Totals£2,590,7732,692,7102,821,361
Value of output£2,829,7843,046,2463,164,527
Value added in manufacture£993,4711,147,5291,201,310
Overtime worked by wage earnersh111,145131,700135,719
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 98710541150
Main materials used –
  Cattle hidesNo.259,756253,535270,904
  Yearling and calf hidesNo.181,262231,703323,860
  PeltsNo.429,854430,784332,244
  SheepskinsNo.82,72938,06860,109
  Crust-tanned skinsNo. 331,194460,484473,315
Principal products –
  Leather –
    Hides –
      Bendslb1,490,2451,370,6621,447,470
      Shoulderslb744,315804,894792,467
      Bellieslb793,107739,193717,180
      Chrome and other sidessq. ft.6,636,0566,863,5097,571,167
    Yearling and calfsq. ft.1,707,4432,157,3242,718,754
    Sheep –
      Basilssq. ft.107,402134,939115,675
      Roanssq. ft.686,531744,044622,722
      Chamoisdoz10,1858,72611,903
      Woolly skinssq. ft.218,767232,195275,681
      Persianssq. ft.923,3881,308,7521,080,819
    Goat skinssq. ft.708,417760,6421,088,057
Rubberware
Number of establishments 262730
Persons engagedNo.2,2742,4692,609
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£2,166,4762,408,2392,659,903
  Materials£4,363,5285,275,3305,090,766
  Other expenses£1,293,7521,387,8761,487,617
    Totals£7,823,7569,071,4459,238,286
Value of output£9,229,74710,520,52310,988,357
Value added in manufacture£4,866,2195,245,1935,897,591
Overtime worked by wage earnersh240,296374,996368,864
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 109912201302
Main materials used –
  Natural rubberlb(000)11,24510,91110,047
  Synthetic rubberlb(000)4,8118,16410,968
  Latexgal358,700377,074370,722
Principal products –
  Motor tyresNo.617,314725,461753,834
  Motor tubesNo.397,428486,922526,675
Camelbacklb4,178,7305,081,1855,104,949
Milking rubberware£1,039,8241,268,3661,291,505
Bicycle tyres and tubes
Battery containers
Rubber and canvas footwear
Chemical Fertilisers
Number of establishments 121212
Persons engagedNo.1,3691,4051,369
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£1,195,0941,227,3061,360,531
  Materials£7,142,1648,327,7997,963,569
  Other expenses£1,605,0161,625,0201,566,468
    Totals£9,942,27411,180,12510,890,568
Value of output£10,943,33012,610,03511,882,352
Value added in manufacture£3,801,1664,282,2363,918,783
Overtime worked by wage earnersh390,493408,223419,572
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 106612531211
Main materials used –
  Rock phosphateton530,622629,241588,732
  Serpentine rockton115,596139,246133,882
  Sulphurton106,770124,933120,712
Carbonate of limeton14,19315,95716,631
Nitrate of sodaton2,4463,0402,906
  Potashton51,83871,75372,272
Principal products –
  Serpentine superphosphate and mixtureston335,328441,557433,595
  Basic and reverted superphosphate and mixtureston38,12837,17336,835
  Straight superphosphate and mixtureston436,212513,771463,959
  Aerial superphosphate and mixtureston234,691273,182276,664
  Other (including ground rock)ton33,5771,568793
  Superphosphate content of aboveton906,6851,045,1681,006,987
Soap and Candle Manufacture
Number of establishments 141212
Persons engagedNo.458445464
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£376,908386,016406,446
  Materials£1,618,4211,613,1521,701,340
  Other expenses£378,709371,814444,859
    Totals£2,374,0382,370,9822,552,645
Value of output£3,074,8213,200,4303,332,651
Value added in manufacture£1,456,4001,587,2781,631,311
Overtime worked by wage earnersh56,74851,96251,294
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 120712811293
Main materials used –
Tallowton12,67812,29811,647
  Other oils and fatston1,1931,1481,243
  Caustic sodaton2,0062,0572,017
  Soda ashton3,4333,4322,969
Principal products –
  Soap –
    Toiletton3,3453,4333,650
    Barton5,1975,2364,673
    Powder and flaketon14,36114,75213,623
  Candleston105161114
  Sandsoapton399384338
  Crude glycerineton1,3091,3781,497
Paint and Varnish
Number of establishments 282931
Persons engagedNo.940940913
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£846,071896,878884,822
  Materials£4,215,1184,329,3934,278,870
  Other expenses£491,115522,804511,243
    Totals£5,552,3045,749,0755,674,935
Value of output£6,295,8376,403,2036,539,504
Value added in manufacture£2,080,7192,073,8102,260,634
Overtime worked by wage earnersh142,264118,617114,874
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 117012041188
Main materials used –
  White leadcwt15,95312,35811,651
  Other pigments and extenderscwt196,639205,447190,420
  Linseed oilgal408,229381,077351,781
  Solventsgal1,674,1721,766,2891,336,885
  Gums and resinscwt84,09988,56685,435
Principal products –
  Paints and enamelsgal(000)3,0333,1343,016
  Lacquersgal(000)256264270
Pharmaceuticals, Toilet Goods, and Cosmetics*
Number of establishments 424240
Persons engagedNo.881966941
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£551,820629,756638,087
  Materials£2,227,6922,399,5782,493,002
  Other expenses£272,096304,963390,610
    Totals£3,051,6083,334,2973,521,699
Value of output£3,743,0854,135,6674,328,366
Value added in manufacture£1,515,3931,736,0891,835,364
Overtime worked by wage earnersh22,41930,11336,966
Principal products –
  Pharmaceutical products£1,790,2011,874,9982,059,218
  Toilet preparations and cosmetics –
    Dentifrices£385,906412,835472,076
    Cosmetic creams and lotions£186,450200,093206,872
    Hair dressings£480,206551,679657,611
  Powder, face and talcum£220,311237,707260,683
  Lipstick£119,130137,359135,387

*Principal products shown for these industries include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

Structural Clay Products
Number of establishments 454444
Persons engagedNo.1,0341,1011,104
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£916,0331,028,0841,060,908
  Materials£195,363228,658279,942
  Other expenses£846,291936,9211,055,016
    Totals£1,957,6872,193,6632,395,866
Value of output£2,245,0232,502,8962,695,812
Value added in manufacture£2,049,6602,274,2382,415,870
Overtime worked by wage earnersh261,598303,944330,538
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 106811691256
Clay used –
  Purchasedton15,63314,30710,024
  From own quarryton317,883347,519344,514
Principal products –
  FirebricksNo.3,411,0363,616,0473,375,668
  Building bricksNo.50,871,57656,394,92460,486,815
  Roofing tilesNo.69,500130,795105,358
  Salt-glazed pipes –
    Above 6 in.No.8,3087,87327,457
    6 in. and belowNo.2,759,3012,884,9563,093,826
  Field tiles and fittingsNo.10,064,94611,227,11811,712,798
Pottery, China, and Earthenware
Number of establishments 776
Persons engagedNo.707737692
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£490,256540,610539,479
  Materials£171,416201,781177,272
  Other expenses£244,541260,493256,183
    Totals£906,2131,002,884972,934
Value of output£982,3571,102,8981,107,488
Value added in manufacture£810,941901,117930,216
Overtime worked by wage earnersh129,948137,153156,882
Principal products –
  Insulators and refractory insulator elements£253,640274,184325,812
  Crockery, artware and novelties, stoneware£498,335501,786502,212
  Other earthenware including sanitaryware£165,563229,617241,989
Cement
Number of establishments 666
Persons engagedNo.843793780
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£763,134808,271837,736
  Materials£1,139,9761,217,7081,198,415
  Other expenses£2,504,5212,409,6652,506,809
    Totals£4,407,6314,435,6444,542,960
Value of output£5,121,3085,307,2615,404,933
Value added in manufacture£3,981,3324,089,5534,206,518
Overtime worked by wage earnersh293,536349,799327,608
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 123912961364
Principal materials –
  Limestoneton470,965533,901545,891
  Clay, marl, cement rockton624,495603,683628,629
  Gypsumton20,18925,47426,683
Cement madeton575,381619,569647,914
Concrete Products
Number of establishments 271297304
Persons engagedNo.2,2192,4022,431
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£1,864,8332,163,8432,233,563
  Materials£2,931,3103,611,8673,552,600
  Other expenses£875,1641,044,9331,116,974
    Totals£5,671,3076,820,6436,903,137
Value of output£6,696,6817,977,9757,979,006
Value added in manufacture£3,765,3714,366,1084,426,406
Overtime worked by wage earnersh407,179465,444483,583
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 120213751387
Materials used –
  Portland cementton89,591107,778109,344
  Sand, shingleyd456,614507,353507,547
  Reinforcington12,01415,24213,399
  Pumiceyd28,55934,46331,305
Principal products –
  Roofing tiles and ridgesNo.11,364,13111,014,20411,227,631
  Fencing postsNo.2,540,0102,922,5382,755,451
  Housing bricks and blocksNo.10,549,67613,098,01812,945,334
  Pipeston125,440128,279130,433
Plywood and Veneer
Number of establishments 888
Persons engagedNo.600640679
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£533,313594,579649,780
  Materials£1,215,4771,281,2191,370,972
  Other expenses£322,546368,138313,376
    Totals£2,071,3362,243,9362,334,128
Value of output£2,399,2972,624,7872,817,345
Value added in manufacture£1,183,8201,343,5681,446,373
Overtime worked by wage earnersh67,05383,22386,376
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 125414131502
Species of logs used –
  Rimuft (H. Dahl)9,947,82010,052,7279,514,684
  Mataift (H. Dahl)839,156826,706736,247
  Kahikateaft (H. Dahl)1,584,1862,471,2861,675,343
  Radiata pineft (H. Dahl)5,278,0583,720,3176,866,127
  Otherft (H. Dahl)1,163,2181,470,5611,674,995
Veneer produced (1/16 in. basis)sq. ft.169,232,352176,186,722189,348,030
Plywood made (3/16 in. basis)sq. ft.43,089,46148,022,27552,935,839
Range Making*
Number of establishments 777
Persons engagedNo.1,0211,0641,151
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£805,392867,017986,651
  Materials£1,009,4311,298,906x1,588,961
  Other expenses£283,203311,686351,632
    Totals£2,098,0262,477,609x2,927,244
Value of output£2,195,8612,703,437x3,185,481
Value added in manufacture£1,186,4301,404,531x1,596,520
Overtime worked by wage earnersh114,030151,569159,234
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 12791371x1480
Iron and steel usedton5,093x5,736x5,846
Principal products –
  Domestic gas rangesNo.3,9903,7383,810
  Domestic electric rangesNo.32,96937,71041,513
  Domestic electric rangettesNo.3,7564,1403,519
  Domestic coal rangesNo.3,4071,6791,422
Radio Assembly and Manufacture*
Number of establishments 253029
Persons engagedNo.1,2961,8481,961
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£879,9461,256,3421,460,915
  Materials£2,708,5273,971,6084,541,562
  Other expenses£338,900524,636590,398
    Totals£3,927,3735,752,5866,592,875
Value of output£4,113,1396,131,2987,173,731
Value added in manufacture£1,404,6122,159,6902,632,169
Overtime worked by wage earnersh105,911175,648179,409
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 13882,0262,483
Principal products –
  Radios –
    CarNo.16,91714,22810,677
    PortableNo.35,82486,05779,310
    TableNo.43,81437,97031,951
  Radiograms –
    PortableNo.1,911248212
    TableNo.1,770552,440
    ConsoleNo.20,31421,18417,053
    Recorder-gramNo.3171,567803
  Television setsNo.1,2099,32927,240
Motor-vehicle Assembly
Number of establishments 131315
Persons engagedNo.2,3572,7813,006
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£2,087,5442,745,0413,149,286
  Materials£16,416,76521,447,99623,505,306
  Other expenses£947,2061,069,3801,177,034
    Totals£19,451,51525,262,41727,831,626

*Includes assembled vehicles from the motor-body building industry.

Value of output£21,257,43527,814,58630,653,999
Value added in manufacture£4,840,6706,366,5907,148,693
Overtime worked by wage earnersh341,603583,887623,165
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 7409571040
Vehicles assembled –
  CarsNo.24,43429,98832,708*
  BusesNo.33710082
  VansNo.3,0962,6854,066
  TrucksNo.2,7225,4645,294
Motor-body Building
Number of establishments 696980
Persons engagedNo.1,1351,1651,284
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£910,707966,3991,121,555
  Materials£1,050,6411,160,1351,581,047
  Other expenses£228,406248,336296,871
    Totals£2,189,7542,374,8702,999,473
Value of output£2,399,0642,573,1133,244,521
Value added in manufacture£1,348,4231,412,9781,663,474
Overtime worked by wage earnersh115,523150,906156,162
Main materials –
  Timberft. b.m.907,073824,625881,731
  Plywoodsq. ft.378,733582,909536,385
  Paints and oilsgal30,59427,10533,924
Motor bodies built –
  BusesNo.174129141
  VansNo.267296405
  Trucks –
    CabsNo.270607395
    TraysNo.498467825
  CaravansNo.417548601
Motor Repairs
Number of establishments 1,8411,8701,997
Persons engagedNo.15,19515,77416,471
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£11,175,01011,947,72213,060,850
  Materials£15,928,97617,224,57720,119,682
  Other expenses£3,803,0444,072,5044,551,528
    Totals£30,907,03033,244,80337,732,060
Value of output£33,132,99735,827,73740,285,140
Value added in manufacture£17,204,02118,603,16020,165,458
Overtime worked by wage earnersh746,579905,379951,527
Sheet-metal Working
Number of establishments 158159169
Persons engagedNo.4,0104,1894,268
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£3,369,8133,736,7703,891,759
  Materials£6,579,3247,203,8577,760,318
  Other expenses£1,355,5581,540,8111,675,492
    Totals£11,304,69512,481,43813,327,569
Value of output£12,836,56414,094,06515,061,398
Value added in manufacture£6,257,2406,890,2087,301,080
Overtime worked by wage earnersh660,143700,002772,639
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000) 133914281518
Metal Products n.e.i.
Number of establishments 179197233
Persons engagedNo.3,7024,2464,526
Production costs –
  Salaries and wages£3,309,0193,916,2554,323,869
  Materials£5,960,2347,396,4728,382,350
  Other expenses£1,241,5001,594,7442,148,642
    Totals£10,510,75312,907,47114,854,861
Value of output£11,800,95114,560,82116,814,208
Value added in manufacture£5,840,7177,164,3498,431,858
Overtime worked by wage earnersh750,508953,7661,030,375
Agricultural and Pastoral Machinery
Number of establishments 697175
Persons engagedNo.812928953
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£634,149766,414811,622
  Materials£3,496,7964,210,7765,239,574
  Other expenses£215,050291,207291,686
    Totals£4,345,9955,268,3976,342,882
Value of output£4,787,5795,801,7786,987,203
Value added in manufacture£1,290,7831,591,0021,747,629
Overtime worked by wage earnersh72,534117,089111,216
Machinery n.e.i.
Number of establishments 444459498
Persons engagedNo.9,0579,84710,371
Production costs –
  Salaries, wages£7,862,6988,930,6839,870,493
  Materials£12,393,01215,675,17715,004,277
  Other expenses£2,845,4953,291,3503,780,064
    Totals£23,101,20527,897,21028,654,834
Value of output£24,930,15030,244,53431,254,863
Value added in manufacture£12,537,13814,569,35716,250,586
Overtime worked by wage earnersh1,556,8601,782,9761,954,444

Chapter 19. Section 19 BUILDING AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

GENERAL – To meet the housing needs of a growing population there has been a steady, long-term increase in the building of houses and flats. The requirements of expanding industry and trade have led to extensive construction of factories, shops, warehouses, and offices. The erection of more multi-storey buildings in central city areas has been a feature in building construction in recent years.

In the post-war years building and construction activity has absorbed a growing proportion of the labour force, and there has been an even greater increase in the cost of buildings erected. The value of buildings according to permits issued in 1946 was £20.7 million, in 1952, £59.2 million, in 1956, £90.2 million, and in 1963, £137.1 million. The permit values for houses and flats at corresponding dates were as follows: 1946, £13.9 million; 1952, £36.5 million; 1956, £51.5 million; and 1963, £64.6 million. It should be noted that building controls introduced as a wartime measure were not finally removed until December 1956.

The number of houses and flats constructed each year rose from 16,100 in 1953 to a peak of 24,300 in 1962. The rate of house building in relation to population is higher than in most countries. Approximately 90 per cent of the dwellings completed annually are privately built, the balance being erected by Government agencies.

Government Encouragement – The impetus of post-war housing levelled off in the early 1950s and led the Government in 1953 to call a National Housing Conference. This conference, which was attended by organisations and persons associated with housing, surveyed the general housing situation and investigated ways and means of implementing the Government's housing policy of promoting the building of more houses at a reasonable cost. Every aspect of housing was discussed, and the action taken on resolutions adopted by the conference helped to effect the expansion in house building to the present level. The conference assessed the extent of the housing shortage and set a number of 206,000 houses in 10 years as a target to overcome the shortage and provide for the increase in population expected from both natural increase and immigration. A National Housing Council was also set up.

A noteworthy development in house building which has resulted was the introduction at the end of 1953 of the group-building scheme. This scheme was designed to give builders continuity of work, reduce non-productive time, and assist builders in administration and supervision by enabling them to build houses for sale in groups. Plans and specifications are checked by the State Advances Corporation, which also inspects the work and gives an undertaking to take over at approved prices a specified number of any unsold houses. At 31 March 1963 the total number of houses erected under the scheme had reached 17,332, with a further 411 under construction.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. At 31 March 1963, 62,247 of these houses and flats had been built and, since 1950, 17,975 of them had been sold to the occupiers. About 2,000 of these dwellings are now built each year and let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances with an income of not more than £850 a year. Some 500 houses are also built by the State each year for the accommodation of Government employees.

It has been the policy of the National Housing Council to encourage the holding of Parades of Homes in all major centres throughout the country. Since 1954, 50 Parades of Homes have been held, and these exhibitions have proved very popular. The principal objects of a Parade of Homes are to show the latest developments in low- and moderate-cost housing, to encourage home ownership and stimulate public interest in the building of houses, and to permit builders, manufacturers, and others concerned in house building to display their products. The scheme is probably unique to New Zealand, offering as it does an opportunity to the public of inspecting a group of new houses erected by local builders in open competition.

The building of flats to achieve higher density housing has been stimulated by the introduction of a system of company ownership of flats. An individual can buy a block of shares, the ownership of which entitles him to permanent occupation of a particular flat in a block of flats.

Government Capital Assistance on New Housing – The following table gives the Government's total capital assistance on new housing in the years ended 31 March 1962 and 1963, and includes both direct expenditure by Government Departments and money advanced by way of mortgages and loans by State lending institutions. Expenditure on new housing by hospital boards, education boards, etc., is not included.

 1961–621962–63
 £(000)
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.9,1938,326
Expenditure by Housing Division for other Departments1,9151,291
Department of Maori Affairs2,4322,770
Department of Lands and Survey375410
Ministry of Works construction workers' houses116
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new urban houses including suspensory loans29,45126,581
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new rural houses including suspensory loans354320
State Advances loans paid to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.644881
Department of Health subsidies paid to local authorities for pensioners' flats133228
Capitalisation of family benefits5,3804,731
  Totals49,88845,544

Role of Local Authorities – In addition to the activities briefly outlined earlier, the housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities at 3 1/2 per cent per annum to enable them to undertake the erection of accommodation for pensioners or persons in comparable circumstances. Since 1950 there has been a generous Government subsidy for pensioners' housing, and it now is half the net capital cost, with a maximum of £850 for a two-person unit and £800 for a one-person unit. At 31 March 1963 Government subsidies of £1,615,772 had been granted to local authorities and also loans of £1,892,039. Local authorities were providing accommodation for 2,897 elderly persons. (These subsidies are separate from those granted to religious and relief organisations – see Section 5A.)

The Rural Housing Act 1939, and subsequent amendments thereto, provide facilities for the granting of financial assistance to farmers requiring new houses for themselves or their employees, or desiring to improve their existing houses. The county councils have been charged with the duty of investigating the loan applications, and provided they are satisfied with the security, etc., they have authority to approve a loan. Loans are made by the State Advances Corporation to local authorities bearing interest at 4 1/4 per cent (rate charged by the county to the farmer borrowers is 4 3/4 per cent), and are repayable on the amortisation system over terms of up to 35 years. Advances for the erection of a house under this scheme may be up to £3,000, including any suspensory loan benefits (described in Section 30B) available to applicants who comply with the conditions laid down. At 31 March 1963, £2,334,764 (in respect of 1,349 houses) had been uplifted by county councils.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes up to a limit of £3,232; to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loans Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are being encouraged to play a more prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

Under the Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas. Reclamation schemes are in progress at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

HOUSING FINANCE – Among other policy changes made at the end of 1953, a mortgage guarantee scheme was provided whereby the State Advances Corporation guaranteed financial institutions repayment by the borrower of the difference between the normal housing loan and 90 per cent of the valuation of a new house, the maximum loan under this scheme being £2,500. By an amendment in 1961 to the State Advances Act 1934–35, the scheme was extended to provide guarantees to financial institutions lending on used houses of up to 85 per cent of valuation with a maximum loan of £3,000.

In July 1957 the Government announced the commencement of a home lay-by scheme in the Post Office Savings Bank. A subsidy, known as a suspensory free deposit, of £5 per £100 up to a limit of £50 is credited to each home lay-by account when the money is used to acquire a home to be occupied by the depositor. There is no limit to the amount which can be deposited but the maximum amount in any one year on which the subsidy can be credited is £250. The effect of the scheme is that a person who deposits £250 each year in a home lay-by account for four years will qualify for the maximum subsidy of £50, in addition to the normal savings bank interest. Deposits of £100 a year for 10 years can also earn the maximum subsidy.

Increases have been announced from time to time in the maximum loans which may be advanced by the State Advances Corporation. In September 1957 the maximum loan on the normal two-thirds basis was raised from £2,250 to £2,500, while special loans were increased from £2,000 to £2,400 according to the size of the family. In the following year with the introduction of building loans at 3 per cent interest the special loans were granted up to £2,650 for applicants with large families. A further extension in loan limits was made in 1961 to applicants owning a suitable unencumbered freehold section who are now able to borrow up to 100 per cent of the cost of the house with a maximum loan of £2,700; this loan limit was raised to £2,850 in 1964.

State Advances Corporation building loans with interest rebated to 3 per cent are granted to families where the income of the breadwinner is not more than £1,000 a year, plus £50 for each dependent child, but excluding family benefit and war disability pension. The amount of loan approved is determined by the circumstances of the applicant and size of family, but would not exceed £2,650, or £2,700 where an unencumbered freehold section is owned. The standard lending rate of interest for normal and special loans not eligible for the rebate is 5 per cent. Large numbers of borrowers have been attracted by State Advances loans at 3 per cent interest, as the ruling rate for first mortgages charged by private lending institutions averages about 6 per cent. For the year ended 31 March 1963 the State Advances Corporation authorised loans valued at £26.0 million for new urban dwellings, of which £16.7 million was at the 3 per cent rate. In the last full year prior to the introduction of the rebated loans the total sum authorised by the Corporation amounted to £13.8 million.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1958 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social security family benefit, the capitalised benefit to be applied towards the provision of a family home or for essential alterations or for repayment of encumbrances on a family home. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959 for approved cases. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised, provided the aggregate advance does not exceed £1,000. Family benefit capitalisation advances totalling £22.3 million were authorised in the first four years of the scheme by the State Advances Corporation to applicants holding eligibility certificates issued by the Social Security Commission.

Further information on housing finance is contained in Section 30B – State Advances Corporation.

Trends in Average Costs – The following table is of interest in that it illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period with general characteristics of rising costs.

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
193919501955196019621963
 ££££££
State rental house (976 square feet)1,0612,1722,5822,7642,7942,794
Buildings (reinforced concrete): For similar size and type10,00025,10028,80032,10033,00033,000

BUILDING MATERIALS – Most materials with the major exception of steel and galvanised iron are produced in New Zealand and current production is meeting demand. Although supplies of imported materials are restricted under the system of import licensing, building operations have not been hampered by lack of supplies. Expansion still continues in the quantity and range of materials and fittings manufactured in New Zealand.

Availability of Principal Building Materials – The following tables show the availability of the principal building materials in the years quoted.

The first of the two tables relates to the production of principal building materials.

PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS

Year Ended 31 MarchRough sawn TimberDressed Timber (from Rough sawn)Building Sheet*PlywoodWall-boardPaints, etc.
Paints and EnamelsVarnishesLacquers

*Asbestos-cement and cement sheet.

†Includes fibrous plasterboard.

 ft. b.m. (million) sq. ft. (million)  gal (thousand) 
1953573.0104.525.030.8106.11,773151120
1954572.2113.726.530.9121.82,058162119
1955616.0119.431.232.7124.52,464132146
1956625.8121.128.435.7132.02,604115171
1957596.9110.126.237.8125.12,650110173
1958596.8105.728.138.8125.52,763140211
1959636.8119.328.740.0141.22,892128217
1960693.8128.431.643.1153.13,033118256
1961714.1144.433.848.0170.83,134115264
1962692.6157.031.352.9188.43,016130270
1963643.4160.2..55.4170.33,096126294
Year Ended 31 MarchRoofing TilesBricks and BlocksDrainpipes, Salt Glazed, 6 in. and BelowCement
ClayConcreteBuilding Bricks, ClayConcrete
BricksBlocks
   No. (million)  tons (000)
19532.816.440.60.91.71.87274.6
19542.713.341.60.32.92.05288.2
19552.413.648.00.44.02.20361.8
19562.212.448.10.35.52.37422.7
19571.810.243.80.55.72.39472.1
19581.09.549.30.66.72.35544.0
19591.29.452.20.68.2x2.28542.1
19600.111.450.90.510.12.76575.4
19610.111.056.40.612.52.88619.6
19620.111.260.50.512.43.09647.9
1963..9.446.81.412.23.06653.2

To complete the review, the second table deals with imports of materials.

IMPORTS OF PRINCIPAL BUILDING MATERIALS

Year EndedTimber, SawnBuilding Sheet*PlywoodWallboardLinseed OilCommon Window Glass

*Asbestos-cement and cement sheet

 ft (b.m.) (million)sq. ft. (000)sq. ft. (000)sq. ft. (000)gal (000)sq. ft. (000)
31 Dec      
195320.44104201,910349,278
195428.23179182,34655310,138
195538.56214,88615,95796112,616
195628.72334,09416,44266813,903
195738.72783,84713,5076739,752
195832.9668494,40353712,727
195923.9173517132913,110
196031.0551,87268724414,789
196137.4302,1339856713,847
196228.11881,133128510,542
30Jun      
196327.91661,11720129,633
Year EndedPlaster of ParisGypsumAsbestos CrudeCementGalvaniscd-iron SheetAluminium Sheet
CorrugatedFlat
cwt (000)
31 Dec       
1953222.0610.236.53,863.840414515
1954330.8788.369.03,727.164529319
1955425.9781.282.12,695.079925433
1956354.4714.055.7926.150922926
1957334.8948.325.574.093824232
1958292.11,171.978.360.863634747
1959220.11,153.284.039.966123243
1960282.71,307.393.664.366122958
1961328.21,530.5103.875.990335345
196281.11,773.2116.660.359628921
30 Jun       
196334.01,780.3123.267.467433814

CENSUS INFORMATION: Total Dwellings – Figures from the 1961 census are now given with comparative figures from the 1956 census.

 Census 1956Census 1961
All occupied dwellings572,759643,410
  Average number of occupants per dwelling3.793.75
Uninhabited dwellings—  
  Occupants temporarily away10,94412,840
  Untenanted dwellings12,6141,870
Baches (weekend or summer dwellings)19,89926,997
    Totals, uninhabited43,45759,707
Dwellings in course of erection10,46211,383

In the above summary “all occupied dwellings” includes all types occupied on census night, i.e., in addition to houses and flats it includes hotels, hospitals, camps, tents, caravans, etc.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Nature of Dwelling – The following table shows the nature of dwellings at the censuses at 1956 and 1961.

Nature of DwellingNumbersPercentage of Total Inhabited Dwellings
1956196119561961
A. Inhabited dwellings—    
  Permanent private dwellings –    
    Private house, not partly sublet495,632564,19686.5387.69
    Private house, partly sublet3,6847970.640.12
    Flat41,66952,9367.288.23
  Combined shop and dwelling, rooms attached to offices, etc.7,6866,8301.341.06
    Bach, hut14,3408,9052.501.38
    Other41430.010.01
Totals563,052633,70798.3098.49
  Temporary dwellings –    
    Mobile residences1,5801,2480.280.19
    Other3442480.060.04
Totals1,9241,4960.340.23
  Non-private dwellings –    
    Hotels, boardinghouses, etc.6,0716,0821.060.95
    Public and private hospitals4905340.090.08
    Camps5673800.100.05
    Other (including not specified)6551,2110.110.20
Totals7,7838,2071.361.28
      Grand totals, inhabited dwellings572,759643,410100.00100.00
B. Uninhabited dwellings –    
  Occupants temporarily away10,94412,840
  Untenanted dwellings12,61419,870
  Baches (weekend or summer dwellings)19,89926,997
Totals43,45759,707
C. Building –    
  Dwellings in course of erection10,46211,383

The average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.58 in 1956 and 3.56 in 1961.

Between 1956 and 1961 the number of inhabited permanent private dwellings increased by 70,655, or 12.6 per cent, while the population increased by 11.1 per cent, and there were also substantially more uninhabited dwellings in 1961.

Tenure of Dwelling – The following table classifies the inhabited permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19561961
Number of DwellingsPer Cent of Total SpecifiedNumber of DwellingsPer Cent of Total Specified
Renting or leasing144,72125.80153,72824.4
Free dwelling provided with job34,2706.1134,0875.40
Loaned without payment9,2241.658,5861.36
Buying on time payment or with table mortgage130,94723.35166,63626.38
With flat mortgage72,76012.9786,35913.67
Unspecified mortgage cases5530.104330.07
Owned without mortgage168,38330.02181,79328.78
Not specified2,1942,085
Totals563,052100.00633,707100.00

The proportion of houses classed as “occupier owned” in 1961 was 68.9 per cent as against 66.4 per cent in 1956, an increase of 2.5 per cent, while rented dwellings decreased by 1.5 per cent. The totals for all classes of mortgage were 151,200 in 1951, 204,260 in 1956, and 253,428 in 1961.

Amenities of Dwellings – The next two tables present the various amenities in permanent private dwellings in 1961 and show whether they were used solely by the occupants of a dwelling or shared by occupants of other dwellings.

AmenityNot SharedSharedNilNot SpecifiedTotal
Hot water service588,4476,41937,5451,296633,707
Bath or shower607,3857,84917,908565633,707
Flush toilet552,5127,82572,886484633,707
Refrigerator509,4611,923121,1761,147633,707
Washing machine488,2535,800137,6072,047633,707

Of the specified cases, 80.8 per cent of houses had the sole or shared use of refrigerators and 78.2 per cent had the sole or shared use of washing machines.

Means of CookingNumber of DwellingsPer Cent of Total Specified
Electric range, stove434,96068.80
Electric cooker, stovette, rangette, plate, ring, etc.2,1290.34
Gas range, stove82,69513.08
Gas cooker, stovette, ring, etc.7160.11
Coal, wood, coke, range75,93012.01
Oil range, stove4790.08
Oil, other, including primus stove1310.02
Electric range and gas range3,7390.59
Electric range and coal, wood, coke, range25,4674.03
Gas range and coal, wood, coke range4,7740.75
Other, including open fire, primus (not stove), camp oven, etc.1,2270.19
Not specified1,460
Totals633,707100.00

Considering only cases where one means of cooking is used, the electric range held pride of place, being used in 68.8 per cent of inhabited dwellings; the next place being held by the gas range which was used in 13.1 per cent of inhabited dwellings. Including cases where alternatives are also installed, it will be noted that 73 per cent of the dwellings in New Zealand were equipped with an electric range. When this question was first asked (1945 census), the position was that in 37.7 per cent of the dwellings a coal, wood, or coke range was used and in 29.9 per cent an electric range. It should be remembered that the 1945 figures do not include Maori dwellings.

At the 1961 census 74.1 per cent of dwellings were heated mainly by open fireplaces, 9.8 per cent by space heaters and 9.4 per cent by electric fires or radiators, as shown in the following table.

Principal Means of HeatingNumber of DwellingsPer Cent of Total Specified
Open fireplace466,18574.15
Space heater61,4119.77
Gas fire10,4601.66
Electric fire or radiator59,3489.44
Electric convector or panel heater3,1140.49
Kerosine heater or radiator15,8172.52
Central heating (oil or solid fuel)3,1240.50
Other9,2621.47
Not specified (including no heating)4,986
Total inhabited dwellings633,707100.00

In 1961, 87.7 per cent of all inhabited permanent private dwellings had piped water and only 0.4 per cent had no water laid on.

Principal Source of Water SupplyNumber of Dwellings
Piped public or private supply555,759
Rain-water tanks74,950
No water laid on2,365
Not specified633
Total, inhabited dwellings633,707

Materials of Outer Walls – The following table gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed.

Material of Outer WallsNumber of Dwellings
19561961
Wood411,370431,318
Stone1,1212,456
Concrete, including concrete blocks17,86922,510
Concrete and wood1,0872,039
Brick, including hollow brick47,42065,171
Brick and wood3,3326,157
Brick and other material3,4017,035
Wood and iron3,7213,314
Wood and proprietary wallboard2,3697,335
Iron3,8623,083
Asbestos2,0112,176
Proprietary wallboards of asbestos type26,25047,963
Roughcast on wood lath and plaster23,9996,844
Roughcast not otherwise defined3,94518,711
Other materials3,9226,817
Not specified7,373778
Totals563,052633,707

Although the number of houses and flats with outer walls of wood increased by slightly less than 20,000 between the 1956 and 1961 censuses, as a percentage of all inhabited permanent private dwellings they decreased from 73.1 to 68.1.

Houses and flats with outer walls constructed of concrete, brick, proprietary wallboards of asbestos type, and roughcast increased both in number and as a percentage of the total, thus continuing the post-war trend.

Materials of Roofs – Most houses are roofed with sheet or corrugated iron, with tiles the next popular choice. The following table gives an analysis for 1961 showing the materials of which the roofs of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed.

Material of RoofsNumber of DwellingsPercentage of Specified Total
Iron, sheet or corrugated445,35370.65
Aluminium, sheet or corrugated11,2221.78
Asbestos, sheet or corrugated (including fibrolite, etc.)19,7283.13
Other metals, sheet or corrugated6320.10
Tiles (including clay, concrete, asbestos)134,52821.34
Slates, natural or composition3,4090.54
Bituminous or rubberised fabric (including malthoid, etc.)14,0532.23
Other materials1,4250.23
Not specified3,357
  Total inhabited private dwellings633,707100.00

MAORI HOUSING – In addition to the facilities of the State Advances Corporation, financial assistance towards the erection of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris under the Maori Housing Act 1935, the lending authority being the Board of Maori Affairs. Section 18 of the Maori Housing Amendment Act 1938 provided for the Special Housing Fund to be set up. The use of this fund as a reserve enables the Board of Maori Affairs to cater for families who are unable to meet the full repayments normally required.

In addition to providing loans, the Department, through its building organisation, arranges for construction of the houses in many cases. Private building contractors are used where the applicant is able to arrange for construction by these means. The Department has available a comprehensive plan service covering varying bedroom types to meet the special needs of the Maori people. In determining its building programme the Department endeavours to ensure that the most needy cases are given priority. The numbers of houses erected in recent years have been: 1959–60, 623; 1960–61, 700; 1961–62, 750; and 1962–63, 802.

The extended loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefit are available to Maoris on similar conditions as apply to Europeans. Where the applicant does not qualify for the special interest concession, loans are granted at an interest rate of 5 1/8 per cent, suspensory interest-free loans also being available in such cases, subject to usual conditions.

Special “pools” of State rental houses are established in some of the larger towns and cities to help meet the housing needs of Maori families. The quota of houses available to these special “pools” is based on the number of urgent Maori applications held in relation to European applications, and allocations to eligible Maori families are made by special allocation committees which have been set up.

STATE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION – A programme of building State rental houses and flats was commenced in March 1937. These are for letting (and subsequent purchase if the occupier wishes) to people in the moderate income group according to need. Since 1950 there has been an income bar (at present £850 per annum) on applicants for tenancies of State rental units, increased slightly in respect of special classes of accommodation.

A Housing Construction Branch of the State Advances Corporation was set up in September 1936. In 1944 this branch was merged with the Public Works Department and became the Housing Division of what is now the Ministry of Works. The Housing Division acquires and develops sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. These activities are covered by the Housing Act 1955.

The totals of State rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 12 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1963 there were 62,247 units completed.

YearNumber of Units
1951–522,118
1952–532,124
1953–542,781
1954–552,892
1955–562,258
1956–572,746
1957–581,853
1958–591,647
1959–602,128
1960–612,148
1961–621,972
1962–631,948

Flats and Multi-unit Dwellings – In compliance with Government policy, aiming at higher density housing in the interests of conserving land and at the same time arresting urban sprawl, the State has continued to build increasing numbers of multi-unit dwellings, mainly two and four units, also a number of three-storey blocks of flats each comprising 12 units. The number of multi units built by the Housing Division for State rental purposes up to 31 March 1963 was 11,230 two-unit dwellings, 441 three-unit dwellings, and 4,264 four- to eight-unit blocks. In addition, the Housing Division built 1,194 multi-storey flats and 1,031 pensioners' flats, also for State rental purposes.

State Services Housing – State services houses are houses built for Government Departments and the Armed Forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Division to 31 March 1963 was 9,413. This includes houses built at the site of major construction jobs such as electric power schemes.

Finance – The cost of the State housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Construction vote in the Public Works Account, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchState HousingState ServicesLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal

*In addition sums of £1,915,353 in 1961–62 and £1,291,358 in 1962–63 were spent on State Services houses, these amounts being charged directly to the Departments concerned.

£ (thousand)
19536,5281,1261,6394619,754
19547,5747761,74451410,608
19556,1177461,9515369,351
19565,8081,0443,02652210,399
19576,552612,7865559,955
19584,816562,6955708,138
19594,865263,1135998,602
19607,186303,20159811,016
19616,215463,20864510,114
19625,81934*2,6636779,193
19635,17732*2,0471,0708,326

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Division in the last five years.

YearVote, "Housing Construction"On Behalf of Other Departments (Charged Direct)Total
Construction Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationLand Development, Murupara*On Behalf of Other DepartmentsTotal

*Previously charged to vote, “Murupara Development”. meantime to vote, “Housing Construction”.

*Expenditure on behalf of other Departments charged

£ (thousand)
1958–598,55818268,6021,50310,105
1959–6010,974123011,0161,14212,158
1960–6110,06354610,1141,59211,706
1961–629,12930349,1931,91511,108
1962–638,25836328,3261,2919,617

Room Content of Units (State Houses and State Services Housing) – The types of units according to the number of bedrooms in units built during 1962–63 as compared with the previous year, also the totals to date, are shown in the following table.

Number of Bedrooms1961–621962–63Total to Date
Number of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of Total
One bedroom or bed-sitting room1114.431813.84,2525.9
Two bedrooms54021.176833.322,76831.8
Three bedrooms1,70866.81,02744.439,84755.6
Four or more bedrooms1977.71968.54,7936.7
Totals2,556100.02,309100.071,660100.0

Sheathing Materials Used (State Houses and State Services Housing) – The sheathing materials used in the units built during 1962–63 as compared with the previous year, also the total to date, is as follows.

Material1961–621962–63Total to Date
Weatherboard1,6901,49542,727
Brick22722812,691
Concrete2372944,175
Other sheathing40229212,067
Totals2,5562,30971,660

Land Acquisition – During 1962–63 a total of 91 developed unit sites was purchased as a charge against the Housing Construction vote, also some 487 acres of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 1,917 unit sites. About three-fifths of these sections are intended for State rental units and two-fifths for the group building scheme sponsored by the Government.

State Rental Housing Tender Prices – The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the four main centres at the end of the last 11 financial years for similar types of three-bedroom State rental houses of equivalent floor space. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square foot.

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 £s. d.£s. d.£s. d.£s. d.
1952–532,762(52 7)2,618(49 10)2,348(45 0)2,570(49 0)
1953–542,809(53 6)2,762(52 7)2,406(47 4)2,576(49 1)
1954–552,890(55 1)2,896(55 2)2,600(48 4)2,634(50 2)
1955–563,062(58 4)2,964(56 6)2,710(51 7)3,001(57 2)
1956–573,085(58 9)3,007(57 3)2,557(48 8)3,054(58 2)
1957–583,051(58 1)3,002(57 2)2,545(48 6)3,031(57 9)
1958–593,009(57 4)3,022(57 7)2,538(48 4)2,952(56 3)
1959–603,109(59 3)3,034(57 9)2,681(51 1)3,067(58 5)
1960–613,169(60 5)3,067(58 5)2,750(52 5)3,109(59 3)
1961–623,167(60 4)3,139(59 10)2,736(52 1)3,086(58 10)
1962–633,149(60 0)3,158(60 2)2,726(52 0)3,091(58 10)

BUILDING PERMITS: Annual Statistics – Building permit statistics for cities, boroughs, and town districts have been compiled since 1921–22, while the scope of the collection was extended in 1937–38 so that all local authorities in New Zealand, including rural counties, were included. The annual statistics are compiled from returns from local authorities, Government Departments, hospital and education boards.

The returns from local authorities that operate a building-permit system cover all private and local authority building subject to permit. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction by Government Departments, hospital and education boards is included, even though permits are not actually taken out.

In using these figures as a guide to short-period fluctuations in building activity, it should be noted that the value shown represents in the majority of instances the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies with greater force to the monthly than the annual statistics, and applies more particularly to large buildings than to houses and small blocks of flats.

A further point worth considering is that the value placed on a building is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be greater than originally estimated. This increase is not reflected in building permit figures and should be borne in mind when use is being made of these statistics.

Building Permits in Urban and Rural Districts Combined – The following table gives a summary for New Zealand of building permits (including State building operations) for the years ended 31 March 1962 and 1963.

 1961–621962–63
New Houses and Flats: NumberNew Houses and Flats: ValueTotal, All Buildings: ValueNew Houses and Flats: NumberNew Houses and Flats: ValueTotal, All Buildings: Value
  £(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)
Urban districts17,47354,760105,04816,88653,519109,055
Rural districts4,92114,55324,5293,75011,10128,061
Totals, New Zealand22,39469,313129,57720,63664,619137,116

Although statistics of building activity have been collected since 1921–22 for urban districts, as stated above, the collection of rural statistics was not commenced until 1937–38. In many cases, in earlier years, for rural districts estimates only were supplied, while in some instances no data whatever could be obtained. From 1947–48 to 1955–56, however, the Building Controller's authorisations were used where counties could not supply information. This source is no longer available following the abolition of building controls, but in the few cases where counties do not now issue building permits, the local authorities make an estimate.

The following table shows a summary of New Zealand building activity for the latest 11 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchPermits Issued for New Houses and FlatsTotal Value, All New Houses and FlatsTotal Value, All Buildings
PrivateGovernmentTotal
    £ (000)£ (000)
195312,6073,61016,21737,27861,128
195414,0253,43217,45741,73669,500
195517,4203,44320,86352,76793,405
195616,2343,27019,50451,48690,173
195715,6942,66018,35449,21489,388
195816,9851,97018,95552,504101,767
195918,1212,44720,56857,014101,466
196020,5273,05123,57866,339114,013
196121,6482,74924,39772,476134,712
196220,3252,06922,39469,313129,577
196318,4482,18820,63664,619137,116

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures relating to New Zealand totals.

BUILDING PERMITS NEW HOUSES AND FLATS

Building Permits in Urban Districts – In the next table figures are given covering 11 years of building activity for all urban districts. The urban districts include all cities, boroughs, town districts, and nine urban counties.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of New Private Houses and FlatsValue of New Houses and FlatsValue of Other New BuildingsTotal Value, All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)
  £(000)£(000)£(000)
195311,70028,0459,03747,180
195412,59631,52410,98153,973
195515,44340,24220,48574,590
195614,16238,51216,38270,157
195713,44537,17117,06269,009
195813,77239,25423,19079,438
195915,59044,50117,97880,309
196018,43753,19719,34493,031
196119,18357,60421,306110,611
196217,47354,76018,754105,048
196316,88653,51921,677109,055

Statistics of houses and flats treat each flat as one unit. During the year ended 31 March 1963, 532 blocks of flats, totalling 1,982 individual units, were commenced in urban districts.

The following table shows details for the last 10 years of blocks of flats included in the numbers of permits for houses and flats issued for urban districts. These figures do not include motels or holiday flats as these are included in commercial buildings with hotels, etc.

Year Ended 31 MarchBlocksNumber of FlatsYear Ended 31 MarchBlocksNumber of Flats
1954731891959276967
195514161519603701,395
195612357319613551,309
195717457319624051,537
195828998119635321,982

These figures cover only buildings erected as new blocks of flats. Where flats have been created by conversion of existing buildings, the values of such conversions are included in alterations and additions. However, as this class of work has become more prevalent in recent years it was decided to collect information on the number of flats being created in such a manner, the first data being for the year ended 31 March 1955 for urban districts.

The following table shows the numbers of permits for the last five years for flats to be created by conversion of existing buildings. Since the year 1961–62 additional information makes it reasonably certain that the figures for flats created by conversion refer to complete units. In earlier years the figures are known to include some apartments not completely self-contained.

Year Ended 31 MarchNew Zealand TotalAll Urban Districts
1959810792
1960899883
1961860845
1962470462
1963404401

The statistics quoted in the preceding paragraphs relate only to the main types of building activity. More detailed statistics are included in the annual report on Population, Migration, and Buildings Statistics compiled by the Department of Statistics.

In 1962–63 the number of permits for houses and flats in urban districts showed a decrease of 587, or 3.36 per cent, from 1961–62.

The value of permits for houses and flats in 1962–63 decreased by £4,693,867, or 6.7 per cent, from the preceding year. The average permit value in 1962–63 was £3,131, as against £3,095 in 1961–62 and £2,971 in 1960–61.

There were 2,188 Government houses and flats (1,850 in urban and 338 in rural districts) commenced in 1962–63 compared with 2,069 (1,654 in urban and 415 in rural districts) in 1961–62. The value of the houses and flats commenced in 1962–63 was £6,928,640 as against £6,487,713 in 1961–62.

For new buildings other than houses and flats, together with alterations and additions, the value of permits issued showed an increase of £12,233,203, or 20.30 per cent, on the 1961–62 figure.

The following table arranges urban local authorities with building values of over £500,000 in 1962–63 in descending order.

 £(000)
Auckland city11,677
Wellington city9,628
Christchurch city6,174
Manukau county5,437
Waimairi county3,044
Lower Hutt city2,789
Dunedin city2,675
Hutt county2,643
Rotorua city2,310
Palmerston North city2,293
Invercargill city2,137
Tauranga1,768
Wanganui city1,699
Mount Roskill1,612
Napier city1,374
Nelson city1,356
Manurewa1,334
New Plymouth city1,243
Hastings city1,238
Takapuna city1,226
Paparua county1,174
Otahuhu1,150
Mount Wellington1,054
Whangarei1,033
Papatoetoe1,015
Waitemata county4,877
Papakura994
Hamilton city4,196
Gisborne city932
Makara county893
New Lynn810
Timaru city809
Upper Hutt795
Masterton782
Porirua771
Birkenhead761
Northcote694
Tawa668
Oamaru641
East Coast Bays618
Mount Albert615
One Tree Hill613
Kaitaia609
Mount Maunganui585
Onehunga567

Building Permits in Rural Districts – The counties of Waitemata, Manukau, Hutt, Waimairi, Heathcote, Paparua, Peninsula, and Taieri are included in urban building statistics. The great majority of the population in these counties is urban, and they were included in order to obtain more complete statistics of building activity for the urban areas of Auckland, Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The tabulation for rural districts is therefore confined to the remaining counties and Waiheke Island. In the few instances where counties do not operate a building-permit system estimates of building activity have been accepted.

Data are available for all Government building in rural districts and have been included in the total for rural building.

Excluding the nine counties which are included in urban districts, the total value of rural building in 1962–63 amounted to £28,061,253, an increase of £3,532,000 as compared with the 1961–62 figures for the same districts. The number of new dwellings was 3,750, a decrease of 1,171 on the preceding year.

The following table arranges rural local authorities with building values of over £500,000 in 1962–63 in descending order.

County£(000)

*Includes permits relative to the establishment of oil refining plant at Whangarei.

Whangarei7,269*
Southland1,453
Tauranga952
Matamata949
Horowhenua827
Hawke's Bay757
Taupo741
Waikato22
Rotorua630
Whakatane615
Waimea578
Franklin565
Waipa536
Kairanga527
Waitaki520
Wallace514

The total value of building for the nine counties included in the total for urban districts in 1962–63 was £18,616,924, and the number of new houses and flats 3,959. The comparable value for 1961–62 was £18,204,152, and the number of new houses and flats 4,294.

Other Government Building Operations – In 1962–63 Government building commenced, other than houses and flats, totalled £11,080,790 in value. The comparable figure for 1961–62 was £7,566,984. Buildings erected by or for hospital or education boards are not included in these figures but are included in the total building statistics quoted previously. For the year ended 31 March 1963 the value of building commenced for hospital boards amounted to £3,678,673, while that commenced for education boards was valued at £3,455,011. The comparable figures for 1961–62 were: hospital boards £2,550,270; education boards £4,516,164.

Monthly Permit Statistics – While the annual statistics of building permits issued afford an indication of year-to-year changes in the value and volume of building activity, short-period movements in building activity are of considerable interest, particularly in times of rapid economic change. With the purpose of providing information as to current changes in building activity, monthly statistics of building permits are collected from the larger centres.

While these returns cover approximately 60 per cent of the total population, they represent approximately 81 per cent of the total New Zealand building activity.

BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER CENTRES

MonthNew BuildingsAlterations to Existing BuildingsTotal
Houses and FlatsTotalNo.ValueNo.Value
No.ValueNo.Value
  £(000) £(000) £(000) £(000)
  1962        
January9713,1161,0274,1521,5881,5112,6155,664
February1,2353,9921,2895,6332,2314,1663,5209,799
March1,3364,1191,4165,7962,7652,6244,1818,421
April1,1113,4891,1634,6332,4821,4443,6456,077
May1,5264,9171,6036,2133,1652,3744,7688,587
June1,1303,5301,1864,6962,6412,2093,8276,906
July1,3504,2691,4406,1912,7812,5814,2218,772
August1,5274,8111,6145,7902,7892,9874,4038,777
September1,2483,9361,3276,1072,5282,9283,8559,035
October1,3614,3441,4537,5772,7042,8164,15710,393
November1,3224,2121,4075,2932,6092,6234,0167,916
December9623,0681,0345,2662,2412,0413,2757,306
  £(000) £(000) £(000) £(000)
  1963        
January1,0453,2971,1235,4591,7011,8472,8247,306
February1,2744,0991,3455,4952,2672,7673,6128,262
March1,3104,1911,3975,9012,8323,8574,2299,758
April1,1643,8041,2505,7402,7492,2033,9997,943
May1,5584,8211,6666,9733,2772,9494,9439,921
June1,2213,9991,2995,8232,4682,3043,7678,127
July1,4194,4381,5316,1362,8942,8394,4258,975
August1,5824,9691,7087,3852,8462,0904,5549,475
September1,4894,8101,6036,9942,6743,5014,27710,495
October1,5175,0721,6238,7162,9243,4674,54712,183
November1,5125,1551,5936,9622,7712,8624,3649,824
December1,1953,8611,2837,4722,5443,0823,82710,555

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED – Local authorities which supply building-permit figures also give particulars of new houses and flats which were completed in their districts.

Statistics of completed houses and flats include any new flats which are created by the conversion of existing buildings, details of which are shown previously. Some difficulty is encountered in obtaining accurate figures for completions from a few local authorities, and in some cases estimates have been made, either by the local authorities concerned, or by the Department of Statistics. While it is therefore believed these figures are reasonably accurate, and enable a comparison to be made of year-to-year changes, it is the practice of the Department to round completed figures to the nearest hundred. All houses and flats completed by the Government are included.

The results of this collection of statistics for the latest five years are given in the following table.

District1958–591959–601960–611961–621962–63
Urban districts14,80016,90018,80019,70018,100
Rural districts4,8004,7004,7004,6004,000
Totals19,60021,60023,50024,30022,100

The number of houses and flats completed in 1962–63 showed a decrease of 2,200 from the 1961–62 figures which were the highest annual figures so far recorded.

JOINT FAMILY HOMES – The Joint Family Homes Act 1950, including amendments, aims at promoting a sense of dual ownership under which the family home will belong not to the husband or wife separately, but to both of them jointly so as to pass to the survivor on the death of one of them. The Act makes it possible for a husband and his wife, or either of them, being solvent and owning land, whether freehold or leasehold, to settle the land on the husband and wife as a joint family home, provided they actually reside and have their home in a dwellinghouse erected on the land, and use it exclusively or principally as a home for themselves and the members of their household. No one can register more than one home as a family home. Registration is cancelled when the land is sold or when both husband and wife have died or have ceased permanently to reside and have their home on the land. The benefits of registration are considerable. Once the home is registered the husband and wife have equal rights in connection with ownership and possession while they are both living. On the death of either of them the joint family home becomes the property of the survivor. To encourage the adoption of the scheme provision is made that the settled home shall be protected against the claims of creditors to the extent of £2,000, and an amount of £3,000 will not come into the calculation made for the purpose of the assessment of death and succession duties when it passes on the death of one joint tenant to the survivor. Also, the settlement itself is exempted from gift duty and stamp duty.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act 1950 registered for the last eight years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes SettledYear Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
19565,363196011,195
19575,655196116,368
19586,262196216,012
19597,052196314,683

The steady increases up till 1959 were due largely to the gradual relaxing of restrictions on settlement which originally applied. After that date the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act passed in 1959 caused a very substantial increase due mainly to the condition attaching to capitalisation of the benefits that the home, if not in the sole name of the beneficiary, be settled as a joint family home.

TENANCY – The Tenancy Act 1955 is the enactment governing tenancy and rents. This Act is administered by the Department of Labour. The provisions of the Act in so far as business premises are concerned will expire in November 1964.

Fair Rents – Under the Tenancy Amendment Act 1961, the fair rent of dwellinghouses may be based on the capital value as shown in the current district valuation roll, provided that for three years the fair rent so fixed may not exceed by more than £1 10s. the fair rent which could have been fixed immediately before the Amendment was passed. The maximum interest rate which may be applied to the value of the premises in assigning the fair rent has been fixed by the Tenancy Regulations 1956 at 5 per cent. Where, however, there is a mortgage on the premises at a higher rate of interest, such rate of interest may be applied to as much of the value of the premises as is represented by the mortgage.

A landlord or a tenant is enabled to apply to the Court to fix the fair rent, or the parties may agree on a rent and submit this for the approval of a Rents Officer.

A landlord or a tenant may apply to a Rents Officer to assess the fair rent. Notice of his assessment is given to both parties, stating that it will become the fair rent as if fixed by the Court unless application is made within 21 days by either party to the Court to fix the fair rent. This procedure enables either party to have the fair rent assessed without cost.

The rent of commercial properties may be based on the present-day values.

The provisions as to rent restriction of tenancies (inclusive of subtenancies) relates to dwellinghouses and to properties, except that the definition of the term “property” excludes farm lands and licensed hotels and camp sites (let for periods not exceeding six weeks). The definition of the term “rent” includes money's worth. The Court for fixing the fair rent is the Magistrate's Court, with a right of appeal to the Supreme Court where the fair rent exceeds an annual rental of £525.

The following exemptions from the operation of the Act are contained in the Tenancy Act 1955: all new dwellinghouses and business premises erected after the date of commencement of the Act (21 October 1955), as well as the existing exemptions of blocks of flats and buildings converted into self-contained flats after 12 November 1953; new tenancies of dwellinghouses not let during the three months prior to the date of commencement of the Act; dwellinghouses let for periods of six weeks or less; properties let after October 1955 for terms of not less than four years. All tenancy agreements with new tenants entered into after the passing of the Tenancy Amendment Act 1961 are exempt from control.

A section extends to all premises the provision which prevents the basic rent from being affected by including furniture in the tenancy. As far as a “fair rent” is concerned, the Court can fix the fair rent payable by the landlord where he is himself a tenant. A fair rent fixed for a dwellinghouse or property continues in force until a subsequent order takes effect.

A section relating to fines, premiums, etc., prohibits a landlord or outgoing tenant from receiving from a new tenant any consideration other than:

  1. In the case of a dwellinghouse, the rent:

  2. In the case of either a dwellinghouse or property, the price of any chattels not exceeding the fair selling value, or the replacement cost of stock in trade.

The time within which excess payments of rents may be recovered from the landlord by the tenant or deducted from current rent is 12 months.

Recovery of Possession – In the following cases those provisions containing the restrictions on recovery of possession cease to apply – namely, a dwellinghouse let to a worker by his employer; a dwellinghouse or urban property let on behalf of a mental patient; where a tenant has sublet the whole of the dwellinghouse, provided that the subletting is not due to the temporary absence of the tenant for not more than a year; and to a tenancy of any urban property transferred either directly or by subtenancies, after the expiration of six months from the date of the transfer of the tenancy unless the landlord consents or the Court orders that those provisions shall continue. The Act also includes in the list of exemptions leases of properties for more than five years.

Exemption from the restrictions on recovery of possession from a tenant is provided for where, in the case of the letting of any dwellinghouse or property, the landlord and the tenant by agreement in writing dated not earlier than 1 March 1950, and incorporating the terms and conditions of the tenancy, have agreed that Part IV and sections 45, 46, and 47 of the Tenancy Act or the corresponding portions of the former 1948 Act shall not apply. The agreement has to be approved in writing by a Rents Officer, and a copy of the agreement deposited with the latter before the date of commencement of the tenancy. As new tenancies are now exempt from the Act this provision will have no further application. The Tenancy Amendment Act 1961, however, provides that premises subject to such an agreement existing at the date of the passing of the Act will be exempt from the Act in three years or upon a Rents Officer certifying that the tenant left of his own volition. Landlords under these agreements may, however, obtain an increase in rent based on the full current roll valuation without the £1 10s. limitation on increases in rent previously referred to.

The Act provides for recovery of possession on a number of grounds.

Chapter 20. Section 20 ELECTRIC POWER AND GAS

20 A – ELECTRIC POWER: GENERATION AND SUPPLY

ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT – New Zealand has been generously endowed with natural resources which can be developed for the generation of electric power. Its vast lakes supply natural storage reservoirs for hydro-electric schemes and the rain and melting snows in the mountain areas continually replace the waters which are harnessed to supply electrical energy. Natural lakes have been supplemented by man-made lakes backing up from hydro-electric dams across rivers. In the thermal regions nature has provided geothermal steam, which also is being developed to provide power. Coal is another source of energy but mining and freight charges to the point of use are costly.

An important factor governing future plans for electric power development is that the hydro potential is mainly in the South Island and the preponderance of population is in the North Island. In 1962, after extensive investigations, the New Zealand Electricity Department commenced the task of erecting the 354-mile 500,000-volt direct-current transmission line between Benmore in the South Island and Haywards in the North Island which will incorporate a 25-mile submarine cable-link across Cook Strait.

In the North Island, maximum run off of water in the catchment areas usually occurs in the winter whereas in the South Island the maximum run off for the snow-fed rivers such as the Waitaki and Clutha is in the summer months. For the interconnected system lake-storage problems should be greatly simplified and costs reduced. The diversity between the peak load in the two Islands is not as great as might be expected but even the 1 to 2 per cent diversity factor results in an appreciable saving in the capital cost of installed generating capacity.

For New Zealand conditions the cost of power produced in nuclear power stations would be higher than in coal-fired steam stations. As the latter cost at least twice as much as for power production in hydro stations there appears to be no case for nuclear power stations for many years to come, especially in view of the hydro potential being developed in the Waitaki River basin, including Benmore and Aviemore, and the latest scheme which the Government has decided to develop at Lake Manapouri.

Geothermal steam is making a material contribution to electric power generation in the centre of the North Island. The Wairakei scheme is based on tapping a vast underground hot-water system. Investigations for further steam areas are continuing adjacent to and within the producing area, and exploratory work is proceeding in other parts of the thermal zone.

In the Waikato the Meremere coal-fired station makes a significant contribution to the North Island electric supply but at a much greater cost per unit than hydro power.

With an electrical connection between the North and South Islands it is apparent that for many years to come, as in the past, electric power in New Zealand will be mainly derived from hydro resources.

Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by private and local enterprise. Legislation passed in 1886 empowered local authorities to arrange for the supply of electricity in the areas under their control. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1887. Wellington and Auckland, and to a lesser extent Christchurch, began with coal-fired steam-generating plants and their supplies were extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. The Wellington plant began as a private venture, but later was taken over by the City Council. Dunedin early developed hydroelectric supply at Waipori. By 1918 many municipalities had local electricity supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases advantage had been taken of an adjacent water supply to develop hydro-electricity.

DEVELOPMENT OF WATER POWER: North Island – The hydro-electric power station at Horahora on the Waikato River, privately built in 1913, was purchased by the Government in 1919. Between 1920 and 1930 several Government stations were constructed, the first being the Mangahao station in the Tararuas which commenced to supply the surrounding area in 1924. After the Mangahao station was completed a commencement was made in 1926 on the development of the Waikaremoana scheme, which consists of three stations, Kaitawa, Tuai and Piripaua. The first station completed, Tuai, commenced supply in 1929; Piripaua station was completed in 1943; and Kaitawa station in 1948. The three stations are within a distance of 5 miles and the power generated by each is collected and transmitted from Tuai, the centre station.

The Waikato River constitutes the principal power source in the North Island, having, in its course of 200 miles from Lake Taupo, a total fall of 1,170 ft and a final discharge of over 10,000 cusecs. The rate of flow from Lake Taupo is controlled by works constructed in 1941 to conserve the water previously lost in the heavy spring and summer run-off.

Arapuni, Karapiro, Maraetai, Whakamaru, Atiamuri, Ohakuri, and Waipapa power stations have been constructed on the Waikato River, and a station is being built at Aratiatia. The stations make use of the greater part of the fall of the Waikato River from Lake Taupo to Cambridge.

Arapuni came into operation (with one unit) in 1929, but was closed down between 1930 and 1932 as a result of damage caused by an earth movement. By 1946 Arapuni had eight units operating while construction work was in progress at Karapiro (commenced 1940) and Maraetai (commenced 1945). Karapiro station came into operation in 1947–48 with three units, the Horahora station ceasing generation prior to its site being submerged by the newly formed Karapiro lake. This artificial lake is 14 miles long and extends up river to Arapuni. Late in 1952 the Maraetai station was brought into operation and by May 1954 the installation of the fifth machine brought Maraetai to its full rating of 180,000 kW. Construction on Whakamaru was commenced in 1949; the station was commissioned with two machines in May 1956 and completed in December 1956 with four machines rated at 100,000 kW. Atiamuri station was begun in 1953 and the first machine was commissioned in November 1958; the station reached its full capacity of 84,000 kW from four machines in April 1962.

During 1961 three machines were commissioned at Ohakuri and the station was completed in February 1962 with a capacity of 112,000 kW from four machines. The new hydro station at Waipapa was also completed with three machines totalling 51,000 kW in November 1961. A 70,000 kW station scheduled for first operation in April 1967 is under construction at Matahina on the Rangitaiki River. The Government has approved in principle the development of the Tongariro and Upper Waikato Rivers including a 182,000 kW station at Tokaanu.

All the State-owned stations are linked and operate as one system. Connections also exist with all the larger non-Government generating stations (steam and hydro). To transmit power for distribution from the new stations on the Waikato, a 220,000-volt system was added to the existing network of 110,000- and 50,000-volt transmission lines and interconnected substations. From Whakamaru collecting station, electricity is transmitted to the major substations at Otahuhu in the north and Bunnythorpe and Haywards in the south.

South Island – The Lake Coleridge station was commenced in the year following the passing of the Aid to Water Power Works Act 1910 and completed in 1915. This was the first station wholly designed and constructed by the Government. Its initial capacity was 4,500 kW, but by 1930 this was increased to 34,500 kW. The next station, Waitaki, commenced in 1928, came into use in 1935, and with the commissioning of its fifth machine in March 1949 was developed to its originally designed capacity of 75,000 kW. This was later increased by the addition of two further units which came into operation in May and June 1954. With a total capacity of 105,000 kW Waitaki is the next largest station to Roxburgh operating in the South Island. Further use of the Waitaki River is being made at Benmore, where a station of 540,000 kW capacity is being constructed and is scheduled for first operation in 1965, and at Aviemore, where a 220,000 kW station is to be built. The Government has also approved in principle further development of the Waitaki Basin and the construction of two power stations, one at Maryburn and one at Pukaki, with a total installed capacity of 190,000 kW. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo, to ensure an adequate water supply to Waitaki stations during the winter, and a single unit of 25,200 kW, incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo, was commissioned in May 1951. Another single unit, also of 25,200 kW, was installed in 1945 at Highbank to make use of the surplus water available in winter from the Rangitata irrigation race.

In 1936 the Government took over the Southland Electric Power Board's system, including the generating station at Lake Monowai, and in 1938 acquired from the Grey Electric Power Board the Arnold station at Kaimata.

Construction of the Cobb River station, with a capacity of 12,000 kW, was commenced by a private company, but the project was taken over and completed by the Government. Supply from this station, which has now been expanded in capacity to 32,000 kW, commenced in 1944.

The Roxburgh station on the Clutha River has a capacity of 320,000 kW. First operation of this station was in July 1956, and by December 1956 four machines with a capacity of 160,000 kW were commissioned. Two further machines were commissioned in 1961 and the last two in 1962.

A grid system similar to that in the North Island was established in 1939, when the Lake Monowai, Arnold, Lake Coleridge, and Waitaki stations were linked. A 220,000-volt line was constructed from Roxburgh to a major substation at Islington to bring the power from Roxburgh. From Islington a 220,000-volt line was extended to Kikiwa in the Nelson Provincial District and completed in 1958. This linked the Nelson-Marlborough area with the main South Island network.

In February 1963 the Government announced that it would take over the development of the Manapouri power potential from the organisation which had originally intended to develop the scheme to provide power for an aluminium industry. This scheme involves an underground power station using the waters of Lake Manapouri which will be discharged through a 61/4 - mile tunnel to Doubtful Sound. A first-stage development of 400,000 kW is proceeding and power not required for the aluminium industry will be fed into the national grid.

THERMAL STATIONS – In the North Island a steam station at King's Wharf, Auckland, and one at Evans Bay, Wellington, with a combined capacity of 49,000 kW are now used only for peak-load and emergency purposes. In order to provide additional power in the North Island, a coal-fired steam station was constructed near Mercer, on the Waikato River. Meremere station, as it is called, was commenced in 1956 and first commissioned with two machines in August 1958 and completed in 1960 with six machines rated at 180,000 kW. Coal to feed the boilers is obtained from Huntly mines and is also brought by aerial cableway across the swamps from opencast mines at Maramarua.

GEOTHERMAL STEAM – At Wairakei station, a few miles north of Taupo, geothermal steam is being harnessed for the generation of electricity and the first machine in the initial 69,000 kW development commenced generating in November 1958. Bores which are 4, 6, or 8 in. in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 570 ft and 4,000 ft. With closed bores, well-head pressures vary between 50 and 500 lb per sq. in. High-pressure valves are required to control the output from the bores. The quantity of steam discharged from the bores varies considerably, and a large quantity of water is ejected with the steam. The steam contains a trace of gas, mostly carbon dioxide; and in the water about three parts in a thousand are dissolved solids.

Steam is collected from a number of wells after being separated from the water that is ejected with it and piped to the power station through steel mains. From the mains the steam passes through high-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and low-pressure turbo-alternators, after which it is condensed to water and discharged into the Waikato River. The initial development of 69,000 kW from seven turbo-alternators is known as Stage I, and all the plant is housed in a building known as Station A. Stage II development was authorised by Government in September 1957 and has brought the station capacity up to 151,245 kW. In addition, 41,175 kW of spare plant is being installed to enable full use to be made of the steam when some of the main units are shut down for overhaul. Some of the plant for Stage II is housed in space left for the purpose in Station A, but most of it is located in a new building known as Station B. Provision has been made for the extension of this building to provide space for Stage III development of 90,000 kW, which the Government has approved in principle.

With Stage II an experimental pilot plant for converting some of the hot water from the wells into steam at a lower pressure is being installed. The steam will be produced by piping the hot water to the station at a high pressure and spraying it into “flash” tanks where, due to a drop in pressure, it will be “flashed” into steam and fed into the intermediate-pressure and low-pressure steam mains and thence to the turbines.

COOK STRAIT SUBMARINE POWER CABLE – The Government announced in March 1956 that it had been decided to proceed immediately with a detailed investigation into the practicability of linking the power systems of the North and South Islands by a submarine cable across Cook Strait. The interconnection by a direct-current cable designed for 600,000 kW capacity was investigated and a trial length of cable which was laid in Cook Strait in May 1958 was lifted in March 1960 and returned to the manufacturers in England for inspection. An overseas firm of consultants furnished an independent report in 1959 for Government consideration. The report stated that the installation of submarine power cables across Cook Strait would be difficult but the project was feasible. In March 1961 the Government decided to proceed with the project which involves not only the installation of submarine cables but also the construction of an overhead 500 kV d.c. transmission line from Benmore to the southern side of Cook Strait and from the north side to Haywards, and the installation of a.c./d.c./a.c. converting plant and equipment at Benmore and Haywards substation. The project is scheduled to commence operating in April 1965.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRIC POWER – Since the end of 1958 New Zealand has enjoyed freedom from restrictions in the use of power, and forward planning is continually under review to ensure that the increasing demand may be met at all times. New schemes have to be conceived, designed, and constructed, while at the same time provision must be made for the transmission system to be expanded so that the power will become available when and where needed for future requirements. In 1957 a Combined Committee was set up to assist in this complicated task. The Committee consisted of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works, and representative of the electrical supply authorities. In June 1957 the Government announced that the Committee's recommendations on how to meet future power demands were generally approved as a basic plan for the comprehensive and orderly development of the electric power system.

The use of committees has become an important feature of planning and for some years the following procedure has taken place. The Power and Finance Utilisation Committee of the Electrical Supply Authorities Association, on which the New Zealand Electricity Department is represented, collates detailed estimates for each area of unit consumption and peak demand for a period of five years in advance. These estimates, which are revised and extended each year, show when and where power will be required in all parts of New Zealand. The Committee to Review Power Requirements then considers the estimates. This committee has as chairman the General Manager of the New Zealand Electricity Department, with his Chief Engineer, a representative of the supply authorities, a representative of the Treasury, and the Government Statistician as members. Its function is to combine and project the supply authority estimates for a further five years for the North and South Island requirements and for New Zealand as a whole, also comparing them with the New Zealand requirements as arrived at by statistical methods. A Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development in New Zealand, which consists of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works, Treasury, and supply authority representatives, with the General Manager of the New Zealand Electricity Department as chairman, considers the findings of the Review Committee.

The Planning Committee recommends what projects it considers should be proceeded with, and when, in order to meet the estimated needs. The review and planning reports are submitted to the Minister of Electricity who tables them in the House of Representatives.

In 1962 the Government passed an Act to set up an Electricity Council to advise as to the extent to which an adequate supply and effective distribution of electricity is being achieved, to review the provision being made to meet the demand, and to report annually to Parliament on the plan of development.

To finance the huge outlay involved in electricity development the New Zealand Electricity Department drew up a plan which involved decreasing dependence on loan moneys, thus reducing the interest bill as well as stabilising the price. Legislation was passed in 1957 which made the Department no longer liable for income tax, provided that interest formerly capitalised be charged to revenue, and allows for revenue to provide a direct contribution towards capital requirements. This last provision came into effect in October 1961.

LEGISLATION – Under the Electricity Act 1945 the New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for preparing plans for submission to Government to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works to the requirements of the New Zealand Electricity Department. The New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the networks which supply electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES – Various local authority Acts from 1886 onwards made provision for counties and municipalities to supply electricity in addition to their other functions, but in 1918 legislation was passed enabling local authorities to be set up with the sole function of supplying electricity. The legislation, amended and consolidated under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, provided for the constitution of electric power districts controlled by boards.

Of the 43 electric power boards actively functioning at 31 March 1963, 15 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 26,405 kW. There were also 37 municipal electric supply authorities, 12 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 56,617 kW, and two companies both operating generating stations of a total rated capacity of 1,202 kW. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities at 31 March 1963 totalled approximately 90,016 square miles, with a population of 2,521,940 people, or 99.5 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

While the constitution of electric power boards enabled power to be available to more people outside the towns, the supply to remote areas still presented difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in comparison with the revenue from power sold. It was later agreed by the supply authorities that a council should be set up with power to make a levy of 1/4 per cent on the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government-owned electrical undertakings, and that these funds be used in the form of subsidies to meet the annual cost of supply in remote areas. (In 1961 legislation was passed to permit the application of a levy of up to 1/2 per cent of the gross revenue.) The Rural Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March 1963 had approved subsidies on 7,684 route-miles of line to supply some 12,837 consumers. At this date 7,005 miles of line were completed and 11,871 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure was estimated at £5,915,375 and the subsidy approved for the year amounted to £253,084.

GOVERNMENT STATIONS – The following table covers all Government plants in operation and those under construction or for which contracts for machinery have been let, and shows the installed capacity and ultimate installed capacity, together with the static head.

Name of StationInstalled Capacity at 31 March 1963Ultimate Installed CapacityStatic Head (ft)
Number of UnitskWkVANumber of UnitskWkVA

*Under construction.

  Hydro       
Arapuni8157,800180,0008157,800180,000175
Karapiro390,000100,000390,000100,000100
Maraetai5180,000200,00010360,000400,000200
Whakamaru4100,000111,1004100,000111,100124
Atiamuri484,00093,333484,00093,33381
Waipapa351,00056,700351,00056,70053
Ohakuri4112,000124,4004112,000124,400115
Aratiatia*60,000390,000100,000109
Matahina*270,00077,778195
Mangahao519,20024,000519,20024,000896
Waikaremoana –       
  Kaitawa232,00038,000232,00038,000443
  Tuai352,00062,000352,00062,000676
  Piripaua240,00044,000240,00044,000370
Cobb River632,00037,222632,00037,2221,950
Arnold 23,0603,6003,0603,60042
Lake Coleridge934,50040,640934,50040,640490
Highbank125,20028,000125,20028,000330
Waitaki7105,000116,6667105,000116,66670
Benmore*6540,000675,000305
Lake Tekapo125,20028,000125,20028,00080–105
Roxburgh8320,000355,5558320,000355,555150
Monowai36,0007,05036,0007,050154
  Thermal       
Meremere6180,000211,7646180,000211,764
Evans Bay422,00027,500
King's Wharf427,00033,800
  Geothermal       
Wairakei12192,420180,468    
    Totals1061,950,3802,103,798    

ANNUAL GENERATION – During the year ended 31 March 1963 a total of 7,943,034,000 kWh was generated by public utilities, of which 6,778,726,000 kWh (85 per cent) was generated by water power, 1,164,071,000 kWh by steam engines, and 237,214 kWh by oil engines. A further 8,237,000 kWh was purchased by public supply authorities from generating stations operated by industrial establishments and fed into the supply system, making a total of 7,951,271,135 kWh available for distribution. By far the major portion of the generation is undertaken by Government-owned plants, which, in the period under review, generated 6,429,870,000 kWh by the use of water power and 1,164,071,000 kWh by use of steam power.

The following table shows the annual and daily average quantities of electricity generated for public supply over the latest 11 years. Index numbers are on base 1954 (= 100).

Year Ended 31 MarchNorth IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.Total QuantityDaily AverageIndex No.
 (000) kWh (000) kWh (000) kWh 
19532,391,8276,553871,187,2003,253933,579,0279,80689
19542,758,1327,5571001,271,3593,4831004,029,49111,040100
19553,066,9708,4031111,316,2553,6061044,383,22512,009109
19563,323,8889,0821201,424,4463,8921124,748,33412,974118
19573,540,0889,6991281,427,2743,9101124,967,36213,609123
19583,955,78210,8381431,688,3674,6261335,644,14915,463140
19593,892,37710,6641411,785,0354,8911405,677 41215,555141
19604,419,55812,0751601,941,1245,3041526,360,68217,379157
19614,759,92213,0411732,074,6225,6841636,834,54418,725170
19625,155,50314,1251872,243,8006,1471767,399,30320,272184
19635,589,11815,3132032,362,1536,4721867,951,27121,784197

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS: Government Establishments – The following table gives details of the operations of Government establishments generating and distributing electricity during the latest three years. It includes Southland electric power supply, operated by the New Zealand Electricity Department.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
196119621963
EstablishmentsNo.222321
Persons engagedNo.3,6063,6974,033
Salaries and wages paid£3,383,2153,513,9943,943,233
ConsumersNo.21,32121,85822,545
Prime movers –    
  Hydrob.h.p.1,674,9001,994,9002,080,900
  Thermalb.h.p.433,139447,139477,367
Totalsb.h.p.2,108,0392,442,0392,558,267
Generators (capacity)–    
  A.C.kW1,486,9651,736,3151,860,380
kVA1,690,7561,966,5902,103,798
Revenue –    
  Sales of power –    
    Retail£1,613,5721,657,2301,886,717
    Bulk and interchange£16,577,50718,777,21120,812,924
    Other£134,353139,711153,885
      Total revenue£18,325,43220,574,15222,853,526
Expenditure –    
  Power purchased (including interchange)£227,194194,780220,486
  Generating costs£2,981,8543,058,4462,103,960
  Transmission and distribution costs£1,164,6131,169,9121,224,758
  Management and general£1,108,6751,218,0501,260,331
  Capital charges£11,891,35613,028,49414,127,087
      Total expenditure£17,373,69218,669,68218,936,622
Capital outlay –    
  Total expenditure to date£217,668,789234,992,278253,398,273
  Expenditure during year£18,235,43617,323,48918,405,995
Generation –    
  Hydro(000) kWh5,193,4355,641,4986,429,869
  Steam(000) kWh1,311,1841,445,4661,164,071
  Oil(000) kWh1
      Totals (000) kWh6,504,6207,086,9647,593,940
Retail sales(000) kWh341,816346,210409,859

Electric Power Boards – This table gives similar information concerning generation and distribution by electric power boards.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
196119621963
EstablishmentsNo.434343
Persons engagedNo.4,0844,1544,368
Salaries and wages paid£3,800,5534,017,6274,292,117
ConsumersNo.544,077564,226582,412
Prime movers –    
  Hydrob.h.p.25,32725,32734,127
  Thermalb.h.p.4,9304,9304,930
    Totalsb.h.p.30,25730,25739,057
Generators (capacity) –    
  A.C.kW20,46520,46526,405
kVA24,82824,82831,428
Revenue –    
  Sales of power –    
    Retail£20,561,17622,186,73324,121,979
    Bulk and interchange£1,173,8631,310,8311,476,584
    Other (including rates)£399,361420,842487,909
      Total revenue£22,134,40023,918,40626,086,472
Expenditure –    
  Power purchased (including interchange)£12,421,44214,000,39515,647,444
  Generating costs£54,45260,36951,499
  Transmission and distribution costs£2,463,6862,521,2822,713,243
  Management and general£1,616,0181,802,9381,906,251
  Capital charges£3,653,0203,854,5344,156,043
    Total expenditure£20,208,61822,239,51824,474,480
Capital outlay –    
  Total expenditure to date£61,606,49166,647,15970,975,473
  Expenditure during year£4,296,7655,040,6684,328,314
Generation –    
  Hydro(000)kWh94,07398,436134,191
  Oil(000)kWh164235
    Totals(000)kWh94,08998,478134,226
Retail sales(000)kWh3,628,5113,951,9434,298,628

All Establishments – The next table sets out the same information in respect of all establishments engaged in the generation and distribution of power. These consisted at 31 March 1963 of 21 Government establishments, 2 limited liability companies, 43 electric power boards, 10 city councils, 20 borough councils, 5 county councils, and 2 town boards.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
196119621963
EstablishmentsNo.105105103
Persons engagedNo.9,582x9,75410,437
Salaries and wages paid£8,881,891x9,278,98310,146,577
ConsumersNo.831,924859,683884,155
Prime movers—    
  Hydrob.h.p.1,781,4972,115,4972,196,207
  Thermalb.h.p.442,335441,609485,797
    Totalsb.h.p.2,223,8322,557,1062,682,004
Generators (capacity) –    
A.C.kW1,565,7671,814,5991,944,604
kVA1,787,0752,062,2702,206,078
Revenue –    
  Sales of power –    
    Retail£31,722,32534,449,49737,470,400
    Bulk£17,825,93619,987,28522,170,936
  Other (including rates)£684,977908,9361,060,950
    Total revenue£50,233,23855,345,71860,702,286
Expenditure—    
  Bulk power purchased (within industry)£17,825,93620,162,97722,368,097
  Power purchased (outside sources)£55,04313,69915,191
  Generating costs£3,137,0983,237,5232,296,348
  Transmission and distribution costs£4,922,9635,010,9825,418,898
  Management and general£3,343,4283,693,0453,925,641
  Capital charges£16,760,82218,275,67819,841,295
    Total expenditure£46,045,29050,393,90453,865,470
Capital outlay –    
  Total expenditure to date£302,803,151327,067,641351,558,255
  Expenditure during year£24,348,59724,264,49024,490,614
Generation –    
  Hydro(000)kWh5,511,5085,946,4666,778,726
  Steam(000)kWh1,322,6851,452,5781,172,308
  Oil(000)kWh352260237
    Totals(000)kWh6,834,5457,399,3047,951,271
Generation per head of mean populationkWh2,8373,0293,177
Retail sales(000)kWh5,683,5476,169,4976,683,785

Employment – Further details concerning the number of employees and the salaries and wages paid to them are given in the following table for the year ended 31 March 1963.

Category of StaffPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesTotalTo MalesTo FemalesTotal
Charged to operation and management –No.No.No.£££
  Managerial and clerical1,9277142,6412,251,247417,1272,668,374
  Wage earners5,6181115,7295,448,15756,6785,504,835
Charged to capital –      
  Managerial and clerical1078115119,9924,452124,444
  Wage earners1,928241,9521,830,84618,0781,848,924
    Totals9,58085710,4379,650,242496,33510,146,577

Capital Expenditure – The following table gives capital expenditure during 1962–63 and total capital outlay to 31 March 1963.

ItemExpenditure During YearTotal Capital Outlay to 31 March 1963

*Due to re-allocation on expenditure of stations under construction.

Generating system –££
  Head works, pipelines, etc.8,236,239113,829,931
  Powerhouse, buildings, cottages, etc.-917,576*26,883,865
  Generating plant and machinery, etc.5,692,09740,594,081
Transmission and distribution lines, substations, land and houses9,307,177126,965,880
Street lighting84,3561,692,389
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, service buildings774,6348,919,001
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, trucks, motorcars, equipment738,15810,013,763
Miscellaneous (cost of raising loans, loan conversion premiums, surveys, preliminary expenses, interest during construction)29,05514,167,575
Stock and materials (including trading department stocks)570,3528,309,571
Other items not capable of inclusion above-23,878*182,199
    Total capital outlay24,490,614351,558,255

Additions to the capital value of all electrical systems during 1962–63 totalled £24,715,717, while deductions, i.e. sales and amounts written off, amounted to £225,103. The previous table shows for each item the net expenditure only during the year.

General Balance Sheet as at 31 March 1963 – The next table summarises the balance sheet at 31 March 1963 for all establishments.

Liabilities 
 ££
Capital raised – 
  Original amount of current loans 283,216,834 
    Less amounts repaid37,352,443
      Balance owing on 31 March 1962245,864,391
Temporary loans378,846
Sundry creditors – 
  Bank overdraft488,341
  Other7,747,713
Reserves – 
  Loan repayment reserve40,498,668
  Capital expenditure out of revenue21,581,637
  Sinking fund reserve2,666,945
  Depreciation reserve35,934,070
  Renewal fund reserve1,420,135
  General and other reserves18,684,647
Surplus in Appropriation Account5,453,466
Total380,718,859
Assets£
Total capital outlay351,558,255
Sundry debtors9,817,029
Other assets – 
Cash and trading bank balances4,075,089
State Advances stock, balances at POSB, National Savings128,242
New Zealand Government stock3,534,466
Local authority stock648,914
Public Trust and National Provident Fund7,001,060
Other3,955,804
Total380,718,859

Power – The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal. The excess generation of certain local factories, which is bought in for public supply, is given in the column “Other Sources”.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNon-productive
N.Z. Electricity DepartmentSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
   thousand kWh   
19595,363,053303,67910,6805,677,4124,702,100975,312
19606,050,066299,02011,5966,360,6825,273,9321,086,750
19616,504,620318,42311,5016,834,5445,683,5471,150,997
19627,086,964304,9167,4247,399,3046,169,4971,229,807
19637,593,940349,0948,2377,951,2716,583,7851,267,486

Analysis of Units Retailed – The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units, and “Commercial” both commercial and dairy water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticCommercial and IndustrialStreet LightingTramways and Trolley BusesElectric RailwaysOther PurposesTotal
   thousand kWh    
19592,741,0701,884,59032,00920,95222,9705094,702,100
19603,122,1732,066,78339,05422,37623,2942525,273,932
19613,359,7552,234,89743,35822,22123,3165,683,547
19623,656,0432,419,13448,09322,22023,6403676,169,497
19634,141,5302,439,60457,91621,69322,964786,683,785

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

ELECTRICITY GENERATION

Revenue – Revenue is derived chiefly from the sale of power, and in 1962–63 this source was 97.7 per cent of the total. The following table sets out the revenue from all sources (excluding bulk sales) for the years 1958–59 to 1962–63.

Year Ended 31 MarchSale of Power (Retail)Profits from TradingMiscellaneousTotal*

*Excluding revenue from interchange of power.

 ££££
195927,317,304118,007617,18328,052,494
196030,031,508121,337617,33730,770,182
196131,722,325129,870720,71132,572,906
196234,449,497131,988776,94835,358,433
196337,470,400126,826736,96338,334,189

Expenditure – Of total expenditure of £31,497,373 (excluding cost of interchange of power in bu recorded in the year ended 31 March 1963, 75.5 per cent represented overhead costs (comprising management expenses and capital charges), while operating expenses of prime costs stood at 24.5 per cent.

Power may be sad more than once in bulk before reaching the retailing authority, and in these tables the revenue from such interchange of power between authorities is set off against the cost, the net figure for cost of power purchased representing the cost to the industry of purchases from outside sources. In this connection mention may be made of certain contracts existing between the Government and some local authorities, whereby the latter are required to maintain their plants and to operate them, whenever called upon, to supplement the State electricity supply. The units so generated, often by fuel plants, are purchased by the Government and resold, in most cases to the generating authority, for distribution.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure, excluding the cost of bulk interchanges.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1960196119621963

*Does not include the interchange of power between supply authorities.

 ££££
Operating Expenditure
Cost of power purchased*65,57855,04313,69915,191
Cost of generation943,048948,471950,420991,110
Fuel1,341,5771,719,4261,797,566797,286
Repairs and stores416,390469,201489,537507,952
Cost of transmission and distribution4,741,6444,835,8264,907,6445,310,968
Public (street) lighting113,24387,137103,338107,930
Totals7,621,4808,115,1048,262,2047,730,437
Miscellaneous Expenditure
Cost of management3,029,1353,213,4233,512,4673,739,021
Losses from trading5,2636,7254,9047,684
Other expenditure and insurance116,174123,280175,674178,936
Totals3,150,5723,343,4283,693,0453,925,641
Capital Charges (Including Taxation)
Interest8,392,6879,128,37210,816,40511,564,597
Sinking fund438,511474,590494,971489,059
Renewals762,920798,931844,1371,133,297
Depreciation3,188,7663,433,1543,002,6013,38,99
Loan repayment2,673,5592,925,7753,117,5643,265,343
Totals15,456,44316,760,82218,275,67819,841,295
    Grand totals26,228,49528,219,35430,230,92731,497,373

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold retail is given hereunder.

 Year Ended 31 March
1960196119621963
 d.d.d.d.
Operating expenses0.3470.3430.3210.278
Miscellaneous expenses0.1430.1410.1440.141
Capital charges0.7040.7080.7110.712
Totals1.1941.1921.1761.131

20 B – GAS GENERATION AND SUPPLY

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT – The gas industry was amongst the first industrial enterprises founded in New Zealand. The first gasworks was erected in the year 1862 at Auckland when the European population of that town was about 25,000, and the total European population of New Zealand was only some 100,000 persons; the Christchurch and Dunedin works commenced supply in 1863; with the addition of the Wellington establishment in 1869 there was then a gasworks in each of the four main centres. Subsequent growth of the industry was rapid, and in 1916 there were 56 establishments engaged in generation and supply of gas to the public. This was the peak year so far as the number of establishments is concerned.

Since this date the number of works in use has declined steadily, although the output of gas actually increased and a much larger number of consumers is supplied now than in the year 1916. Electricity first came into general use for lighting; it gradually supplanted gas for this purpose from 1919 onwards, and, as new appliances were introduced, continued successfully to compete with gas in heating and cooking. Plants in the larger towns and cities have been able to carry on successfully, but the works serving smaller towns have found it increasingly hard to cope with rising costs and to meet competition from electricity, so much so that a number have either sold out or closed down, leaving 30 works still operating in 1962.

As a part of the general stabilisation policy during the war, the Government instituted a system of subsidies to gasworks to enable them to meet rising costs without unduly increasing the price of gas to the consumer. These subsidies were paid from 1943 onwards to individual works as required, each case being considered separately. The subsidies were withdrawn in 1950, the price of gas to consumers being raised to meet the additional cost of gas making consequent on this withdrawal. Further increases in operating costs, wages, and coal prices in 1951 led to a restoration of subsidies to the gas industry in the form of a subsidy to all gasworks of 2s. per 1,000 cu. ft. of gas sold. Financial assistance in the form of loans was also offered to works for the purpose of carrying out work necessary to restore the efficiency of gas making and storage plant, and it was considered that at the end of two years the industry would be in a strong enough position for the subsidy to be withdrawn. This has not proved to be the case, and the subsidy is still in force. From October 1959 this subsidy was reduced to 1s. 8d., except for works on the West Coast and the oil plant at Hastings. In addition, a new subsidy covering freight charges on coal was given to 18 undertakings. The Gas Council also stabilised the cost of gas-making coal until 31 March 1964 at the price existing at 1 April 1960.

After review in April 1964 the price existing at 1 April 1964 became the stabilised price. Annual average prices of gas in the four main centres are shown in the following table.

AVERAGE PRICE OF GAS TO CONSUMER PER 1,000 CUBIC FEET

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin 
 s.d.s.d.s.d.s.d.
1929–30706117063
1939–40726165511
1949–508106106962
1959–6013510681075
1961–6214611881172
1962–6314511119178

The decline of the gas industry was viewed with concern by the Government and the authorities which are required to supply the country with electric power, because of the additional demand for electricity which must follow any reduction of the gas supply. In order to conserve the contribution by the gasworks to the national sources of power, an Electricity and Gas Coordination Committee was set up in 1955 and commenced its work in January 1956, at which time 34 gas undertakings were in operation. The Committee considered that all but three smaller undertakings were essential in the national interest. On 5 September 1956 the Committee reported to the Minister making recommendations concerning the future operation of essential undertakings and in respect of the acquisition of such undertakings by the local electricity supply authority.

The Electricity and Gas Coordination Act 1956 established an Electricity and Gas Coordination Board to advise the Minister on the coordination of the electricity and gas industries. Following a report from the Board regarding the difficulties to be overcome in effecting local mergers, legislation was passed in 1958 setting up a Gas Council in place of the Board. The main functions of the Council are to advise the Government and the industry regarding the preservation and expansion of gas supplies, and to operate the Gas Industry Account, from which subsidies, grants, and loans may be made to assist the industry. The Gas Council has pursued a basic policy of spending funds available for the purpose of promoting efficiency and confidence in the gas industry. Many new plants have been erected, assisted in some cases by grants towards interest and capital repayment charges on loans until the new plant becomes revenue producing.

The prospect of natural gas has placed a different aspect on many of the problems facing gas undertakings especially on the West Coast of the North Island where natural gas is expected to become available.

RECENT STATISTICS – Statistics for the latest three years are set out in the following table.

Item1960–611961–621962–63

*Including natural gas.

WorksNo.323029
Premises and plant –    
  Value at end of year –    
    Land and buildings£1,113,5481,268,3621,270,946
    Plant and machinery£5,910,7846,589,9766,743,462
  Capital expenditure during year –    
    Land and buildings£24,39010,79020,474
    Plant and machinery£637,468897,419651,017
Persons engagedNo.1,4871,4111,412
Salaries and wages paid£1,322,1201,280,6931,336,112
Coal used –    
  Quantitytons277,100279,058261,749
  Cost£1,708,3831,735,5321,623,494
Total expenditure£4,132,6234,207,0484,257,343
Total revenue£4,202,9844,167,1294,145,674
ConsumersNo.163,213158,437x153,260
Gas available for distribution*cu. ft. (000)5,696,1305,860,5385,673,434
Gas sold retail –    
  Quantitycu. ft. (000)4,612,3574,584,5584,451,650
  Value (including subsidies)£3,189,5293,157,9073,127,139
Average price of gas to consumer per 1,000cu. ft.11s. 11d.11s. 11d.12s. 1d.

There follows an analysis of the 1962–63 statistics, these being dissected by locality of gasworks (North and South Island) and character of organisation. It will be seen that 67 per cent of the total quantity of gas available for distribution was in the North Island and 33 per cent was in the South Island, while proportions available for distribution by registered companies and local authorities were 68.8 per cent and 31.2 per cent respectively.

ItemRegistered CompaniesLocal AuthoritiesTotalRegistered CompaniesLocal AuthoritiesTotal

*Depreciated values.

† Undepreciated. Depreciation funds amounted to £26,000.

‡Undepreciated. Depreciation funds amounted to £86,000.

   North Island  South Island 
WorksNo.691531114
Value of land and buildings£(000)892*1211,01384*174258
Value of machinery and plant£(000)2,348*1,6614,009891*1,8432,735
Capital additions during year –
  Land and buildings£(000)9615..56
  Machinery and plant£(000)294139433111107218
Persons engaged –
  MalesNo.693200893188229417
  FemalesNo.611172201030
    TotalsNo.754211965208239447
Salaries and wages paid –
  To males£(000)679198877175222397
  To females£(000)3974611516
    Totals£(000)718205923186227413
Motive power –
  Engines in useNo.22513035572186258
  Total horsepowerh.p.3,3659374,3029159571,872
Materials used –
  Coaltons(000)13433167474795
 £(000)8592261,085247291539
  Oilgal(000)74522768243243
 £(000)382391515
Products –
  Gas available for distributioncu. ft. (m)3,0147863,8008919821,873
  Gas sold retailcu. ft. (m)2,2656072,8728067731,580
  Value (including subsidies)£(000)1,7344942,228441458899
  Coketons(000)34741221436
 £(000)1926625810175176
  Targal(000)1,1822701,452483414897
 £(000)13828166483280
  Other residuals£(000)366428210
Total expenditure£(000)2,1767392,9165537891,342
Total revenue£(000)2,2506332,8836166461,263
ConsumersNo.75,72625,371101,09717,59734,56652,163

Chapter 21. Section 21 MARKETING

21 A – MARKETING OF PRIMARY PRODUCE

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat – Most meat produced in the world is used for domestic consumption, and only about 6 per cent of world output enters into international trade. About three-quarters of all meat exports come from five countries. In order of importance these are New Zealand, Denmark, Argentina, Australia, and the Netherlands. The import trade is dominated by the United Kingdom, which takes about two-thirds of the total exports. Next in importance as importers are the United States of America, and the Western European countries such as Italy, Western Germany, and France.

Beef and veal comprise about half the world exports, with Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand the main exporters. In recent years, exports of pig meats (mostly by European countries) and mutton and lamb (mostly by New Zealand and Australia) have increased, while exports of beef have declined. New Zealand faces a problem of disposing of a rapidly increasing quantity of sheep meats in world markets. The United Kingdom has been a sheep-rearing country for centuries, and her people have developed a taste for mutton and lamb. In other likely markets the taste must to some extent be cultivated.

The population of the United Kingdom is increasing only slowly, and the consumption per head of carcass meat has remained fairly stable in recent years. At the same time the United Kingdom home production has risen considerably following encouragement by a system of guaranteed agricultural prices.

Though the United Kingdom is traditionally New Zealand's export market for meat and must remain so in the foreseeable future, there has been for some years a growing realisation of the need for supplementary markets. Efforts made during the past few years to develop alternative markets have had some success.

In the past the main markets outside the United Kingdom for New Zealand's meat have been the countries of Western Europe, but in recent years exports to these areas have declined, as these countries have intensified protection of their agricultural industries. Market opportunities may also be affected by developments in the European Economic Community, comprising Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Western Germany, and also by the European Free Trade Association, comprising United Kingdom. Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

Canada and the United States of America have been developed into important supplementary markets for lamb, and sales of mutton to Japan, Greece, and other markets outside the United Kingdom have increased substantially.

A reduction in size of beef herds in the United States of America following a drought and low prices in 1955–56 led to a demand for imported beef by that country. In 1958 New Zealand became a leading exporter of beef to the United States with shipments totalling about 91,000 tons, mostly boneless. In 1958 Canada also bought 4,100 tons of New Zealand beef and veal, with the result that 76 per cent of New Zealand's 1957–58 beef exports went to North American markets. In 1958–59, however, there was a drop in shipments to both the United States and Canada, partly because there was less beef for export and partly from competition from a greater supply of Australian beef following an amendment to the United Kingdom – Australian long-term agreement on meat which permitted Australia to divert a larger proportion of her production to markets outside the United Kingdom. Shipment of beef from New Zealand to the United States declined by 15,000 tons in 1959–60 but increased sales were made to other markets. Between 1 October 1960 and 30 September 1961 the shipments of boneless beef and veal totalled 51,900 tons to the United States and 1,200 tons to Canada. Smaller supplies from domestic production, coupled with continued heavy consumer demand, led to a sharp expansion in United States import requirements in 1962; receipts of beef and veal from Australia and New Zealand rose by 102,000 tons and 27,000 tons respectively. The rises in 1963 were much smaller.

Exports of New Zealand meat to the United States form only a very small proportion of national consumption. In February 1964 the United States and New Zealand Governments reached an agreement which guaranteed New Zealand continued access to the United States market with provision for a steady growth in the quantity exported each year from New Zealand. Access was granted for 103,000 tons of beef and veal in 1964. The annual rate of growth fixed in the agreement was the estimated rate of increase in the total United States market for these products, namely 3.7 per cent. Based on this figure the permissible level of New Zealand exports is 107,000 tons in 1965 and 111,000 tons in 1966. A similar agreement was made between the United States and Australia.

The following table shows the main destination of exports from New Zealand of frozen and chilled beef and veal for the three latest years.

Country of Destination196019611962
 tons£(000)tons£(000)tons£(000)
United Kingdom20,3333,21911,2971,7517,9311,204
United States56,35214,55165,88916,58989,76921,080
Japan3,5825603,0724701,638236
Other countries18,4463,89515,2333,41316,5313,397
Totals98,71322,22495,49122,223115,86725,917

Imports into the United States of some classes of fresh, chilled or frozen meat are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country of ExportBeef and VealMutton and Lamb
1960196119621963196019611962
tons (thousand)
New Zealand596794103454
Australia6499201210161927
Canada91398
Republic of Ireland24313028
Mexico17242631
Other countries15152428
  Total imports187248384406202432
United States production7,0697,2957,1167,543343371356

Wool – New Zealand is one of the largest exporters of wool in the world but marketing presents few difficulties. Most of the wool is auctioned in New Zealand and buyers come from interested countries to make their purchases of wool. A small percentage of wool produced is shipped to England for sale on the London market. Prices fluctuate according to the demand for wool, but the present market requirements are such that the Wool Commission has not had to buy in very much wool under its minimum price scheme, and even then has had to hold it only temporarily. The threat of competition from synthetic materials is such that the International Wool Secretariat is actively promoting advertising, merchandising, and research. World wool production and wool utilisation have in recent years been approximately in balance and there has been no pressure on supplies.

World wool production increased by almost 40 per cent in the 10 years to 1960–61; this growth reflects improvements both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep), and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population, the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. Since the war there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production, which remains heavily concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay – all of which export on a large scale – and in the United States and the Soviet Union, neither of whose clips enters the international market to any significant extent. These countries accounted for 75 per cent of world production in 1960–61; of the world total Australia alone produces 30 per cent and with New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa some 53 per cent.

Most of the major producing countries increased their wool production over the 10 years to 1960–61; Australia by 46 per cent, New Zealand by 51 per cent, and South Africa by 29 per cent. In the Soviet Union wool production almost doubled. In the United States the increase was less than 20 per cent, while production in South America was little changed.

The distribution of wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population since the production of wool, or yield per sheep varies considerably. While there is undoubtedly scope for improvement in a number of the lower yielding countries, the yields, which are averages over the sheep populations as a whole, are determined by the type of pasture, breed of sheep, average age of flock, and age of the sheep at slaughter. Variations in yield between countries, therefore, do not necessarily reflect variations in efficiency, but rather differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries in 1960–61 are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

CountrySheep NumbersWool ProductionProduction per Head of Sheep
 millionmillion lb (greasy)lb (greasy)
Australia152.71,61610.7
New Zealand48.558012.1
Argentina46.04319.4
South Africa34.03059.3
Uruguay21.51818.4
United States32.93239.8
United Kingdom29.01214.2
Communist bloc235.01,1124.7
Whole world913.05,6126.1

Dairy Produce – For the sale of dairy products New Zealand is very largely dependent on the United Kingdom market, which is practically the only open market of any size for butter and cheese. In 1960 the total production of butter by 32 of the main producing countries of the world amounted to 4.2 million tons. In the same year world exports by 19 of the leading exporters amounted to about 560,000 tons, that is, only about 13 per cent of world production entered into international trade. Of this quantity, 408,000 tons (73 per cent) came on to the United Kingdom market. Of the exports of 431,000 tons of cheese from 20 countries in 1960 there were 133,000 tons sent to the United Kingdom. These figures show that relatively small changes in demand-supply relationships in individual countries can have a most disturbing effect on the United Kingdom market.

Some countries have adopted agricultural income and price support policies to maintain and stabilise farming incomes. Only industrialised countries with a relatively low proportion of their national income derived from agriculture can continue support measures on a large scale. International trade is adversely affected in several ways. To maintain prices at support levels many countries have restricted imports of agricultural products, so that entry into markets, in which New Zealand's exports could effectively compete, has often been denied. High support prices and consequent high domestic prices discourage consumption and often lead to the accumulation of supplies which are surplus to domestic requirements. Surpluses generated in this manner are frequently disposed of in other markets at prices well below the cost of production. New Zealand's position in the United Kingdom market was adversely affected in 1958 when some European countries dumped on the market such quantities of butter that there were serious falls in prices.

Since 1958 price reductions in some European countries have to some extent stimulated consumption in them, but not a great deal of progress has been made in the reduction of subsidised dairy production that leads to dumping. It is essential for New Zealand to maintain strong and consistent pressure in international councils so that these measures are furthered. There were indications in 1960 that O.E.E.C. countries were prepared to exercise restraints to ensure a normal flow of supplies to the United Kingdom market, but dumping by a number of countries led to a serious fall in prices early in 1961. Discussions extending over a number of months in GATT and other international bodies were aimed at finding a remedy to the situation. Some alleviation of New Zealand's position was afforded in November 1961 when the British Government asked all countries currently supplying butter to Britain to agree to limit their shipments to the quantities proposed by GATT up to 31 March 1962. Britain restricted imports of butter for the year from 1 April 1962 to 390,000 tons, of which New Zealand's quota was 156,000 tons. This involved a waiver by New Zealand of the agreement for unrestricted entry to the United Kingdom market. For the year to 31 March 1964 the import level was raised to 410,000 tons, of which New Zealand's quota was 163,800 tons. The import level was later raised to 437,000 tons. In August 1963, when Britain increased the quota to the end of October 1963 by 12,000 tons, New Zealand was asked to supply an extra 2,000 tons. In October Britain sought another 5,000 tons to make up for short supply. When the New Zealand Government agreed in May 1963 to the request of the British Government (in connection with EFTA discussions involving Denmark) that the tariff of 15s. a cwt on non-Commonwealth butter be suspended for the duration of the present system of quota restrictions, Britain agreed to import not less than 163,800 tons of New Zealand butter annually. The basic butter quota for 1964–65 was set at 420,000 tons, with New Zealand's share as 168,000 tons.

New Zealand is moving towards the development of more supplementary markets for dairy produce, although quantities of the major products that can thus be disposed of are relatively small compared with the United Kingdom, New Zealand's long-standing market. Major industrial countries where income levels and food-consumption habits could provide important markets have adopted trading policies aimed at restricting imports of foodstuffs to protect their agriculture. International commodity agreements are now proposed as a long-term solution to the problem facing the suppliers of some of the temperate foodstuffs.

TRADE AGREEMENTS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM – The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for primary produce. New Zealand's trading relations with the United Kingdom are governed by a number of formal commitments. Under the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 New Zealand undertook to maintain a preferential tariff on imports from the United Kingdom, while the United Kingdom for its part was obliged to grant duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and maintain specified duties on some foreign products of interest to New Zealand. The United Kingdom also undertook to place quota restrictions on foreign meats.

On butter the foreign tariff rate, and therefore the margin of preference, fixed in 1932 was 15s. a hundredweight (at which comparatively low rate it still remains); on cheese the tariff preference is 15 per cent; on meat there is no preference on mutton and lamb, and a negligible tariff preference exists on beef coupled with a foreign quota on meat which was designed to ensure an expanding share of the United Kingdom's market; while on wool there has never been a preference.

During the trade talks in the United Kingdom in April-May 1957 the question of a review of the Ottawa Agreement was raised, and following discussions which took place in New Zealand early in 1958 on the occasion of the visit of the United Kingdom Prime Minister it was agreed desirable to review the provisions of the Ottawa Agreement which had remained substantially unaltered since 1932. Negotiations were opened by a New Zealand official delegation in London on 17 April 1958, and the new agreement came into force on 25 November 1958.

The agreement gave new flexibility to New Zealand's international trading and negotiating position. The levels of preferences in favour of the United Kingdom of the 1932 Agreement could be modified but the basic principle was retained to ensure that the close and mutually beneficial economic partnership between the United Kingdom and New Zealand would continue. Recognising that, because of changed conditions, the balance of advantage under the 1932 Trade Agreement had moved against New Zealand, the United Kingdom Government agreed to New Zealand having the right to reduce the 20-per-cent margin of preference on British goods. (See Section 22D – Customs Tariff and Revenue.)

The greater flexibility which will result will assist in reducing the cost of imports, and also enable other markets for an increasing volume of exports to be maintained and developed. New Zealand must be able to produce exports at competitive prices and to do this it is essential that plant and raw material used in production be imported on the most favourable basis. Provision has also been made for New Zealand to resort to a limited measure of bilateral trading with third countries, without causing serious harm to the trade of the United Kingdom.

In the latest agreement all existing rights and preferences for New Zealand goods entering the United Kingdom market were preserved. These included the 1957 supplementary agreement providing for annual consultations on the agricultural production and marketing policies of the two countries, as well as the 10-year right of entry to the United Kingdom market, without restriction as to quantity, of butter, cheese, skim and buttermilk powders, casein, and chilled and frozen pork. The 15-year right of entry for New Zealand meat, agreed to in 1952 outside the 1932 pact, remains in force.

Under the agreement the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments recognise that each other's trade may be materially injured by competition from dumped or subsidise exports from third countries. If, after consultation, it is established that such injury is being caused or threatened, each Government will consider remedial action consistent with its own laws and its international obligations.

The system of quota restrictions on butter and the suspension of the tariff constitute a suspension of part of New Zealand's rights under the trade agreement.

Trade between the United Kingdom and New Zealand is at present governed broadly by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and in particular by the New Zealand – United Kingdom Trade Agreement of 1959. Under this Agreement New Zealand has been guaranteed unrestricted and duty free entry to the United Kingdom market for dairy produce and pork until May 1967. The Agreement also gives guarantees of duty free entry for all New Zealand's exports and the preservation of specified margins of preference over imports from foreign sources of commodities such as dairy produce, beef, and veal during the currency of the Agreement, which may be terminated following six months' notice on either side. In addition, the United Kingdom has undertaken, in a Joint Declaration of 1952, to permit New Zealand's exportable surplus of beef, veal, mutton, and lamb to be sold in the United Kingdom market without restriction of quantity up to 31 October 1967. These are the formal arrangements. In practice they are of considerable importance because of New Zealand's dependence on the United Kingdom market. Of our total exports over 50 per cent are sent to the United Kingdom but for certain products the degree of dependence is much greater. In recent years over 90 per cent of butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb exports were sent to the United Kingdom. On the other hand, in the case of beef (because of the development of exports of this commodity to the United States) and some minor dairy products, the degree of dependence on the United Kingdom market has dropped sharply in recent years.

Restricted Alternative Outlets – Finding suitable trading outlets outside the United Kingdom has, for a number of reasons, proved difficult. The systems of agricultural protection used in North America and in Europe generally rely on restriction of supplies, especially imports, in order to maintain domestic prices and thus incomes to producers. These systems not only make it very difficult for New Zealand to export to these markets (which could be most lucrative) but also frequently result in the dumping of surpluses on relatively free markets. These problems are particularly acute in respect of dairy produce. In some instances lack of consumer appeal is a barrier to the promotion of new markets, as in the case of mutton and lamb in Continental Europe. The development of markets on any significant scale for the most vulnerable products – dairy produce and mutton and lamb – in African, Asian, and Latin American countries faces difficulties of a rather different kind. The developing countries in these areas of the world need to allocate a substantial proportion of their limited foreign exchange for imports of capital goods essential to their development programmes. They cannot therefore afford to import freely dairy produce and meat which for them are luxuries. Moreover, consumer preference for local foodstuffs, the lack of cold storage facilities, and the existence of religious and social barriers against meat consumption are significant among other factors in inhibiting the growth of trade between New Zealand and these regions in certain classes of meat and foodstuffs. Difficulties such as these make New Zealand more conscious of the restrictions on imports in the countries of Europe and North America which could be expected to be “natural” markets for our products.

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY – The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community entered into force on 1 January 1958. Under the terms of this treaty, the six member countries, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands will, over a transitional period, eliminate tariffs and other restrictions to trade within the Community. At the same time the tariffs on goods entering each member country from outside the Community will be adjusted until all member countries have a common external tariff.

During 1961 there loomed the prospect of the United Kingdom's joining the European Economic Community. This raised the threat of tariffs, levies, and quotas on New Zealand's dairy produce and meat going into the United Kingdom market. Strong representations were made to the British Government and Britain stated that she would not feel able to join the European Economic Community unless special arrangements could be secured to protect vital interests of New Zealand and other Commonwealth countries. (See special article in Appendix (d) of the 1962 Yearbook.)

At the conclusion of the Community's last Ministerial meeting in August 1962 the Chairman of the meeting informed Britain that because of the extent of her dependence on the British market the Six recognised that New Zealand was in a special position. They were prepared to consider additional solutions to cope with the particular difficulties arising from New Zealand's high degree of dependence on the United Kingdom market.

In January 1963 negotiations for a basis of entry by Britain into the European Economic Community ended in failure, because of France's insistence on strict application of the Rome Treaty without special dispensations, particularly for agricultural products. Subsequently Denmark announced that she would not proceed with her application to join the Common Market.

Implications for New Zealand – New Zealand would be seriously affected in the United Kingdom market by the full application of the Rome Treaty provisions by the United Kingdom.

So far as tariffs are concerned, the position in the United Kingdom market of New Zealand and of the EEC countries would be reversed. At present New Zealand has free entry while EEC countries pay tariffs. By the end of any transitional period the EEC countries would have free access and New Zealand would have to pay tariffs.

The application of the common tariff and the levy system would have serious direct effects on our earnings of overseas exchange and hence on our ability to import. In addition, however, these measures would involve a rise in United Kingdom prices and thus have the effect of reducing consumer demand.

EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA) – On 27 May 1959 Sweden invited Austria. Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (“The Seven”) to join with her in exploring the possibility of forming a free trade area. Discussions began in Stockholm in June 1959, and a Convention for a European Free Trade Association, agreed by Ministers of the Seven on 20 November 1959, became effective on 3 May 1960.

The Convention defines the objects of the Association as (1) to promote economic expansion in the area of the Association and in each member state; (2) to ensure that trade between member states take place in conditions of fair competition; (3) to prevent significant disparity between member states in the conditions of supply of raw materials produced within the area; and (4) to contribute to the harmonious development and expansion of world trade and to the progressive removal of barriers to it.

Members agreed to abolish their tariffs on industrial goods originating in the area within 10 years by means of a series of reductions. An initial 20 per cent reduction of tariffs was made on 1 July 1960, and the programme included further reductions of 10 per cent ad valorem (of original tariffs) on 1 January 1962 and 1963; and at the beginning of each year 1965–1970. Provision is made for alterations to this programme. Members undertook to abolish quantitative restrictions on imports of goods from the free trade area within 10 years. There is no common external tariff for the Association, each member country being free to fix the level of its tariffs against the countries outside the area. Various rules govern trading within the area of goods manufactured wholly or in part from materials originating outside the area and fair conditions of competition – such matters as government subsidies, restrictive practices, dumping, etc. Special arrangements are in force in relation to agricultural produce and fish.

The Council of EFTA consists of one ministerial or official representative from each member country. Each state has a single vote and recommendations must normally be unanimous. Decisions of the Council are binding on member countries.

EFTA Tariff Reductions – By 1963 tariffs were lowered to half their original level. Following the breakdown of negotiations for Britain's entry into the European Economic Community a new phase of activity was begun by the European Free Trade Association. Plans were made for the removal of all tariffs on industrial goods by 1966 and new proposals were put forward for agricultural and fishery products. In May 1963 agreement was reached to set up a completely free trade area in industrial goods by the end of 1966.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Dairy Produce – New Zealand's important position in the supply of butter, cheese, and milk powder to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table, showing imports into the United Kingdom, by country of export. In the case of butter, domestic production in the United Kingdom is relatively small in comparison with total supplies. Domestic cheese supplies, on the other hand, are comparatively large, as is also the domestic output of milk powder. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country of ExportButterCheeseMilk Powder
193819611962*19631938196119621963193819611962

*Import restrictions applied.

tons (thousand)
New Zealand1301561561588280797473128
Australia9059727112151516222
Canada223481111
Denmark11894969111091021
Netherlands36161615108911558
Other countries100986779714161541821
  Total imports476423407416146135139137185861
  United Kingdom production2050604343112112105..103113

For the 1962–63 season over 90 per cent of New Zealand's total exports of butter and almost 88 per cent of the total exports of cheese went to the United Kingdom.

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Product1938195819591960196119621963
lb per head
Butter24.120.218.518.319.720.119.5
Margarine10.013.714.715.013.313.113.4

Meat – The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Commonwealth Economic Committee.)

Country (of Export)Mutton and LambBeef and VealAll Meats*
19381961196219631938196119621963196119621963

*Including pig-meat and offal.

tons (thousand)
New Zealand184290292283521272319317303
Australia95252223115323519697257
Argentina45202122354153181236186214277
Denmark291299298
Other countries221217346891104101461469425
Totals3463473523435892883273581,3261,3701,360
  United Kingdom production2112632502426048919049301,9522,0322,070

The important part played by New Zealand in the supply of meat to the United Kingdom is shown in the above table, this country being one of the leading suppliers, accounting in 1963 for 82 per cent of the mutton and lamb and 22 per cent of total meat products. Corresponding figures for 1962 were 83 per cent and 23 per cent respectively.

It should be noted that over half of the meat consumed in the United Kingdom is now obtained from domestic supplies.

As the United Kingdom takes the great bulk of the mutton and lamb exported from New Zealand it is interesting to note the extent to which New Zealand contributes to this market in comparison with other countries. In the calendar year 1938 New Zealand supplied 63 per cent of the total frozen mutton imported into the United Kingdom and 50 per cent of the total imports of frozen lamb. Australia, the next largest supplier in 1938, contributed 23 per cent of mutton imports and 29 per cent of lamb imports, while Argentina, which ranked third on the list, supplied 6 per cent and 15 per cent respectively. That New Zealand has more than maintained her position in this connection in the post-war years is evidenced by the figures for 1963, when New Zealand supplied 83 per cent of mutton and lamb imported into the United Kingdom, whereas Australia supplied 7 per cent and Argentina 6 per cent.

New Zealand's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that the New Zealand share of the United Kingdom's beef imports has been relatively small; in addition in recent years a market for boneless packaged beef has been developed in North America, particularly in the United States, and supplies have been diverted there. In 1962 New Zealand supplied less than 1 per cent of the United Kingdom's total imports of beef, as compared with 7 per cent in 1938.

New Zealand pork is shipped almost exclusively to the United Kingdom, but the quantity is relatively small and is declining.

In international trade, exports of bacon far exceed those of other pig products, with the United Kingdom normally absorbing most of the exports of other countries. New Zealand has been supplying a diminishing proportion of the imports of frozen and chilled pork into the United Kingdom while her contributions of bacon are negligible.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING – In a country such as New Zealand which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance. Since the gradual abandonment of the principles of laissez faire from the First World War onwards, great changes have taken place, and developments have been described in detail in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Broadly speaking, the policy of controlled marketing of primary products has exhibited five phases:

  1. In the early 1920's the producer organisations made moves to rationalise the organisation of marketing.

  2. The next stage was for the State to trade directly, buying products outright, bearing losses and retaining profits. The Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 established the Marketing Department, which confined its pre-war operations to dairy produce.

  3. This was followed, after the outbreak of the Second World War and the establishment of bulk purchase, by the formation of financial pool accounts for each industry, the profits, subject to the general policy of stabilisation, being paid out to the suppliers, and any reserves held for the benefit of the industry. During the war the United Kingdom Government was the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and the Marketing Department the authority in New Zealand responsible for the bulk purchase and shipment of dairy produce, meat, wool, and tallow.

  4. The fourth phase was the direction of policy by boards and committees with the assumption of executive and not, as previously, merely advisory powers. Each body continued to use the marketing organisation for assembly, storage, transport, distribution, and accounting which the Marketing Department had built up, these services being made available at cost.

  5. The fifth phase was the progressive transfer from 1947 to various boards or authorities representative of the industry concerned (with Government representation to protect consumer interests) of the responsibility and authority for the effective marketing of their own products, or the return to private enterprise with the boards assuming mainly their former pre-war functions.

Marketing Authorities – The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Act of 1956 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Commission Act 1951, the Milk Act 1944, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (as regards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce – By the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947 the functions of the Marketing Department as regards butter and cheese for export (later extended to cover the control of all dairy produce for export) were transferred to the New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission. By the same Act the control and regulation of butter and cheese for local consumption were also transferred to the Commission. Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, which came into force on 1 September 1961, the functions of the Commission were assumed by the New Zealand Dairy Production and Marketing Board.

The Dairy Production and Marketing Board acquires and markets all New Zealand butter and cheese intended for export, controls the export of other dairy products, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. In selling the industry's exportable surplus of milk powder and casein, the Board is guided by an advisory committee for each product. The Board owns in the United Kingdom a company, Milk Products (N.Z.) Ltd., through which all New Zealand milk powder sold in the United Kingdom is distributed. It also owns Empire Dairies Ltd., which acts as one of the 17 first-hand agents through which New Zealand butter and cheese are distributed in Britain. The Board carries out extensive advertising and publicity of New Zealand produce in the United Kingdom.

Meat – The New Zealand Meat Producers Board, which was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22, has as its object the control of meat exports in the interests of the producers. The Board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported, the rate being three-fiftieths of a penny per lb on all carcass meat. Meat destined for local consumption is not dealt with by the Meat Producers Board. With the end of the bulk purchase agreements in September 1954, the export trade in meat reverted to a trader-to-trader basis. Provision was made by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, however, for the determination annually by the Meat Export Prices Committee of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand. The farmer sells his stock to a works or exporter and is paid by the works or exporter, who in turn is reimbursed by the Meat Producers Board for any deficiency payment.

Under the Meat Export Control Amendment Act 1959 the Meat Producers Board may purchase meat for sale outside New Zealand to promote the sale of meat in other countries, provided such action establishes new markets. A further amendment to the act in 1962 gives the Meat Board power, with the approval of the Minister of Finance, to provide financial backing to export companies operating in any markets.

To encourage the further exploitation of new markets, a company was formed in 1960 on the initiative of the Meat Producers Board. The capital is provided by the New Zealand owned freezing companies, but these companies and the Meat Producers Board appoint an equal number of directors. The company will ensure that new markets are adequately supplied and that reasonable pricing policies are followed.

Wool – By the Wool Commission Act 1951 there was established a Wool Commission with the principal function of assuring minimum prices for greasy, scoured, and growers' slipe wool in accordance with the table of minimum prices (effective only after agreement with the Minister), for New Zealand wool sold in New Zealand or the United Kingdom at auction sales approved by the Commission. The Wool Disposal Account was abolished and its moneys, together with those standing to the credit of the Wool Industry Deposit Account, were transferred to the Wool Commission Account which was established by the Act. The marketing of wool is carried out by public auction. Although the Wool Commission Act makes provision for a charge to be made on all wool sold or exported in order to cover the administration costs of the Commission, in fact no such charge has ever been levied. The annual interest earnings on the Commission's investments, together with profits from the resale of wool bought in at floor price, have met all costs and, in addition, have been sufficient to augment the original capital. The Commission, acting on behalf of the Wool Board, collects a levy, which is paid over in its entirety to the Wool Board for research and promotional activities. From October 1964 the levy is being increased from 7s. 6d. to £1 3s. 6d. a bale to enable the Wool Board to meet its share of the budget of £13 million for promotion and research by the International Wool Secretariat, of which Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa are members. Since 1954 the Commission has from its funds made a supplementary payment to the Board each year of an amount equal to that levied on growers direct and this meant that the levy on growers for Wool Board purposes was, up to 1963, at half the rate that otherwise would have applied.

Apples and Pears – Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This Board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. It administers a guaranteed price scheme based on the cost of production of apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. In this case the Board does not itself declare the average price to be paid for apples and pears, its powers being limited in this respect to making recommendations to the Minister of Agriculture, who declares the cost of production. This cost of production has, since the passing of an amending Act in 1954, become the average price to be paid for apples and pears for the season concerned. The Board is charged with the duty of recovering from the market these prices together with the costs of marketing. It determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the Board exceed the amount which the Board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the Board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. Until the reserve fund reached £1,000,000 the whole of the annual profit was paid into it. From then until the fund reached £1,250,000 the profit was distributed in the proportion of 25 per cent to the growers and 75 per cent to the fund. This amount having been reached, the profit is now allocated equally between the two. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the Board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. Most apples and pears are purchased by the Board, with the Act making limited provision for certain private sales by growers in accordance with regulations issued thereunder. The Board was able to declare a bonus to fruitgrowers for five seasons from 1953–54, the average amounts paid out per case being for 1954, 4.09d.; for 1955, 2.37d.; for 1956, 3.98d.; for 1957, 14.07d.; and for 1958, 4.92d. In 1959 a loss of £433,963 was incurred by the Board, and in 1960, though a profit of £304,443 was made by the Board, it was agreed with the growers that no bonus would be paid, the amount involved being invested in a processing factory set up by the Board. In the 1961 season the Board incurred a loss of £134,804 but in 1962 there was a profit of £23,284, and a bonus of 0.55d. per case was paid. In 1963 there was a loss of £69,580.

With the exceptions listed below, all fruit must be offered to the Board, and accepted by it if it comes within the scope of the New Zealand Grown Fruit Regulations 1952, which set standard grades with which the fruit must conform.

Officers of the Department of Agriculture inspect the fruit, and if it complies with the required standards the fruit becomes the property of the Board.

The exceptions under which fruit is not required to be offered to the Board are:

  1. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than two cases, or with permission of the Board, to retailers in specified localities. In the latter case the Board may prescribe conditions as to quantities, varieties, standards, etc., of fruit sold:

  2. Manufacturers may be licensed by the Board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the Board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). In such cases, also, the Board may make conditions as above:

  3. Growers may also be permitted by the Board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Board is not obliged to accept fruit from a grower while he holds a permit to sell at such a market.

The Board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. As at 1 December 1953 the Board purchased from the Government the greater part of the facilities then in use for the handling of the crop. They included cool stores and ancillary equipment. Since then, however, the reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

A Committee of Inquiry into the sale of apples and pears on the local market reported to Parliament on 4 October 1961 – see parliamentary paper H. 29A. The Committee supported continuance of the existing form of marketing with minor variations.

Potatoes – The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants and an officer of the Public Service as an advisory member, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the Board for main-crop potatoes, and the appointment of wholesalers authorised to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the Board. The Board replaced the Potato Advisory Committee of the Marketing Department from November 1950. In June 1956 the Government announced that it would guarantee the overdraft of the Potato Board to enable the Board to guarantee a certain schedule of minimum prices to contract growers for any potatoes unsold at the end of the season. The purpose is to encourage the growing of an adequate supply of potatoes.

Milk – The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the National Milk Scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk.

The Board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Revenue Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Government after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for pasteurising and bottling milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Government on the recommendation of the Board. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs – The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of seven members – four producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives. The principal function of the Authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs, or, as directed by the Authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Prices are governed by supply and demand. Eggs are subject to price control. A subsidy, at present at the rate of 4d. per dozen, is paid by the Government in respect of eggs received at authorised egg floors (as the licensed distributors are known). This is to offset floor charges and distribution costs which would otherwise be passed on to the consumers.

Imported Citrus Fruits and Bananas – Since the beginning of 1951 the importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, and pineapples have been taken over by a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are two Government members on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges – The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 with the tasks of selling fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand and processing unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The Authority has a membership of six, five of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture representing the consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the Authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The Authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, Auckland, and Tauranga.

Honey – The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the task of packing and marketing honey within New Zealand and for export, and operates the blending plant in Auckland. A levy is made at the rate of 1d. per pound on all honey sold locally and the funds paid into the Honey Industry Account, which is administered by the Authority for the benefit of the industry in general.

The Authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, and one member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

PRICES OF PRIMARY PRODUCTS: Wool – Statistics of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand (compiled from information supplied by the New Zealand Wool Commission) are shown in the following tables. The first table gives total quantities and values as recorded at sales, no attempt being made to allow for variations in quality or in the relative quantities of the various types of wool sold from season to season. Besides price movements, therefore, the average value per pound of wool sold shown in this table includes variations on account of these additional factors. Under the Wool Commission Act 1951 the Wool Commission is authorised to prepare a table of minimum prices for various classes of wool, which becomes effective by agreement with the Minister of Agriculture. Where wool is sold at less than the minimum price at an approved sale, the Commission may supplement the sale price so as to increase it to the minimum price, or, alternatively, may buy such wool at a price not greater than the minimum price.

WEIGHT, SALE VALUE, AND AVERAGE VALUE PER POUND OF GREASY WOOL SOLD AT AUCTION

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per PoundAverage Minimum Floor Price per Pound of Greasy Wool

*Reserve price.

*†See Latest Statistical Information.

 lb (000)£(000)d.d.
1950–51293,737107,50987.8419.10*
1951–52314,89652,73440.1924.00
1952–53311,90260,02246.1924.00
1953–54317,09366,39250.2526.00
1954–55338,60870,08449.6726.00
1955–56341,57665,73546.1930.00
1956–57356,23781,28354.7630.00
1957–58370,40763,52041.1633.00
1958–59406,26161,06436.0733.00
1959–60409,19976,12144.6533.00
1960–61420,94170,75340.3433.00
1961–62423,35869,11539.1833.00
1962–63444,07979,26342.8433.00
1963–6433.00

In the next table details of a wool price index on base 1949–50 (= 1000) are given. This index has been compiled in an attempt to eliminate all but the price factor in movements of average wool values. A description of the make-up of this index is given in the March 1952 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

SeasonPrice per Pound on Floor, Greasy*Index Numbers Base: 1949–50 (= 1000)

*Average of selected types.

†Based on price on floor, clean.

‡See Latest Statistical Information.

 d. 
1952–5347.071219
1953–5450.831310
1954–5549.981286
1955–5646.981208
1956–5756.151430
1957–5842.721089
1958–5937.59962
1959–6046.051179
1960–6142.291082
1961–6241.361062
1962–6345.201144
1963–64

Dairy Produce – The measures introduced by the United Kingdom Government against dumping by European countries of surplus quantities of butter on the British market were an important factor contributing to the improvement in the price of butter which took place in the second half of 1958. In December 1958, however, the United Kingdom Government decided to uplift the quota restrictions previously imposed and withdrew its requests to Sweden and Finland to limit their exports and informed the Republic of Ireland that arrangements with it could lapse. The United Kingdom Government stated that if at any future time the imports of dumped or subsidised butter from any country should assume such proportions as to cause or threaten material injury to the New Zealand producers, application could again be made by New Zealand under the Customs Duties (Dumping and Subsidies) Act, and an assurance was given that any application would be dealt with expeditiously.

Largely as a result of an exceptionally dry summer in Europe in 1959, which reduced dairy production and resulted in depleted stocks in the United Kingdom, the price of New Zealand butter rose remarkably during the year to reach a peak of 410s. per hundredweight in October 1959. Early in 1960 the price dropped quickly following a loss of some trade to margarine and greater shipments from Europe due to a good production season.

There were indications in 1960 that European countries had adopted some change of outlook so far as the flooding of the United Kingdom market with surplus butter was concerned, and would tend to encourage greater sales on their home markets, but disposals of surpluses in 1961 again upset the market. Consumption in the United Kingdom increased, but stocks built up as Continental countries disposed of embarrassing butter surpluses, and the price of New Zealand butter dropped to 250s. per hundredweight. New Zealand raised the matter with GATT and discussions were held within the framework of GATT in April and June 1961 and again in September, the British Government having sought this latter meeting after the lodging of an anti-dumping application by New Zealand. In November 1961, when Britain asked all exporting countries to limit their supplies to the quantities proposed by GATT to 31 March 1962, the price for New Zealand butter rose almost immediately and recovered still further after quota restrictions were introduced by Britain from 1 April 1962.

The following table shows the average weekly sterling price for New Zealand butter ex-store United Kingdom for each month in the past four years, along with the average weekly sales on the London market during the same period. (Source: Dairy Production and Marketing Board.)

MonthButter
(Finest and First Grades) Average Price per Cwt(All Grades) Weekly Averages Sales
1960196119621963196419601961196219631964
 s.s.s.s.s.tonstonstonstonstons
January4032692853153352,6102,3042,5863,1053,199
February3542582853153352,5533,1812,3283,2593,244
March3342502853153352,4263,6933,1983,1233,216
April2922502853153352,9763,5173,2023,1213,154
May290250285315 2,5693,4003,4383,083 
June292250301327 3,1643,2673,1853,098 
July310250305335 2,5982,7062,8283,101 
August304250305335 1,9242,5723,0413,007 
September282250305335 2,6343,3023,0022,992 
October290250305335 2,2123,1392,8533,001 
November287260315335 2,0933,1682,9563,165 
December280282315335 2,7313,2313,2503,126 
  Annual average311256298326 2,5493,1283,0023,098 

The next table gives similar information for the London sales of New Zealand cheese. (Source: Dairy Production and Marketing Board.)

MonthCheese
(Finest and First Grades, White) Average Price per Cwt (Crated)(All Grades) Weekly Average Sales
196019611962196319641960x1961196219631964
 s.s.s.s.s.tonstonstonstonstons
January2882302302302301,1481,3091,4041,8042,238
February2512302302302301,3871,6871,4601,3641,586
March2302302302302351,5841,3511,4331,1541,994
April2302302302302401,8141,7601,6431,4181,573
May230230230230 1,5851,2161,4901,484 
June230230230230 2,2301,4901,3251,670 
July230230230230 1,2871,4451,4351,440 
August230230230230 1,0941,3691,4801,384 
September230230230230 1,9051,6541,4291,294 
October230230230230 1,4401,6491,4351,713 
November230230230230 1,0901,5201,5491,950 
December230230230230 1,3101,4521,2951,343 
  Annual average237230230230 1,5051,4981,4421,502 

The next table gives the comparative f.o.b. and ex-store London prices in relation to the basic price per lb of butterfat.

NOTE – “F.o.b. equivalent” represents payments by the Dairy Production and Marketing Board to dairy factories, and therefore excludes the Board's expenses as exporters.

“Equivalent ex-store London” includes such selling expenses in New Zealand and United Kingdom (e.g. advertising). Strictly it also includes discount and, in the case of crated cheese, an allowance for shrinkage, as well as the expenses already noted (insurance, freight, handling and storage charges, and commission). It is in sterling currency.

YearProductBasic Price d. per lbf.o.b.* Equivalent s. per cwtPrice Equivalent Ex-store London s. per cwt

*f.o.b. = free on board, i.e., loaded at a New Zealand port.

†The ex-store price includes insurance and freight to London, unloading and storing charges, and commission on sales.

1957–58Butter36.25310345
 Cheese39.25173209
1958–59Butter32277315
 Cheese35159194
1959–60Butter32279313
 Cheese38171208
1960–61Butter32278314
 Cheese38174210
1961–62Butter32277313
 Cheese38177214
1962–63Butter32278314
 Cheese37175213
1963–64Butter32277315
 Cheese37177217

The movements in prices and sales of butter on the United Kingdom market are shown in the following diagram.

PRICES AND SALES OF N.Z. BUTTER IN UNITED KINGDOM

The movements in prices and sales of cheese on the United Kingdom market are shown in the following diagram.

PRICES AND SALES OF N.Z. CHEESE IN UNITED KINGDOM

Guaranteed Prices for Dairy Produce – Guaranteed prices for butter and cheese were introduced by the Government on 1 August 1936 to give stability to the dairy industry, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1936 set out the principles which underlay the fixing of the prices. (See the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.) Under the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947 the Commission was given authority to fix the guaranteed price, and another principle was added, namely, the promotion of the general economic stability of New Zealand.

The Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act 1956, which came into force on 1 August 1957, made miscellaneous amendments to the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947. It reconstituted the Dairy Products Marketing Commission, established a Dairy Products Prices Authority and a Dairy Industry Loans Council, and provided for the disposal of any annual surplus received from the sale of butter and cheese.

The Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947, as amended in 1956, provided that, unless the Dairy Board otherwise agreed, a surplus in any one trading year should be paid out to producers up to the assessed cost of production for that year (the trading period was defined by the Act as the 12 months ending 31 May). As early as July 1959 it had become clear that the industry's account for the year ending 31 May 1960 was likely to show a surplus. An understanding was reached between the industry and the Government that half of any such surplus would be paid to the producers and half would be retained in the Dairy Industry Account. An amount of £6,951,000 was paid to dairy companies under this arrangement.

Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961, which came into force on 1 September 1961, the Dairy Board and the Dairy Products Marketing Commission were amalgamated in a new body named the Dairy Production and Marketing Board, which consists of two Government and 11 producer members. The Dairy Products Prices Authority and the Dairy Industry Loans Council were retained under the new legislation but with changed constitutions.

Under the Dairy Production and Marketing Board Act 1961 prices for butter are fixed by the Dairy Products Prices Authority after taking into account the following matters:

  1. The necessity in the public interest of maintaining the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry.

  2. The amount which butter and cheese acquired by the Commission is realising and the market prospects for the coming year.

  3. The state of the Dairy Industry Account, the Dairy Industry Reserve Account, and the Dairy Industry Capital Account.

  4. Any submissions made by the Dairy Production and Marketing Board.

  5. Any other matters deemed relevant.

The price fixed for butter in any season must not vary by more than 5 per cent from the maximum price fixed for the previous season.

The price for cheese is determined by the Authority, having regard to (a) the cost of manufacturing cheese as compared with the cost of manufacturing butter, (b) the desirability of ensuring that dairy produce will be produced in such quantity and in such proportions as will be of the greatest benefit to the dairy industry.

The Authority must consult with the Minister before it fixes any prices. The members of the Authority are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture, and comprise three representatives of the Government, three members nominated by the Dairy Production and Marketing Board, and a Chairman approved by the Board before appointment.

In a normal trading year not more than 50 per cent of any surplus will be distributed to dairy companies and the balance placed in reserve. An end-of-season payment of at least one penny a pound of butterfat was expected for the season ended 31 May 1964.

In 1963 there was held a Commission of Inquiry into the return for butter sold for consumption within New Zealand. The report of the Commission was printed as parliamentary paper B. 8. Another related paper is the Report on the Economic Position of the Farming Industry (parliamentary paper B. 4. of 1963).

The guaranteed prices in pence per pound of butter and cheese for export paid to dairy factories are now given.

SeasonCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93–93 1/2 pt)Whey Butter (First Grade)Cheese (First Grade 92–92 1/2 pt)

*Equivalent, on a product basis, of additional amounts paid to dairy companies. For details refer to appropriate annual reports of New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission.

†These additional amounts are surplus payments, as authorised by the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Amendment Act 1956.

‡Increase in the differential payment in favour of cheese.

  pence per lb (net weight) 
1953–54   
  1 August – 14 September32.537231.618118.1747
1.1294*0.5612*
  15 September – 31 July34.353232.908619.1380
1.1294*0.5612*
1954–55   
  1 August – 30 November33.942532.497918.7437
  1 December – 31 July34.496932.497919.0204
1955–5633.264931.264918.3600
0.5749*0.2857*
1956–570.8163*
34.135532.135519.2673
  (gross weight) 
1957–5833.149131.149118.5335
1958–5929.689527.689516.9622
1959–6029.795027.795018.3196
3.6225*1.7598*
1960–6129.72927.72918.308
Ended 31 May   
1961–6229.69927.69918.452
1962–6329.66327.66317.944
1963–6429.61427.61418.084

Produce of other grades incurs differential premiums or penalties according to grading points. Differentials used since the introduction of guaranteed purchase prices are as follows.

CREAMERY BUTTER

Grade1936–37 to 1957–581958–59 and 1959–601960–61 to 1963–64
  pence per lb 
Finest 94 points and over+0.125+0.1875+0.2
Finest 93–93 1/2 points (basic)
First 92–92 1/2 points-0.0625-0.1875-0.2
First 90–91 1/2 points-0.25-0.5625-0.75
Second grade-0.75-2.0-2.0
Third grade (from 1955–56)-6.0-6.0-6.0

CHEESE

Grade1936–37 to 1950–511951–52 to 1954–551955–56 to 1959–601960–61 to 1963–64
  pence per lb 
Finest 94 points and over+0.15625+0.3125+0.3125+1.25
Finest 93–93 1/2 points+0.125+0.215+0.215+1.0
First 92–92 1/2 (basic)
First 91–91 1/2 points-0.0625-0.0625-0.0625-0.25
Second 88–90 1/2 points-0.25-0.725-1.075-1.25
Second 87 and under-1.2-3.75-3.75

The prices quoted in the table on page 601 were designed to enable average dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in pence per pound of butterfat used for butter or cheese manufacture. Also given is the actual average net revenue per pound of butterfat supplied.

SeasonPrice per Pound of Butterfat Used for-
Butter-making (Basic Price)Cheese-making (Basic Price)Butter-making (Average Net Revenue)Cheese-making (Average Net Revenue)

*Plus .625d. additional payments made separately from purchase prices.

†Plus .700d. surplus payments at end of season.

‡Plus 4.3995d. surplus payments at end of season.

§An additional 2d. per pound of butterfat was paid in 1955–56 to factories on all butterfat used for cheesemaking during the season.

   pence per lb 
1949–50 –    
  August 1949 to April 195028.24430.24428.72030.785
  May 1950 to July 195028.97230.972
1950–51 –    
  August 1950 to 14 February 195129.67831.67830.56832.425
  15 February 1951 to 31 July 195131.40733.407
1951–5233.65536.15534.10636.764
1952–5335.670*38.670*35.916*38.958*
1953–54 –    
  August 1953 to 14 September 195335.834*38.834*37.610*40.554*
  15 September 1953 to 31 July 195437.984*40.984*
1954–55 –    
  August 1954 to 30 November 195437.34939.83137.73240.133
  1 December 1954 to 31 July 195537.96140.240
1955–5636.45938.459§36.54738.730§
1956–5737.54840.54837.47940.887
1957–5836.25039.25036.32239.822
1958–5932.00035.00032.35235.271
1959–6032.00038.00032.34638.259
1960–6132.00038.00032.35838.554
1961–6232.00038.00032.309x38.088x
1962–6332.00037.00032.38737.463
1963–6432.00037.000....

In addition to the basic price payments, payouts were made from realisations of the sale of butter and cheese in the 1951–52, 1952–53, and 1953–54 seasons, in accordance with the agreement by which the full proceeds received from the sale of these commodities up to the end of the 1954–55 season were to be used for the benefit of suppliers and/or dairy companies.

There was no surplus distribution in 1954–55, the Commission in fact incurring a loss of £597,344. In 1955–56 payments were made to cheese companies, thus increasing the differential as mentioned later. At the end of the 1955–56 season an additional payment of 0.7d. per pound of butterfat was made.

With the decline in butter prices during 1956 and the heavy falls for both butter and cheese during 1957 and into 1958, the funds in the Dairy Industry Account, amounting to £27 million at the start of the 1956–57 season, were exhausted during 1958. After the completion of sales of butter and cheese produced in the 1957–58 season the account was in debit to an amount of £7,349,485, but the sales of the 1958–59 production at higher prices brought about a recovery in the account. A surplus payment of 4.3995d. per pound of butterfat received and used in the manufacture of butter and cheese for the period 1 August 1959 to 31 May 1960 was made to dairy companies in August 1960.

At the conclusion of the 1960–61 season there was a net deficit of £7,491,850. The gross deficit of £8,301,471 on sales of butter, which was only partially offset by a gross surplus of £2,366,622 on cheese and by commission on sales of milk powder and casein, was an indication of the extent to which New Zealand's interests had been injured during the season by butter dumping on the United Kingdom market.

The price differential of butterfat for manufacture of cheese over that for manufacture of butter was 2d. a pound during 1937–38 to 1950–51, 2 1/2d. for 1951–52, 3d. for 1952–53 and 1953–54, 2 1/2d. for 1954–55, and, as shown in the previous table, was first fixed at 2d. for 1955–56. By subsequent announcements during the season this was increased to 4d., the additional 2d. being distributed, not by increasing the guaranteed price for cheese, but by paying to factories 2d. per pound on all butterfat used by them in the manufacture of cheese during the season. For 1956–57, 1957–58 and 1958–59 the price differential was 3d., but for 1959–60 it was increased to 6d. to maintain the volume of cheese production, remained at this figure for 1960–61 and 1961–62 and was reduced to 5d. for 1962–63 and remained at this figure for 1963–64.

There is an assumption implicit in the basic price scheme that the payout to butter factory suppliers is for cream at the farm and the payout to cheese factory suppliers is for whole milk delivered to the factory. Where a factory receives whole milk and makes butter, the residual skim milk can be manufactured into any of several products, the main ones being skim-milk powders and casein. The only possible products of a cheese factory additional to those covered by the guaranteed price for cheese are products of separated whey and are of relatively insignificant value. Because of the existence of the price differential of butterfat for manufacture of cheese over that for manufacture of butter, factories with the necessary equipment generally make butter and skim-milk powder or butter and casein only where the combined returns are likely to be at least equal to the return from cheese.

Meat – The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being “ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market”. The next table gives prices at the end of the last week in the month. One half of the value of all exports of frozen and chilled meat are generally accounted for by lamb, and the two first-quality weight grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 5 per cent and 40 to 50 per cent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported. Beef accounts for one quarter of the total exports of frozen and chilled meat (by value), but mutton comprises only about 5 per cent of the total value of frozen-meat exports. With the reduction of regular supplies of quarter beef to the United Kingdom, price quotations have been infrequent.

In 1960 imported lamb and mutton prices in the United Kingdom improved considerably, but towards the end of the year lamb values again took a downward turn, which continued during 1961. United Kingdom domestic production of lamb and mutton showed still further increases during 1961 and this, combined with larger stocks of imported lamb held in United Kingdom stores, had the effect of keeping lamb prices at the lower levels until there was a recovery in prices in the second quarter of 1962.

End of Last Week inLambMutton
First QualitySecond QualityWetherEwe
28 lb and Under29 to 36 lb28 lb and29 to 36 lb49 to 56 lb57 to 64 lb49 to 56 lb57 to 64 lb

*Nominal; figures so marked have, in the absence of actual quotes, been carried forward from earlier weeks in the same month.

pence per lb
1959—March22 1/221–2220 1/2–2120 1/2–211210 1/2–11109 1/2–10
1960—March24–2522–2324–2522 1/2–2314 1/2*13*11–11 1/210
1961—March22 1/2–2321 1/2–222322–22 1/212 1/2*12*12 1/2–1311–11 1/2
1962—March2120 1/2–2119 1/220 1/212 1/211 1/2–1211 1/211
  June26 1/2–2726–26 1/226–26 1/225 1/2–2614–15*13–13 1/2*1210 1/2–11
  October26–26 1/224–24 1/224–24 1/222 1/2–2314–14 1/213 1/4–1411 1/2–1210 1/2–11
  November23–23 1/221 1/2–2222 1/22113 1/213–13 1/21110
  December24 3/4–25 1/422 3/4–23 1/223 3/4–242113 1/2131110
1963—January25 1/2–2624–2525–25 1/22413 1/21310 1/2–1110
  February22–2321–22 1/222–2321–2213 1/212 1/2–1311–11 1/210–10 1/2
  March20–2119 1/2–20 1/220–212013 1/21311 1/2–1210 1/2
  April21–2221–21 1/221–2221–21 1/214–14 1/213 1/212 1/211
  May23 1/22323–23 1/222 1/2–231513 1/213 1/211
  June23–23 1/222 1/2–2322 1/2–2322 1/21513–13 1/213 1/211
  July24 1/2–2523 1/2–2423 1/2–2423151313–13 1/211
  August27–27 1/225–26262514 1/2–1512 1/21310 1/2
  September27 1/225 1/2–2625 1/2–262514 1/211 1/2–121310
  October27252624 1/2–251411–11 1/21310
  November25–25 1/22324–24 1/222–22 1/213 1/21111 1/2–129 1/2
  December27 1/22626 1/2–2722–22 1/21311 1/212–12 1/210 1/2
1964—January21 1/2–22 1/221 1/2–222321 1/2–2214–14 1/21313 1/211 1/2
  February23 1/2–2422 1/2–2323 1/2–2422 1/2–2314 1/2*13 1/2*14*11 1/2*
  March25 1/2–2624 1/226–26 1/224 1/2–25........

Schedule Prices – A schedule of buying prices is issued each week. Since the beginning of the 1950–51 season the fixing of the schedule prices has been wholly in the control of the operators. The Meat Producers Board keeps a close watch on the prices being received for the meat and all byproducts and on processing costs to ensure that the schedule prices give a just and equitable return to producers.

The opening schedules for the last ten seasons are given below. Prices quoted are for dressed weights ‘on the hooks’ at freezing works.

ItemSeason
1954–551955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–611961–621962–631963–64
Price of Lamb, Wether, and Ewe Mutton, in Pence per Pound
Lambs –          
  Downs (29–36 lb)272423262013 1/220 1/216 3/41719 1/2
  Canterbury (29–36 lb)132016 1/416 1/219
Crossbred (29–36 lb)13 1/220 1/216 3/41719 1/2
Seconds (29–36 lb) (N.I.)2623 1/222251912 1/219 1/215 3/41618 1/2
Wethers –          
  Primes (48 lb and under) –          
    North Island14 3/416 1/415 3/41411 3/4611 1/2899 1/2
    South Island14 1/215 1/21513 1/4115 1/410 3/47 1/48 1/48 3/4
  Seconds (48 lb and under) –          
    North Island11 3/413 1/412 3/411 3/49 3/45 1/210 1/2788 1/2
    South Island11 1/212 1/2121194 3/49 3/46 1/47 1/47 3/4
Ewes (48 lb and under) (N.I.)6 1/48 3/48 5/867 3/446 1/4657
ItemSeason
1954–551955–561956–571957–581958–591959–601960–611961–621962–621963–64

*For 1954–55 and 1955–56 the Ox G.A.Q. price refers to carcasses of up to 800 lb. From 1956–57 to 1961–62 Heifer G.A.Q. prices were for 680 lb and under. From 1959–60 G.A.Q. cow prices are for carcasses 600 lb and under. In 1963–64 the Ox G.A.Q. price range was 740 lb and under, and the Heifer G.A.Q. price 600 lb and under.

Price in Shillings and Pence, per 100 lb of Beef (N.I.)
Quarter beef, North Island –                    
  Ox, chiller beef (680 lb and under)14001200800950130013501400115013501250
  Ox –                    
    G.A.Q. (680 lb and under)*12401100600800130013501400115013501250
    F.A.Q. (all weights)10761000550750117611761226102611501200
  Heifer –                    
    G.A.Q. (500 lb and under)*12401100550726122612761326107612501200
    F.A.Q. (all weights)1076100050070011761176115095011001150
  Cow, G.A.Q. (all weights)*100090050065010001100110095010501000
  Boner beef (cow)850800700826140012001100100010001050

Minimum Prices for Export Meat – The institution of a system of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand was provided for by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955. A Meat Export Prices Committee was established, and consists of two members of the Meat Board, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, and a Chairman nominated by agreement between the Government and the producers. A schedule of minimum prices is fixed at the beginning of the season. Regard must be paid by the Committee to the average of the prices received for each class of meat during the preceding three seasons, the ruling level of minimum prices, and the Committee may have regard to the market trend and future prospects for the sale of meat, prices ruling for other farm products, and the general level of costs, prices, and wages in New Zealand.

The following table gives the minimum prices which apply for the year ending 30 September 1964.

Class of MeatGrade of MeatMinimum Price per Pound f.o.b.
  d.
LambPrime down cross 29–36 lb14 3/4
Wether muttonPrime 49–56 lb8 3/4
Ewe muttonPrime 49–56 lb5 3/4
Chilled beefOx 680 lb and under15
Ox and heifer quarter beefG.A.Q.: 680 lb and under14
Quarter cow beefG.A.Q.: 600 lb and under11
Boner cow, ox, and heiferAll weights, boned-out value14
Boner bull 
Veal (sides or quarters)Under 280 lb11
PorkersPrime 60–80 lb16
BaconersPrime 111–160 lb14

Deficiency Payments – Payments are made from the Meat Industry Reserve Account when the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices paid to farmers fall below the minimum price determined for any class of meat in the week to which the schedule relates. For the season ended 30 September 1956, deficiency payments were declared for beef from the end of March onwards, expenditure amounting to £367,169 at an average of 1.1d. per pound of killings in that period; no payments were necessary in other classes of meat. Deficiency payments continued into the succeeding production season but at diminishing rates until early in February 1957, when prices for all classes of meat were above the minimum levels, and the payments in the 1956–57 season amounted to only £111,975. In the 1957–58 season there were no payments under the scheme. Some payments were made in the 1958–59 season and the amount involved was £79,000. For the 1959–60 season the total amount involved in deficiency payments was £930,000, of which £380,000 was paid on lambs. No deficiency payments were necessary during the 1960–61 season. In the 1961–62 season it became necessary to make deficiency payments totalling £2,412,332 on lamb and wether mutton. Nearly £2,300,000 of this amount was required in the case of lamb killings from December 1961 to March 1962 inclusive, the payment averaging approximately 1 1/2d. per lb for the period. No deficiency payments were required for the 1962–63 season, nor for the 1963–64 season.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES – Although the details of wartime bulk-purchase agreements are now of historical interest only, it was during the period of bulk purchase that the present farm industry reserves were built up. Following the introduction of the Government stabilisation scheme in December 1942, agreement was reached between the Government and farmers' organisations in May 1943 regarding the stabilisation of meat and dairy prices. It was agreed that other than those increases necessary to meet higher costs of production, all increases in overseas realisations would be paid into a special fund which would be used in subsequent years for the benefit of the industry concerned. A meat pool account was already in existence, having been created to assist those producers who were affected by restrictions imposed on the export of particular classes of meat as a result of the shipping shortage. Subsidies designed to keep down farm production costs were also paid out of these funds. The wool reserve account was created in a somewhat different fashion, arising in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a levy on all wool sold at auctions.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve accounts at given dates.

YearDairy Produce Account at 31 JulyMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SeptWool Commission Account at 30 JuneWool Retention Moneys

*No balance remained in wool retention accounts after 31 January 1957.

†This amount was reduced by the payment to dairy companies of £6,951,000 shortly after the end of the season under the agreement that half the surplus earned during the trading year ended 31 May 1960 would be paid out to producers. The final balance was £1,936,000.

‡At 31 May.

§Provisional.

  £(thousand)  
195325,52840,45027,63021,801
195425,12739,55128,38816,174
195524,53040,27728,23010,226
195627,14640,68128,9913,798*
195713,91341,29229,751
1958– 7,34942,22830,523
19592,13243,21831,268
19608,88743,44432,507
1961– 5,16944,81333,318
1962– 6,69043,16834,703
1963– 3,969§44,04435,639

21 B – DOMESTIC TRADE

INTRODUCTORY – Statistics of domestic trade in New Zealand commenced with the Census of Distribution in 1953. This census was followed by a continuing sample survey covering retail trading, commencing in March 1954. The field covered by distribution statistics was extended in October 1955 by the inauguration of a restricted survey covering quarterly statistics of consumer credit. A further Census of Distribution was taken in 1958, which in the main, closely followed the lines of the first census of this nature. Detailed tables were later published in a volume entitled Census of Distribution 1958. A further Census of Distribution was taken at 31 March 1963, and information from it will be found in the Latest Statistical Information at the end of this Yearbook.

With the completion of the 1958 Census of Distribution, a new quarterly sample survey of retail trade was commenced in June 1959. A continuing quarterly survey of wholesale trade was commenced in September 1960.

The quarterly survey of consumer credit transactions was discontinued after the close of the March quarter 1962, being replaced in the June quarter 1962 by a more comprehensive survey of hire-purchase trade.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1958 – For the second Census of Distribution taken in 1958, the period for which the information was requested, and to which most of it related, was the year ended 31 March 1958.

In general the 1958 census followed the same plan as that of the earlier census. In 1958, however, milk vendors and chartered clubs (the latter in respect of sales of liquor and tobacco and cigarettes) were included. Some revised classifications were also introduced so that (for instance) some firms coded as general stores in 1953 were classed as grocers in 1958 where the store had 60 per cent or more of its annual turnover in groceries. In 1953 stock and station agents (so stated) were classified as wholesale, but in 1958 such stores were classified according to the dominant method of selling as specified by the firm concerned.

In 1958 the method of selling was obtained under six headings, cash, charge account, hire-purchase, budget account (limited credit account, store currency account, etc.), cash-order coupons, and other instalment (including layby). Two questions, those relating to capital invested and periodicity of stocktaking, were excluded from the 1958 inquiry, which, however, included one completely new question – on the use of “self-service” units – applied exclusively to those businesses handling groceries.

The following tables give results of the Census of Distribution 1958 in a summarised form.

Retail Establishments – Of the 26,876 retail stores covered by the census, 18,502, or 68.8 per cent, were situated in the North Island, and 8,374, or 31.2 per cent, in the South Island.

The following table shows details by provincial districts. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Provincial DistrictPopulation at 31 March 1958Number of StoresPurchases During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
 (000) £(000)£(000)£(000)
Auckland921.910,804180,048231,80836,352
 (40.6)(40.2)(38.5)(38.7)(37.4)
Hawke's Bay106.41,33323,86930,1565,071
 (4.7)(5.0)(5.1)(5.0)(5.2)
Taranaki97.01,10420,96126,1414,243
 (4.3)(4.1)(4.5)(4.4)(4.4)
Wellington442.05,26195,249122,87220,502
 (19.5)(19.6)(20.4)(20.5)(21.1)
Marlborough27.33145,0716,4411,105
 (1.2)(1.2)(1.1)(1.1)(1.1)
Nelson72.788512,95816,5452,667
 (3.2)(3.3)(2.8)(2.7)(2.7)
Westland18.73244,0935,268866
 (0.8)(1.2)(0.9)(0.9)(0.9)
Canterbury322.53,64467,00486,04114,152
 (14.2)(13.5)(14.3)(14.4)(14.6)
Otago –     
  Otago portion172.12,17635,67845,3927,549
 (7.6)(8.1)(7.6)(7.6)(7.8)
  Southland portion89–81,03122,48728,1144,647
 (3.9)(3.8)(4.8)(4.7)(4.8)
    Totals2,270.4 (100.0)26,876 (100.0)467,418 (100.0)598,778 (100.0)97,154 (100.0)

In 1958 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 55.2 per cent of New Zealand's people, but contained 60.8 per cent of all retail stores, with 65.8 per cent of total sales or turnover.

The following table shows details by urban and rural areas. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Location GroupPopulation at 31 March 1958Number of StoresSales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)

*Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin.

†Hamilton, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Nelson, Timaru, Invercargill.

‡Boroughs outside urban areas with population over 4,000.

 (000) £(000)£(000)
Main urban areas* (including Hutt Urban Area)940.511,795274,69643,158
 (41.4)(43.9)(45.9)(44.4)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)313.74,540119,46220,221
 (13.8)(16.9)(20.0)(20.8)
Smaller centres164.53,32382,25214,394
 (7.3)(12.4)(13.7)(14.8)
Other urban159.73,56467,03911,620
 (7.0)(13.2)(11.2)(12.0)
Rural692.03,65455,3297,761
 (30.5)(13.6)(9.2)(8.0)
Totals2,270.4 (100.0)26,876 (100.0)598,778 (100.0)97,154 (100.0)

Just over half the total number of retail stores were in the food and drink group – grocers, butchers, dairies, hotels, etc. This group accounted for only 34 per cent of the turnover, however, the average turnover per store being £15,000. As against this, the automotive group, which accounts for only 4 per cent of all retail stores, handled 11 per cent of the turnover, with an average turnover of £61,200 per store.

The following table shows details by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force on 15 April 1958Average Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Average Sales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
MalesFemalesTotal
       £(000)£(000)££(000)
Food and drink13,46415,90110,82326,72445,0533.315,366201,7714,47912,189
Apparel3,8513,5637,67811,24114,9983.96,14665,3964,36021,215
Furniture1,3394,3441,6555,9997,1175.34,11738,6845,4358,979
Automotive1,0324,5397455,2846,1976.03,71663,11610,1857,376
Hardware7742,8019893,7904,4885.82,71330,5746,8126,726
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)8861,2731,1332,4063,1813.61,47712,4973,9292,714
Department, variety, and general stores6895,4878,98014,46715,01821.87,59269,7564,64514,047
Miscellaneous4,84110,3995,47415,87320,6374.310,382116,9845,66923,908
Totals, all retail stores26,87648,30737,47785,784116,6894.351,509598,7785,13197,154

The following table shows details by turnover size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force on 15 April 1958Salaries and Wages Paid During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
MalesFemalesTotal
££     £(000)£(000)£(000)
Under 5,0005,2256081,5342,1428,79577815,9133,121
5,000–9,9997,1652,7894,3077,09616,5303,20952,6767,874
10,000–19,9997,7707,3367,98415,32024,9128,293110,34416,590
20,000–49,9994,78712,9418,11921,06025,44613,358141,56422,154
50,000–99,9991,0997,5493,66111,21011,7967,46675,66612,472
100,000–249,9996157,7724,34512,11712,3338,09391,97016,304
250,000–499,9991524,3722,3786,7506,7784,34751,4768,621
500,000 and over634,9405,14910,08910,0995,96559,16910,018
  Totals, all retail stores26,87648,30737,47785,784116,68951,509598,77897,154

Just under 44 per cent of retail stores were returned as being under individual ownership, while 35 per cent were shown as operated by private registered companies, 15 per cent by partnerships, and 4 per cent by public registered companies.

The following table shows details by type of organisation. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Type of OrganisationNumber of StoresTurnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
  £(000)£(000)
Private registered companies9,486300,51955,828
 (35.3)(50.2)(57.5)
Public registered companies1,099116,54120,503
 (4.1)(19.5)(21.1)
Individual ownership11,759109,51612,470
 (43.8)(18.3)(12.8)
Partnership4,04251,2225,467
 (15.0)(8.5)(5.6)
Other49020,9802,886
 (1.8)(3.5)(3.0)
Totals26,876 (100.0)598,778 (100.0)97,154 (100.0)

The number of multiple stores engaged in retail trading represented only 10 per cent of the total stores, but accounted for 28 per cent of the total turnover. A multiple store was so termed where the store was one of a group of four or more under common ownership.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at
Start of Year (April 1957)Close of Year (March 1958)
Multiple Stores
  £(000)£(000)£(000)
Food and drink1,09831,1131,6341,707
Apparel33910,2852,8293,082
Furniture1678,0171,3201,468
Automotive356,8748331,047
Hardware719,6921,6841,748
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)23687130137
Department, variety, and general stores22038,2476,9237,013
Miscellaneous76464,92112,13812,795
Totals2,717169,83627,49128,997
Other Stores
Food and drink12,366170,6589,25010,482
Apparel3,51255,11117,00418,133
Furniture1,17230,6676,5967,511
Automotive99756,2425,5736,329
Hardware70320,8824,6474,978
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)86311,8102,2172,577
Department, variety, and general stores46931,5096,3007,034
Miscellaneous4,07752,06310,54711,113
Totals24,159428,94262,13468,157

The following table shows the disposition of the different methods of selling by store-type group and by location group. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

 Turnover (1957–58) in the Form of –Total Sales or Turnover (1957–58)
CashCharge AccountHire PurchaseBudget Store Credit, etc.Cash-order CouponsOther Instalments
Store-type Groups £(000)
Food and drink167,99033,7774201,771
 (47.9)(16.2)(0.1)(33.7)
Apparel53,8979,1312003771481,64365,396
 (15.4)(4.4)(0.6)(32.0)(63.8)(54.4)(10.9)
Furniture12,07515,68810,505891131638,684
 (3.4)(7.5)(30.2)(7.5)(4.7)(10.5)(6.5)
Automotive25,68523,98113,36638263,116
 (7.3)(11.5)(38.4)(0.9)(2.7)(10.5)
Hardware7,82922,52619812030,574
 (2.2)(10.8)(0.6)(0.4)(0.7)(5.1)
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)10,4112,0482611112,497
 (3.0)(1.0)(0.1)(0.1)(0.4)(2.1)
Department, variety, and general stores34,76529,6763,8266005183869,756
 (9.9)(14.2)(11.0)(50.9)(22.0)(27.7)(11.7)
Miscellaneous38,19971,8926,65611219106116,984
 (10.9)(34.4)(19.1)(9.5)(8.2)(3.5)(19.5)
  Totals, all retail stores350,851 (100.0)208,719 (100.0)34,777 (100.0)1,179 (100.0)232 (100.0)3,020 (100.0)598,778 (100.0)
Location Groups £(000)
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)176,23674,33520,7498512202,305274,696
 (50.2)(35.6)(59.6)(72.2)(94.8)(76.3)(45.9)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)65,64645,7807,4791629386119,462
 (18.7)(21.9)(21.5)(13.7)(3.9)(12.8)(20.0)
Smaller centres43,00234,7164,30044118982,252
 (12.3)(16.6)(12.4)(3.7)(0.4)(6.3)(13.7)
Other urban35,95429,1421,73089212267,039
 (10.2)(14.0)(5.0)(7.6)(0.9)(4.0)(11.2)
Rural30,01324,746519331855,329
 (8.6)(11.9)(1.5)(2.8)(0.6)(9.2)
  Totals, all retail stores350,851 (100.0)208,719 (100.0)34,777 (100.0)1,179 (100.0)232 (100.0)3,020 (100.0)598,778 (100.0)

The following table shows, by the store-type group, average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over per annum.

Store-type GroupAverage Sales or Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentSales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceSales or Turnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
 £ ££ 
Food and drink14,9863.34,47988.8716.6
Apparel16,9823.94,36028.803.1
Furniture28,8905.35,43517.044.3
Automotive61,1596.010,18527.808.6
Hardware39,5015.86,81213.474.5
Chemicals14,1053.63,9295.504.6
Miscellaneous33,7696.45,23782.254.9
  All retail stores22,2794.35,131263.736.2

The 1958 Census of Distribution schedule included a question directed exclusively to those businesses handling groceries, inquiring whether or not the business was conducted as a self-service unit, using a check-out point. The following table shows the results of this inquiry by turnover-size groups. It will be noted that the percentage of self-service units rose progressively with the increase in turnover size until in the highest group, that comprising stores with an annual turnover of £50,000 or over, 72.2 per cent of stores handling groceries operated self-service units.

Turnover SizeWith Self-service UnitsWithout Self-service UnitsPercentage of Self-service Units to Total Stores
Number of StoresSales or Turnover During 1957–58Value of StocksNumber of StoresSales or Turnover During 1957–58Value of Stocks
Start of YearClose of YearStart of YearClose of Year
£ £ £(000)£(000)£(000) £(000)£(000)£(000) 
Under 5,000257911202729241101328.4
5,000 to 9,99910079471927375,66955760911.9
10,000 to 19,9994306,5025716461,49021,4681,9322,13822.4
20,000 to 29,9992676,59752458253912,9211,1871,29033.1
30,000 to 39,9991214,0993083501434,83642147845.8
40,000 to 49,999602,652175210351,50317218763.2
50,000 and over523,638343379201,62716519072.2
Totals1,05524,3612,0032,2793,23648,9484,5445,02424.6

Wholesale Establishments – The total of 2,595 wholesale stores included in the tables accounted for a turnover of £433,296,000, or an average turnover of £167,000 per store.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 87.4 per cent of wholesale stores with 94.5 per cent of total turnover. Auckland and Wellington (including Hutt) urban areas together accounted for 46.9 per cent of stores and 60.7 per cent of turnover.

The following table shows the distribution of wholesale trading by provincial districts and by main location groups. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

 Population at 31 March 1958Number of StoresPurchases During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
 (000) £(000)£(000)£(000)
Provincial Districts
Auckland921.9979130,751157,20523,199
 (40.6)(37.7)(36.3)(36.3)(36.3)
Hawke's Bay106.41018,1149,6481,380
 (4.7)(3.9)(2.3)(2.2)(2.2)
Taranaki97.0635,2726,368854
 (4.3)(2.4)(1.5)(1.5)(1.3)
Wellington442.0650123,665146,99521,834
 (19.5)(25.1)(34.3)(33.9)(34.1)
Marlborough27.3221,8942,099297
 (1.2)(0.8)(0.5)(0.5)(0.5)
Nelson72.7503,2614,278484
 (3.2)(1.9)(0.9)(1.0)(0.7)
Westland18.7171,1651,404129
 (0.8)(0.7)(0.3)(0.3)(0.2)
Canterbury322.544054,50266,44610,348
 (14.2)(17.0)(15.1)(15.4)(16.2)
Otago –     
  Otago portion172.119323,60029,1814,242
 (7.6)(7.4)(6.5)(6.7)(6.6)
  Southland portion89.8808,1459,6721,216
 (3.9)(3.1)(2.3)(2.2)(1.9)
    Totals, all wholesale stores2,270.4 (100.0)2,595 (100.0)360,369 (100.0)433,296 (100.0)63,983 (100.0)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)940.51,771291,287351,71554,261
 (41.4)(68.2)(80.8)(81.2)(84.8)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)313.749748,52557,6557,126
 (13.8)(19.2)(13.5)(13.3)(11.1)
Smaller centres, other urban and rural1,016.232720,55723,9262,596
 (44.8)(12.6)(5.7)(5.5)(4.1)
    Totals, all wholesale stores2,270.4 (100.0)2,595 (100.0)360,369 (100.0)433,296 (100.0)63,983 (100.0)

The following tables show details of wholesale establishments by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force on 15 April 1958
MalesFemalesTotal
Food and drink6226,4631,8718,3348,803
Apparel2891,6291,9553,5843,774
Furniture1469652611,2261,322
Automotive1943,0407093,7493,801
Hardware2883,4077814,1884,276
General merchants2024,2401,3205,5605,619
Miscellaneous8547,6252,88310,50810,888
  Totals, all wholesale stores2,59527,3699,78037,14938,483
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Average Sales or Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
  £(000)£(000)££(000)
Food and drink14.26,060104,83811,9096,851
Apparel13.12,27929,4677,8086,470
Furniture9.190915,04511,3802,142
Automotive19.62,84358,53015,3997,558
Hardware14.83,05138,3518,9699,159
General merchants27.84,05970,56712,5599,517
Miscellaneous12.77,853116,49810,70022,286
  Totals, all wholesale stores14.827,054433,29611,25963,983

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with under £20,000 turnover numbered 680 (26.2 per cent), but accounted for only £6,661,000, or 1.5 per cent of turnover. At the other end of the scale a total turnover of £216,203,000 (49.9 per cent) was accounted for by only 183 stores (7.1 per cent) which had a turnover of £500,000 or more.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force on 15 April 1958Salaries and Wages Paid During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58Stocks at Close of Year (March 1958)
MalesFemalesTotal
£ £     £(000)£(000)£(000)
  Under 5,000160658014532462476102
  5,000– 9,9992122841854697132661,586307
  10,000– 19,9993087435001,2431,4797374,599794
  20,000– 49,9995572,4001,1023,5023,8182,44518,6023,654
  50,000– 99,9994603,0189783,9964,1613,01732,7336,525
  100,000–249,9994655,5231,6957,2187,3525,44572,90012,649
  250,000–299,999871,3614291,7901,8141,32223,7373,499
  300,000–399,999972,0017622,7632,7672,07333,1075,055
  400,000–499,999662,0635372,6002,6111,91529,3534,390
  500,000 and over1839,9113,51213,42313,4449,772216,20327,008
Totals, all wholesale stores2,59527,3699,78037,14938,48327,054433,29663,983

Service Establishments – Only a selected group of services was included in the Census of Distribution 1958. These were grouped in three broad divisions, personal, business and community, and other services.

Nine-tenths of service establishments provided services only while in the remainder some secondary form of trading was carried on.

Services covered by the census totalled 2,702 establishments of which 1,888, or 69.9 per cent, were in the North Island and 814, or 30.1 per cent, in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 67.3 per cent of service establishments, with 83.5 per cent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census.

 Personal ServicesBusiness and Community ServicesOther ServicesTotal
Number of establishmentsNo.1,6403537092,702
Sales or turnover during 1957–58£(000)9,0886,3362,57718,001
Location of establishments –     
  Main urban areas (including Hutt Urban Area)No.7592223251,306
  Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt Urban Area)No.32664123513
  Smaller centresNo.2334489366
  Other urbanNo.24217104363
  RuralNo.80668154
Paid employees on 15 April 1958 –     
  MalesNo.2,5366385413,715
  FemalesNo.4,605467665,138
    TotalsNo.7,1411,1056078,853
Total labour force on 15 April 1958No.8,9031,4531,38111,737
Salaries and wages paid during 1957–58£(000)3,4669483924,806

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1958Total Labour Force 15 April 1958Salaries and Wages During 1957–58Sales or Turnover During 1957–58
MalesFemalesTotal     
£ £     £(000)£(000)
Under 1,0005919526169815370
1,000– 2,9991,0571406207601,9662651,902
3,000– 4,9993882494727211,1503301,482
5,000– 9,9993425766301,2061,5836352,361
10,000–19,9991836906271,3171,4727972,487
20,000–49,999919041,3002,2042,2551,1152,800
50,000–99,999304664959619885722,093
100,000 and over206819421,6231,6251,0774,506
Totals2,7023,7155,1388,85311,7374,80618,001

Special Analyses – Special analyses were taken out to show total retail trading by retail and service establishments and, at the same time, details were also obtained of total services provided.

The following table shows details of retail trading as above by commodity groups.

Commodity GroupSales or Turnover During 1957–58
AmountPer Cent of Total
 £(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)78,72313.2
Meat and fish (uncooked)33,3675.6
Fruit and vegetables17,7113.0
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)17,9693.0
(Milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks24,7904.2
Beer, wine, and spirits36,6896.2
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries16,6332.8
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)14,2982.4
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods76,59412.9
Footwear13,1282.2
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings and household textiles29,3874.9
Musical instruments (including radios)7,6891.3
Household appliances and electrical goods20,0083.4
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware14,6742.5
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)26,1834.4
Books, stationery, and newspapers14,6242.4
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oil)64,49910.8
Bicycles, parts and accessories1,9150.3
Coal, coke, and firewood3,9220.6
Fertilisers and manures11,5101.9
Florists' goods8750.1
Grain, seed, and fodder12,4032.1
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)4,5270.8
Leather, luggage, and harness1,5820.3
Agricultural machinery13,0302.2
Office machinery3,8460.6
Other machinery8,0351.3
Paint, glass, and wallpaper5,2820.9
Photographic supplies and equipment1,2490.2
Plumbing equipment and piping9680.2
Professional and scientific equipment2,3670.4
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)5790.1
Sewing machines and accessories1,5700.3
Sports goods (including toys and games)4,1670.7
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies2,1860.4
Other goods8,3031.4
  Totals, retail commodities595,282100.0

The following table shows details of total services provided by retail and service establishments.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedSales or Turnover During 1957–58
Personal service provided by establishments classified as – £(000)
  Service establishments1,6408,882
  Retail stores8261,160
    Totals, personal services2,46610,042
Community and business services provided by establishments classified as –  
  Service establishments3536,301
  Retail stores11691
    Totals, community and business services4696,392
Other services provided by establishments classified as –  
  Service establishments7092,197
  Retail stores1,4122,866
    Totals, other services2,1215,063
    Grand totals, all services5,05621,497

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trading.

Commodity GroupSales or Turnover During 1957–58
AmountPer Cent of Total
 £(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)64,34014.8
Meat and fish (uncooked)8,5292.0
Fruit and vegetables21,9825.1
Other food (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)6,1461.4
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks13,6303.1
Beer, wine, and spirits17,4754.0
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries26,2916.1
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics15,1843.5
Clothing, drapery, and piece goods31,6777.3
Footwear4,7101.1
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles11,4722.6
Musical instruments (including radios)3,2630.8
Household appliances and electrical goods21,9915.1
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware9,0892.1
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)17,7484.1
Books, stationery, and newspapers6,2901.4
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oil)58,82013.6
Coal, coke, and firewood4,4851.0
Fertilisers, manures, grain, seed, and fodder13,7313.2
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)2,4600.6
Leather, luggage, and harness2,6700.6
Agricultural machinery5,9251.4
Other machinery20,1424.6
Paint, glass, and wallpaper6,5171.5
Photographic supplies and equipment2,6180.6
Plumbing equipment and piping5,9311.4
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)1,5730.4
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies1,3540.3
Sports goods (including toys and games)3,4870.8
Other23,7665.5
  Totals, wholesale commodities433,296100.0

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE – Following the Census of Distribution in 1953 a continuing quarterly sample survey of retail trade was inaugurated. The first inquiry related to trade during the three-monthly period ended 31 March 1954, and the survey was continued at three-monthly intervals up to and including the quarter ended 31 March 1959.

Commencing with the quarter ended 30 June 1959, quarterly retail trade statistics have been compiled using a new sample that comprises stores selected on account of their location and of a type known as an area-unit cluster sample. The 1958 Census of Distribution provided a base for this sample, a detailed description of which was given in a supplement to the November 1959 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The sample excludes certain types of retail stores which were included in the Census of Distribution 1958; these store types are hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, milk vendors, and the complete automotive group. Besides the above exclusions, for purposes of the sample survey some changes in the grouping of store types were made. In the following table comparable census figures are given together with statistics of turnover, based on sample results, for the quarters ended 30 September 1963 and 31 December 1963. The composition of the store-type groups can be readily seen.

Store Type and GroupingSales or Turnover
Year Ended 31 March 1958 (Census Figures)Quarter Ended
30 September 196331 December 1963
 £(000)£(000)£(000)
Butcher, poulterer, etc.31,95910,29110,674
Grocer73,30925,42027,577
Other food and drink –   
  Baker, pastrycook, etc.7,919  
  Confectioner1,436  
  Dairy, milk bar16,004  
  Fish, fish and chip shop2,883  
  Fruiterer, greengrocer14,142  
  Restaurant, cafeteria, tearoom8,139  
  Other food and drink442  
    Total, other food and drink50,96518,20920,405
Footwear10,0562,9343,695
Other apparel.   
  Draper, etc.41,700  
  Men's and boys' clothier12,396  
  Other apparel1,244  
    Total, other apparel55,34016,11519,460
Furniture and soft furnishings22,0717,8588,692
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc.–   
  Household appliances, radios, etc.16,613  
  Electrical goods2,529  
  Music store3,370  
  Sewing machine dealer1,580  
    Total, household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc.24,09210,76411,912
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc..   
  Hardware, builders' hardware, etc.23,980  
  Paints and varnishes4,997  
  Other hardware1,597  
    Total, hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.30,5748,69010,280
Chemist12,1904,8355,808
General, department, and variety69,75621,91628,958
Other –   
  Bookseller, newsagent, stationer12,330  
  Coal and wood merchant3,499  
  Florist837  
  Florist837  
  Jeweller4,747  
  Pawnbroker, secondhand dealer1,609  
  Seedsman, nurseryman4,081  
  Tobacconist6,026  
  Toys, novelties, etc.1,238  
  Other chemicals307  
  Stock and station agents42,021  
  Miscellaneous33,117  
    Totals, other109,81235,58941,873
    Totals, New Zealand490,124161,621189,334

Information for later quarters will be found in the section on Latest Statistical Information.

It will be noticed that total turnover for retail stores for the year ended 31 March 1958, as shown earlier, £490,124,000, differs from the figure, £598,778,000, in respect of all retail trading as quoted on a preceding page. The sample does not purport to cover all aspects of retail trading, but covers all store types with the exception of the exclusions already specified.

The sample survey from which quarterly estimates are obtained is designed to provide satisfactory accuracy in store-type figures at national level and in regional figures at the all-store-type level. To obtain the same accuracy in regional figures for each store type it would be necessary to make the sample very much larger and a great deal of the saving in trouble and cost which the sample gives would be lost. Of the regional figures for each store type it can be said that, in general, they give quite a good indication of the value of trading, but that in this case successive quarterly figures are not necessarily reliable as an indication of trends.

The following table gives details of value of sales or turnover by store-type groups for each of six geographical regions for the quarters ended 30 June, 30 September, and 31 December 1963.

VALUE OF SALES OR TURNOVER

Store-type GroupNorth IslandSouth IslandTotals, New Zealand
Auckland Urban AreaWellington and Hutt Urban AreasRemainder of North IslandTotals, North IslandChristchurch Urban AreaDunedin Urban AreaRemainder of South IslandTotals, South Island
£(thousand)
Quarter Ended 30 June 19
Butcher, poulterer, etc.2,1931,1523,5686,9138786101,3572,8459,758
Grocer5,0443,4149,07317,5312,2631,1973,5386,99824,529
Other food and drink4,4002,0436,54212,9851,5185772,3094,40417,389
Footwear7563831,3802,5193731864851,0443,563
Other apparel3,1532,2277,32712,7071,5507783,0415,36918,076
Furniture and soft furnishings1,4509632,7965,2096773711,2222,2707,479
Household appliances electrical goods, radios, etc.1,7621,8443,7857,3911,1282821,0462,4569,847
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.1,2461,1113,7176,0749023721,0632,3378,411
Chemist1,0355251,8433,4034172296761,3224,725
General, department, and variety5,0842,2808,31715,6812,8891,0533,2637,20522,886
Other4,9423,50014,78123,2232,6731,9536,35810,98434,207
Totals31,06519,44263,129113,63615,2687,60824,35847,234160,870
Quarter Ended 30 September 1963
Butcher, poulterer, etc.2,3081,2133,7487,2699246941,4043,02210,291
Grocer5,3083,5239,40518,2362,2971,1993,6887,18425,420
Other food and drink4,7962,0726,62613,4941,6835842,4484,71518,209
Footwear6383221,0522,0123601643989222,934
Other apparel2,9022,1946,34611,4421,3437512,5794,67316,115
Furniture and soft furnishings1,4849733,1515,6087253341,1912,2507,858
Household appliances electrical goods, radios, etc.2,0041,8524,2668,1221,1813461,1152,64210,764
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.1,4181,1703,7196,3079444001,0392,3838,690
Chemist1,0745401,8643,4784432386761,3574,835
General, department, and variety4,7202,1378,03714,8942,7169853,3217,02221,916
Other5,1183,65814,29423,0702,7892,2236,50711,51934,589
Totals31,77019,65462,508113,93215,4057,91824,36647,689161,621
Quarter Ended 31 December 1963
Butcher, poulterer, etc.2,4181,2393,9437,6009476751,4523,07410,674
Grocer5,6383,68410,21619,5382,5911,3554,0938,03927,577
Other food and drink5,1222,2477,68215,0511,9306512,7735,35420,405
Footwear7714111,3492,5314222105321,1643,695
Other apparel3,5382,5007,54713,5851,6448063,4255,87519,460
Furniture and soft furnishings1,6191,1023,4286,1498024241,3172,5438,692
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc.2,0531,6945,0428,7891,1783481,5973,12311,912
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.1,6001,3274,5307,4571,1134191,2912,82310,280
Chemist1,2676902,2314,1885092778341,6205,808
General, department and variety6,1842,90710,72319,8143,5371,3274,2809,14428,958
Other6,2414,40117,57628,2183,2512,5867,81813,65541,873
Totals36,45122,20274,267132,92017,9249,07829,41256,414189,334

The information in the preceding table has been regrouped in the following table to give statistics of commodity sales.

SALES OR TURNOVER BY COMMODITIES

Commodity GroupQuarter Ended
30 June 19630 September 196331 December 1963
  £ (thousand) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)26,48827,13630,025
Meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables15,79817,02218,592
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)6,4256,6396,858
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.5,1835,2396,074
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries6,5016,7037,270
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)5,5825,7497,244
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods26,85923,59029,391
Footwear4,9023,9815,106
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles8,8659,57810,437
Musical instruments (including radios)4,7395,0465,622
Household appliances and electrical goods7,0437,5989,135
Domestic hardware, china and glassware4,0934,0785,628
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks and roofing tiles)6,5806,8257,004
Books, stationery, etc.4,2844,4025,645
Other commodities27,52828,03535,303
  Total sales or turnover160,870161,621189,334

Retail Stocks – The following table shows stock values as at 30 June, 30 September, and 31 December 1962 and 1963.

Store-type GroupValue of Stocks
As at 30 JuneAs at 30 SeptemberAs at 31 December
196219631962196319621963
   £ (thousand)   
Butcher, poulterer, etc.399401399385389378
Grocer8,9749,2969,1409,4999,0689,605
Other food and drink2,5982,7992,6342,7772,7032,747
Footwear4,6264,3854,7124,8224,4414,731
Other apparel23,61722,22924,36923,26022,73322,241
Furniture and soft furnishings6,5146,8116,4267,0696,4946,880
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, etc.6,6347,1897,0857,7706,9017,391
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.7,8118,1407,5597,8857,6048,148
Chemist3,4833,7193,5333,7553,5633,777
General, department, and variety18,82319,93620,17921,06518,54520,113
Other28,50628,09329,94131,03628,72130,258
Totals111,985112,998115,977119,323111,162116,269

Statistics for Earlier Quarters – The growth in the number of stores causes considerable difficulty in the field of statistical collection if the retail trading of such new stores is to be adequately allowed for in the quarterly surveys. Whereas the compilation procedures used in conjunction with the area-unit sample automatically allow for the retail trade of new stores, the old sample failed to do this. The old sample, therefore, yielded statistics which accurately described the retail trade of established stores but understated that for new stores.

A number of alterations in the grouping and coverage of store types in the survey, of which details have already been given, were also made with the introduction of the new sample. For this reason, together with the understatement of turnover of new stores in the old survey, there was a need for revised statistics of sales turnover with which the statistics for the new sample could be directly related. Such revised statistics extending back to the March 1955 quarter are given in the next table.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER – STORE-TYPE GROUPS

Quarter EndedTurnover for Store-type Group
Butcher, poulterer, etc.GrocerOther Food and DrinkFootwearOther ApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department, and VarietyOtherAll Groups
1955–            
  Mar6,85615,27811,0931,87310,7764,0794,9536,4702,10314,49422,831100,806
  Jun7,13515,50910,9882,26913,3304,9165,1697,4102,25715,44423,637108,064
  Sep7,51216,26211,5081,96112,2424,8135,2127,3522,46815,59423,240108,164
  Dec7,47917,46212,6702,53414,9905,2306,5647,5702,82318,35728,210123,889
1956–            
  Mar7,04016,24211,7841,99911,5404,1344,9646,8872,39414,78523,083104,852
  Jun7,35016,63911,8042,34113,5534,9394,6527,1042,52815,89624,359111,165
  Sep7,43417,05412,2102,02811,8975,0764,9967,0962,50115,27124,567110,139
  Dec7,65918,65713,3842,65414,7785,6397,0817,5832,88818,78029,594128,697
1957–            
  Mar7,23416,89512,3212,09211,2764,2475,5026,9012,60515,32225,309109,704
  Jun7,82017,65412,2592,60314,8765,3485,0147,4142,87916,85125,557118,275
  Sep8,12118,01812,2732,19012,4755,5585,4957,6422,93916,18826,386117,285
  Dec8,44719,39413,7122,84515,5536,2147,6727,9363,42520,07131,469136,738
1958–            
  Mar7,57118,24312,7212,41812,4364,9515,9117,5822,94716,64626,400117,826
  Jun8,19118,53612,4852,68515,6476,0555,9188,1902,98418,46027,997127,148
  Sep8,38618,53612,7122,30412,9495,3935,0918,0192,96816,87326,840120,071
  Dec8,45520,33313,8572,86815,3405,7776,2988,8123,47920,31030,189135,709
1959–            
  Mar7,55218,3112,6572,29011,4534,4094,5186,9632,91015,73324,000110,806
  Jun8,43318,98113,1112,77714,8985,1464,9707,3393,18918,15526,619123,618
  Sep8,72519,45613,7342,34612,6485,4025,2917,3023,26717,41427,729123,314
  Dec8,96821,46815,1513,06415,9306,4346,5988,4233,92022,22032,880145,056
1960–            
  Mar8,14919,78814,8542,51512,9425,2075,3827,3903,39617,72932,078129,430
  Jun8,62020,41514,8833,21116,2386,2725,6787,7083,55119,56729,819135,962
  Sep9,13921,51715,6162,84014,1606,5106,4528,2343,84918,87731,093138,287
  Dec9,26223,31717,1953,65117,8997,6307,1679,0364,44623,91736,249159,769
1961–            
  Mar8,72021,43716,4222,89014,1356,2525,9078,2754,04418,92833,401140,411
  Jun8,97621,77715,6963,52417,2976,9246,4098,2884,23621,06932,321146,517
  Sep9,59322,56716,4762,88414,7106,6687,3418,4464,45419,10532,452144,696
  Dec9,66024,64218,4503,68018,1807,5858,4569,3445,18724,97036,572166,726
1962–            
  Mar8,91422,71017,2842,87114,5145,9706,5738,0874,49918,87732,672142,971
  Jun9,28223,16916,4773,48317,0856,6997,5728,1704,55120,90130,823148,212
  Sep9,46823,99416,9922,90314,9476,8567,9227,9834,68219,89233,011148,650
  Dec9,57425,90719,1893,68218,2647,9079,6968,9795,51325,88138,089172,681
1963–            
  Mar9,21023,68817,8912,99314,8156,5278,2678,7034,77619,40336,466152,739
  Jun9,75824,52917,3893,56318,0767,4799,8478,4114,72522,88634,207160,870
  Sep10,29125,42018,2092,93416,1157,85810,7648,6904,83521,91634,589161,621
  Dec10,67427,57720,4053,69519,4608,69211,91210,2805,80828,95841,873189,334

The information in the preceding table has been regrouped in the following table to give statistics of commodity sales.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER – COMMODITY GROUPS

Quarter EndedGroceries and Small Goods (Including Butter, Bacon, etc.)Meat, Fish, Fruit, and VegetablesOther Foods (Baked and Cooked Foods, Meals, etc.)Milk, Ice Cream, Confectionery, Soft Drinks, etc.Tobacco, Cigarettes, and Tobacconists' SundriesChemists' Goods, Toiletries, Cosmetics (Including Dispensing)Clothing, Drapery, Dress Piece GoodsFootwear
£(million)
1955–Mar16.310.83.74.13.52.515.22.4
  Jun16.511.04.03.73.62.718.42.9
  Sep17.311.64.23.83.73.016.82.5
  Dec18.912.14.44.14.03.420.53.3
1956–Mar17.311.04.14.13.52.916.02.6
  Jun17.811.64.23.83.63.018.73.0
  Sep18.512.04.33.73.73.016.52.6
  Dec20.212.64.64.44.13.420.33.5
1957–Mar18.111.74.14.43.53.115.62.7
  Jun18.912.34.53.93.73.420.43.4
  Sep19.412.84.53.83.83.517.22.9
  Dec21.113.74.84.34.24.021.53.7
1958–Mar19.312.34.34.63.73.417.43.2
  Jun19.612.94.44.13.93.521.53.5
  Sep19.813.54.44.04.23.517.83.0
  Dec21.814.24.44.44.64.121.03.8
1959–Mar19.012.33.94.54.23.415.93.0
  Jun20.913.54.74.34.93.922.03.7
  Sep22.014.24.94.35.24.018.73.1
  Dec24.115.35.15.15.84.923.84.1
1960–Mar22.013.95.05.15.54.019.13.4
  Jun22.314.25.44.85.64.223.64.2
  Sep23.615.35.64.85.84.520.73.7
  Dec25.716.45.85.66.35.526.44.8
1961–Mar23.615.25.55.55.94.720.63.8
  Jun24.014.75.85.16.05.025.24.6
  Sep24.715.85.85.06.05.321.23.8
  Dec26.617.1615.86.76.426.94.9
1962–Mar24.115.35.75.66.25.220.83.7
  Jun24.915.35.85.16.35.424.94.6
  Sep25.615.9615.16.45.521.83.9
  Dec28.017.36.36.06.96.727.94.8
1963–Mar25.215.96.05.66.45.521.63.9
  Jun26.515.86.45.26.55.626.94.9
  Sep27.117.06.65.26.75.723.64.0
  Dec30.018.66.96.17.37.229.45.1
Quarter EndedFurniture, Bedding, Floor Coverings, Soft Furnishings, and Household TextilesMusical Instruments (Including Radios)Household Appliances and Electrical GoodsDomestic Hardware, China, and GlasswareBuilders' Hardware and Materials (Excluding Timber, Bricks, and Roofing Tiles)Books, Stationery, etc.Other CommoditiesTotal Sales or Turnover
£(million)
1955–Mar5.61.34.22.95.53.219.7100.8
  Jun6.31.54.43.16.52.920.6108.1
  Sep6.61.54.53.26.32.820.4108.2
  Dec6.81.75.83.86.33.825.0123.9
1956–Mar5.61.34.33.15.93.419.8104.9
  Jun6.51.64.23.26.23.120.8111.2
  Sep6.71.74.23.15.63.121.4110.1
  Dec7.31.96.03.96.34.126.2128.7
1957–Mar5.71.54.53.15.93.622.1109.7
  Jun7.11.94.23.36.53.321.6118.3
  Sep7.41.84.43.46.73.322.6117.3
  Dec8.12.26.14.26.64.228.0136.7
1958–Mar6.71.74.83.76.43.822.5117.8
  Jun8.22.15.03.97.23.424.0127.1
  Sep7.31.74.33.66.93.123.0120.1
  Dec7.61.85.24.37.34.426.9135.7
1959–Mar5.91.33.83.35.83.621.0110.8
  Jun7.02.04.23.46.23.419.3123.6
  Sep7.12.04.63.46.23.420.5123.3
  Dec8.02.76.44.76.44.624.1145.1
1960–Mar6.72.14.93.55.83.624.9129.4
  Jun8.12.34.93.76.23.522.8136.0
  Sep8.12.65.63.96.63.723.8138.3
  Dec9.22.66.95.16.44.928.3159.8
1961–Mar7.52.15.34.06.73.926.3140.4
  Jun8.42.35.94.07.04.024.6146.5
  Sep8.42.95.73.86.73.925.7144.7
  Dec9.22.87.65.36.84.929.7166.7
1962–Mar7.22.25.43.86.54.226.9143.0
  Jun8.43.66.03.86.64.023.4148.2
  Sep8.63.85.93.76.54.125.9148.7
  Dec9.54.67.95.16.65.329.7172.7
1963–Mar7.73.96.24.06.94.629.4152.7
  Jun8.94.77.04.16.64.327.5160.9
  Sep9.65.07.64.16.84.428.0161.6
  Dec10.45.69.15.67.05.635.3189.3

Retail Trade Statistics Corrected for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes – In common with other economic time series, statistics of retail trading reflect the effects of a variety of influences. It is sometimes helpful in analysis if the actual figures are first adjusted to remove the effects of certain known factors, thereby making clearer the effects of other influences.

To facilitate direct comparisons between any or all quarterly figures seasonally corrected values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this seasonal correction factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately centred moving averages). The factors have been revised from time to time as later figures indicated changes in the magnitudes of the seasonal fluctuations. Those in use from the June quarter 1963 are based on the period March quarter 1958 to December quarter 1962.

Over the period covered b the retail trade survey there has been a rise in the general price level so that part of the increase in the survey figures has been the result purely of this price change and does not represent an increase in the real volume of sales. A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in pounds of constant purchasing power – i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers' Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: year ended 31 March 1958 (= 1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant 1957–58 pounds.

Finally, a further adjustment has been made to express the series in terms of turnover per head of population in recognition of the fact that part of the expansion of retail turnover is due to population growth.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table.

QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER – ALL STORE TYPES

Quarter EndedTotal Sales or Turnover
In Current £sIn Constant 1957–58 £s
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*

*Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 (= 1000).

 £(m)£(m) £(m)£(m) 
1955–March100.8107.7881105.0112.2917
  June108.1109.1892111.7112.8922
  September108.2111.6913111.3114.9939
  December123.9111.3910128.1115.1941
1956–March104.9112.0916108.1115.5944
  June111.2112.2917113.6114.7938
  September110.1113.7930110.7114.2934
  December128.7115.6945129.7116.5953
1957–March109.7117.2958112.1119.8980
  June118.3119.4976119.3120.5985
  September117.3121.1990117.4121.2991
  December136.7122.81004136.3122.51002
1958–March117.8125.91029117.0125.01022
  June127.1128.41050125.4126.61035
  September120.1123.91013116.0119.7979
  December135.7121.9997130.3117.0957
1959–March110.8118.4968106.5113.8930
  June123.6124.81020118.8119.9980
  September123.3127.31041117.6121.4993
  December145.1130.31065138.5124.41017
1960–March129.4138.31131123.5131.91078
  June136.0137.31123129.4130.71069
  September138.3142.71167130.5134.71101
  December159.8143.51173149.7134.51100
1961–March140.4150.01226132.4141.51157
  June146.5147.91209138.0139.31139
  September144.7149.41222135.0139.31139
  December166.7149.81225154.9139.11137
1962–March143.0152.71249132.8141.91160
  June148.2149.61223137.7139.01137
  September148.7153.41254137.4141.81159
  December172.7156.81282159.2144.51182
1963–March152.7161.91324140.8149.21220
  June160.9163.71339148.0150.61231
  September161.6166.91365148.0152.91250
  December189.3171.51402171.7155.51271
1955–March47.450.793149.452.8970
  June50.751.193852.452.9972
  September50.552.195752.053.6984
  December57.551.694859.453.4981
1956–March48.351.694849.853.2977
  June51.151.694852.252.7968
  September50.452.095550.752.3961
  December58.552.696659.053.0973
1957–March49.552.997250.654.1994
  June53.253.798653.654.1994
  September52.454.199452.554.2995
  December60.754.5100160.554.4999
1958–March51.955.5101951.655.11012
  June55.856.3103455.055.61021
  September52.554.199450.752.3961
  December58.852.997256.550.7931
1959–March47.751.093745.949.0900
  June53.153.698451.051.5946
  September52.854.5100150.352.0955
  December61.755.4101758.952.9972
1960–March54.758.5107452.255.81025
  June57.357.9106354.655.11012
  September58.260.0110254.956.71041
  December66.760.0110262.556.21032
1961–March58.362.3114455.058.71078
  June60.661.2112457.157.71060
  September59.561.4112855.557.31052
  December68.061.1112263.256.71041
1962–March57.961.8113553.857.41054
  June59.760.3110755.556.01028
  September59.761.6113155.156.91045
  December68.862.5114863.457.61058
1963–March60.464.1117755.759.11085
  June63.464.5118458.459.41090
  September63.565.6120558.260.11104
  December73.866.9122967.060.71115

The information in the two preceding tables is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

RETAIL TRADE QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER (ALL STORE-TYPES)

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE – A quarterly survey of wholesale trade was commenced in September 1960.

Certain store types, which by nature of their business have a low ratio of stock to total turnover, have been omitted from the survey, which otherwise covers all businesses dominantly wholesale. For the excluded firms the value of closing stock recorded in the Census of Distribution 1958 was £3,266,000 (comprising food and drink store-type group £2,714,000, apparel £132,000, and miscellaneous £420,000), representing only 5.1 per cent of the total value of all stock recorded by wholesale businesses in the census.

The following table shows, by store-type group, values of stocks held by wholesalers on 31 March 1959, 1960, 1961, and 1962 and at quarterly intervals from 31 March up to and including 31 December 1963.

Store-type GroupValue of Stocks as at
31 March 195931 March 196031 March 196131 March 196231 March 196330 June 196330 September 196331 December 1963
£(thousand)
Food and drink4,7104,9855,0465,7686,0186,2446,7316,261
Apparel6,2335,9326,0715,8446,0765,7896,1146,598
Furniture2,3492,4932,9823,1213,2133,5354,0363,704
Automotive7,3067,2888,0548,3118,6659,37810,0429,583
Hardware8,7269,37310,3059,92110,76811,19211,21611,007
Chemicals3,2893,3693,6213,9343,7913,7074,1164,223
General merchants8,8719,02510,1939,79010,44010,40210,81510,710
Machinery –        
Agricultural, heavy electrical and industrial7,1537,3818,7828,5198,7078,9559,2479,103
Electrical supplies3,3143,3354,1183,7643,9323,7143,8204,198
Paper and stationery1,3021,6681,8781,6941,6871,7772,2742,021
Grain and seeds8268309381,0691,1011,2351,1631,057
Rubber, leather, and canvas goods1,1481,1941,4181,4441,3981,5291,5601,505
Office, printers' and photographic supplies9119541,3991,4121,4341,3831,5141,766
Miscellaneous6,2965,6415,9486,6706,3066,3947,2546,407
Totals62,43463,46870,75371,26173,53675,23479,90278,143

The following table shows, by store-type group, for stores covered by the survey, values of sales or turnover by wholesalers for quarterly periods, commencing with the quarter ended 30 September 1962 up to and including the quarter ended 31 December 1963.

Store-type GroupValue of Sales or Turnover for Quarter Ended
30 September 196231 December 196231 March 196330 June 196330 September 196331 December 1963
£(thousand)
Food and drink16,42018,46816,27917,48118,17620,617
Apparel9,2918,5628,4639,16510,3569,428
Furniture6,1926,4755,5156,2957,6827,560
Automotive17,63417,94815,97218,45021,91825,162
Hardware11,68210,96510,78411,41412,33812,139
Chemicals5,8686,0096,3946,1096,4786,230
General merchants18,60020,91918,87920,32920,43323,457
Machinery –      
  Agricultural, heavy, electrical and industrial6,9237,1227,3927,6128,0998,095
Electrical supplies5,4444,6154,7995,4186,2205,864
Paper and stationery2,9182,9413,8704,0794,2004,325
Grain and seeds2,3882,0062,2181,9332,5822,256
Rubber, leather, and canvas goods1,9992,0672,0592,1772,2652,298
Office, printers' and photographic supplies1,4491,7151,5391,3701,6761,991
Miscellaneous11,02111,89611,20811,03211,32613,772
    Totals117,829121,708115,371122,864133,749143,194

HIRE-PURCHASE TRADE – A restricted survey covering consumer credit transactions was commenced in October 1955 and continued at quarterly intervals up to and including the March quarter 1962, at which stage it was replaced with a quarterly survey confined to hire-purchase trading.

This survey, which includes both merchandising firms and selected finance corporations, is much more comprehensive in coverage than the former survey, and is estimated to cover the bulk of hire-purchase business in New Zealand. Owing to the considerable change in coverage, etc., no comparisons should be drawn between the present survey and the former consumer credit survey.

Regulations covering hire-purchase trade specifying, inter alia, minimum deposits, maximum loan values, and maximum periods of credits, were gazetted on 22 July 1955. New regulations which came into force on 1 August 1957 exempted all goods (other than motor vehicles) from hire-purchase regulation, but from June 1958 a minimum deposit of 10 per cent was required, and the maximum credit period was 18 months. A further amendment on 23 December 1958 reduced the minimum deposit required on certain household goods to 7 1/2 per cent and increased the maximum credit period to two years. On 10 July 1959 hire-purchase controls were removed from all goods other than motorcars and motor cycles. For new motorcars, the minimum deposit of 50 per cent and the maximum repayment period of 18 months was retained. For motorcars which had travelled more than 5,000 miles, the minimum deposit was reduced to 33 1/3 per cent and the maximum period of credit extended to 24 months. This latter provision also applied to motor cycles, whether new or secondhand. On 17 April 1961 amended regulations increased the minimum deposit on new motorcars and light trucks to 66 2/3 per cent, and reduced the maximum repayment period to 12 months, while the minimum deposit for secondhand cars and light trucks was increased to 50 per cent and the maximum repayment period reduced to 18 months; a minimum deposit of 5 per cent was required on furniture and furnishings and of 10 per cent on other consumer goods, the maximum period of credit being 18 months. On 3 May 1962 the maximum period of credit in respect of furniture, furnishings, and other consumer goods was increased from 18 to 24 months, and the minimum deposit for other consumer goods was reduced from 10 to 5 per cent. This minimum deposit was raised to 10 per cent again on 24 April 1964.

The following table shows, by quarterly periods since June 1962, the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded in the survey and the percentage deposit to total value of goods so sold.

PeriodValue of Goods Sold on Hire-purchaseDetails of PurchasePercentage in Cash to Total Value of Goods Sold on Hire-purchase
Cash PaymentsAmount Financed Under Hire-purchase Agreements
 £(000)£(000)£(000)per cent
Quarter ended – Motor Vehicles 
  1962–30 June3,5921,9421,65054.1
    30 September3,7341,9611,77352.5
    31 December4,0662,0632,00350.7
  1963–31 March3,6711,9661,70553.6
    30 June3,6861,9331,75352.4
    30 September4,2552,1802,07551.2
    31 December5,1012,5492,55250.0
  Plant and Machinery 
  1962–30 June56917639330.9
    30 September84621163524.9
    31 December1,26636789929.0
  1963–31 March1,6164811,13529.8
    30 June80019760324.6
    30 September1,41354387038.4
    31 December1,6556161,03937.2
PeriodValue of Goods Sold on Hire-purchaseDetails of PurchasePercentage in Cash to Total Value of Goods Sold on Hire-purchase
Cash PaymentsAmount Financed Under Hire-purchase Agreements
 £(000)£(000)£(000)per cent
Quarter ended – Television Sets 
  1962–30 June5339044316.9
    30 September67611755917.3
    31 December72315357021.2
  1963–31 March72115656521.6
    30 June97618479218.9
    30 September94919075920.0
    31 December75014560519.3
  Other Household and Personal Goods 
  1962–30 June2,8313652,46612.9
    30 September3,0365262,51017.3
    31 December3,9175683,34914.5
  1963–31 March2,8414912,35017.3
    30 June3,4365722,86416.6
    30 September3,2355062,72915.6
    31 December4,1227063,41617.1
  Total 
  1962–30 June7,5252,5734,95234.2
    30 September8,2922,8155,47733.9
    31 December9,9723,1516,82131.6
  1963–31 March8,8493,0945,75535.0
    30 June8,8982,8866,01232.3
    30 September9,8523,4196,43334.7
    31 December11,6284,0167,61234.5

The following table shows the amount owing under hire-purchase agreements and the percentage of payments overdue at the end of each quarterly period.

As at –Amount Owing Under Hire-purchase AgreementsPercentage of Payments Overdue
 £(000) 
1962–30 June18,2474.6
  30 September17,8815.2
  31 December19,7655.9
1963–31 March20,1695.1
  30 June21,3154.8
  30 September21,9314.6
  31 December23,4344.5

The following table shows the average amount covered by hire-purchase agreement in each of the four categories of sales for each quarterly period.

PeriodMotor VehiclesMachineryHousehold and Personal Goods
Television SetsOther Household and Personal Goods
Quarter ended –££££
  1962–30 June2941,02013225
    30 September3081,14913526
    31 December3241,37714028
  1963–31 March2991,98514032
    30 June3201,59414528
    30 September3191,41914529
    31 December3301,46314528

Chapter 22. Section 22 EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A – GENERAL

GENERAL – Throughout its short history New Zealand has been dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Early trade was principally with Australia. In the 1840s the foundations of the agricultural industries were laid. Sheep had already been introduced and the first shipment of wool was exported to Hobart in 1839. Dairying was established, grain and potatoes were cultivated, and kauri gum was dug from the ground in the far north. In 1853, when the population of New Zealand, exclusive of Maoris, was only 32,000, trade data were first compiled for New Zealand as a whole. The values of the main exports were: timber, £93,000; wool, £67,000; potatoes, £30,000; whale oil, £22,000; kauri gum, £16,000; and grain, £19,000. At this time Australia was settling into its “gold rush” period, and the demands of the rapidly increasing Australian population created an opportunity for increased exports from New Zealand, and quantities of butter and cheese were shipped across the Tasman. A rapid change then took place in the pattern of the trade. In 1855 the principal items were wool (25 per cent of total value), grain (22 per cent), and potatoes (25 per cent). By 1860 wool accounted for 76 per cent of total exports, and with the opening of the goldfields in 1861 wool and gold together accounted for 93 per cent of exports in that year.

During this period the imports far exceeded exports, being about double in value, and consisted mainly of capital goods for the development of new industries, together with clothing and foodstuffs to sustain the growing numbers of new settlers. The borrowing policy initiated by Vogel in 1870 for an extensive public works programme had the immediate effect of increasing imports and later gave an indirect impetus to exports.

The introduction of refrigeration in 1882 further changed the pattern of the export trade, making possible the shipment of perishable foodstuffs to more distant markets. This had a marked effect on New Zealand's trade with the United Kingdom. In 1870 only 52 per cent of the exports went to the United Kingdom; by 1880 the proportion had increased to 75 per cent. Australia, which had been New Zealand's main trading partner in the early years, was receiving only 21 per cent of the exports by 1880 and 15 per cent by 1890.

Throughout the twentieth century the United Kingdom has remained New Zealand's predominant market for exports and the biggest supplier of imports. In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually been declining. In 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 per cent of New Zealand's exports but by the year ended June 1963 its share had fallen to 47 per cent. However, the United Kingdom remains New Zealand's best export market by far, taking almost all New Zealand's lamb, cheese, and butter, and about one-third of the wool. The preservation of New Zealand's position in the United Kingdom market remains an overriding objective of New Zealand's external trade policy.

So far as export markets are concerned, New Zealand has until recently enjoyed unrestricted access to the United Kingdom, but increased competition is being met from United Kingdom producers and countries exporting primary products. Perhaps the most important development in recent years has been the expansion of British agriculture fostered by Government subsidies. New Zealand butter has also had to face competition from blended butter and margarine. Because the market became oversupplied during the European summer of 1961, the United Kingdom placed quotas on countries supplying butter. These quotas, initially for a period of six months, were placed on a formal basis in April 1962, and have since been maintained.

New Zealand has found it necessary in recent years to develop supplementary markets. There has been a marked expansion of New Zealand's overseas markets, notably in the United States, France, West Germany, and Japan. Exports to Japan, for instance, have shown a marked increase from £3.1 million in 1953 to £12.7 million in the June year 1963. Over half of the exports to Japan in the year ended June 1963 was wool (£6.8 million). Other principal commodities were meat, mainly mutton, timber, and casein.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaOther CountriesYearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaOther Countries

*Provisional.

   Per Cent Exports    Per Cent Imports 
  1860702731860564211
  1870524621870583615
  18807521221880563149
  189075156418906717610
  1900771463190061171012
  19108493419106214816
  1920745165192048171817
  193080351219304781827
  194088345194047161225
  1950663102119506012721
  19605341330196043181029
  1961514143119614516930
  1962*49416311962*4220929
June Year    June Year    
  1963*46417321963*4119931

Since the Second World War New Zealand's external trade has expanded considerably. Moreover, the value per head of New Zealand's overseas trade is one of the highest for any country in the world, particularly if re-exports are excluded.

Except for the growth of trade in pulp and paper products, which have assumed importance in recent years, the composition of New Zealand's exports today does not vary greatly from that of pre-war years. About 90 per cent of the total value of exports is still derived from wool, meat, and dairy produce. New markets have been developed for meat; and since the end of bulk purchase by the United Kingdom there has been a considerable switch of meat to markets outside the United Kingdom; in fact meat now goes to over 60 countries. The main market for beef is now the United States of America, where imports in boneless packaged form have increased in recent years, and other countries – particularly Japan – have become important markets for mutton.

Attention is being given to the development of exports of New Zealand manufactured goods, and, although the trade is still small, there has been some expansion. Trade missions have surveyed market prospects for a variety of goods of a kind which are, or could be, made in New Zealand.

A Trade Promotion Council was set up in March 1962 as a coordinating and advisory agency in a concerted continuous New Zealand trade drive. The Council advises in the exploration of new or potential markets including trade surveys and missions; the coordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs and publicity; and the improvement of facilities, both within New Zealand and overseas, which may assist exporters. An Export Development Conference was held in June 1963.

The distribution of New Zealand's overseas trade by broad groupings during the latest 11 years is given in the following table.

YearUnited KingdomOther Commonwealth CountriesEuropean CountriesOther CountriesUnited KingdomOther Commonwealth CountriesEuropean CountriesOther Countries

*Provisional.

 Percentage of Export Trade Percentage of Import Trade  
  195367.216.0916.1810.5256.4524.927.8810.75 
  195466.986.8318.158.0456.6323.937.7111.73 
  195565.597.2219.507.6954.9923.718.5712.73 
  195664.587.3719.039.0253.7325.078.4712.73 
  195758.797.9821.3511.8851.3826.998.7212.91 
  195855.788.7916.8818.5552.5327.088.9911.40 
  195956.567.9316.2719.2447.2928.639.3514.73 
  196053.088.8519.8818.1943.4329.529.8417.21 
  196151.028.6418.3521.9944.7327.6011.1116.56 
  1962*48.948.8119.8322.4241.9332.139.7516.18 
JuneYear 
  1963*46.549.7818.7224.9641.4730.159.6018.77 

The direction of external trade is shown graphically in the following diagram.

DIRECTION OF EXTERNAL TRADE EXPORTS BY COUNTRIES OF DESTINATION IMPORTS BY COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN

TRADE PER HEAD – The next table shows the value of exports, imports, and total trade per head of mean population. Values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

YearExportsImportsTotal Trade

*Provisional.

 £s.d.£s.d.£s.d.
194249116291727988
19434318952181096177
19444619747899484
194548352911177146
1946571163619794111
194771195650813701
1948801156313914452
1949781395860136199
19509650753417184
1951127819684223165
1952120103114181123592
19531152579172194197
19541161311101150218811
1955121451173923882
195612725107112234137
19571231771174824123
19581098111101111220010
1959125158871610213126
196012761106101233162
1961x1161911118154235153
1962*1157119843213122
1963*12813311610324536

In the preceding table the valuation used for imports was current domestic value in countries of export.

New Zealand has a relatively high value of trade per head of population when compared with other countries. There are difficulties in the way of making precise comparisons with the values of trade in other countries, mainly on account of differing methods of valuation used. In the following table, however, New Zealand's position is shown in comparison with some of the main trading countries. The source, in respect of data for other countries, is a United Nations publication providing data on trade values using the c.i.f. basis for the valuation of imports. For comparative purposes the c.i.f. basis has been used to value New Zealand imports, and therefore the figure given below as a value for New Zealand trade per head of population exceeds that given in the last table.

VALUE OF TOTAL TRADE PER HEAD OF MEAN POPULATION 1961

CountryTotal External Trade per Head
 £(Stg.)
Netherlands Antilles2,624
Singapore503
Switzerland310
Belgium305
Iceland291
Netherlands289
Trinidad and Tobago283
Sweden269
Denmark263
Norway252
New Zealand250
Canada225
Hong Kong195
Finland176
Venezuela162
Ireland, Republic of157
West Germany156
United Kingdom150
Australia150
Austria136
Israel133
Sarawak120
France108
Cyprus100
Jamaica85
Malaya79
United States of America69
Italy68
South Africa60
Costa Rica55

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE – In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade.

YearVisible Excess of Exports

*Excess of imports.

†Provisional.

 £(000)
1952-35,655*
195343,680
1954-1,354*
1955-27,845*
19569,068
1957-20,529*
1958-34,904*
195962,241
196020,269
1961-40,909*
196215,672
June year 
196320,518

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries. Debt services, capital transfers, charitable and other personal remittances, freight payments, insurances, tourist expenditure, and the like, are vitally important factors which frequently reverse a credit visible balance of trade into a debit balance of payments (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS – As from 1 July 1962 the processing of external trade statistics was transferred from the Customs Department to the Department of Statistics.

Provisional trade data are published in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics within a month of the period to which they relate.

A special supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics entitled External Trade of New Zealand (Country Analyses) is published quarterly.

New Zealand adopted the Standard International Trade Classification as from 1 January 1955, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. This classification remained in use until 30 June 1962 when it was replaced by the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised); the S.I.T.C. order was also adopted on 1 July 1962 as the Customs Tariff classification. The revised nomenclature, particularly at the lower orders of classification, is not comparable with the previous international classification.

Values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1962–631963–64
Exports f.o.b. ValueImportsExports f.o.b. ValueImports
c.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
£(thousand)
Month of July15,30518,79320,28524,36833,02637,153
2 months ended August35,28740,49844,06945,93158,87464,853
3 months ended September54,31061,60667,79768,40183,99592,331
4 months ended October75,33083,260 92,38893,380111,637122,335
5 months ended November91,299106,542117,453111,283139,536151,226
6 months ended December121,165127,056139,808139,691162,990176,780
7 months ended January140,390149,226164,520177,877188,284204,447
8 months ended February175,679170,850188,970220,692214,064232,722
9 months ended March205,916191,719212,220252,886239,020260,179
10 months ended April244,241212,917235,118298,234263,625287,131
11 months ended May274,075237,251262,331   
12 months ended June308,726260,322288,439   

In the subsections dealing with exports and imports, information is given regarding the nature of the transactions which are included in the trade statistics, there being particular inclusions and exclusions which require to be considered when using the figures.

Of considerable consequence in the use of external trade statistics are the methods used in valuing the commodities comprising the trade. In New Zealand it has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when a departure from this procedure was effected in respect of wool exports. Wool was valued for export at the appraisal prices and, as the prices later realised were higher than the appraisal prices, and New Zealand shared in this profit, export values for the years concerned were understated. On the other hand, the export values recorded for meat and dairy produce during the Second World War and in the years following up to 1954 were generally accurate, while for earlier and later years they can only be regarded as approximations. During the period mentioned almost all meat and dairy produce exported was sold f.o.b. at firm prices to the United Kingdom Ministry of Food under bulk contracts. Under the free marketing conditions of earlier and later years most meat and dairy produce exports have been consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which consigned. Price changes in these markets before the actual dale of the produce could be quite substantial.

Up to the end of 1951 imports were recorded on the basis of their value for Customs purposes, this being their current domestic value (c.d.v.) in the country of export at the time of shipment, plus 10 per cent. For several years the limitations of this basis of valuation for economic studies, particularly those relating to balances of trade and of payments, had been apparent. There was a tendency generally to regard the Customs value of imports as being equivalent to at least a conventional c.i.f. value (cost including freight and insurance). In fact the Customs value of some bulky Iow-unit-cost items such as fertilisers fell short of the actual c.i.f. cost by amounts ranging up to 50 per cent or more. The domestic and export price levels in the exporting country may differ on account of price controls, subsidies, etc., while external packing, railway freights, etc., generally tend to raise the f.o.b. cost of goods above the current domestic price. For some few types of commodities the 10 per cent allowance is more than adequate to cover insurance and freight charges. For a larger proportion of imports, particularly those where the value relative to weight or bulk is low, the allowance is inadequate to cover these costs.

As from 1 January 1952 a change was made in that imports were recorded in the trade statistics without the additional 10 per cent required for duty purposes, i.e., at current domestic value, generally, as indicated above, equivalent to but not identical with the f.o.b. cost. Provision was also made to record statistical class totals and the grand total of imports on the c.i.f. basis. For the period of use of the Standard International Trade Classification from 1955 to June 1962, division totals replaced class totals for presentation on the c.i.f. basis. A description of the changed classification appears later in this Section. From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification, Revised, statistics on the c.i.f. basis are available at item level.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available – viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f. – will vary from period to period depending on (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential changes in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchase and of shipping. The relatively high freight rates and insurance charges in wartime resulted in c.i.f. costs rising considerably above Customs values. The high charter freights of 1951–52 had a similar effect. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

More detailed data relative to the external trade of the territories comprising the New Zealand currency area have been given in the following publications:

Statistical Report on the External Trade of New Zealand, in two volumes Exports and Imports published annually by the Customs Department until June 1962 and then by the Department of Statistics.

Report on and Analysis of the External Trade Statistics of New Zealand, published annually by the Department of Statistics.

Reports on the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands, New Zealand parliamentary paper A. 3.

Some information is also included in Section 38 of this Yearbook dealing with Island Territories.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the import entries, either for home consumption or into bonded warehouse, passed by the Customs Department. Under the system in use it is possible for an importer to pay the duty involved, if any, and have the import entry passed very shortly after he receives the shipping documents; this enables him to take delivery of the goods on arrival. Thus the import may be recorded before the carrying vessel has reached New Zealand. Generally, however, the import entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf. On the other hand, it may sometimes occur that goods may have been unloaded and in the custody of a harbour board for some time before the importer has the entry passed (and the import is recorded) and takes delivery.

New Zealand trade statistics have been compiled on a calendar year basis up to June 1962. However, special tables have been prepared to show the values of trade during years ended 31 March and 30 June. The Government financial year ends on 31 March, and external trade tables drawn up for that period show the relationship between the trade transactions and the public accounts for the year. In New Zealand the farm production year fits reasonably well to the year ended 30 June, and trade statistics compiled for years ended 30 June accordingly include the export values of approximately a whole season's production from the pastoral and agricultural industries. From 1 July 1962 trade statistics are being prepared for years ended on 30 June.

The statistics of the external trade of New Zealand given in this section (comprising the three subsections) do not include the Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands, which, though constitutionally part of New Zealand, are treated separately for trade statistic purposes.

In the following table are given the values of the export and import trade for years ending 31 December, 31 March, and 30 June. The movement of specie is not included in these figures.

YearExports f.o.b.ImportsYearExports f.o.b.Imports
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.vc.i.f.

*Provisional.

£(thousand)
Year Ended 31 December
1952240,561229,447276,2151958250,173252,800285,077
1953235,860163,613192,1801959293,659205,076231,417
1954244,466213,155245,8201960302,603253,157282,333
1955259,289250,661287,1341961x283,996288,291324,905
1956277,483234,779268,4151962x287,793245,795271,995
1957276,569261,738297,0981963*327,208296,309325,464
Year Ended 31 March
1953238,413198,713240,7251959250,179233,454263,087
1954242,817173,308201,9151960313,755216,787243,909
1955235,008226,769259,7731961x280,120270,654301,403
1956278,776245,692281,4551962x290,285268,263303,030
1957275,634236,875270,3741963x288,832257,088284,570
1958275,452267,034303,4381964*355,816307,702336,478
Year Ended 30 June
1952254,000247,548..1958272,023268,280305,203
1953244,123171,592208,2241959260,734217,262244,640
1954241,829182,080210,1301960314,768227,206254,585
1955239,747241,639277,2111961x280,702291,326324,809
1956270,663241,782276,8481962x291,437253,914286,146
1957277,603243,229276,6811963*308,957260,322288,439

The following table shows for the calendar year 1961 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at current domestic value in country of purchase and in country of origin. The New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results, in respect of its trade with any given country, from those obtained from the trade statistics of that country, since in the latter New Zealand's exports will in most cases be valued c.i.f. in the given country and New Zealand's imports f.o.b. in that country.

These systems, however, are not universally used, and the methods of valuation in any particular country with whose trade statistics any comparison is attempted must be considered separately.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, 1961x

CountryExportsImports
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of OriginBy Country of Purchase
Commonwealth Countries –£(thousand)
  United Kingdom143,521144,006128,959130,170
  Cyprus2222120118
  Malta3627
  Aden4545556556
  Bahrein576576
  North Borneo4512548
  Ceylon2962972,4912,492
  Malaya6976971,8551,844
  Singapore5375511,7082,073
  Hong Kong4034062,2752,456
  India9199225,8235,725
  Pakistan7171223191
  Sarawak8550
  Ghana4444523500
  Kenya and Uganda170172505482
  Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation104104164164
  Mauritius27272121
  Nigeria49501414
  Tanganyika11245236
  South Africa5885902,0201,936
  Bahamas66661
  Barbados288288
  Bermuda23923955
  British Guiana8383159
  Canada3,7533,75810,84310,797
  Jamaica1,1861,186153141
  Leeward and Windward Islands898964
  Trinidad and Tobago1,2611,2623736
  Australia10,32010,96746,93948,311
  Fiji9621,102655687
  Gilbert and Ellice Islands5255239185
  Nauru7984668668
  Papua1721732118
  Tonga2142267676
  Western Samoa692764457458
  Other Commonwealth countries24257475
    Totals, Commonwealth countries166,980168,376208,510211,153
Other Countries – 
  Republic of Ireland1761768477
  Austria88519480
  Belgium and Luxemburg8,2668,2672,3282,242
  Czechoslovakia1,4871,487599592
  Denmark579580441425
  Finland162162534521
  France17,38617,3902,9192,682
  Germany, East1314172161
  Germany, West7,9798,0209,9759,733
  Estonia and Latvia412412
  Greece39739784
  Italy6,7446,7512,2782,144
  Netherlands3,9343,9705,6575,588
  Norway219220814786
  Poland96696698
  Portugal505505189181
  Russia (U.S.S.R.)1,5201,5205718
  Spain6464196158
  Sweden7887902,6032,566
  Switzerland36402,5332,383
  Turkey775241
  Yugoslavia  40403433
  Burma18518611
  China1,3221,323434204
  Indonesia20201,061649
  Iran121,6981,685
  Iraq794135
  Israel31312221
  Japan14,80614,8298,3828,308
  Jordan157157  
  Philippines7758056051
  Saudi Arabia20201,8161,833
  Thailand36657271
  Ethiopia3636
  Egypt29329352
  French West Africa1117116
  Morocco191932
  Mozambique939311
  Brazil8810865
  Chile40405654
  Dominican Republic998996
  Mexico111111246240
  Netherlands Antilles2072072,3872,370
  Panama Canal Zone5454 
  Panama Republic2552552
  Peru4744741,1311,105
  United States of America40,74141,00027,16626,377
  Venezuela38381,5301,704
  American Samoa163172
  Guam7676 
  Hawaii1,1511,1513432
  French Oceania11243243
  Society Islands15317699
  U.S. Administered Territories (Pacific)114114
  Antarctic Regions 81
  Remaining countries266270126106
    Totals, other countries113,308113,87079,78277,138
  Ships' stores1161,749
    Grand totals280,404283,996288,291288,291

VALUE OF NEW ZEALAND'S EXTERNAL TRADE WITH INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES 1962

The next table shows the values of New Zealand's trade with several groupings of countries since 1958.

YearExports (Excluding Ships' Stores)ImportsExports (Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports
According to Country of OriginAccording to Country of PurchaseAccording to Country of OriginAccording to Country of Purchase

*United Kingdom is included in both Sterling area and EFTA.

†Belgium, Luxemburg, France, West Germany, Italy, and Netherlands.

‡United Kingdom, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

£(thousand)
 Sterling Area*Dollar Area
    1958157,239195,487x197,64542,213x23,33022,554
    1959186,065151,017152,42948,367x22,00521,536
    1960183,915176,779179,81045,100x36,45535,806
    1961x165,131197,753200,43447,59540,90740,216
    1962161,735172,804..52,72731,332..
  Year ended:
June 1963169,844178,740..60,13535,613..
 EEC CountriesEFTA Countries
    195835,42216,02015,746140,842138,436139,064
    195942,32712,90912,629167,364102,406102,936
    196050,35717,58617,053162,338115,981116,905
    1961x44,39923,15622,391146,149136,057136,990
    196249,33917,098..142,516108,477..
  Year ended:
June 196351,91917,287..144,999114,106..

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF EXTERNAL TRADE – The series for exports of New Zealand produce are linked chain series. Up to the year 1949 the exports of each year were revalued at the unit values of the immediately preceding year and the aggregate so obtained was compared with the recorded value in that (preceding) year. Each year's index was, therefore, a Laspeyre type index on base previous year. From 1950 on, aggregates were also calculated for immediately preceding years at the unit values of the latest year, which, compared with the recorded value in the latest year, gave a Paasche type index. The final index for the year was then obtained as the geometric mean of these two – i.e., a Fisher “Ideal” index – and in the table the successive annual movements are linked. The quarterly indices are similarly calculated on base previous year, but only a limited number of the more important commodity headings are used in the calculation. When the final indices for the year become available the quarterly indices are adjusted to accord with these; consequently, the indices for quarters are provisional.

The series for total exports includes an allowance for re-exports of imported goods. Since these are normally approximately 1 per cent of total exports and only became significant during the war years, the approximate volume movements are obtained by “deflating” the recorded values by the import price index as the best indicator available of price movements for these commodities. The two indices, exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports, are then combined by weighting by their relative values in 1960, which is the base period for the current series. The series on this base show some slight alterations from those published in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

The import volume index up to 1946 was calculated by revaluing each year's imports at 1937 unit values, assuming comparable price movements in the unpriced items as in the priced items. Thereafter a change was made to the calculation of each year on base previous year and the linking of these annual movements. Anterior year weights were used up to 1949 to give a Laspeyre type index. From 1950 on, a Fisher “Ideal” index has been obtained as the geometric mean of both anterior year and current year weighted indices. The quarterly indices, too, are calculated on base previous year, and, like the export series, are provisional until the calculation of the annual index. Currently, the items for which quantities are recorded (and consequently unit values obtained) represent approximately two-thirds of the total value of imports. Price movements are imputed to the remaining third on the basis of the price movements of items in the same statistical groupings.

The total exports and imports series are combined into the total trade series by weighting by their relative values in 1960, being the base period for the current combined series. Index numbers of volume of external trade for the latest eleven years are given below on the base: 1960 (= 1000). The figures given in this table cover calendar years only, but quarterly figures are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and in the annual Report on and Analysis of External Trade Statistics. This also gives longer term series for calendar years and series for March and June years.

VOLUME INDEX NUMBERS OF EXTERNAL TRADE

Base: 1960 (= 1000)

Calendar YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
New Zealand ProduceTotal Exports
Dairy ProduceMeatWoolTotal
19521101852829884883915898
19531017746740794795691745
1954860846746794794913851
19559398457948338331051940
19561021893802884884958920
19579508498278798781034953
195810689128759379361003968
19591164937101110241024835933
19601000100010001000100010001000
19611049100210601023102611411082
196210251041990102510499741012

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE – Descriptions of the index numbers of export and import prices compiled in New Zealand and of the terms of trade are given in Section 23, together with the index numbers.

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE – There is no mint in New Zealand and all new coin is imported from the Royal Mint in England. In Section 29 dealing with Banking and Currency is a description of the coinage in use in New Zealand. The movement of specie to and from New Zealand is recorded in the trade statistics, but the value is not included in the totals of merchandise exports and imports. All records of specie are at face value.

The following table shows exports and imports of specie stated at face value for each of the latest 11 years.

YearSpecie ImportedSpecie ExportedExcess of Specie Imports (+) or Exports (-)

*Provisional.

 £££
1953107,1067,929+ 99,177
195421,3607,573+ 13,787
195543,72613,255+ 30,471
195612,0272,463+ 9,564
195748,93115,026+ 33,905
195897,577161,547- 63,970
195954,86438,823+ 16,041
1960102,14936,374+ 65,775
1961263,85425,564+ 238,290
1962*92,47410,469+ 82,005
June Yr. 1963*79,0656,963+ 72,102

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION – A decline in overseas assets commenced during 1936–37 and continued steadily until 28 November 1938, when the net overseas assets of the New Zealand banking system stood at under £(N.Z.)8 million. This figure can be compared with an average of £(N.Z.)29 million in 1936.

To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, the Import Control Regulations 1938 and the Export Licences Regulations 1938 were issued by Orders in Council dated 5 December 1938. The Import Control Regulations were confirmed as valid by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1939. The Import Control Regulations prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption (e.g., Government imports). The Export Licences Regulations provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence must be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953. The Import Licensing Control Regulations 1964 (related to the authority of the Customs Act 1913) consolidated and amended the Import Control Regulations 1938 and their amendments. Under the Import Control Regulations 1964 importation is permitted under a written permit granted by the Minister of Customs; also a licence or permit is for the sole use of the licensee or holder of the permit, unless the Minister permits otherwise.

Export Control – Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchaser's licence applies to those cases where goods have been purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

Import Selection – The Import Control Regulations are administered through Import Licensing Schedules. The first four Schedules were for six-monthly periods and the first three were confidential to Government Departments. From 1941 to 1961 the Schedules were issued for calendar years, with occasional extensions into the following year. From 1 July 1962 the Schedules have been for years ending 30 June.

The items in the Import Licensing Schedules were originally divided into: basic items for which licences were allocated according to the applicant's import history in a base year; items subject to individual consideration (C); and items for which no licences were available (D). In the case of basic items there were differentiations between the sources of supply, with emphasis on sterling area countries, and several hard-currency countries were excluded from the allocation of basic licences.

Import licences are issued by the Customs Department which is advised by the Department of Industries and Commerce on the import of materials and machinery for existing or planned New Zealand manufacturing industries and on the import of goods of a kind made in New Zealand.

In the 1949 Schedule provision was made for token licences to allow old-established business connections with United Kingdom exporters to be maintained on a small scale in cases where no allocation for such items had been made. The amount of token licences was a percentage of 1938 imports from the United Kingdom.

In May 1950 the Government set up an Import Advisory Committee to examine the import licensing system and to recommend improvements in its administration. The activities of the committee resulted in the extension of import licences on sterling area countries to all non-scheduled countries commencing with the 1951 Schedule. Scheduled countries are those enumerated in the annual Import Licensing Schedule for which only individual licences, limited to the specific country, are issued. By 1956 these comprised only the countries in the dollar area, Japan, and Korea.

The Import Advisory Committee, which was constituted the Board of Trade under the Board of Trade Act 1950 as from 1 December 1950, recommended to the Government a number of departures from the usual set-up of the Import Schedule. The innovations were: the freeing of a large number of items from licensing if the goods were imported from non-scheduled countries; the introduction of world exemption items (“EE”); and the introduction of two categories of modified “D” items.

In May 1950, as a further liberalisation of import licensing, the Government made provision for the issue of no-remittance licences which could be financed out of the applicant's own overseas funds. As no limit was placed on the nature or extent of imports that could be made, nor of the funds to be used, abuses soon became apparent and it was necessary to amend the scheme. A limitation was placed on the type of overseas funds which could be used and the amended scheme applied in general only to imports required by private individuals for their own use and not for purposes of resale.

A relaxation of New Zealand's import policy towards Japan was introduced in 1954 and this was continued in subsequent years until in 1958 a trade agreement was completed removing Japan from the list of scheduled countries.

The 1958 Import Licensing Schedule was initially released in August 1957 but, because of New Zealand's balance of payments crisis it had to be replaced by one which restored import control on virtually all private imports. An important change in the new Schedule was that it included all tariff items. The allocations for items were based on 1956 imports but some items were given a “B” category (or “B” plus percentage classification) and these allocations were related to the old 1958 Schedule provision. Other categories were the “C” (individual consideration) and “D” (no allocation), but the “E” (exempt) and “EE” (world exempt) categories were cancelled. It was also necessary to withdraw the scheme for token imports. However, a new category “A” was introduced under which licences were granted for imports from non-scheduled countries up to the full value sought.

Because of the further deterioration of New Zealand's balance of payments, the 1959 Schedule provided for lower imports than in 1958. One feature of the Schedule was the reintroduction of “global” licences, which could be used for imports from any source, for all items except a limited number designated “M”. Licences for “M” items were available for non-scheduled countries only. However, it was later decided to issue licences for scheduled countries on the same basis as that which applied to the same goods from other countries.

Towards the end of 1958 there was a considerable improvement in the overseas prices received for New Zealand's exports. This rise continued in 1959 and enabled the Government to make additional funds available for imports. Two major relaxations in April 1959 and June 1959 greatly extended the 1959 provision for imports.

The improvement in New Zealand's overseas reserves was reflected in the 1960 Import Licensing Schedule. The 1960 Schedule provided for a much higher value of imports than in 1959 and introduced several new features in licensing procedures. These new departures were aimed at giving the maximum flexibility to importers while retaining those minimum restrictions which were necessary for the effective protection of the balance of payments.

The 1960 Schedule had an increased number of basic allocations, a total of 401 items being in this category. The basis was mainly the value of 1959 licences, although in several cases other bases were used. Many items which were previously considered individual were made basic to let the importer know his entitlement as soon as possible, so eliminating delays in dealing with applications for licences.

The exemption of items from import licensing was reintroduced. Although the number of items was not large, their import value amounted to a considerable sum. The items were: raw sugar, crude oil, motor spirits, certain bulk oils (kerosene and lubricating oils), explosives, crude sulphur in bulk, and manures. These items were particularly suited for exemption as they are essential, of major value, and are imported by relatively few firms so that actual and likely expenditure can be readily ascertained.

The token licence provision which had been cancelled because of the critical circumstances at the beginning of 1958 was reintroduced in a new form. Over a wide range of items, for which no other allocation had been made, token licences were available for imports from any source to the extent of 10 per cent of the value of imports of the same goods from any source in 1956. For a few items which were severely restricted in 1956 the basis was 100 per cent of the value of 1956 licences. The token licence procedure permitted overseas suppliers and their New Zealand customers to maintain trading contact; it also introduced variety and kept overseas standards before manufacturers and consumers.

The most important new features of the Schedule were the replacement licence (“R”) scheme and the industry group scheme. The replacement scheme permitted an importer to obtain his genuine import needs of an item. (In 1960 an importer was entitled to an initial licence representing 50 per cent of the value of his normal 1959 licence for the “R” items. Further licences were issued up to the ceiling of 150 per cent in replacement of the value of actual imports made under his 1960 licence.) The “R” system applied also to new importers.

The application of “global” licences introduced in the 1959 Schedule was extended in 1960 so that the only goods remaining in the “M” category were motor vehicles (excluding spare parts). For this item the allocation for “scheduled” countries was the same as for “non-scheduled” countries.

The 1961 Import Licensing Schedule further liberalised the import licensing allocations. The number of “Replacement” (“R”) and “A” items was increased and the initial entitlement to “R” licences raised from 50 to 100 per cent. It was estimated that 55 per cent of private imports was either exempt from import licensing or subject to the “R” or “A” allocations which made licences available to regular or prospective new importers.

A fall in export receipts, particularly from dairy produce, and a large increase in private imports forced the Government to adopt more restrictive measures in 1961. In April 1961 the replacement (“R”) scheme was suspended and the “A” category abolished in June 1961.

The qualifying date for the use of overseas funds for personal imports, mainly of motorcars, was advanced from 18 November 1953 to 31 December 1958.

In June 1961 two major decisions were taken to reduce imports to the level of lower export earnings. The 1961 licences were spread over an 18 months' period to 30 June 1962 and a limited Supplementary Schedule was introduced for the first half of 1962 to cover urgent needs beyond the 1961 entitlements. The Supplementary Schedule provided for a reduction of £50 million on current import levels.

While the exempt items of the 1961 Schedule were continued in the Supplementary Schedule, the “A” and “R” category remained cancelled, token licences were eliminated, and the number of items without allocation (“D”) or subject to individual consideration (“C”) was greatly increased.

Import Licensing Schedules now apply to the 12 months ending 30 June, the first Schedule covering the period from 1 July 1962 to 30 June 1963. This Schedule issued in March 1962 provided for private imports at a level of about £250 million and represented a considerable easing in relation to the supplementary period in the first half of 1962. In general the provision made for essential raw-material imports was expected to allow manufacturers to maintain actual usage at a level consistent with that for 1960. The Schedule was based on the new Customs Tariff which came into force on 1 July 1962. A new “A” category was introduced for a limited number of items to ensure continuity of supply while avoiding any undue build-up of stocks. The token licence scheme was discontinued.

In October 1962 provision was made for increased basic licences for a wide range of goods and for the reintroduction of token licences. Most of the increases in basic licences were for those consumer goods which had been severely restricted before. No extra provision of funds was involved, the reallocation being possible through a review of actual licence issue and use.

Innovations of major importance introduced in 1962 were the Free Funds and the Export Incentive schemes.

The Free Funds Scheme extended the no-remittance policy to commercial imports. It permitted the use of privately held funds of the following kinds: (a) Legitimately acquired overseas earnings held by the applicant on or before 28 February 1962. These funds comprised mainly royalties and commissions. (b) Sterling area currencies or securities, including shares, purchased legitimately from other New Zealand residents on or before 31 December 1958.

To offset inequities between those importers who had repatriated or never held “approved” funds and those who had retained such funds it was decided that for every £5 of approved funds £1 must be repatriated to New Zealand through normal banking channels, only the balance of £4 being available for imports. Where goods were purchased for resale, licences would be granted only to those with a history of importing goods of a similar class.

The Export Incentive Scheme was made available to all manufacturers who manufacture for export or who undertake to do so, whether or not they have an entitlement to import licences for raw materials or components. Licences issued under the scheme are either replacement, assistance, or bonus licences. A manufacturer already holding a licence or entitlement to a licence for raw materials or components may obtain a replacement licence to the value of the imported content of the goods exported, produced for export, or in the course of manufacture against confirmed overseas orders. Assistance licences will be granted either in the case of confirmed overseas orders where production has not been commenced, or when a manufacturer not holding overseas orders makes a declaration of intention to export and shows that active steps to open up an export market have been taken. Bonus licences are available to manufacturers who have actually exported; they may obtain licences for raw materials or components either of the same kind and value as those used in the manufacture of the exported goods, or of a different kind provided that the latter have a basic allocation and that the grant is not likely to affect adversely the efficient operation of an existing New Zealand industry. Bonus licences are in addition to licences issued as replacement or assistance licences. Once a bonus licence has been granted the materials or components may be used to manufacture goods for sale either overseas or in New Zealand as the manufacturer decides.

For the 1963–64 import licensing year £250 million was provided for private import payments – the same as for the previous year. Particular efforts were made to increase the flexibility of operation of the licensing system. Over 100 items were included in the “A” category compared with 15 in the previous schedule. These covered a wide range of industrial raw materials together with many essential goods for retail sale. Licences for “A” items were granted initially to the extent of 75 per cent of the value of licences (other than “special” licences) granted for imports of similar goods during the 1962–63 licensing period. On evidence of full commitment of their initial licence, importers were granted further licence in the light of sales performance or use in manufacture.

Two general schemes were introduced for the 1963–64 year to assist manufacturers holding licences for raw materials for use in their own plant: (a) General “A” licences—Manufacturers entitled to “A” licences in more than one item were permitted to amalgamate these into one general licence which might be used at the licence holder's discretion to import goods up to the full monetary limit of the combined licences. This gave greater freedom of choice and enabled changes in demand to be met more readily; (b) General entitlement licences—A similar arrangement was introduced to provide for amalgamation of licences covering over 100 items relating to raw materials or components for use in manufacture.

Additional flexibility was provided by placing approximately 140 items in 14 “interchangeability groups”. A licence holder with a 1963–64 licence for one or more of the items in a group might use 25 per cent of that licence to import any of the other items in that group.

Following experience with the new Customs Tariff, and a study of the pattern of imports during the 1962–63 period, it was possible to reduce the number of item codes by 15 per cent. To the existing list of exempt items was added the major item of printed books (other than magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and comics). The issue of separate licences for motor vehicles from dollar and non-dollar sources was discontinued and licences became available for imports from any source.

During the 1963–64 import licensing period commercial and industrial growth expanded rapidly. Additional funds totalling slightly more than £8 million were made available for further imports of cars, agricultural tractors, on extension of the “token” import scheme, additional components for television manufacture, and further industrial raw materials.

However, by the time of issue of the 1964–65 Import Licensing Schedule in April 1964, it became apparent that private import payments for the licensing period 1 July 1963 to 30 June 1964 would reach a considerably higher figure than the £258 million provided. This was due to three main factors: (a) The value of imports of goods exempt from import licensing control had increased sharply, due principally to the large increase in the price of raw sugar, greater use of petrol, and of agricultural fertilisers; (b) There was a larger carry-over than usual from the previous period of goods imported and paid for under 1962–63 licences; (c) Increased flexibility in the 1963–64 Schedule provisions, together with increasing demand, resulted in a greater utilisation of licences than normal.

In preparing the Schedule for 1964–65 it was decided that the principle of allowing as much flexibility as possible in the use of licences should be continued. An increase in the range of industry groups and provision for further transfers to interchangeability groups reflected this decision. Accordingly it was considered wise to budget on a non-utilisation figure of 10 per cent for 1964–65 compared with the previous 15 per cent. Therefore, although the new Schedule was framed on approximately the same funds basis, a reduction was necessary in calculating the total value of licences that could be issued. This meant that the level of allocations for individual items had to be reduced in many cases. It was decided to review the situation in September when final balance of payments figures for external trade during the 1963–64 period would be known, but at the date of issue of the Schedule no undertaking could be given that additional funds would be provided. Licences for 1964–65 for “A” items were again based initially on 75 per cent of the value of licences (other than “special” licences) granted on or before 31 January 1964 for imports of similar goods during the 1963–64 licensing period. Licences for additional requirements were to be considered in the light of commitment of basic licences, usage in manufacture or sales performance, and stock holdings. In line with the general reduction of allocations, it was necessary to place a ceiling on the value of “A” licences issued. This was fixed at 100 per cent of licences issued in 1963–64.

A revision was undertaken of the industry groups, and the items which might be imported under each group were set out in detail in the Schedule. Previously, these groups were defined in terms of the former Customs Tariff. Opportunity was taken to bring the contents of these groups into line with current demands, and attention was given to the effect of growing domestic manufacture of many components. In order to extend the advantages of the industry group scheme to further defined manufacturing industries, some additional groups were introduced – those for materials and components for the manufacture of garments, carpets, and electric storage batteries; and materials for use in the tanning of hides and skins. Two groups which were deleted from the 1963–64 Schedule, because of the introduction of the Manufacturers' General Entitlement Scheme, were revived. These are the groups relating to the manufacture of soaps and paints. A major departure was to permit the inclusion of “A” items in industry groups.

Following the revision of existing industry groups and the introduction of further groups, together with the inclusion of “A” items, there was no further need for the manufacturers' “A” and “General” licence groups. These were accordingly cancelled. Interchangeability groups, which were introduced during the 1963–64 period, were continued, and, generally speaking, licence holders were permitted to transfer a further 25 per cent of their individual item entitlements to these groups. Where materials or components for use in manufacture did not fit into an existing industry group, it was decided to give consideration, on individual application, to the “consolidation” or “aggregation” of licences. In these cases, one “consolidated” licence, specifying the item codes for which it was valid, would be issued.

In accordance with New Zealand's undertaking to assist the trade of less fully economically developed countries, tea imported in packages of 5 lb net weight or over was removed from import control. This was previously an “A” item, and actual requirements were freely imported. Tea in smaller packages, that is, for retail sale, continued to be a restricted item. Control was also removed from fresh, chilled, or frozen meat (except poultry); dried, salted, or smoked meat; greasy or scoured wool; undressed hides and skins (except furskins).

A major innovation in 1964–65 was the introduction of a new procedure under which importers were relieved of the need to make application for basic licences under a wide range of items. For the great bulk of basic items, licences were issued automatically with considerable saving in time and paper work.

Section 29 on Banking and Currency contains detailed information on the exchange allocation system.

BOARD OF TRADE – In May 1950 an Import Advisory Committee was established to examine questions relating to import control and associated matters and to make recommendations thereon to the Minister of Customs. The committee comprised a chairman and three members. As a result of the committee's recommendations, many items were exempted from import licensing on non-scheduled countries and a number of reforms were made in the import licensing system.

In December 1950 the Board of Trade Act 1950 was passed. This Act provided for the establishment of a Board of Trade to consist of not more than four members. From 1950 until November 1957 the membership of the Board comprised a chairman and two other members, each of whom had been a member of the Import Advisory Committee. A fourth member was appointed to the Board in November 1957. After July 1959, however, the Board consisted of a chairman and two members. In 1961 the Board of Trade was abolished and replaced by the Tariff and Development Board.

The Board's principal function was to make recommendations, within the scope of the legislation, to the Minister of Customs, but it could also, when requested by the Minister of Customs, make recommendations to other Ministers. The advisory functions of the Board included the economic aspects of such matters as the rates of customs duties and the general effect of the operation of the Tariff; the maintenance and expansion of existing industries and the development of new industries; the administration of the licensing of imports and the licensing of exports (except in relation to agricultural or pastoral products) and applications and appeals relating thereto; international trade agreements and conferences; and the marketing and distribution of products and the obtaining of raw materials and other goods for use in industry, except as may be specially provided in any other Act in respect of any particular industry or product.

The Board was occupied principally on a general review of the Customs Tariff in 1956 and 1957 its report being made on 29 November 1957. Changes made in the Customs Tariff in July 1960, and a completely new Tariff which came into force on 1 July 1962, generally reflected the recommendations of the Board in that report, not only as to rates of duty but also as to abolition of primage duty and surtax and the charging of duty on current domestic value without the addition of 10 per cent. The Tariff is now classified according to the revised Standard International Trade Classification.

TARIFF AND DEVELOPMENT BOARD – Under the Tariff and Development Board Act 1961 the Board of Trade was replaced by a Tariff and Development Board. The Board may consist of not less than four and not more than six members including a chairman and deputy chairman. The Board as constituted on 1 June 1962 comprises six members, four of whom including the chairman are part-time members, and two including the deputy chairman full-time members.

The Board has the functions, when so requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Industries and Commerce or the Minister of Overseas Trade, to inquire into and report on any of the following matters, with such recommendations as it thinks fit:

  1. The desirability of new, increased, or reduced Customs duties, or of exemptions from such duties:

  2. The general effect of the operation of the Tariff on the trade and commerce, and the farming, manufacturing, and distributing industries of New Zealand and also on the interests of consumers:

  3. The desirability of providing or continuing to provide assistance, whether by means of subsidies, grants, bounties, Tariff concessions or preferences, or otherwise, for the protection and encouragement of any New Zealand industry or for the development of New Zealand's overseas trade:

  4. The relationship between the rates of Customs duties on raw materials and those on finished or partly finished products:

  5. Any matter relating to the licensing of imports, including any appeal against a decision to decline, in whole or in part, any application for an import licence:

  6. Any matter relating to the application of Customs duty under any item of the Tariff, or to the granting of concessions as provided for in the Tariff or in the Customs Acts:

  7. Any other matter affecting the protection or development of industry or the development of overseas trade, whether by means of the Tariff or otherwise.

The Board may also from time to time, of its own motion, inquire into and make recommendations to any of the said Ministers.

Two of the first questions which the Board had referred to it for inquiry and report were “the need for criteria in the light of which industrial growth and development should proceed” and “the need for additional medium and long term establishment and developmental finance”. Reports have been furnished on these subjects, and published as Parliamentary papers, H. 48 and H. 49, 1963.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE – Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Industries and Commerce through the service of Trade Commissioners, who are stationed in 17 posts – Accra, Auckland (for the Pacific), Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, London, Melbourne, Montreal, New Delhi, New York, Paris, San Francisco, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo, Trinidad, Vancouver, and Washington. While this representation is modest in comparison with other countries, it reflects the country's growing interest in the desirability of diversifying export markets. This is further exemplified by the fact that nine posts have been established in the last six years: New York and Singapore in 1956, Trinidad in 1958, San Francisco and Kuala Lumpur in 1959, Hong Kong in 1960, Paris in 1961, and Accra and Vancouver in 1962. In addition, TEAL, New Zealand's international airline, agreed at the end of 1961 to its managers in Fiji and Tahiti acting as trade correspondents of the Department of Industries and Commerce. In most cases Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

While the selling of goods in overseas markets is basically the responsibility of New Zealand exporters, the Trade Commissioner can be of considerable help in conducting market surveys and supplying information on import and exchange restrictions, Customs duty, sales tax, normal sources of supply (local production and imported), marketing methods, freight rates, statutory or customary requirements for packing, labelling, etc., and reliable importers in his territory. He may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in his territory enable him to give valuable advice. His task is made easier if he is given adequate notice of the visit.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with his territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example, by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make representations at the official level.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are: representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government Departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc., and maintaining liaison where they are stationed with business and Government circles.

Businessmen may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned but, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Secretary, Department of Industries and Commerce, Wellington, who is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

Overseas representatives are listed in Section 41, Official.

22 B – EXPORTS

GENERAL – In New Zealand the Customs Department requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination, and the export statistics are compiled from the analysis and totals of these statements.

Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment”, except re-exports ex bonded warehouse or under drawback of duty, which are recorded at the original import values. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. The trade records distinguish between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS – The table following gives merchandise exports (i.e., excluding specie) for the latest 11 years for the four main commodity groups.

YearDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Skins, and PeltsTotal Merchandise Exports*

*Including other commodities, among them uncoined gold and silver.

†Provisional.

£(thousand)
195377,68447,82684,59810,692235,860
195466,79859,55688,43710,449244,466
195570,42368,19093,8879,223259,289
195682,22371,07991,53210,606277,483
195766,29270,706105,95910,117276,569
195858,50279,51880,0378,317250,173
195988,51476,86989,64313,254293,659
196078,85581,188102,40913,309302,603
196168,55677,271100,31212,154283,996
Jan.–June 196236,19543,98563,7467,625166,353
June year 196373,07189,628104,57312,541308,703

The commodity groups shown above normally account for more than 90 per cent of the total value of merchandise exports.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade has varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. In the preceding subsection is set out a table of volume index numbers for these commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices.

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS – N.Z. PRODUCE

New Zealand's reliance upon grassland farming for her exports is brought out by the figures in the next table showing total exports of pastoral products and the percentage which they represent of the total exports of New Zealand produce.

EXPORTS OF PASTORAL PRODUCTS

YearValuePercentage*

*Of total exports of New Zealand produce.

†Provisional.

 £(000) 
194069,05794.6
194162,23893.0
194274,36192.3
194361,02986.9
194458,94882.2
194568,11287.0
194689,58289.3
1947120,34294.2
1948137,75094.0
1949138,70295.0
1950174,39995.7
1951239,13797.1
1952228,17995.7
1953223,74695.8
1954229,20494.6
1955246,09395.7
1956259,66794.4
1957257,67693.9
1958231,28393.3
1959273,27193.9
1960280,79492.8
1961263,33393.9x
1962265,34593.3
June year 1963284,33093.4

Of exports other than pastoral the principal ones of economic significance in the June year 1963 were: newsprint (£4.0 m.), woodpulp (£2.7 m.), apples (£2.2 m.), grass and clover seeds (£1.8 m.), fish and fish products (£1.7 m.), logs of radiata pine (£1.0 m.), sawn timber (£1.0 m.).

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce by primary source are next given for the three latest years, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities for the last 50 years. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)1961x1962*June Year 1963*

*Provisional.

Mining products –   
  Coal (ton)13,559484
  Pumice (cwt)22,1209,1214,290
  Gold (oz)24,056....
  Scheelite (ton)62..
  Cement (cwt)6069121
Fishery products –   
  Fish, fresh and frozen (cwt)47,09953,89245,614
  Fish, other (cwt)556....
  Crayfish (cwt)18,77326,20428,235
  Whale oil (gal)354,39943,84913,127
  Fish oils and fish-liver oils (gal)10,69211,1866,736
Forest products –   
  Kauri gum (ton)914334
  Timber –   
    Logs, radiata pine (cu. ft.)9,217,3799,669,8737,807,923
    Sawn (sup. ft.)28,499,00728,709,30027,946,399
    For cases in shooks (sup. ft.)3,679,0044,249,2924,272,337
  Wood pulp (ton)63,60170,12369,056
  Newsprint (cwt)923,507829,8711,441,224
  Building board (sq. ft.)910,7231,835,4172,519,499
  Plywood (sq. ft.)8,36415,3921,906
Pastoral products –   
  Butter (cwt)3,300,7963,368,7393,281,878
  Casein (cwt)580,562538,786587,976
  Cheese (cwt)1,752,1351,845,7941,811,238
  Milk, dried and condensed (cwt)1,009,1491,138,2341,255,369
  Sugar of milk (cwt)97,98485,08584,973
  Eggs –   
    In shell (doz)59,58030,54221,129
    Not in shell (lb)282,5811,2011,241,241
  Honey (lb)1,612,7082,110,1942,375,474
  Meat, frozen and chilled (cwt)9,213,6979,398,7559,876,305
  Meat, canned (cwt)65,74071,13165,801
  Meat extract (lb)255,683402,448189,452
  Other preserved meat (cwt)10,81924,52040,809
  Sausage casings (lb)9,151,528....
  Liver meal (cwt)29,95326,32814,688
  Cattle hides (number)796,9831,046,9941,110,379
  Horse hides (number)6,8905,8874,068
  Calf skins (number)784,5371,115,9981,029,758
  Deer skins (number)65,08262,58661,482
  Opossum skins (number)151,189576,697827,112
  Sheep skins and pelts (number)27,309,53428,751,14328,461,442
  Horse hair and other coarse animal hair (lb)62,38429,67145,698
  Wool (lb)554,762,676547,275,891563,178,949
  Inedible offals (including dried blood (cwt)224,003....
  Lard (cwt)16,6708,210652
  Edible tallow (ton)9,2009,6939,990
  Edible stearine (ton)685946849
  Inedible tallow (ton)48,52352,35246,975
  Neatsfoot oil (ton)....397
  Live cattle (number)22850528
  Live sheep (number)125282,020
  Live horses (number)545511531
Agricultural products –   
  Apples (lb)70,987,18098,927,31469,250,619
  Pears (lb)5,853,1407,587,0285,221,832
  Hops (lb)45,45126,64141,373
  Potatoes (ton)10,2514,7294,308
  Onions (ton)4,8422,0012,313
  Canned vegetables (lb)1,654,3931,079,2222,523,745
  Frozen vegetables (cwt)35,46518,81129,794
  Peas, food (cental)148,745139,764119,788
  Peas, seed (cental)174,520176,153154,554
  Seeds, grass and clover (cwt)131,921154,949160,434
  Seeds, other (cwt)....10,377
Miscellaneous –   
  Biscuits (cwt)2,1763,0063,607
  Ale, beer, stout (gal)258,312208,389246,768
  Sugar (cwt)2,2581,4064,915
  Cigarettes (lb)21,67536,00646,406
  Cut tobacco (lb)218,215200,847215,316
  Textile waste (lb)1,903,0722,101,2751,723,830
  Soaps (lb)1,632,5241,554,6091,639,500
  Scrap metal (ton)18,399....
  Chamois leather (sq. ft.)189,644370,340400,987

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)1961x1962*June Year 1963*

**Provisional.

Mining products –£££
  Coal62,0731,10642
  Pumice13,5585,7652,595
  Gold291,062218,717230,259
  Scheelite1,872470 
  Cement41111112
  Other1,48916,01932,277
Fishery products –   
  Fish, fresh and frozen409,697403,271398,603
  Fish, other15,43118,24828,403
  Crayfish753,6091,137,7211,224,398
  Whale oil90,59211,4302,705
  Fish oils and fish-liver oils41,84542,31323,095
Forest products –   
  Kauri gum13,1839,5587,482
  Timber –   
    Logs, radiata pine1,150,5021,252,185995,469
    Sawn840,314850,136818,376
    For cases in shooks194,684229,391230,554
  Wood pulp2,515,6822,833,4742,749,422
  Newsprint2,703,2162,298,2174,018,627
  Other paper and paper board116,941127,14696,615
  Building board16,96127,42532,707
  Plywood6291,114173
  Other8381,9702,609
Pastoral products –   
  Butter39,417,83843,803,52445,354,074
  Casein4,392,8294,041,4234,139,102
  Cheese19,916,42118,740,37518,161,182
  Milk, dried and condensed4,196,3164,307,4504,681,884
  Sugar of milk472,036418,179413,199
  Other dairy produce19,89128,281321,382
  Eggs –   
    In shell13,6147,1144,407
    Not in shell26,04126587,691
  Honey100,655114,868134,339
  Meat, frozen and chilled72,154,66573,563,22482,849,248
  Meat, canned1,238,1401,324,1521,197,243
  Meat extract69,457126,79081,613
  Other preserved meat181,845272,993362,383
  Sausage casings3,627,1474,767,8665,138,927
  Liver meal78,21875,72542,797
  Cattle hides2,193,3392,636,6152,635,357
  Horse hides14,47311,5298,239
  Calf skins683,275887,559790,561
  Deer skins60,64055,69554,002
  Opossum skins59,956331,616583,245
  Sheep skins and pelts9,015,3538,646,8568,366,657
  Horse hair and other coarse animal hair12,65112,3109,298
  Wool100,312,42496,518,101104,573,245
  Inedible offals (including dried blood)862,304918,492906,883
  Lard96,65846,1865,835
  Edible tallow592,292459,572453,971
  Edible stearine43,17952,10046,078
  Inedible tallow2,532,2752,145,5211,857,694
  Neatsfoot oil54,35853,52041,484
  Live cattle7,77166,54551,543
  Live sheep44,82829,70426,830
  Live horses372,042451,058406,385
  Other469,723429,456543,228
Agricultural products –   
  Apples2,230,8123,093,3842,162,601
  Pears183,507237,285163,327
  Hops8,2274,8088,871
  Potatoes240,194113,74193,089
  Onions145,38883,21175,761
  Canned vegetables86,67758,358130,838
  Frozen vegetables311,489171,037234,571
  Peas, food253,189216,849212,935
  Peas, seed521,086511,406456,788
  Seeds, grass and clover1,310,7841,812,2291,770,222
  Other seeds48,89860,013104,570
  Other100,824184,528150,588
Miscellaneous –   
  Biscuits32,88528,69739,753
  Ale, beer, stout106,82392,355108,724
  Sugar7,1654,58716,049
  Soups3351,0484,692
  Infant and invalid food (cereal)24,48231,65326,470
  Cigarettes21,08732,87542,274
  Cut tobacco109,64687,89695,297
  Textile waste121,658120,805104,678
  Soaps59,21756,85359,369
  Scrap metal384,666217,404215,272
  Dairy machinery164,830150,132180,283
  Chamois leather23,40947,24956,496
  Vitamins and concentrates4452,7531,763
  Washing machines30,47414,938..
  Other1,309,0202,054,2072,835,694
    Totals, New Zealand produce280,404,090284,320,752304,575,504

The next two tables show the values of export trade for the calendar year 1961, the six months January–June 1962, and the June year 1963. Because of the adoption of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) for classifying external trade for statistical purposes from 1 July 1962 (see p. 633), no direct comparison between these tables should be made. The June year 1963 figures are therefore separately tabled, and are the commencement of a new series.

Exports – Section and Division1961Jan–June 1962
Section 0. Food£(thousand)
  Div. 00 Live animals chiefly for food5565
  Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations77,27143,985
  Div. 02 Dairy produce, eggs, and honey63,69133,648
  Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations1,179817
  Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations6740
  Div. 05 Fruits and vegetables3,5183,296
  Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations483265
  Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof414
  Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)370253
  Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations724300
    Totals, Section 0147,36482,684
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco  
  Div. 11 Beverages13265
  Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures15878
    Totals, Section 1290143
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels  
  Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed12,1547,625
  Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels4
  Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed 
  Div. 24 Wood, lumber, and cork1,9941,221
  Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper2,5221,335
  Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics and waste)100,47763,844
  Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones10434
  Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap395121
  Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, inedible, n.e.i.2,8561,520
    Totals, Section 2120,50275,706
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials  
  Div. 31 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials1,729839
    Totals, Section 31,729839
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats  
  Div. 41 Animal and vegetable oils (not essential oils), fats, greases, and derivatives2,7841,409
    Totals, Section 42,7841,409
Section 5. Chemicals  
  Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds5026
  Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas 
  Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials4623
  Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products10468
  Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations7436
  Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured21
  Div. 59 Explosives and miscellaneous chemical materials and products4,5642,346
    Totals, Section 54,8412,501
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material  
  Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs6738
  Div. 62 Rubber manufactures n.e.i.17070
  Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)218101
  Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof2,8691,280
  Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products181142
  Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.i.3726
  Div. 67 Silver, platinum, gems, and jewellery147
  Div. 68 Base metals9731
  Div. 69 Manufactures of metal525288
    Totals, Section 64,1781,984
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment  
  Div. 71 Machinery other than electric692294
  Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances22479
  Div. 73 Transport equipment311134
    Totals, Section 71,227507
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles  
  Div. 81 Prefabricated buildings, sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings178
  Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures97
  Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles42
  Div. 84 Clothing154
  Div. 85 Footwear52
  Div. 86 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks5421
  Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.i.18085
    Totals, Section 8282128
Section 9. Miscellaneous Transactions and Commodities n.e.i.  
  Div. 92 Live animals, not for food378337
  Div. 93 Returned goods and special transactions6210
  Div. 95 Unclassified goods under £10 in value6835
  Div. 99 Gold29171
    Totals, Section 9799453
    Grand totals, merchandise exports283,996166,353

In the following table exports for the year ended 30 June 1963 are classified according to the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Exports – Section and DivisionYear Ended 30 June 1963*

**Provisional.

Section 0. Food£(thousand)
  Div. 00 Live animals chiefly for food489
  Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations84,490
  Div. 02 Dairy produce, eggs, and honey68,611
  Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations1,649
  Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations98
  Div. 05 Fruits and vegetables3,671
  Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations569
  Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof7
  Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)506
  Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations131
    Totals, Section 0160,220
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco 
  Div. 11 Beverages113
  Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures139
    Totals, Section 1251
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels 
  Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed12,541
  Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels..
  Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed3
  Div. 24 Wood, lumber, and cork1,818
  Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper2,755
  Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics and waste)104,782
  Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones68
  Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap235
  Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, inedible, n.e.s.8,404
    Totals, Section 2130,606
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials 
  Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes..
  Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products14
  Div. 34 Gas1
    Totals, Section 315
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats 
  Div. 41 Animal oils and fats2,458
  Div. 42 Fixed vegetable oils and fats2
  Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats processed24
    Totals, Section 42,484
Section 5. Chemicals 
  Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds37
  Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas 
  Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials31
  Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products90
  Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations83
  Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured3
  Div. 57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products5
  Div. 58 Plastic materials33
  Div. 59 Chemical materials and products n.e.s.4,175
    Totals, Section 54,457
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material 
  Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs97
  Div. 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.126
  Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)264
  Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof4,179
  Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products326
  Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.s.46
  Div. 67 Iron and steel10
  Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals267
  Div. 69 Manufactures of metal n.e.s.96
    Totals, Section 65,413
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment 
  Div. 71 Machinery other than electric380
  Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances72
  Div. 73 Transport equipment36
  Totals, Section 7488
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles 
  Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings8
  Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures42
  Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles4
  Div. 84 Clothing66
  Div. 85 Footwear13
  Div. 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks13
  Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.s.193
    Totals, Section 8339
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions not Classified According to Kind 
  Goods under £10 in value66
  Gold230
  Other7
    Totals, Section 9303
  Total New Zealand Produce Exports304,576
    Re-exports4,128
  Grand total, merchandise exports308,703

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS – Since the 1850s the United Kingdom has been New Zealand's principal trading partner, replacing Australia, which took the bulk of the trade in the early days of settlement. The proportion of our exports going to the United Kingdom market in the years prior to the Second World War was between 70 and 80 per cent of the total value of all exports. With the growing diversification of our markets in recent years the proportion of New Zealand's exports going to this market has fallen and by 1963 (June year) represented only 46 per cent of the total value of all exports.

Trade with the Commonwealth countries has always greatly exceeded that with foreign countries. During recent years, however, there has been a decline in the proportion of the export trade going to Commonwealth countries, occasioned mainly by the export of wool to European countries and meat to the United States of America. In 1948 Commonwealth countries took 80 per cent of the total exports. By 1963 (June year) this proportion had fallen to 56 per cent.

In recent years trade has been recorded with over 100 countries each year.

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) during the last 21 years are given in the table below. The nomenclature used in this and subsequent tables in regard to the countries of destination refers generally to status and territories in the years indicated and not necessarily to the present position.

YearUnited KingdomCanadaAustraliaFranceWest GermanyUnited States of AmericaOther Countries*Total Merchandise Exports

*Including ships' stores.

†Provisional.

£(thousand)
194260,4713,6172,7185,9908,48981,285
194346,3684,5352,8496,38511,72571,863
194455,4271,9403,0935,06312,26577,787
194558,6432,2514,195477,9858,51081,631
194670,9242,8033,6313,4651,6399,7169,124101,302
194798,6983,0604,0964,447788,17410,866129,420
1948107,9152,9913,9548,3082,7257,27314,655147,821
1949107,7062,1963,7487,6582,9945,49217,488147,281
1950121,6853,5574,7798,0775,93918,38721,327183,752
1951142,3628,5655,11317,8548,83628,85936,538248,127
1952156,4855,2123,93010,5595,22727,26731,880240,561
1953158,0472,9584,65515,6846,08418,37930,053235,860
1954163,3002,9976,44514,67510,49113,89632,663244,466
1955169,6574,2306,69215,28712,68815,10035,635259,289
1956178,7564,0268,43116,76110,40319,50839,598277,483
1957162,1314,43510,11321,69712,26021,73044,203276,569
1958139,1054,06610,26614,6807,02836,44938,579250,173
June Year        
1959143,3013,3649,88314,3137,99444,62737,251260,734
1960171,5283,62612,40921,17511,51538,62255,893314,768
1961148,0533,68512,77917,3137,73039,15951,983280,702
1962143,6503,78810,82118,4739,94841,97262,786291,437
1963142,9094,45913,80619,9049,96352,27965,383308,703

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded by the Customs Department. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and, in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics. It is possible, of course, that the destination of goods may be changed while in transit; and this, in fact, happens occasionally. In such cases the actual destination will be different from that to which the goods have been credited in the statistics; however it is quite impossible to keep a record of all movements of this nature.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an “optional” basis – United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

In the following table figures are given for the value of New Zealand's export trade to European countries in calendar years from 1959 to 1962 together with figures for the June year 1963. This table shows the importance of wool as the chief commodity in New Zealand's trade with Europe.

Country19591960x19611962*June Year 1963*

**Provisional.

 £££££
Austria32,4334,0218,2105,3741,128
Belgium5,203,8857,675,5518,266,9558,898,7927,832,018
Bulgaria139,842195,697
Czechoslovakia1,366,7571,750,2851,487,024553,975134,238
Denmark396,216516,066580,453581,507498,794
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania412,375
Finland175,639194,291162,250180,865108,489
France17,243,00320,291,36217,389,79217,791,68319,904,162
Germany, West9,692,77910,641,4388,019,7939,132,5639,963,104
Germany, East3,435131,85513,60675,200107,706
Greece322,340372,921397,447385,542492,658
Hungary9410727,43830,650
Italy6,007,5717,569,8736,751,4819,473,1379,472,907
Netherlands4,179,4324,179,1843,970,4944,236,1294,746,367
Norway158,781109,088220,472168,428229,164
Poland1,263,9882,376,385'966,4701,480,294994,465
Portugal382,056533,599504,882714,258582,319
Rumania
Russia (U.S.S.R.)152,2792,510,9371,520,243894,03384,860
Spain80,53217,08864,235810,0741,110,698
Sweden697,393810,560789,878863,138696,049
Switzerland40,09228,81739,52297,22582,553
Turkey2,46236,4466,57912,71614,791
Yugoslavia239,423219,64039,96152,732103,039
Totals47,780,43260,165,21151,612,12256,435,10357,190,159
Per Cent
Percentage of total New Zealand exports taken by European countries (value basis)16.2719.8818.1719.6118.53
Value (£)
Value of wool exported to European countries36,388,91649,246,24243,318,16045,785,77246,952,802
Per Cent
Percentage of wool exports to total exports to European countries (value basis)76.1681.8583.9381.1382.10
Percentage of total New Zealand wool exports taken by European countries (value basis)40.5948.0943.1847.4444.90

The table which follows shows for each of the last 11 years the percentage of total exports (excluding specie and ships' stores) taken by each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

Country19541955195619571958195919601961Jan-June 1962June Year 1963
STERLING    Per Cent    
  Australia2.642.593.053.674.123.744.453.893.264.47
  Fiji0.370.410.47 0.380.420.390.370.390.320.35 
  India0.520.740.550.580.300.230.340.320.290.42
  Jamaica0.240.340.400.490.540.520.420.440.57 
  Trinidad and Tobago0.290.360.280.310.400.350.450.290.51 
  United Kingdom66.9865.5964.5858.7955.7856.5653.085,10249.5046.29
  Western Samoa0.230.240.200170.300.280.260.270.220.29
  Other1.821.181.020.991.341.381.511.741.282.02
  Totals Sterling Countries72.5671.2770.5865.2563 0563.5360.8958.5155.6154.93
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)          
  Austria0.030.010.010.020.01     
  Denmark0.290.150.160190.210140.170.210.220.16
  Norway0.030.040.020.020.020.050.040.080.070.07
  Portugal0.010.020.030.070.150.130.180.180.360.19
  Sweden0.190.180.260190.280.240.270.280.370.22
  Switzerland0.050.170.050.030.020.010.010.010.020.03
TotalsE.F.T.A. Countries0.590.560.520.700.580.660.761.040.67
E.E.C.          
  Belgium and Luxemburg1.401.792.072.291.811.782.542.934.052.54
  France6.025.916.067.875.895.896.726.167.476.45
  Germany, West4.304.913.764.452.823.313.522.843.763.23
  Italy1.751.832.412.252.502.052.512.393.753.07
  Netherlands1.671.751.671.481.201.431.381.411.611.54
  Totals E.E.C. Countries15.1416.1815.9618.3414.2014.4516.6715.7320.6316.82
DOLLAR          
  Canada1.231.641.451.611.631.041.211.331.481.44
  Hawaii0.080.050.070.130.290.310.360.410.250.42
  Philippines0.100.080.070.180.090.090.200.290.210.21
  U.S.A.5.705.847.057.8814.6114.7012.7414.5313.9916.94
  Other0.250.270.180.230.250.310.390.270.350.46
  Total Dollar Countries7.367.878.8310.0216.8716.4614.9016.8216.2719.48
OTHER          
  China0.010.060.050.220.390.850.770.470.300.49
  Czechoslovakia0.100.640.640.350.400.470.580.530.270.04
  Egypt0.060.140.240.030.130.060.090.100.070.07
  Japan0.520.770.972.842.212.282.945.253.384.12
  Poland0.931.040.801081.010.430.790.340.680.32
  U.S.S.R.1.210.840.740.970.280.050.830.540.490.03
  Other1.520.620.680.370.770.840.870.951.263.03
    Totals Other Countries4.354.114.115.865194.986.878.186.458.10
    Grand Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

Exports to Each Country – The following two tables show exports (including re-exports, but excluding gold and specie) according to the countries of destination. A regrouping of these countries of destination into currency areas and trading communities was effected for the June year 1963, when the compilation of trade statistics was transferred to the Department of Statistics (see p. 633). Reference should also be made to earlier remarks regarding re-exports of New Zealand produce from the United Kingdom.

Country1960x1961xJan-June 1962

*South Africa ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth from 31 May 1961.

British Commonwealth Countries, Protected States, and Trust Territories£££
Europe –   
  United Kingdom160,335,497144,005,71381,969,615
  Cyprus9,23621,78368,701
  Gibraltar28
  Malta2552
    Totals160,344,761144,027,52182,038,368
Asia –   
  Aden16,83444,6153,050
  North Borneo2,7574,8361,198
  Ceylon461,153296,524150,693
  Hong Kong481,367406,244190,948
  India1,031,495922,328477,945
  Kuwait16,876 
  Malaya427,915697,194320,883
  Pakistan38,15971,29621,328
  Singapore494,597551,219250,876
  Other568360983
    Totals2,971,7212,994,6161,417,904
Africa –   
  Gambia and Sierra Leone94
  Ghana15,93243,5819,973
  Kenya and Uganda121,009171,58256,626
  Mauritius18,49427,11925,683
  Nigeria34,50049,78032,297
  Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation98,635104,06346,505
  South Africa*805,682589,814441,850
  Other2,8051,201894
    Totals1,097,151987,140613,828
America –£££
  Bahamas78,12766,33740,227
  Barbados226,487288,251101,707
  Bermuda192,778239,256121,807
  British Guiana66,93183,27250,812
  British Honduras4,2566,7653,085
  Canada3,644,4153,757,5622,446,811
  Falkland Islands9741,243642
  Jamaica1,560,6761,186,197721,167
  Leeward and Windward Islands72,96288,66142,231
  Trinidad and Tobago1,066,9671,261,739483,821
    Totals6,914,5736,979,2834,012,310
Pacific –   
  Australia13,450,16710,967,3715,407,467
  Fiji1,112,2271,102,060524,511
  Gilbert and Ellice Islands26,81054,99864,015
  Nauru Island64,82483,84667,869
  New Hebrides4,1806,9532,789
  Norfolk Island5,2623,9093,034
  Papua and New Guinea9,587172,92376,546
  Pitcairn Island1,7473,1441,180
  Solomon Islands5,1661,732332
  Tonga272,291225,58677,953
  Western Samoa791,334764,082359,700
  Other6381,046515
Totals15,744,23313,387,6506,585,911
Antarctic –   
  Ross Dependency1,459
Totals, British Commonwealth countries, etc.187,073,898168,376,21094,668,321
Other Countries   
Europe –   
  Austria4,0218,2101,159
  Belgium and Luxemburg7,675,5518,266,9556,696,649
  Bulgaria195,697
  Czechoslovakia1,750,2851,487,024454,258
  Denmark516,066580,453361,869
  Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania412,375
  Finland194,291162,250132,023
  France and Monaco20,291,36217,389,79212,362,598
  Germany, East131,85513,60621,923
  Germany, West10,641,4388,019,7936,217,429
  Greece372,921397,447194,321
  Hungary10711,037
  Ireland, Republic of273,551175,786139,564
  Italy and San Marino7,569,8736,751,4816,203,798
  Netherlands4,179,1843,970,4942,672,606
  Norway109,088220,472111,389
  Poland2,376,385966,4701,121,325
  Portugal533,599504,882590,925
  Russia (U.S.S.R.)2,510,9371,520,243809,173
  Spain17,08864,235466,144
  Sweden810,560789,878612,952
  Switzerland and Liechtenstein28,81739,52237,983
  Turkey36,4466,579
  Yugoslavia219,64039,96139,892
Totals60,438,76251,787,90839,259,017
Asia –   
  Burma138,320185,71679,753
  China2,335,3301,322,997497,464
  Formosa11,6988,2256,801
  Indonesia8,33520,4331,116
  Iran6,6671,997
  Iraq1,9589,021873
  Israel9,16531,21327,805
  Japan8,891,83014,828,7745,601,458
  Jordan77,827157,48164,012
  Korea, Republic of17528,86534,320
  Lebanon2,94012,916
  Philippines614,815805,133353,808
  Saudi Arabia1720,1727,839
  Syria23,6776,2056
  Thailand54,15465,00613,099
  United States administered territories, Ryukyus, etc.88,715113,877161,522
  Other7,30618,5897,627
Totals12,272,92917,636,6206,857,503
Africa –   
  Algeria3,885
  Canary Islands2,02233,02617,099
  Congo7751,47914,947
  Egypt257,091293,404111,043
  Morocco8,58518,923
  Mozambique61,47293,18029,803
  Sudan8,611
  Other3,23713,885412
Totals341,793457,782173,304
America –   
  Alaska51,30954,241
  Argentina2,04212,8694,725
  Brazil7,5902,254
  Chile4,28039,5712,715
  Colombia2,9001,4995,360
  French West Indies12,26210,8351,471
  Haiti12,3285,7414,397
  Mexico115,921111,44768,474
  Netherlands Antilles274,001206,877111,499
  Panama Canal Zone37,77154,1233,783
  Panama Republic290,799255,17193,625
  Peru628,291473,830264,708
  United States (excluding Alaska and Hawaii)38,488 22841,000,01823,153,615
  Uruguay1,08829,9341,664
  Venezuela519,86638,42120,043
  Other1,4101,32126,146
Totals40,391,18742,300,55623,818,720
Pacific –   
  Guam67,34175,53132,411
  Hawaii1,078,2191,151,123405,860
  New Caledonia2,15329,40739,484
  Society Islands149,490176,21456,730
  French Oceania2471,484888
  American Samoa136,430171,771104,924
  U.S. Pacific Trust Territories737822
Totals1,434,6171,606,352640,297
Antarctic –   
  Foreign Antarctica98,01481,178118,875
    Totals, other countries114,977,302113,870,39670,867,716
Ships' stores557,9991,748,915817,457
    Totals, all merchandise exports302,602,532283,995,521166,353,494

The following table gives exports to each country for the June year 1963 as referred to on p. 660.

EXPORTS TO EACH COUNTRY, JUNE YEAR 1963

CountryJune Year 1963*

**Provisional.

Sterling Area£
Aden Colony and Protectorate54,953
Australia13,805,744
Bahamas74,995
Barbados395,751
Bermuda251,501
British Guiana146,064
British Honduras6,761
Solomon Islands5,275
Ceylon380,933
Cyprus207,539
Falkland Islands1,817
Fiji1,076,442
Ghana213,242
Gibraltar28
Gilbert and Ellice Islands81,416
Hong Kong579,724
India1,300,222
Ireland, Republic of292,610
Jamaica1,773,538
Kenya63,714
Kuwait3,822
Leeward and Windward Islands133,856
Malaya877,803
Malta10
Mauritius and Dependencies31,803
Nauru133,478
New Hebrides2,950
Nigeria151,055
Norfolk Island6,867
North Borneo9,127
Pakistan97,921
Papua – New Guinea204,128
Pitcairn Island3,558
Rhodesia – Nyasaland Federation50,274
Singapore794,638
South Africa773,643
Tonga184,691
Trinidad and Tobago1,581,617
United Kingdom142,909,054
Uganda2,302
Western Samoa886,994
Other6,735
  Total, sterling countries169,558,595
E.F.T.A. 
Austria1,128
Denmark498,794
Norway229,164
Portugal582,319
Sweden696,049
Switzerland and Liechtenstein82,553
  Total, E.F.T.A. countries2,090,007
E.E.C. 
Belgium and Luxemburg7,832,018
France and Monaco19,904,162
Germany, West9,963,104
Italy and San Marino9,472,907
Netherlands4,746,367
  Total, E.E.C. countries51,918,558
Dollar Countries 
Alaska121,446
American Samoa258,908
Antarctic Territories (U.S.)261,753
Canada4,459,490
Colombia25,874
Guam135,720
Haiti16,842
Hawaii1,316,234
Mexico131,154
Panama Canal Zone14,830
Panama Republic285,354
Philippines652,801
Puerto Rico21,010
Ryukyus Islands67,996
United States52,279,321
Venezuela84,831
Other1,505
  Total, dollar countries60,135,069
Other Countries 
Algeria150
Argentina7,349
Burma166,127
Chile18,837
China1,525,237
Congo (Leopoldville)10,264
Czechoslovakia134,238
United Arab Republic (Egypt)207,725
Finland108,489
Formosa10,630
French settlements in Oceania7,787
French West Indies28,521
Germany, East107,706
Greece492,658
Hungary30,650
Indonesia9,336
Iran4,004
Iraq2,020
Israel39,003
Japan12,713,775
Jordan121,912
Korea213,854
Lebanon1,217
Morocco22,427
Mozambique77,106
Netherlands Antilles278,432
New Caledonia62,851
Peru926,624
Poland994,465
Saudi Arabia6,647
Society Islands253,131
Spain1,110,698
Sudan17,393
Syria6,125
Thailand38,833
Turkey14,791
U.S.S.R.84,860
Uruguay10,660
Yugoslavia103,039
Other17,949
  Total, other countries19,987,520
Ships' stores1,605,685
Destination optional3,407,887
  Total all merchandise exports308,703,321

Destination of Main Exports – The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the calendar year 1961 and the six months January–June 1962.

Country to Which Exported1961January–June 1962
QuantityValueQuantityValue
Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 lb£lb£
United Kingdom172,240,44231,456,197103,015,52518,307,712
South Africa1,457,924286,4511,438,041290,636
India1,199,808243,220918,514171,019
Canada4,756,064985,2713,611,842733,546
Australia3,791,663700,3331,781,099341,961
Republic of Ireland480,90093,654388,98773,087
Belgium42,748,5477,120,98036,408,4446,028,845
Bulgaria
Norway475,516117,161287,68065,882
Denmark2,120,215499,8541,462,631341,017
Finland209,58942,477108,70223,330
Poland3,870,067761,1905,376,5531,036,803
Portugal2,611,412470,7643,326,363590,070
Germany, West30,338,9515,928,60525,924,6384,877,524
Germany, East50,72513,315112,62921,923
Netherlands14,132,5662,480,47610,816,6441,883,189
France92,799,68616,331,94368,004,48011,644,810
Spain112,03521,2111,824,361301,118
Sweden3,045,365717,7811,979,137456,560
Switzerland107,00324,42273,53915,355
Turkey2,251613
Italy29,477,5265,223,67830,046,6705,295,550
Czechoslovakia7,868,5391,487,0242,207,445408,239
Greece512,474127,507358,56483,223
Russia (U.S.S.R.)7,719,6681,520,243
Egypt655,758132,577277,10952,879
Japan46,383,1118,858,99613,979,3662,759,829
China2,917,841598,961900,933178,354
Mexico517,834111,438296,58856,633
United States of America79,414,51813,412,34843,989,1197,616,257
Other countries2,744,678543,734435,13590,811
Totals554,762,676100,312,424359,350,73863,746,162
Frozen and Chilled Beef and Veal
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom225,9421,751,27458,350448,989
Cyprus73611,0652,98225,303
Hong Kong3,67135,8531,11912,412
Malaya and Singapore7,50470,4413,74444,789
Bermuda4,00280,6722,12138,765
Bahamas2,80933,47389510,576
Barbados14,451120,5764,67739,284
Jamaica8,24276,5727,15959,321
Leeward and Windward Islands2,16623,0858359,649
Trinidad and Tobago29,960313,0849,55992,739
Canada71,176778,14037,633380,564
Fiji5779,5801752,789
Tonga95411,5244684,265
Western Samoa1,81225,4645555,335
Belgium21,175150,0339577,626
Germany, West1,35811,9381,99015,468
Greece4,39838,0232,94724,029
Italy5,88554,2301,60812,136
Netherlands3,40239,7465,97748,352
Philippines1,56523,2576576,520
Japan61,440470,33120,022132,120
Netherlands Antilles11,177114,7505,85960,091
United States of America1,317,77916,588,793753,0188,710,874
Guam6,62672,3283,33331,349
Alaska3,99251,2934,85652,844
Hawaii71,211969,40321,811290,134
Society Islands4,44959,6771,92225,799
American Samoa3,35746,0301,69618,326
U.S.A. Territories10,344102,81315,291157,384
Other countries9,23490,0143,29234,770
Totals1,911,39422,223,462975,50810,802,602
Frozen Lamb and Mutton
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom5,918,41040,418,7863,658,95123,636,962
Malaya and Singapore7,25146,3595,91936,785
Ghana10,08635,1219094,213
Jamaica6,65935,8493,06916,626
Trinidad and Tobago12,71067,2353,62117,871
Bermuda3,01037,6552,12022,729
Canada118,589859,76162,975421,602
Fiji13,81164,5826,77330,455
Western Samoa6,44235,1463,39010,789
Belgium11,62946,8815,57124,523
Czechoslovakia--14,96042,605
Greece71,430231,22723,23266,345
Netherlands6,43023,6474,18815,301
Germany, West10,04236,28521,66473,377
Jordan42,400138,57917,37856,951
Egypt46,144157,79319,94557,006
U.S.S.R.--253,470809,173
Japan408,3061,494,370128,658444,018
Peru12,84440,7559,79928,662
United States of America106,821943,72232,188258,895
Hawaii1,27110,2602,21316,963
Other countries41,258246,18026,119139,121
Totals6,855,54344,970,1934,307,11226,230,972
Frozen Pork
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom10,697105,0292,84719,047
Aden1,50322,400  
Hong Kong3,69346,7631,00511,371
Malaya1,01512,4881041,191
Singapore2,84336,5261592,961
Jamaica8217,5962342,140
Trinidad and Tobago12,097158,3142,68033,360
Papua1,27021,60566211,756
Nauru86811,5265437,188
Netherlands Antilles3914,53272847
Australia1612,36014333
Hawaii3674,1652463,083
Fiji1,00511,2493504,145
Belgium5,83273,4902,58531,679
Other countries3,13835,4521,47218,694
Totals45,701553,49512,973147,795
Other Frozen Meat
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom338,7743,894,854223,5312,794,679
Singapore2,55323,6842,11917,202
Hong Kong2,15416,7751,77113,083
Fiji82911,4563062,690
Canada1,92032,86668911,842
Jamaica6,76351,1171,98714,321
Trinidad and Tobago5,15834,4621,1667,102
Western Samoa2,10613,6101,1164,728
Germany, West4,04439,6752,66333,374
Belgium1,90114,9072,91422,294
Italy11,31232,4244,75611,635
Netherlands7854,4194985,593
Netherlands Antilles1,54712,7319407,782
Japan9545,0729404,826
Peru1,3133,2313,0876,736
United States of America5,85886,7242,23132,095
Hawaii1,58313,9468467,231
Other countries9,23170,5217,81871,547
Totals398,7854,362,474259,3783,068,760
Canned Meat
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom39,589755,62618,649350,646
Papua3,71961,1811,34420,296
Jamaica1,69428,9961,49124,123
Fiji7,266114,4592,03931,835
Tonga2,96849,13580513,575
Gilbert and Ellice Islands1,94535,6402,22650,714
Nauru2,16645,6171,96642,560
Western Samoa4,26479,3902,29542,551
Society Islands1,09324,2482104,014
American Samoa2,80053,5781,74834,981
Other countries2,07535,3115869,317
Totals69,5791,283,18133,359624,612
Butter
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom3,079,31936,277,4411,584,19219,148,492
Hong Kong6,60489,1482,80440,093
Ceylon8,142108,0545,64075,301
Singapore6,60191,3723,41646,285
British Guiana1,75024,2601,07114,587
Bermuda7,05386,0113,02341,279
Bahamas1,69120,4981,93825,849
Barbados2,31131,1741,59821,622
Jamaica39,320586,10121,912325,372
Trinidad and Tobago16,582218,9999,349127,828
Leeward and Windward Islands1,14015,4114366,119
Fiji5,924116,6173,08754,011
Tonga94915,0803485,044
Western Samoa1,78928,30990213,489
Germany, West38,088430,5339,422108,351
Philippines6,87599,7374,70264,600
Haiti4005,7413254,367
Netherlands Antilles3,53548,2481,99527,925
Panama Canal Zone2,55138,037
Panama Republic17,279250,1006,37587,511
Peru25,634347,66412,793163,588
United States of America8,012168,6734,14288,552
Hawaii1,76139,4701,01122,190
Other countries17,486281,16013,888239,312
Totals3,300,79639,417,8381,694,36920,751,767
Cheese
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom1,554,12417,884,111920,1179,342,437
British Guiana2,33523,4911,22912,332
Barbados5,30854,4262,53526,404
Bermuda1,71118,9087178,002
Jamaica14,186168,83611,659153,816
Leeward and Windward Islands2,65031,2171,10513,928
Trinidad and Tobago15,630164,1016,88773,434
Australia3,28856,0161,87731,537
Germany, West12,069123,768
Japan18,703192,5198,52387,880
United States of America129,7391,273,45374,218732,268
Other countries4,46149,3432,13024,167
Totals1,752,13519,916,4211,043,06610,629,973
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom521,1961,940,929313,7611,049,087
Ceylon7,58471,9813,10026,971
India69,364277,03533,158129,501
Singapore28,332136,97910,09446,450
Malaya57,663387,38030,295192,836
Hong Kong5,01226,0359,73030,789
Pakistan10,52240,1475,45115,611
Mauritius3,14111,8692,3098,775
Barbados2,97110,3561,3604,417
Trinidad and Tobago24,956238,77512,797113,178
Jamaica42,390164,04933,551102,526
Fiji9,05571,3494,27533,275
Western Samoa2,93323,0361,56812,094
Germany, West5,70015,41322,29761,688
Netherlands1,5004,3525001,481
Japan9,14829,42218,28646,252
China7,80020,540
Canary Islands11,39833,0265,99917,099
Philippines139,874492,26472,985226,393
Peru20,79072,06311,67335,790
United States of America3,86011,4901,4925,219
Hawaii5,27417,9194981,742
Society Islands1,6799,1985303,103
Other countries17,00790,7099,11748,821
Totals1,009,1494,196,316604,8262,213,098
Edible Tallow
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom37,007114,04132,32380,991
India53,191167,10629,51572,400
Malaya3,79312,8985961,555
Singapore4,02213,4511,6364,243
Australia20,87380,947
Germany, West4,21415,0845991,636
Netherlands1,4334,2764,69013,062
Burma3,68911,0654,79012,146
China47,779147,07813,34632,006
Japan3,79712,5013,70910,111
Other countries4,19413,8456,19615,143
Totals183,992592,29297,400243,293
Inedible Tallow
 tons£tons£
United Kingdom11,396563,07211,494458,852
Ceylon1,46791,08056425,756
India2,534154,0701,15554,020
Singapore47221,694351,729
Malaya1,53679,60936316,364
Kenya and Uganda3,018141,8571,19350,461
Pakistan28117,828462,340
South Africa3,887183,3542,682104,719
Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation1,89791,19497437,382
British Guiana18010,1801498,165
Jamaica54533,545984,211
Trinidad and Tobago1,11658,88131213,710
Australia1,06762,960
Fiji34019,42528612,297
Finland804,472
Netherlands47521,0852006,704
Mozambique1,79987,95170529,272
Burma2,976167,9071,29760,274
China6,987345,0456,575286,970
Japan5,712332,7582,515114,084
Thailand31918,781
Vietnam21613,8621005,114
Other countries22311,66544319,198
Totals48,5232,532,27531,1861,311,622
Cattle Hides
 No.£No.£
United Kingdom56,101166,81223,44870,806
Canada1,0002,181
Australia104,499348,47645,975146,763
Finland19,34951,24811,82029,942
Germany, West129,915364,18150,394141,386
Italy199,465468,176129,318307,699
Netherlands28,99884,25727,26675,316
Norway22,86276,0485,79717,934
Poland87,567205,28036,73984,522
Spain3,5919,53816,74842,487
Yugoslavia9,00023,419
Israel10,58724,0308,14617,609
Jordan5,00012,3432,0004,818
Japan65,871209,15837,836111,085
United States of America1,7004,2593,3208,860
Other countries14,41837,89310,63326,768
Totals758,9232,085,118410,4401,088,176
Calf Skins
 No.£No.£
United Kingdom125,483104,82137,21929,773
Canada
Australia55,79449,91121,94721,528
France14,12012,88710,0008,576
Germany, West50,30341,48658,02248,113
Netherlands121,123106,5549,4008,630
Japan1,9021,67510,8258,882
Italy204,072180,504136,222117,365
United States of America207,840181,7562,4701,852
Other countries3,9003,6812,4002,196
Totals784,537683,275288,505246,915
Sheep Skins (With Wool)
 No.£No.£
United Kingdom79,90184,61339,50037,008
Belgium44,46153,474
France905,345563,339391,924249,405
Italy134,699111,75829,82422,790
Netherlands17,64311,4861,5001,000
Portugal30,44028,039
Spain18,16422,786103,342108,804
Other countries4,5552,7714,4283,080
Totals1,235,208878,266570,518422,087
Sheep Skins (Without Wool)
 No.£No.£
United Kingdom3,239,8841,090,4662,412,162737,075
Canada
Australia18,7084,535788126
Belgium1,616,204620,9491,102,044394,422
Finland271,43262,064181,06847,655
France785,377174,2861,321,036284,896
Germany, West686,818208,003462,498137,558
Italy597,744200,661343,749117,997
Netherlands1,515,104571,710789,582283,051
Sweden71,14225,223138,80642,070
United States of America17,229,8285,165,24812,649,7713,594,716
Other countries37,05011,37668,06414,779
Totals26,069,2918,134,52119,469,5685,654,345
Sausage Casings
 lb£lb£
United Kingdom4,194,5081,785,3902,654,1431,457,095
Canada1,768,545949,6741,173,656765,706
Denmark47,26331,6444,4853,283
Germany, West431,465145,767366,723124,819
United States of America2,577,729657,2312,231,089509,039
Other countries132,01857,441171,041120,881
Totals9,151,5283,627,1476,601,1372,980,823
Casein
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom148,1791,114,18976,673587,265
India2,32917,4001,61711,895
Canada1,33110,095
Germany, West33,985273,04517,613143,534
Italy51,240357,45729,611234,676
Netherlands28,468211,5298,69967,968
Japan162,4651,188,47482,796594,389
United States of America147,7711,185,82073,822620,335
Other countries6,12544,9152,23917,160
Totals580,5624,392,829294,4012,287,317
Apples (Fresh)
 lb£lb£
United Kingdom43,584,2201,361,90254,567,0401,704,469
Malaya735,68022,990
Canada1,646,52051,4562,003,96062,625
Belgium3,684,000115,1255,142,120160,693
Finland800,00025,000
France3,721,240116,2892,796,64087,396
Germany, West10,648,040342,4007,749,320242,167
Netherlands3,061,88095,6843,293,440102,923
Sweden2,796,28087,384
United States of America601,24018,789471,16014,724
Venezuela1,200,00037,501600,00018,750
Hawaii707,24022,101265,8008,306
Other countries1,397,12046,5752,131,47066,972
Totals70,987,1802,230,81282,617,2302,581,409
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
 cwt£cwt£
United Kingdom64,831620,78131,011318,391
Canada72518,6881363,522
Australia42,053385,54720,926220,653
Republic of Ireland4,42737,3674,17541,957
France7,09299,3863735,425
Germany, West1,44426,2743213,543
Italy40652
Netherlands2,38533,4592673,641
Chile4,14432,99039827
United States of America1,26615,9602,06916,662
Other countries3,51439,6807446,823
Totals131,9211,310,78460,061621,444
Peas (Food)
 cental£cental£
United Kingdom115,079197,02765,73794,836
Belgium20,76531,8623,5815,264
United States of America3,3895,4333,2474,877
Other countries9,51218,8675,24810,663
Totals148,745253,18977,813115,640
Peas (Seed)
 lb£lb£
United Kingdom6,964,146203,2114,094,032110,030
Australia9,890,723302,0376,761,686207,504
Other countries597,09415,838298,8709,832
Totals17,451,963521,08611,154,588327,366
Wood Pulp
 tons£tons£
United Kingdom3,00089,3432,00559,712
South Africa2,67979,022
Australia48,1632,030,45629,4111,234,061
China6,150200,363
Philippines3,125100,51089327,348
Other countries48415,98828111,035
Totals63,6012,515,68232,5901,332,156
Timber (Sawn and Hewn)
 sup. ft.£sup. ft.£
Australia28,062,183816,36813,545,503396,818
Other countries436,82423,946219,28012,494
Totals28,499,007840,31413,764,783409,312
Timber (for Cases, in Shooks)
 sup. ft.£sup. ft.£
Australia572,65129,825185,12610,012
Tonga151,0206,8011,50093
Western Samoa2,945,433157,4201,392,82476,434
Other countries9,9006383,120215
Totals3,679,004194,6841,582,57086,754
Fish (Other than Canned)
 cwt£cwt£
Australia41,944391,92223,592227,642
United States of America17,241686,35112,767533,006
Hawaii1,61460,72768832,226
Other countries5,48329,1622,95719,491
Totals66,2821,168,16240,004812,365
Newsprint
 cwt£cwt£
Australia921,8892,697,453426,1061,168,423
Other countries1,6185,7639643,304
Totals923,5072,703,216427,0701,171,727

EXPORTS BY PORTS – The following table shows for the years 1957 to 1961 and the six months January–June 1962 the value of total exports according to the ports at which they were actually placed on board the overseas vessels.

Port19571958195919601961Jan-June 1962
 ££££££
Auckland80,495,98576,976,535105,005,86898,650,81186,510,22647,055,763
Tauranga5,273,9186,217,9027,724,8478,218,9757,231,5444,113,055
Gisborne3,187,2253,158,7032,902,2192,771,6844,047,7302,111,183
Napier23,999,74321,475,23523,716,52329,024,05730,049,45315,747,736
Taranaki16,366,48116,265,40024,416,88526,115,28828,143,11915,110,866
Wanganui1,335673100467166307
Wellington55,739,84947,855,49445,975,87844,789,89640,852,19523,954,355
Picton23,17890,321249,1661,371,3921,357,1291,255,937
Nelson1,832,1281,909,2181,824,4582,188,6522,183,4341,747,229
Greymouth250,376192,814344,107360,901264,20430,528
Lyttelton26,893,22022,744,02223,175,61624,890,74322,844,75314,509,850
Timaru16,245,82115,213,94515,717,36717,961,33716,137,53010,908,482
Oamaru22810,0606851,2844,670
Otago19,330,24515,290,21718,724,52719,637,72317,901,16811,907,716
Bluff26,929,27622,772,26623,881,09326,619,92126,471,58617,895,817
Totals276,569,008250,172,805293,658,654302,602,532283,995,521166,353,494

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, usually about one-third of all exports being dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately one-seventh of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

RE-EXPORTS – Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In most years, ships' and international aircraft stores, in which aviation spirit and bunker and lubricating oils loom largely, make up between a quarter and a third of the total re-exports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned to the United Kingdom and Australia.

Particulars of re-exports over a period of 21 years are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

 £ £ £

*Provisional.

19431,627,90019501,420,14019572,263,821
19446,105,14819511,732,95519582,188,588
19453,114,74719522,141,98019592,660,587
1946994,61219532,386,39119602,699,769
19471,703,23519542,093,3281961x3,591,431
19481,354,85619552,138,869Jan–June 19621,667,33
19491,194,46319562,383,620June year 1963*4,127,817

The destination of this re-export trade for the calendar year 1961, the six months Jan–June 1962, and the June year 1963 is shown in the following table.

Country1961January–June 1962June Year 1963*

*Provisional.

 £££
United Kingdom484,628167,829404,975
Hong Kong3,2872,4688,066
India3,2814,64310,059
Malaya2991052,815
Singapore13,9605,1233,033
South Africa1,58263017,011
Canada4,86011,97712,640
Australia647,309301,5021,179,120
Fiji139,584102,688143,198
Gilbert and Ellice Islands3,2472492,158
Nauru Island4,7253,3831,131
Norfolk Island404409820
Papua and New Guinea5463791,330
Solomon Islands300136152
Tonga11,5384,8498,727
Western Samoa72,40632,12759,342
Germany, West40,60119,42135,128
Belgium7353,3355,931
France4,27342018,314
Sweden1,9357,1982,102
Switzerland3,5721,8443,792
Netherlands36,8945,82526,784
Indonesia7150810
Japan22,9627,35834,181
United States of America258,81074,550286,836
Society Islands22,80090353,151
Foreign Antarctic regions81,116118,786257,095
Other countries92,55734,12282,103
Ships' stores1,633,213754,8941,467,013
Totals (excluding specie)3,591,4311,667,3034,127,817

GOODS SHIPPED TO COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS – Trade with the Cook and associated Pacific Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the country, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between New Zealand and these islands, and the values of goods shipped to the islands are summarised below.

YearExports

*Provisional.

 £
1951525,100
1952478,290
1953490,440
1954559,775
1955587,650
1956565,936
1957656,516
1958750,673
1959648,959
1960744,803
1961x1,040,471
1962*944,226
June year 1963*837,328

Further particulars regarding the trade of the islands will be found in Section 38, Island Territories.

22 C – IMPORTS

GENERAL – Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The basis of valuation is usually c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at time of shipment). However in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals are exclusive of specie, except where the contrary is expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade.

IMPORT CONTROL – Reference to import control is made in Section 22A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS – The table following, classifying imports by broad divisions, is based on a grouping of the divisions given in the subsequent table. It illustrates the great variety of imports which New Zealand receives in exchange for its few basic exports.

Calendar YearImports (c.d.v.)
Food, Beverages, and TobaccoMineral FuelsChemicals, Including Manufactured FertilisersBase Metals and Manufactures of MetalMachinery and Transport EquipmentTextiles, Clothing, and FootwearTotal*

*Including divisions not listed.

†Provisional.

£(thousand)
195319,74113,0678,09722,87147,00723,573163,613
195424,82914,96413,23727,13561,48935,272213,155
195526,22616,55115,80135,16575,45637,299250,661
195625,23718,96915,51632,58367,27533,518234,779
195727,55521,87917,52138,63774,64237,638261,738
195824,76919,95220,70338,58871,23836,786252,800
195919,28918,49916,72532,36754,96728,168205,076
196020,16020,69220,31139,30372,26235,699253,157
1961x21,74621,62022,65346,42689,50037,535288,291
196220,08222,33222,37240,34073,05128,814245,795
June year 196321,75322,17823,85841,45477,91532,479260,322

The next two tables show the values of import trade according to sections and divisions for the calendar year 1961, the six months January–June 1962, and the June year 1963. Because of the adoption of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) for classifying external trade for statistical purposes from 1 July 1962 (p. 633), no direct comparison between these tables should be made. The figures for the June 1963 year are therefore separately tabled, and are the commencement of a new series. Both c.d.v. and c.i.f. bases of valuation are shown.

Section and Division, S.I.T.C.1961Jan–June 1962
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
 £(thousand)
Sect. 0. Food    
  Div. 00 Live animals chiefly for food476489
  Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations345347224227
  Div. 02 Dairy produce, eggs, and honey141322
  Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations1,4631,596128141
  Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations3,9154,7042,1972,597
  Div. 05 Fruits and vegetables4,1065,8351,5552,376
  Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations3,3954,1281,3181,539
  Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof4,0875,0862,0302,546
  Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)3441811
  Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations901052734
    Totals, Section 017,49621,9217,4979,482
Sect. 1. Beverages and Tobacco    
  Div. 11 Beverages2,4232,871321374
  Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures1,8271,954772839
Totals, Section 14,2504,8251,0941,213
Sect. 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels    
  Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed65691617
  Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels413478201226
  Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed2,3172,5781,0991,214
  Div. 24 Wood, lumber, and cork2,4793,8497891,220
  Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper618734204242
  Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics, and waste)1,5151,683756849
  Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones3,8067,3211,7063,370
  Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap21241315
  Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, inedible, n.e.i.9121,028364408
Totals, Section 212,14517,7635,1477,563
Sect. 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials    
  Div. 31 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials21,62027,44811,99114,632
Totals, Section 321,62027,44811,99114,632
Sect. 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats    
  Div. 41 Animal and vegetable oils (not essential oils), fats, greases, and derivatives483540223249
Totals, Section 4483540223249
Sect. 5. Chemicals    
  Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds5,5676,3102,5202,750
  Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas951782649
  Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials1,6761,781879941
  Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products4,8044,6722,3442,282
  Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations515526223226
  Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured2,2623,2441,0251,391
  Div. 59 Explosives and miscellaneous chemical materials and products7,7347,9973,7283,883
Totals, Section 522,65324,70910,74611,521
Sect. 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material    
  Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs1,1221,180458481
  Div. 62 Rubber manufactures n.e.i.2,0731,918922895
  Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)609759227281
  Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof7,0878,1622,7423,106
  Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products35,41338,36712,27513,293
  Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.i.4,9445,6911,9212,202
  Div. 67 Silver, platinum, gems, and jewellery943973234241
  Div. 68 Base metals33,92238,07314,40815,272
  Div. 69 Manufactures of metal12,50413,1485,8716,153
Totals, Section 698,616108,26939,05841,923
Sect. 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment    
  Div. 71 Machinery other than electric42,17445,40214,77715,386
  Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances19,82820,2939,0279,474
  Div. 73 Transport equipment27,49831,38511,52112,761
Totals, Section 789,50097,08035,32537,621
Sect. 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles    
  Div. 81 Prefabricated buildings, sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings646714245266
  Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures1671724548
  Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles131522
  Div. 84 Clothing1,5291,646451484
  Div. 85 Footwear593642180197
  Div. 86 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks6,2715,9502,0101,938
  Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.i.10,97011,7244,1044,364
Totals, Section 820,18920,8627,0377,299
Sect. 9. Miscellaneous Transactions and Commodities n.e.i. £(thousand)  
  Div. 92 Live animals, not for food1251155550
  Div. 93 Returned goods and special transactions62573430
  Div. 95 Unclassified goods under £20 in value1,0831,244486555
  Div. 99 Gold70704848
Totals, Section 91,3401,486623683
    Grand totals, merchandise imports288,291324,905118,740132,187

The next table gives imports according to sections and divisions for the June year 1963, as described on p. 677.

Section and Division, S.I.T.C., RevisedJune Year 1963*
c.d.v.c.i.f.

*Provisional.

Section 0. Food and Live Animals£(thousand)
  Div. 00 Live animals159184
  Div. 01 Meat and meant preparations3336
  Div. 02 Dairy products and eggs22
  Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations650712
  Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations4,3495,187
  Div. 05 Fruits and vegetables3,8455,500
  Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations4,4975,026
  Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof3,9964,946
  Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)5668
  Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations132137
Totals, Section 017,72021,798
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco  
  Div. 11 Beverages2,1472,498
  Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures1,6061,779
Totals, Section 13,7534,278
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels  
  Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed6367
  Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels441501
  Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed1,7821,989
  Div. 24 Wood and cork1,5762,426
  Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper672800
  Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste2,0472,216
  Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones3,5046,912
  Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap7383
  Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.i.1,2071,296
Totals, Section 211,36516,289
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials  
  Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes1225
  Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products22,10426,702
  Div. 34 Gas6161
Totals, Section 322,17826,788
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats  
  Div. 41 Animal oils and fats2024
  Div. 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed404458
  Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin5055
Totals, Section 4474537
Section 5. Chemicals  
  Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds6,5437,072
  Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas141222
  Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials1,0921,133
  Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products5,1344,846
  Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials; toilet, polishing and cleansing preparations737751
  Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured1,5602,168
  Div. 57 Explosives523530
  Div. 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins5,6355,753
  Div. 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products2,4952,696
Totals, Section 523,85825,170
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material  
  Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures n.e.i., and dressed furs502521
  Div. 62 Rubber manufactures n.e.i.2,4792,366
  Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)665811
  Div. 64 Paper, paperboard and manufactures thereof5,0355,531
  Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products30,52034,156
  Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.i.4,3634,905
  Div. 67 Iron and steel21,74523,949
  Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals7,5057,433
  Div. 69 Manufactures of metals10,85112,038
Totals, Section 683,66591,710
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment  
  Div. 71 Machinery other than electric31,75632,886
  Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances18,63218,923
  Div. 73 Transport equipment27,52730,088
Totals, Section 777,91581,897
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles  
  Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, and lighting fittings and fixtures338391
  Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures5864
  Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles2932
  Div. 84 Clothing1,5191,610
  Div. 85 Footwear441477
  Div. 86 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments: photographic and optical goods, watches and clocks5,7825,490
  Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.i.9,55610,142
Totals, Section 817,72318,205
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind1,6731,766
Grand totals, merchandise imports260,322288,439

The next classification presented is that according to the purpose or use of commodities, particulars being given for the calendar years 1951, 1960, and 1961, and the six months January–June 1962. It should be mentioned that the absence of essential information in regard to actual purpose or use of a number of commodities has created certain difficulties, necessitating the employment of arbitrary decisions in some instances. Where certain commodities are used for more than one purpose it has not been possible to segregate the portion applicable to each. In such cases the whole import has been assessed according to the principal use of the article or commodity in New Zealand. No provision has been made for the presentation of statistics under this classification after 30 June 1962. The basis of valuation is c.d.v.

Class of Merchandise195119601961Jan–June 1962
Producers' materials –£(thousand)
  Building and construction8,5229,89911,5684,896
  Farm4,0904,8266,0252,747
Manufacturing –    
  Food8,6958,4108,8444,060
  Beverages8801,0781,109637
  Tobacco1,5051,7531,717744
  Textiles (apparel or household goods)26,96726,11026,9679,915
  Other34,71662,52673,95531,596
Fuels and lubricants10,50319,95920,77211,487
Auxiliary aids to production5,7824,0064,9011,383
Producers' equipment –    
  Farm7,2206,4907,5741,554
  Commerce and industry22,40643,69551,98620,793
Transport equipment—    
  Railway1,3221,5022,9221,279
  Road15,78617,29120,21710,103
  Other8952,0264,094531
Consumers' goods—    
  Food5,0294,9925,7621,888
  Beverages5,9024,8045,5781,553
  Tobacco17916016241
  Clothing and accessories3,9942,3002,590875
  Household equipment11,9568,7428,9362,640
  Other10,72019,01019,3267,888
Unclassified6903,5773,2862,128
Totals, merchandise imports187,758253,157288,291118,740

In the next table particulars are given of New Zealand's import trade for the calendar years 1951, 1960, and 1961, and the six months January–June 1962, according to the stage of production or degree of manufacture of commodities, the divisions used being “crude”, “simply transformed”, and “more elaborately transformed”. The basis of valuation is c.d.v.

Degree of Manufacture195119601961Jan–June 1962

*Including unclassified items.

Producers' materials – £(thousand) 
  Crude14,62715,40915,5117,667
  Simply transformed21,50238,72842,21019,255
  More elaborately transformed49,24560,46572,46527,673
Fuels and lubricants –    
  Crude8734016
  Simply transformed10,41619,95620,73211,471
  More elaborately transformed
Auxiliary aids to production –    
  Crude
  Simply transformed4
  More elaborately transformed5,7774,0064,9011,383
Producers' equipment –    
  Crude7548488
  Simply transformed8358191,056255
  More elaborately transformed28,71749,31858,45622,085
Transport equipment –    
  Crude
  Simply transformed3777521,100889
  More elaborately transformed17,62620,06826,13311,024
Consumers' goods –    
  Crude6,2655,8655,8022,764
  Simply transformed25835560139
  More elaborately transformed31,25633,78936,49211,982
Total merchandise imports*    
  Crude21,05421,32521,40210,456
  Simply transformed33,39460,61065,15832,009
  More elaborately transformed134,000171,223201,73176,275
Totals, all merchandise*187,758253,157288,291118,740

An indication of the changes that have occurred during the same period is contained in the next table, which gives the figures for each of the divisions as percentages of total imports.

Degree of Manufacture195119601961Jan–June 1962
Producers' materials –Per Cent
  Crude7.86.05.46.5
  Simply transformed11.515.314.616.2
  More elaborately transformed26.223.925.123.3
Fuels and lubricants –    
  Crude    
  Simply transformed5.57.97.29.7
More elaborately transformed
Auxiliary aids to production –    
  Crude
Simply transformed 
  More elaborately transformed3.11.61.71.2
Degree of Manufacture195119601961Jan–June 1962

*Including unclassified items.

Producers' equipment – Per Cent 
  Crude    
  Simply transformed0.40.30.40.2
  More elaborately transformed15.319.520.318.6
Transport equipment –    
  Crude
  Simply transformed0.20.30.40.7
  More elaborately transformed9.47.99.19.3
Consumers' goods –    
  Crude3.32.32.02.3
  Simply transformed0.10.1 0.1
  More elaborately transformed16.613.312.710.1
Total merchandise imports*    
  Crude11.28.47.48.8
  Simply transformed17.823.922.627.0
  More elaborately transformed71.467.670.064.2
Totals, all merchandise*100.0100.0100.0100.0

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE – The United Kingdom has been the chief supplier of New Zealand imports since the eighties of last century. Prior to that the main supply was from Australia. In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 per cent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 per cent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June year 1963 only 41.5 per cent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 14 per cent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 per cent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 per cent. Following a slight fall in 1961, the proportion rose to 19 per cent for the June year 1963.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentages received from the United Kingdom, other Commonwealth countries, European, and other countries. It will be seen that European countries are now playing a greater part in providing New Zealand's import requirements.

The table which follows shows imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 11 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America.

YearCountry where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
 United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A. 

*Provisional.

£(thousand)
195393,49624,13111,73992,35223,63812,143163,613
1954122,01028,87516,401120,71427,49217,472213,155
1955140,54031,42120,219137,83130,47821,305250,661
1956129,22633,76517,304126,14433,30517,804234,779
1957136,62345,65319,958134,48845,18520,543261,738
1958133,68544,34216,528132,80443,68017,173252,800
195997,70537,77616,32996,97137,10416,739205,076
1960111,14446,42826,380109,95945,58426,544253,157
1961130,17048,31126,377128,95946,93927,166288,291
1962......103,07349,83521,864245,795
June year 1963*......107,96848,69824,098260,322

The following two tables show in more detail the principal countries from which New Zealand draws its imports, figures on the basis of country of origin being given for the calendar years 1960 and 1961, the six months January–June 1962, and the June year 1963, on a c.d.v. basis of valuation. A regrouping of these countries of origin into currency areas and trading communities was effected for the June year 1963, when the compilation of trade statistics was transferred to the Department of Statistics (see p. 633).

Country19601961xJan–June 1962
British Commonwealth Countries, Protected States, and Trust Territories   
Europe –£££
  United Kingdom109,958,548128,958,54250,863,843
  Cyprus93,938119,85481,214
  Malta26,09035,72111,143
  Gibraltar14
Asia –   
  Aden Colony and Aden Protectorate528,538556,37959,085
  Bahrain1,216,720576,336469,082
  North Borneo20,649125,05910,936
  Ceylon2,400,0292,490,5361,163,678
  Malaya2,218,8851,854,572925,051
  Hong Kong1,972,1042,274,7861,074,730
  India5,399,7025,823,0602,057,085
  Pakistan140,655222,61569,482
  Sarawak75,27684,97228,050
  Singapore1,334,8311,707,7961,229,622
  Other14
Africa –   
  Gambia and Sierra Leone3261,139
  Ghana596,986522,984351,854
  Nigeria20,87114,4941,301
  Kenya and Uganda487,820505,151284,185
  Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation140,218164,45294,852
  Mauritius3,11220,78633,311
  Tanganyika370,245245,139167,457
  South Africa1,660,5212,019,542387,011
  Zanzibar3,3542,9412,069
  Other9
America –   
  Bermuda9,4085,445
  British Guiana11,58414,6455,125
  Jamaica178,659152,679131,024
  Trinidad and Tobago37,89637,3345,094
  Canada8,057,08910,842,7854,102,618
  Other4,2616,4012,626
Pacific –   
  Australia45,584,40446,938,57224,430,825
  Fiji471,343654,972178,081
  Gilbert and Ellice Islands169,852239,16832,406
  Nauru Island727,036668,346474,393
  New Zealand (re-imports)95,56269,23835,760
  Tonga82,96875,79834,604
  Western Samoa576,644456,556267,167
  Other22,15521,01418,083
Totals, British Commonwealth countries184,698,293208,509,80989,082,870
Country19601961xJan–June 1962
Other Countries   
Europe —£££
  Austria392,127518,638234,530
  Belgium and Luxemburg2,331,0552,328,379976,044
  Czechoslovakia439,466599,069181,706
  Denmark412,910441,360153,560
  Finland367,155534,246186,844
  France2,094,5792,918,5221,088,781
  Germany, West7,812,3359,974,7923,557,796
  Germany, East103,310172,05654,105
  Greece5,3377,8047,188
  Republic of Ireland135,69084,45139,876
  Italy1,876,2812,277,6021,338,284
  Netherlands3,471,5505,656,6791,429,418
  Norway697,578813,576285,058
  Poland5,4138,6925,713
  Portugal176,114188,74387,233
  Russia (U.S.S.R.)42,53756,96225,612
  Spain162,450195,87656,571
  Sweden1,986,5612,603,273829,023
  Switzerland2,357,2302,532,928804,417
  Turkey35,58951,51236,696
  Yugoslavia3,94233,6419,816
  Other12,31923,3294,183
Asia –   
  Burma1,2961,140190
  China434,274434,221206,143
  Formosa12,3226,9243,181
  Indonesia2,623,0131,061,479936,524
  Iran2,031,9481,697,503936,760
  Iraq54,36640,99472,671
  Japan7,221,4478,381,8273,074,816
  Philippines82,28159,74449,769
  Saudi Arabia1,031,5871,815,526690,534
  Thailand62,29871,98949,394
  Other29,66630,3005,993
Africa –   
  Algeria5,1327,97831,624
  Congo8,91814,31111,034
  Ethiopia42,45135,50619,866
  Egypt3,6774,667434
  French West Africa6,550116,605912
  Tunisia637
  Sudan25,56322,1149,128
  Other9,94214,6101,650
America –   
  Argentina8,2161,260209
  Brazil81,400107,94463,154
  Chile44,24956,45450,997
  Dominican Republic244,979997,7462,852
  Ecuador1,9111,696935
  Mexico199,672246,12469,049
  Netherlands Antilles912,1072,387,211878,298
  Peru239,6151,131,132573
  United States of America26,543,87327,166,13610,069,545
  Venezuela1,264,9011,529,825874,138
  Other24,76429,21120,685
Pacific Islands -   
 £££
  French Oceania237,667243,218113,295
  Hawaii35,71434,06817,220
  Other11,8199,3782,698
Totals, other countries68,459,14679,781,60829,656,725
Totals, all countries253,157,439288,291,417118,739,595

The next table gives imports on a c.d.v. basis by countries of origin for the June year 1963.

CountryJune Year 1963*

*Provisional.

Sterling Area£
  Aden Colony and Protectorate65,707
  Australia48,698,213
  Bahrain2,009,457
  British Guiana13,508
  Brunei63,719
  Ceylon2,404,877
  Cyprus101,005
  Fiji1,350,001
  Ghana657,174
  Gilbert and Ellice Islands174,308
  Hong Kong2,947,224
  India4,740,737
  Ireland, Republic of74,729
  Jamaica193,683
  Kenya244,504
  Kuwait55,975
  Malaya1,459,067
  Malta23,432
  Mauritius44,019
  Nauru773,276
  New Zealand re-imports207,794
  Nigeria14,970
  North Borneo158,867
  Pakistan241,814
  Papua and New Guinea15,372
  Rhodesia and Nyasaland212,640
  Sarawak120,333
  Singapore1,269,672
  South Africa1,125,518
  Tanganyika519,985
  Tonga86,320
  Trinidad and Tobago23,969
  Uganda184,907
  United Kingdom107,968,161
  Western Samoa473,650
  Zanzibar and Pemba3,520
  Other14,335
Total178,736,442
E.F.T.A. -£
  Austria469,711
  Denmark433,899
  Norway666,856
  Portugal328,041
  Sweden1,937,042
  Switzerland and Liechtenstein2,302,337
Total 6,137,886 
E.E.C. -£
  Belgium and Luxemburg1,737,816
  France and Monaco2,324,973
  Germany, West7,768,627
  Italy and San Marino2,529,222
  Netherlands2,926,151
Total17,286,789
Dollar Area£
  Canada8,922,309
  Colombia31,547
  Costa Rica10,090
  Dominican Republic970,426
  Ecuador2,780
  Hawaii8,009
  Mexico277,685
  Philippines106,213
  United States of America24,098,337
  Venezuela1,174,321
  Other11,495
Total 35,613,212 
Other Countries£
  Argentina18,019
  Brazil164,659
  Burma3,392
  Canary Islands6
  Chile42,773
  China532,128
  Congo (Brazzaville)5,693
  Congo (Leopoldville)9,282
  Czechoslovakia441,439
  Egypt2,701
  Ethiopia and Eritrea55,069
  Finland562,432
  Formosa357,804
  French Settlements in Oceania219,230
  Germany, East99,170
  Greece4,219
  Hungary21,951
  Indonesia2,086,139
  Iran2,180,664
  Israel32,336
  Ivory Coast8,943
  Japan11,978,281
  Netherlands Antilles1,547,405
  Peru1,104,011
  Poland13,756
  Saudi Arabia517,618
  Senegal22,457
  Spain138,214
  Sudan21,581
  Thailand115,937
  Turkey59,459
  Union of Soviet Socialist Republics142,543
  Yugoslavia8,234
  Other30,063
Total22,547,608
Total, all countries260,321,937

The following table shows for the latest 11 years the percentage of the value on basis of the country of origin of total imports (excluding specie) received into New Zealand.

Country195319541955195619571958195919601961Jan–June 1962June Year 1963*

*Provisional.

Sterling Areaper cent
  Australia14.4512.9012.1614.1917.2617.2818.0918.0116.2820.5818.17
  Bahrein1.771.141.141.360.350.370.480.480.200.390.77
  Ceylon1.191.241.000.950.980.871.080.950.860.980.92
  Fiji0.840.860.690.620.550.480.480.190.230.150.52
  Ghana0.110.200.260.240.180.300.25
  Hong Kong0.130.220.400.400.370.380.390.780.790.911.13
  India1.101.281.291.471.902.372.102.132.021.731.82
  Malaya and Singapore1.872.261.771.351.231.181.301.401.241.811.05
  Nauru0.250.230.250.270.240.210.250.290.230.400.30
  South Africa0.660.570.380.430.460.460.530.660.700.330.43
  United Kingdom56.4556.6354.9953.7351.3852.5347.2943.4444.7342.8441.47
  Western Samoa0.150.170.130.110.130.220.330.230.160.220.18
  Other1.121.001.181.260.890.731.071.050.970.971.10
    Total, sterling countries79.9878.5175.3676.1475.8577.2973.6469.8368.5971.6068.66
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)           
  Austria0.360.110.220.160.170.170.160.150.180.200.18
  Denmark0.180.110.170.130.180.150.150.160.150.130.17
  Norway0.260.300.320.290.280.330.330.280.280.240.26
  Portugal0.070.070.120.080.080.100.080.070.070.070.13
  Sweden0.210.780.900.780.970.781.130.780.900.700.74
  Switzerland0.840.660.630.660.710.690.790.930.880.680.88
    Total, E.F.T.A. countries2.922.032.362.102.402.232.652.382.462.022.36
E.E.C.           
  Belgium0.910.800.940.900.770.770.740.920.810.820.67
  France1.200.830.770.830.680.720.640.831.010.920.89
  Germany, West1.202.052.742.812.993.013.023.093.463.002.98
  Italy0.530.540.480.630.610.590.710.740.791.130.97
  Netherlands0.701.080.960.890.941.241.191.371.961.201.12
    Total, E.E.C. countries4.555.295.906.065.986.346.296.958.037.076.64
Dollar Area           
  Canada1.402.053.342.672.532.342.343.183.763.463.43
  U.S.A.7.428.208.507.587.856.798.1610.499.428.489.26
  Other0.400.320.020.070.060.090.230.731.010.871.00
    Total, dollar countries9.2210.5711.8610.3110.449.2310.7314.4014.1912.8113.68
Other Countries           
  China0.120.100.120.140.130.170.200.170.150.170.20
  Czechoslovakia0.100.080.110.150.170.180.130.170.210.150.17
  Indonesia1.681.141.852.692.181.221.041.040.370.790.80
  Iran0.350.670.540.530.820.800.590.790.84
  Japan0.240.501.010.950.851.121.752.852.912.594.60
  Netherlands Antilles0.091.090.380.170.630.791.470.360.830.740.59
  Saudi Arabia0.370.020.200.220.250.260.660.410.630.580.20
  Other0.740.680.510.410.590.640.610.641.040.691.25
    Total, other countries3.333.614.525.395.344.926.696.446.726.518.66
      Grand Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Origin of Principal Imports – The table which follows shows details of commodity imports, by country of origin, where the trade with any country is of the value of £10,000 or over for either of the calendar years 1960 and 1961, or the six months January–June 1962. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Country of Origin19601961Jan–June 1962
Canned Fish
£(000)
United Kingdom8410817
South Africa1320
Canada36549532
Germany, West20
Norway9216512
Portugal10112
Japan16732230
Yugoslavia16
U.S.A.14
Other countries121011
Totals7431,181103
Canned Fruit
£(000)
United Kingdom441
Ceylon112
Malaya11418640
Kenya and Uganda10121
South Africa13624919
Australia2738519
Hawaii1110
Other countries10174
Totals55856495
Dried Fruits
£(000)
South Africa6115
Australia1,0021,160431
Iran235542
Iraq544125
Netherlands253616
Spain1
Turkey1114
United States of America292219132
Other countries211
Totals1,4171,538652
Bananas
£(000)
Fiji707231
Tonga705922
Western Samoa233205133
Other countries
Totals373337186
Oranges
£(000)
Cyprus9111577
South Africa29
Jamaica10086110
Australia48641556
United States of America8790
Other Countries2
Totals764736246
Peanuts
£(000)
Australia262631
Rhodesia–Nyasaland Federation121
Tanganyika299
South Africa14310723
China11
India554228
Other countries152
Totals25619385
Wheat
£(000)
Australia3,2343,3531,935
Raw Sugar
£(000)
Australia2,1601,5291,023
Fiji358532118
Dominican Republic244995
Totals2,7623,0551,140
Cocoa Beans (Raw)
£(000)
Ghana536413286
Western Samoa423420
Other countries2301
Totals581477308
Coffee Beans (Raw)
£(000)
India131519
Kenya and Uganda248246148
Tanganyika464245
Papua15129
Indonesia1137
Belgian Congo9102
Ethiopia1154
Brazil94543
Colombia12117
Costa Rica101511
Other countries34209
Totals418424303
Tea
£(000)
Ceylon2,2332,3681,110
India23526285
Indonesia15183
Kenya and Uganda143410
Other countries1293
Totals2,5092,6911,210
Beverage Spirits
£(000)
United Kingdom1,5961,795241
Jamaica32341
Australia14164
France15320817
Netherlands26201
Other countries39414
Totals1,8602,115269
Cigarettes
£(000)
United Kingdom787119
Australia56
Netherlands11
U.S.A.719
Other countries16
Totals1029626
Tobacco
£(000)
United Kingdom331
South Africa141525
Rhodesia–Nyasaland Federation13615087
Netherlands112
Indonesia15172
United States of America1,5831,524612
Other countries51116
Totals1,7571,722745
Wool
£(000)
United Kingdom19523999
Australia425424213
Other countries42
Totals624665312
Kapok
£(000)
Ceylon22
India84
China23
Indonesia673911
Thailand384932
Other countries982
Totals12410348
Hat Hoods
£(000)
United Kingdom968331
Australia1792
Czechoslovakia407130
France323413
Italy9410641
Switzerland113310
China21208
Formosa673
Japan664
Other countries21206
Totals344388148
Hosiery
£(000)
United Kingdom896523
Other countries26
Totals917023
Gloves
£(000)
United Kingdom10112428
Malta263611
Hong Kong967021
France362
Germany, West899617
Japan812
Other countries1193
Totals 33335382
Infants' Wear
£(000)
United Kingdom386417102
Hong Kong604917
Other countries16164
Totals462483123
Footwear
£(000)
United Kingdom344479148
Hong Kong20269
India644
Malaya and Singapore881
Australia11111
Italy10262
Netherlands8111
Japan1153
Other countries32239
Totals450593180
Made-up Sheets, Tablecloths, Table Napkins, and Towels
£(000)
United Kingdom938743281
Hong Kong11610644
India958458
Canada281710
Australia121511
Belgium15175
Czechoslovakia26278
Germany, West532813
Netherlands21256
Japan16114655
United States of America376434
Other countries3822
Totals1,5341,311547
Cheese Bandages and Meat Wraps
£(000)
United Kingdom714748187
Hong Kong282455187
India88
Other countries12
Totals1,0051,214374
Woven Cotton Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom4,0243,7131,062
Hong Kong545555322
India1,1061,050340
Canada309744
Australia12911859
Austria6110348
Belgium and Luxemburg18614134
Czechoslovakia13717744
France13015636
Germany, West430552172
Italy11017260
Netherlands22320666
Spain272313
Sweden7145
Switzerland17919071
China30213
Japan2,4692,670909
United States of America649744254
Other countries32278
Totals10,50410,7283,550
Rayon Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom1,1611,071368
Australia393117
Austria10118
Belgium and Luxemburg131810
France586727
Germany, West295337111
Germany, East27194
Italy15117881
Netherlands11612659
Spain1953
Switzerland505929
Japan899788358
United States of America457554221
Other countries243012
Totals3,3193,2951,308
Nylon Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom18816146
Australia25175
Austria15136
France105
Germany, West442
Italy33208
Switzerland404811
Japan738345
United States of America13612538
Other countries454
Totals528479166
Woollen Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom2,1142,276969
Australia464719
Belgium557222
France7138
Germany, West17124
Republic of Ireland111112
Italy4611267
Japan242414
U.S.A.6109
Other countries161510
Totals2,3422,5951,132
Jute and Hessian Piece Goods
£(000)
United Kingdom698935
India484689213
Pakistan3813
Other countries15
Totals557791261
Bags, Sacks, and Woolpacks
£(000)
Australia21
India1,2971,631248
Pakistan642812
Other countries1022
Totals1,3711,781262
Woollen Carpets (Rolls, Squares, and Rugs)
£(000)
United Kingdom42333642
India28416
Australia251
Other countries891
Totals46139151
Linoleum and Congoleum
£(000)
United Kingdom1,009991179
France3121
United States of America1001117
Other countries8204
Totals1,1201,135192
Cotton Threads
£(000)
United Kingdom728738311
Australia5610225
United States of America2893
Other countries241
Totals814852340
Cotton Yarn
£(000)
United Kingdom491370169
Hong Kong245455133
India10112
Australia17134
France 3018
Israel1910 
United States of America174532
Other countries972
Totals808943359
Synthetic Yarn
£(000)
United Kingdom1,3291,099412
Australia2267146
France6119
Germany, West2274
Japan32129
Netherlands673721
Norway584213
Switzerland751
United States of America453013
Other countries454
Totals1,5431,344651
Wool Yarn
£(000)
United Kingdom1,3481,319389
Australia11319088
Hong Kong223718
India 12
Other countries52217
Totals1,4881,580512
Motor and Aviation Spirit
£(000)
Aden52855159
Bahrain1,151550469
India1,3761,299647
Malaya and Singapore1,2071,408987
North Borneo78
Australia1,3611,7001,055
Netherlands10323138
Indonesia1,713546763
Iran1,6721,421662
Iraq48
Saudi Arabia8961,763591
Netherlands Antilles3851,419245
Peru54
Venezuela1,0021,327739
United States of America16
Totals11,39412,1406,417
Kerosene
£(000)
Bahrain2717
Malaya and Singapore177442
Australia347383
Netherlands281
Indonesia1936756
Iran1533919
Saudi Arabia2125
Netherlands Antilles1213740
Peru22
Venezuela825
Other countries6
Totals471506241
Diesel and Fuel Oils
£(000)
Bahrain39
Malaya and Singapore4322
Sarawak22
Australia5,0193,9203,001
Indonesia11992
Iran144156157
Saudi Arabia10289
Netherlands Antilles140287221
Peru2281,035
Venezuela14598
Other countries32
Totals5,9395,6563,490
Lubricating Oils
£(000)
United Kingdom763594366
Canada13
Australia9175
Germany, West1456
Netherlands1591
Indonesia15
Iran17
Netherlands Antilles354933
United States of America7831,116396
Venezuela9480135
Other countries3191
Totals1,7291,889974
Linseed Oil
£(000)
United Kingdom81182
India76
Canada96
Australia221
Netherlands82 
Argentina81 
Other countries  
Totals115353
Gypsum
£(000)
Australia12015086
Other countries121
Totals12115387
Cement
£(000)
United Kingdom234012
United States of America6
Other countries5175
Totals345617
Iron and Steel – Pipes, Tubes, and Fittings
£(000)
United Kingdom1,7282,1301,056
India 137
South Africa1271
Canada947
Australia737669499
Germany, West845124
Sweden1097
United States of America1127928
Other countries8123
Totals2,7002,9741,631
Iron and Steel – Plate, Sheet, Hoop, and Strip
£(000)
United Kingdom3,3505,1651,507
Canada627694197
Australia4,7145,9822,451
South Africa15
Belgium8310235
France29122
Germany, West82423
United States of America14121788
Japan13210044
Other countries4114
Totals9,28812,3074,365
Iron and Steel – Wire (excepting Barbed Wire)
£(000)
United Kingdom7621,589418
Canada2643
Australia1,7101,418786
South Africa25
Belgium552496200
France4310118
Germany, West7221
Japan20632
Other countries8113
Totals3,1283,7291,431
Iron and Steel – Bars, Rods, Billets, Bloom, and Pig
£(000)
United Kingdom1,2412,039472
Hong Kong2549113
Canada139597375
Australia1,5941,308660
South Africa19651236
Belgium784510
France--1616
Germany, West--2822
Republic of Ireland10147
Japan1161431
Other countries11146
Totals3,7714,8341,572
Iron and Steel – Angles, Tees, Girders, and Channels
£(000)
United Kingdom9051,812613
Canada409
Australia595389298
Belgium13195
United States of America464
Other countries3142
Totals1,5202,281931
Aluminium and its Alloys
£(000)
United Kingdom1,4151,145409
Canada184360286
Australia12813255
Belgium142816
France41312
Germany, West232518
Netherlands857310
Switzerland8233
United States of America104284136
Other countries635
Totals1,9712,085952
Copper
£(000)
United Kingdom1,7981,994676
Canada429502381
Australia746771588
France62
Belgium36
Other countries552
Totals3,0403,2711,683
Tin
£(000)
United Kingdom253114
Malaya and Singapore249244175
Australia1084
Other countries----6
Totals284282199
Artificers' Tools
£(000)
United Kingdom823813300
Canada22721866
Australia27122398
Germany, West14617057
Italy18146
Sweden365914
Switzerland645
United States of America31029692
Japan363623
Other countries24238
Totals1,8971,856668
Ball and Similar Bearings
£(000)
United Kingdom339584258
Canada17214
Australia5512
Austria10116
France111714
Germany, West202610
Italy462
Sweden596945
Japan3810
United States of America14313367
Other countries71111
Totals619892439
Electric Motors and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom1,1481,354541
Canada531325
Australia557143
France10144
Germany, West19327
Sweden34609
United States of America272510
Other countries11227
Totals1,3571,591646
Insulated Cable and Wire
£(000)
United Kingdom1,3501,615941
South Africa17157
Australia1207640
Netherlands47748914
Norway12
Japan94395117
Other countries6188
Totals2,2182,6621,121
Telegraphy and Telephony Apparatus
£(000)
United Kingdom1,7862,9101,923
Australia325414
France1128
Netherlands273618
Sweden108544
Switzerland8102
Japan124518
United States of America221416
Other countries132013
Totals1,9113,1752,081
Radio and Radar Apparatus
£(000)
United Kingdom731671248
Canada19182
Australia335330337
Germany, West485419
Netherlands302378283
Japan18518158
United States of America16513747
Other countries1276
Totals1,7971,7761,000
Transformers and Converters
£(000)
United Kingdom401563265
Canada4214635
Australia585828
Germany, West68524
France3332
Netherlands222233
Italy9618985
Sweden295048
Switzerland2511231
Japan27456
Other countries1276
Totals9761,290532
Tractors and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom3,8884,0951,022
Canada9135--
Australia1238127
Germany, West45416
Italy8110757
United States of America3,1892,748394
Other countries65--
Totals7,3417,2121,507
Domestic Baths
£(000)
United Kingdom7910142
Australia201013
Other countries1
Totals10011055
Sewing Machines
£(000)
United Kingdom42722110
Australia19815
France2111
Germany, West851766
Italy703044
Sweden985839
Switzerland16518541
Spain10
Japan280213107
United States of America13722414
Other countries23 
Totals1,2951,129278
Raw, Synthetic, and Reclaimed Rubber
£(000)
United Kingdom798042
Ceylon191610
Malaya and Singapore1,7751,257659
Canada207362178
Australia548
France11
United States of America511590188
Other countries482
Totals2,6012,3171,099
Sawn Timber
£(000)
North Borneo4102
Malaya and Singapore837629
Ghana418239
Nigeria8121
Canada293397214
Australia452543148
Belgian Congo49
Japan15612435
United States of America522533244
Other countries162411
Totals1,5751,805731
Plate and Sheet Glass
£(000)
United Kingdom677681305
Belgium and Luxemburg443441183
France173113
Germany, West766729
Japan272722
United States of America182924
Other countries14186
Totals1,2721,294582
Table Chinaware
£(000)
United Kingdom510803269
Australia1282
Germany, West16217
Japan11613127
Other countries172413
Totals671986318
Table Glassware and Tumblers
£(000)
United Kingdom505515
Czechoslovakia19253
Germany, West17162
Japan20224
United States of America24213
Other countries25335
Totals15517132
Newsprint
£(000)
United Kingdom3669175
Canada1,3321,261351
Norway53511
Other countries42614
Totals1,7061,413451
Other Printing Paper
£(000)
United Kingdom8721,113392
Canada142227108
Australia345230176
Austria16117
Finland351
Germany, West20172
Netherlands13104
Norway14215377
Sweden18816866
United States of America333519
Other countries71312
Totals1,7821,982865
Writing Paper
£(000)
United Kingdom21124682
Canada2147
Australia9927059
Norway215210
Sweden132213
Other countries4103
Totals350614174
Books, Magazines, Newspapers, and Music
£(000)
United Kingdom2,6862,8751,245
Australia1,2971,352632
Belgium1065
Czechoslovakia1391
France32612
Germany, West14257
Netherlands383917
Japan282111
United States of America599600338
Other countries182416
Totals4,7064,9782,284
Timepieces and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom11114747
Germany, West21029461
Switzerland29136274
Other countries273516
Totals639837198
Common Salt
£(000)
United Kingdom26223092
Australia9214468
Netherlands9218
Other countries2112
Totals366406170
Crude Sulphur
£(000)
Mexico16722065
United States of America907958399
Other countries562
Totals1,0791,185466
Rock Phosphate
£(000)
Gilbert and Ellice Islands17023932
Nauru Island727668474
French Oceania238243113
Totals1,1341,151620
Basic Slag
£(000)
Belgium234251138
Totals234251138
Chloride (Muriate) of Potash
£(000)
France229612138
Germany, West232426129
United States of America402380368
Totals8631,417635
Aircraft and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom15166150
Australia120716
Netherlands2731,98116
United States of America850455107
Other countries4165
Totals1,3983,184184
Bicycles
£(000)
United Kingdom40538562
Czechoslovakia--113
Japan10271
Other countries211
Totals41742367
Motor Cycles
£(000)
United Kingdom829910
Austria7 
Czechoslovakia544
Germany, West2191
Japan14165
Other countries13--
Totals13013120
Motorcars
£(000)
United Kingdom8,4189,0265,299
Canada599576309
Australia1,3201,283370
Czechoslovakia323022
Germany, West383478182
France209313176
Italy413927
Japan21
United States of America773467
Other--
Totals10,97811,7806,472
Buses, Lorries, Trucks, and Vans
£(000)
United Kingdom3,1234,2742,036
Australia499933402
Germany, West8311947
United States of America7612445
Other countries--139
Totals3,7815,4632,539
Motor-vehicle Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom1,6842,3751,080
Canada516029
Australia336295152
France112213
Germany, West768937
United States of America17918570
Other countries14169
Totals2,3513,0421,390
Railway and Tramway Vehicles and Parts
£(000)
United Kingdom371660155
Canada739
Australia11610933
Austria38
Italy22
United States of America444129
Other countries--11
Totals5311,553258
Railway and Tramway Rails and Rail Accessories
£(000)
United Kingdom95252200
Australia365442687
Other countries141
Totals461698888
Pneumatic Tyres and Tubes (over 1 3/4 in. Diameter)
£(000)
United Kingdom433397168
South Africa23212
Canada6212115
Australia294828
Germany, West474413
United States of America166340197
Other countries92115
Totals769993438
Musical Instruments, Parts, and Gramophone Records
£(000)
United Kingdom794745165
Australia252018
Austria311
Czechoslovakia11257
France8121
Germany, West11114631
Italy8511613
Netherlands426718
Japan358233
United States of America11511250
Other countries14115
Totals1,2431,339343
Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Resins
£(000)
United Kingdom1,1971,162622
Canada992623
Australia221236142
France131819
Germany, West176239156
Italy544
Netherlands356337
Switzerland10159
Japan31113
United States of America898834399
Other countries3210
Totals2,6832,5991,473
Agricultural Machinery (Cultivating)
£(000)
United Kingdom13416953
Canada41
Australia8710135
United States of America118
Other countries103--
Totals23428498
Agricultural Machinery (Harvesting, Threshing, etc.)
£(000)
United Kingdom32445030
Canada611081
Australia9402
Germany, West9214011
France1632--
Netherlands24226
Sweden48968
United States of America34740930
Other countries5161
Totals9261,31490
Agricultural Machinery (Dairying)
£(000)
United Kingdom406322
Australia262222
Denmark24281
Germany, West242216
France6191
Italy1011
Sweden446633
Switzerland1615
United States of America27616
Other countries3
Totals221229118
Builders' Hardware
£(000)
United Kingdom306381135
Australia10111356
United States of America7154
Other countries11158
Totals425524203
Country of Origin19601961Jan-June 1962
Metal-working Machinery
£
United Kingdom1,1992,417892
Canada121918
Australia468534223
Austria18--
Denmark6122
France19216
Germany, West15017389
Italy314118
Sweden577622
Switzerland276717
United States of America29427190
Other countries497726
Totals2,3133,7181,403
Woodworking Machinery
£
United Kingdom239344125
Canada37036175
Australia432915
Belgium4124
Germany, West4310432
Italy3133
Sweden576018
Switzerland872
United States of America25918669
Other countries13109
Totals1,0381,127353
Paper-mill and Pulp-mill Machinery
£
United Kingdom197226391
Canada5514071
Australia3939
Sweden29184
Norway12---
United States of America626335
Other countries777
Totals364463546
Earth-moving and Road-making Machinery
£
United Kingdom1,3901,380429
South Africa1610-
Canada22248
Australia14024816
Germany, West415-
United States of America1,14085692
Other countries491
Totals2,6962,540586
Antiseptics
£
United Kingdom232282190
Hong Kong742
Australia4296131
France11173
Switzerland35508
United States of America455942
Other countries161811
Totals388527388
Inorganic Colours
£
United Kingdom696735357
Australia777033
Germany, West1389264
Japan908768
United States of America202111
Other countries203022
Totals1,0411,035556
Medicinal Preparations (Including Proprietary Medicines)
£
United Kingdom1,1331,199630
South Africa265-
Canada--1917
Australia430358180
Germany, West394822
Netherlands15289
Switzerland209309143
United States of America71163127
Other countries141311
Totals1,9372,1431,140
Weedkillers and Scrubkillers
£
United Kingdom8015872
Canada--3514
Australia113785
Denmark142-
Belgium-12--
France38----
Germany, West6414056
Netherlands184421
United States of America12011953
Other countries22 
Totals449590221
Photographic Films
£
United Kingdom225257135
Australia882948299
Belgium616528
Germany, West869435
Italy181711
United States of America4711051
Other countries13115
Totals1,3331,502565
Jewellery and Imitation Jewellery
£
United Kingdom9111328
Hong Kong81011
Australia20205
Austria23293
Czechoslovakia172510
Germany, West8512125
Japan18317
United States of America9174
Other countries16207
Totals287386100
Railway Sleepers
£
Australia2914021
Totals2914021
Sports Goods and Materials for their Manufacture
£
United Kingdom30933190
Pakistan16174
Australia646213
France20193
Germany, West30338
Italy6112
Norway10122
Sweden7123
Japan579515
United States of America446318
Other countries30399
Totals593692167

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED - The following table shows the quantity imported, during each of the calendar years 1961 and 1962, and the June year 1963, of a large number of the principal items.

ItemUnit of Quantity19611962June Year 1963
†Provisional.
Canned fishlb (000)7,5142,2473,788
Fruit—    
  Cannedlb (000)12,9356,7959,672
  Driedlb (000)21,96821,42419,717
  Fresh    
  Bananaslb (000)67,16366,51969,681
  Orangeslb (000)27,82828,73030,968
Grain and pulse—    
  Wheatbush (000)6,1056,8036,643
  Maizena and cornflourlb (000)2,1251,4572,564
  Rice (other than rice flour and ground rice)cwt (000)615460
Nuts, ediblelb (000)1,8021,5321,656
Desiccated coconutlb (000)2,4292,4072,023
Jams, jellies, and preserveslb (000)1067139
Confectionerylb (000)290146131
Sugarcwt (000)2,8662,5052,721
Tealb (000)16,73817,14116,670
Coffee, rawlb (000)4,6176,7476,101
Cocoa beans, rawlb (000)6,7668,5078,485
Cigaretteslb (000)12026108
Tobaccolb (000)6,3696,0065,517
Spirits (beverages)pr. gal. (000)1,011629754
Wineliq. gal. (000)220202--
Cotton and linen piece goods—    
  Cheese bandages and meat wrapslb (000)5,1103,3853,228
  Knittedlb (000)549218193
  Wovensq. yd. (000)75,41557,39372,339
Wool piece goodssq. yd. (000)4,3503,1862,726
Silk, rayon and synthetic fibre piece goods    
  Wovensq. yd. (000)21,57612,6419,697
  Knittedlb (000)303288357
Yarns—    
  Cottonlb (000)3,8483,3353,985
  Silk, rayon, and syntheticlb (000)2,6052,1501,757
  Woollb (000)2,7471,053762
Bags, sacks, wool packsdoz (000)1,013744855
Carpets and carpeting—    
  Of wool or containing wool—    
  In rollssq. yd. (000)18160109
  In squaressq. yd. (000)823962
  Of other textile materialssq. yd. (000)1156647
Linoleum, etc.sq. yd. (000)3,6091,6291,825
Footwear—    
  Children'sdoz pairs (000)85.350.251.5
  Adults'doz pairs (000)8.43.07.4
Hosiery—    
  Full lengthdoz pairs (000)23.031.638.1
  Half and three-quarter hosedoz pairs (000)4.00.62.9
Glovesdoz pairs (000)130.039.131.5
Hat hoods, felt, unblockeddoz (000)101.560.134.9
Mowers and harvestersNo.2,5412,1482,218
Cream separatorsNo.397258375
Electrical—    
  Storage batteriesNo.18,78716,41820,390
  Wireless valvesNo. (000)1,3201,3372,141
Electric motors—    
  Under 1 b.h.p.No.223,530199,370261,637
  1 b.h.p. and overNo.24,44212,54115,637
Sparking plugsNo. (000)2,3632,1492,631
TypewritersNo.10,3107,4129,620
Sewing machines, domesticNo.37,59926,66128,722
Iron and steel—    
  Bar, rod, billet, bloom, pigcwt (000)2,3221,4471,325
  Angle, tee, channel, girdercwt (000)1,095875923
  Plate and sheetcwt (000)3,4042,7153,183
  Pipes, tubes, and fittingscwt (000)668688680
  Wirecwt (000)1,264954960
Coppercwt (000)204.7181.1218.2
Brass and muntzcwt (000)18.816.715.3
Leadcwt (000)104.299.8103.8
Tincwt (000)6.78.58.3
Cordage of metalcwt (000)132.8125.0160.5
BicyclesNo.50,68121,27531,371
Motor cyclesNo.1,2461,8653,786
MotorcarsNo.35,38037,85941,782
Lorries, trucks, etc.No.11,60610,2828,284
TractorsNo.6,4413,6445,281
Tyres (excluding bicycle)No. (000)806478
Mineral oils—    
  Motor spiritsgal (000)303,763294,220300,323
  Lubricating oilgal (000)11,18411,75810,324
  Kerosenegal (000)12,11011,7988,168
  Crude petroleum, fuel oils, etc.gal (000)180,025194,342195,700
Chemicals—    
  Acidscwt (000)28.025.823.8
  Calcium carbidecwt (000)55.643.559.2
  Sulphurtons144,480104,907108,717
  Saltcwt (000)1,0651,0131,088
  Caustic sodacwt (000)68.278.586.3
  Carbonate of sodacwt (000)361.8334.1269.9
Manures—    
  Nitrate of sodatons3,8604432,117
  Phosphatictons644,774597,656625,631
  Potashtons134,30099,82186,265
  Sulphate of ammoniatons8,0366,8839,850
Timber, sawnsup. ft. (000)37,36228,11127,853
Glass, plate and sheetsq. ft. (000)20,35516,40216,216
Linseed oilgal (000)6752
Plaster-of-pariscwt (000)328-281134.0
Gypsumcwt (000)1,530.51,773.21,780.0
Asbestos, crudecwt (000)103.8116.6123.2
Cementcwt (000)75.960.367.4
Pulp and paper building boardsq. ft. (000)70212894
Printing papercwt (000)853.0--125.1
Other papercwt (000)136.8--49.7
Cardboard, etc.cwt (000)84.8----
Rubbercwt (000)258.4220.2208.3
Paraffin waxlb (000)3,2834,7923,804
Wood and paper pulptons13,49714,27216,254
Plywoodsq. ft. (000)2,6671,3461,117

Imports by Ports - As at 1962 New Zealand had 15 ports of entry for Customs purposes - seven in the North Island and eight in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry during each of the calendar years 1959 to 1961, the six months January-June 1962, and the June year 1963. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

Port195919601961January-June 1962June Year 1963
†Provisional.
 £(thousand)
Auckland82,714102,518114,85248,571107,864
Tauranga1,9673,0984,1431,8944,501
Gisborne332426501176595
Napier2,9844,2384,8842,2654,973
Taranaki2,8833,1274,2501,6304,006
Wanganui1,6381,0501,269175362
Wellington65,58982,87292,45139,00082,741
Picton83929226435
Nelson1,0501,1141,3415681,115
Greymouth308349314191200
Lyttelton29,26635,33242,76116,14836,017
Timaru1,2081,2401,7154021,928
Oamaru22122738496344
Otago11,34413,85714,9165,79711,704
Bluff3,4893,6174,4191,8013,538
Totals205,076253,157288,291118,740260,322

Almost three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. Lyttelton and Otago occupy third and fourth places in importance. Following these, however, the relative importance of the ports varies from year to year.

It should be mentioned that imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Whenuapai were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Harewood in the Lyttelton figures.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS - Trade with the Cook and associated islands is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand, but is shown separately in official publications. These islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand and the carriage of goods between them and the main islands of New Zealand is not really external trade, but is merely the transport of goods from one part of the country to another. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to the main islands of New Zealand. Particulars of the trade of the islands with other countries will be found in the section dealing with Island Territories.

YearValue of Goods from Cook Islands
†Provisional.
 £
1952245,883
1953287,002
1954286,418
1955283,443
1956298,273
1957289,545
1958297,071
1959343,007
1960328,495
1961471,436
Jan-June 
1962225,879
June year 
1963588,484

The principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook and associated islands and their values in recent years are as follows.

Item195919601961Jan-June 1962
 ££££
Copra and coconut products99,58499,54589,74943,913
Mandarins16,10026,82924,09312,513
Mens' and boys' coats, suits, trousers, etc.44,16946,92452,43212,049
Mens' and boys' outer-wear, other kinds--18,03313,095
Oranges109,50961,868109,52319,264
Shirts, pyjamas, and nightdresses, not knitted3794452,4757,842
Tomatoes44,02348,66647,0454,420
Vegetables, fresh10,93116,54810,7875,680
Other items18,31227,670117,299107,103
Totals343,007328,495471,436225,879

22 D-CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF - Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from the obtaining of revenue, has for its objects the following:

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The encouragement of intra-Commonwealth trade.

When New Zealand's first Customs Ordinance was proclaimed in 1841 the intention was to raise revenue and to some extent to give preference to goods of British origin. The tariff changes of 1851 and 1864 widened the scope of the tariff but retained its revenue aspects, though at this time the duties were mainly specific rather than ad valorem. In 1888 ad valorem rates became more general and the rate of duty was raised to 20 per cent, which was double the amount charged in earlier years.

The prevailing economic philosophy was, of course, that of free trade, and in New Zealand's case it was underlined by the fact that Parliament predominantly represented the farming community. Even so, the depression of the eighties had so affected some of New Zealand's manufacturing industries that protection by tariffs became practical politics in 1888. The tariff revision of 1895 was aimed at protecting a small range of industries, and at the same time it eliminated the duties on many items which entered into the cost of living of those residing in urban areas. These tendencies were continued in 1900 and 1907 and 1921, with British preferences becoming more evident.

In 1921 provision was made for an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This was the first occasion when the legislature tried to cope with twentieth century economic conditions which threatened to cut across tariffs designed to give protection to industries which were supposed to develop in a manner normal to the nineteenth century. The 1921 tariff also made provision for anti-dumping duties - another attempt to meet so-called abnormal practices. The depreciated currency duties ranged from 2 1/2 to 20 per cent; the dumping duty was not to exceed the difference between the sale price and the current domestic value.

The 1927 tariff revision extended further British preferences and increased the number of duties imposed for protection purposes. Further important items, if of British origin, were also placed on the free list. In 1930 surtaxes on dutiable goods were imposed for revenue purposes and the general tariff rate was increased by about 5 per cent. In 1931 a primage of 3 per cent was charged on imports (except in specified cases) which were otherwise free of duty.

In the meantime there had been a change in United Kingdom trade policy, which had tended to become one of protection rather than one of free trade.

As a result of the changing conditions the Ottawa Conference was called. The outcome of this conference was the Ottawa Agreement of 1932, the effect of which was to give further preference to British goods and to inhibit the use of the tariff by New Zealand for purely protective purposes. (The United Kingdom, for its part, granted duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and applied tariff rates on butter and cheese from foreign countries and undertook to place quota restrictions on meats from foreign countries. See Section 21a - Marketing of Primary Produce.)

In 1934 a Tariff Commission submitted a report which in the main adhered to the already established principle of British preference, and actually reduced the protection for New Zealand industries in more cases than it provided protection. The adoption of this report by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934 resulted in a wide range of items being made dutiable for revenue purposes, while a small group of items with a low to moderate duty gave limited protection against goods of British origin. Thus New Zealand's tariff remained an expression of the fact that New Zealand placed its economic emphasis on primary production, the market for which was mainly in the United Kingdom.

This tariff remained practically unchanged until 1960, although extended in its scope by subsequent trade agreements. In 1960 some amendments were made.

An agreement signed in Wellington in August 1959 between New Zealand and the United Kingdom made provision for the minimum margin of preference of 20 per cent accorded to British goods under the Ottawa Agreement to be reduced.

In recent years a number of changes in the tariff have resulted from public inquiries conducted by the Board of Trade, and the Board in November 1957 completed a comprehensive review of the whole structure and incidence of the tariff and reported to Government.

On 1 July 1962 a revised tariff was introduced. It involves a common nomenclature for tariff and statistical purposes based on the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised). The Board of Trade recommendations of 1957 were translated into S.I.T.C. form and other procedural problems overcome. The Customs Acts Amendment Act 1961 is the legal authority for the new tariff.

The basis of Customs taxation is principally ad valorem, but specific duties are applied to some lines, including several of the principal revenue items such as alcoholic beverages, tobacco, tea, sugar, and motor spirits.

The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand. This publication, as well as the ancillary publication The Explanatory Notes to the Customs Tariff, is available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the tariff is printed in "multi-column" form listing rates of duty under the British preferential tariff, agreements with Australia and Canada, the most-favoured-nation tariff (under which goods from countries adhering to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade are admitted), and the general tariff.

CUSTOMS DUTIES - It is impossible to give here an account of the range of duties payable on all of the numerous tariff items, but the duties as at the beginning of July 1962 on some of the principal commodities in general use are given. The history of previous rates of duty was given in the 1961 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Tea - Tea in bulk of British origin is exempt from all duty and the rates on foreign tea are most-favoured-nation, 1d., general tariff, 2d. per pound.

Sugar - The duty on sugar of 22 colour or over (Dutch Standard) is 1 1/4d. per pound; on other sugar it is 1d. per pound. Raw sugar imported for refining at Auckland enters free of duty under bond, an excise duty of 1d. per pound being levied on the refined products.

Tobacco - Customs duties on tobacco are at the following rates. Cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb per 1,000: British preferential tariff and most-favoured-nation tariff, 76s. per 1,000; general tariff, 78s. 3d. per 1,000. Cigarettes exceeding 2 1/2 lb per 1,000 pay 30s. 8d. per pound under the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, and 31s. 8d. per pound under the general tariff. Cigars and cheroots pay 23s. per pound under the British preferential tariff, 25s. per pound under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 27s. per pound under the general tariff. In each case these rates of duty on cigars are plus 12 1/2 per cent plus 6s. per pound. Unmanufactured tobacco imported for manufacturing in a bonded tobacco factory into cigarettes, tobacco, or snuff pays 3s. 4d. per pound under all three tariffs. The excise duties on tobacco, etc., made in New Zealand are shown later under Excise Duties.

Alcoholic Beverages - There are specific rates for alcoholic beverages which vary according to the type of beverage imported. These rates are set out in full in the tariff.

Motor Vehicles - Motor vehicles imported in an unassembled or completely knocked-down condition pay 6 1/4 per cent duty under the British preferential tariff, 45 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 65 per cent under the general tariff. Under the Canadian Trade Agreement motor vehicles imported unassembled from Canada pay from 13 3/4 per cent to 45 per cent, depending on the percentage of Canadian materials and labour involved. Motor vehicles imported in an assembled condition pay 20 per cent duty under the British preferential tariff, 55 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 75 per cent under the general tariff. Vehicles from Canada pay from 33 1/3 per cent to 55 per cent. Motor cycles, autocycles, and scooters pay 12 1/2 per cent under the British preferential tariff, 32 1/2 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 50 per cent under the general tariff.

Motor Spirits - Under the Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961 the rate of duty on motor spirits is 1s. 5 3/4d. per gallon, and is payable by wholesale distributors under a procedure similar to that used for the collection of sales tax. Of this amount, 1s. 3 3/4d. was paid to the credit of the National Roads Fund and 2d. to the Consolidated Fund until 31 March 1964; the latter amount remains from the duty of 1s. per gallon imposed in 1958. From 1 April 1964 the total duty has been paid to the National Roads Fund.

IMPORT CONTROL - Import licensing applies to virtually all private imports and is explained in Section 22A.

EXCISE DUTIES:Beer - As from 22 August 1947 the excise duty on beer became 3s. per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,036, increased by 1d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on beer was increased to 6s. a gallon where the specific gravity does not exceed 1,036, advancing by 2d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60°F is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Tobacco - From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on tobacco was increased to the following amounts: tobacco, cut, 22s. 9d. per pound; tobacco, plug, 22s. 9d. per pound; cigars and snuff, 12s. per pound; cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb weight for 1,000, 70s. per 1,000; cigarettes exceeding 2 1/2 lb per 1,000, 28s. per pound. From 22 July 1960 the duty was reduced, on both cut and plug tobaccos, by 2s. 6d. per pound, on cigarettes not exceeding 2 1/2 lb weight for 1,000, by 6s. per 1,000, and on other cigarettes, by 2s. 4d. per pound. An excise duty of 1/2d. is levied on each 60 cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

Sugar - There is an excise duty of 1d. per pound on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Alcohol - Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: on alcohol used in the manufacture of: perfumed spirits, 36s. per proof gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per proof gallon. In similar medicinal preparations containing not more than 50 per cent, the alcohol used is duty free.

CUSTOMS REVENUE - In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties represented a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it has in recent years when it has generally been less than one-fifth of total taxation. The figures for the last 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TaxationCustoms and Excise Duties
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation
†Includes beer duty £15,588,000. Further details not now available owing to change in recording methods.
 £(000)£(000)per cent
1953199,77132,74016£39
1954206,80232,17715.56
1955234,76634,17714.56
1956244,82936,63314.96
1957252,85235,69114.12
1958244,88239,00315.93
1959305,24351,29016£80
1960297,28856,79019.10
1961334,46358,21417.43
1962358,20356,888x15.82
1963342,01454,47015.92

The figures for Customs and excise duties are exclusive of tyre tax and the highways proportion (6d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits tax up to and including 1953-54, two classes of taxes collected through the Customs and paid to the Consolidated Fund in the years quoted. From 1954-55 to 1957-58 all these receipts were paid into the National Roads Fund, and were therefore excluded from Customs duties. Such taxation is, however, included in total taxation. From 27 June 1958 the increased duty on motor spirits was paid into the Consolidated Fund and this portion of the motor-spirits tax collected is included in the 1959 and subsequent totals of Customs and excise duties as well as being included in the total taxation figures.

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY - The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw material and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured raw materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British Commonwealth countries, the products of which are admissible under the British preferential tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Tea to be free of duty must have been grown in some part of the British Commonwealth, and the final process of manufacture must also have been performed in some country of the British Commonwealth.

Under the reciprocal trade agreements with Australia and Canada discussed hereunder, the duties on certain items are sometimes higher than the corresponding duties under the British preferential tariff and in a few cases lower.

Reciprocity With United Kingdom - Under the Ottawa Agreement New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods where the margin of preference did not exceed 20 per cent, and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom.

In 1958 New Zealand sought new arrangements with the United Kingdom and on 25 November 1958 the two Governments signed Heads of Agreement. This provided the basis for a new agreement to give New Zealand the right to reduce the margins of preference applied to United Kingdom goods entering New Zealand to 5 per cent on certain imports essential for industry, to 7 1/2 per cent on an extensive list of welfare and producer goods, and to 10 per cent on all other goods. The formal text of the new New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade Agreement was signed in Wellington on 12 August 1959.

Reciprocity With Australia - An agreement, completed in April 1933 and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act of that year, came into operation on 1 December 1933, and remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the agreement each country grants to the goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods, enumerated in the Schedules to the agreement, on which special rates are fixed.

The agreement provides for lower duties than those prescribed under Australia's British preferential tariff on many classes of New Zealand products entering Australia, including fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Minor modifications have been made to the Schedules of the agreement from time to time, but they remain substantially the same as originally negotiated.

The setting up of an Australian - New Zealand Consultative Committee on Trade was agreed on by the Australian and New Zealand Governments in August 1960.

Reciprocity With Canada - Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at rates of duty lower than the British preferential tariff.

Reciprocity With Malaysia - A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country will accord preferential rates of duty to the other for an initial period of three years. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Other Trade Arrangements - New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth. In some earlier cases New Zealand automatically became a party to arrangements concluded by the United Kingdom; in others she became a party by signifying her willingness to adhere to such arrangements. Other arrangements again resulted from direct negotiations between New Zealand and the countries concerned. In practice many of these arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) are superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. However, some remain separately in force, and, in addition to those countries which are contracting parties to the General Agreement, New Zealand grants most-favoured-nation tariff treatment to China, Egypt, Liberia, Yugoslavia, and Somalia.

Most-favoured-nation tariff treatment on certain items is extended to Switzerland as a result of a trade arrangement between Switzerland and New Zealand dating from 1938, under which New Zealand receives general most-favoured-nation tariff treatment and a guaranteed import quota for apples and pears. Since 1957 the arrangement has been extended also to Liechtenstein.

A trade agreement with Japan came into force on 9 September 1958 and remained in force for a period of three years. The agreement provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment. Japan was removed from the list of scheduled countries for import licensing purposes and New Zealand was given the opportunity to compete for the Japanese allocation of exchange for imports of major interest to New Zealand. The agreement also included a clause safeguarding New Zealand industry from serious injury caused or threatened to be caused by excessive imports from Japan. The trade agreement was modified in March 1962. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade will now apply to trade between Japan and New Zealand, and the new arrangement provides a basis of consultation for the quick settlement of any difficulties which might arise in the trade between the two countries.

The Federal Republic of Germany and New Zealand concluded a trade agreement in April 1959. The agreement is designed to facilitate as far as possible the exchange of goods and services between the two countries. New Zealand is granted quotas on certain primary products while for some others New Zealand will be considered as a source of supply for imports into Germany under the import programme. The agreement was concluded following international discussions under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade on problems arising out of the Federal Republic's import restrictions. The circumstances under which the negotiations with the Federal Republic were initiated were thus somewhat different from the usual, and because of this New Zealand is not required under the agreement to make any special arrangements regarding German exports. As contracting parties to the General Agreement the two countries already granted each other most-favoured-nation tariff treatment.

A trade agreement with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics entered into force on 1 August 1963 and it will remain in force initially for four years, and thereafter will continue indefinitely, but subject to three months' notice of termination on either side.

The trade agreement provides for the mutual grant of most-favoured-nation treatment in matters concerning trade and shipping between New Zealand and the Soviet Union. In particular each country has agreed to grant to the other, most-favoured-nation treatment with respect to Customs duties and charges of any kind imposed on the importation or exportation of products from the other country. Similarly most-favoured-nation treatment will apply in relation to prohibitions or restrictions whether in the form of quotas, import or export licences, or other controls.

Following South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth, goods being the produce or manufacture of South Africa ceased to qualify for admission into New Zealand under the British preferential tariff. The existing tariff rates on certain items (certain preserved fish, dried and fresh fruits, wines, and ostrich feathers) which were negotiated with South Africa in GATT have been maintained. In respect of all other goods, however, the rate of duty applicable under the most-favoured-nation tariff or (where there is no most-favoured-nation tariff) under the General Tariff applies.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT) - Tariff negotiations took place in Geneva in 1947, and the concessions given by each participating country were embodied in schedules to a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The tariff negotiations themselves were bilateral but all the concessions were applied multilaterally, so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants, and, conversely, New Zealand's concessions apply to all the other countries which took part. Concessions are of two kinds - actual reductions of duties and bindings of duties against increase. The Agreement, which provides for concessions under both the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, was applied provisionally by New Zealand on 26 July 1948.

The foreign countries to whose products the concessional rates (i.e., the most-favoured-nation rates) of duty apply by virtue of their membership in GATT or some special arrangement in GATT are: Algeria, Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Leopoldville), Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dahomey, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Finland, France (including overseas territories), Gabon, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Haiti, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Ivory Coast, Japan, Kuwait, Luxemburg, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Netherlands (including overseas territories), Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Peru, Portugal, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, United States of America, Upper Volta, Uruguay.

The following Commonwealth countries are members of GATT: Australia, Canada, Ceylon, Cyprus, Ghana, India, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, Sierra Leone, Tanganyika, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

While the reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade has been the principal aim of the General Agreement it has also provided an internationally accepted code of rules in world trade, and its regular sessions have been useful as a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

Developments have tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports reasonably expected to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised countries and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries like New Zealand. This has been due primarily to the growing use of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

INTERNATIONAL WHEAT AGREEMENT - The first International Wheat Agreement was negotiated in March 1949 and, with minor amendments, was renewed in 1953 and 1956. Following conferences from January to March 1959 the 1956 Agreement, which was due to expire on 31 July 1959, was replaced by a new agreement which differs on some major points from its predecessors.

The objectives of the International Wheat Agreement are to assure supplies of wheat to importing countries, and markets for wheat to exporting countries at equitable and stable prices. Under the terms of the 1956 Agreement New Zealand guaranteed to import 160,000 metric tons (5,878,994 bushels) of wheat annually. The guarantee to purchase became operative only when the price was at the minimum laid down in the agreement, and a similar guarantee to sell by exporters operated only when the price reached the maximum under the agreement. The maximum and minimum prices were $2.00 and $1.50 based on Manitoba, Northern No. 1 wheat, in bulk, in store, Fort William/Port Arthur.

In the agreement, which came into force on 1 August 1959, New Zealand, as a signatory, had a contractual obligation to purchase 90 per cent of its imports under the agreement while the price was between the maximum and minimum prices. The maximum price for the basic wheat was reduced to $1.90. but the minimum remained at SI.50. At the maximum price importers are released from their obligation to purchase, while exporters are required to supply the average of each importer's purchases over the first five of the previous six years.

In January 1962 the United Nations convened an international conference in Geneva at which was negotiated a new wheat agreement for three years, which came into force on 1 August 1962. The agreement is similar to the previous one but the price limit has increased by 12 1/2 cents a bushel. New Zealand has retained its 90 per cent undertaking.

INTERNATIONAL SUGAR AGREEMENT - The International Sugar Agreement of 1958, to which New Zealand acceded on 28 November 1960, came into effect on 1 January 1959. The agreement was negotiated at conferences held in Geneva in October 1958 under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations Organisation. It replaced the agreement negotiated in 1953 which had marked the end of several unsuccessful attempts over a long period from before 1939 to secure international collaboration on sugar matters.

The main objectives of the agreement, which differs little from the previous one, are to assure supplies of sugar to importing countries and markets for sugar exporting countries at equitable and stable prices. Under the agreement, as negotiated in 1958, participating importing countries undertook to restrict quantities of sugar purchased from non-participating exporting countries. Exporting countries were restricted in the quantities they may offer on the "free market" and were allocated specific quantities as "basic export tonnages".

Provision was made in the agreement for a review of the price range and of basic export tonnages after three years. Accordingly a United Nations Sugar Conference was held in Geneva in September and again in December 1961, but there was failure to agree on export quotas for 1962 and 1963 and since that time the provisions of the agreement relating to limitation of imports, regulations of exports, and stabilisation of prices, have been inoperative.

The negotiation of a new agreement, re-establishing export, import, and price provisions, was not attempted before the agreement expired on 31 December 1963. Instead, a protocol was negotiated to continue the International Sugar Agreement of 1958 until 31 December 1965 and to keep the International Sugar Council in being as a forum for international cooperation on sugar. The protocol, formally entitled The Protocol for the Prolongation of the International Sugar Agreement of 1958, was signed by New Zealand on 30 September 1963 and entered into force on 1 January 1964.

The articles of the agreement, which with the expiry in 1961 of export quotas have ceased to have effect, remain inoperative under the agreement as extended by the protocol, which, however, envisages the negotiation of a new agreement as soon as practicable.

New Zealand's annual requirements of raw sugar are now approximately 126,000 tons. Of this quantity, 75,000 tons are purchased annually from Commonwealth sources under a special arrangement at world prices plus £3 15s. a ton. This arrangement continues indefinitely although provision has been made for review of the arrangement if circumstances warrant this. Imports in recent years have been mainly from Australia and Fiji.

Chapter 23. Section 23 PRICES

Table of Contents

PRICE TRIBUNAL - The Control of Prices Act 1947 consolidated the powers and functions formerly exercised mainly under Emergency Regulations issued during the course of the Second World War. It defined the general duties and functions of the Price Tribunal as the fixing of prices for goods and services, the investigation of complaints with respect to prices, maintenance of a survey of the prices of goods or services, the institution of legal proceedings for offences in relation to prices, and the taking of such other steps as in its opinion might be necessary to prevent profiteering or the exploitation of the public. It provided that the sittings of the Tribunal should be open to the public unless the Tribunal determined otherwise.

The Price Tribunal has power to:

  1. Make price orders fixing, in such manner as it thinks fit, the actual or the maximum or the minimum price for any goods sold in a specified market and under specified conditions. Price orders are published in the New Zealand Gazette, and must generally be displayed in any shop where the goods to which they relate are sold.

  2. Authorise selling prices, which may be of general or special application.

Since the passing of the Act the Tribunal has, in the case of many commodities, issued price orders which prescribe that maximum prices are to be calculated by adding specified percentages to costs. In other cases, where there has been a general cost increase resulting from the reduction or removal of subsidies, the raising of freight charges, or a wage increase prescribed by a general order of the Court of Arbitration, the position has sometimes been met by the issue of general price adjustment orders under which most manufacturers have been permitted to recover by means of price increases the whole or a specified part of such increased costs.

Since 1948 a policy of progressive decontrol has been followed: lists of items freed from direct price fixation (although remaining subject to profiteering and other provisions of the Act) were published from time to time, but all goods and services not specifically exempted in this manner remained subject to control. However, in accordance with powers provided under the 1953 amendment to the Act, a noteworthy change in the system of control became effective on the gazetting of the Control of Prices (Positive List) Notice 1955 on 14 March 1955. The system of general control with specified exemptions was thereby replaced by the control of specified items only - all goods or services not on the Positive List being decontrolled. The many additional items subsequently decontrolled outdated the Positive List issued on 14 March 1955, and it was replaced by a new Positive List gazetted on 14 March 1957. Since then further items have been exempted and two, namely, honey and meat, were placed under control again. However, as from 1 December 1961 meat was decontrolled. Accommodation charges in both licensed and private hotels, and all liquor charges were exempted from price control as from 8 December 1961. Hops were decontrolled on 16 March 1962, the remaining items of apparel on 27 July 1962, and poultry mash and prepared poultry food except wheat, bran, and pollard and mixed grains containing wheat on 30 August 1962. Shipping fares and freights were decontrolled on 20 December 1962, as also were dried and canned fruits, semolina and rice. Motion picture theatre admission charges were decontrolled on 19 July 1963. Milk and cream prices are now fixed by Order in Council under the provisions of section 18 of the Milk Amendment Act 1951 (as amended in 1953) upon the recommendation of the New Zealand Milk Board instead of under the Control of Prices Act 1947.

The Control of Prices Amendment Act 1953 also made provision for the delegation of pricing powers to the Secretary of Industries and Commerce, subject to a right of appeal to the Tribunal.

A further amendment to the Act in October 1956 transferred from the Price Tribunal to the Minister the function of exempting goods or services from price fixation.

It should be observed that certain prices controlled under other legislation do not come within the scope of the Control of Prices Act 1947. For example, the maximum price of motor spirits is fixed by Order in Council (on the recommendation of the Minister of Industries and Commerce) under the Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933; while, in certain circumstances, the Tenancy Act 1955 provides for the fixation, on application, of rents by a Magistrate's Court or by a Rents Officer of the Department of Labour. As a further illustration the Transport Amendment Act 1950 provides that the charges for any, transport service may be fixed by the public body operating that service or otherwise by the Commissioner of Transport, subject to a right of appeal to the Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Although the earlier legislation providing for an Economic Stabilisation Commission was repeated in the Economic Stabilisation Act of 1948, there have been no appointed members of the Commission since 1950, following a steady trend since 1947 towards loosening the restraints which had been accepted as part of the wartime stabilisation programme. Fuller references to stabilisation measures are contained in the 1960 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

TRADE PRACTICES ACT 1958 - Under the Trade Practices Act 1958 a Trade Practices and Prices Commission was established, its members being the same as those of the Price Tribunal. An Examiner of Trade Practices and Prices was also appointed. The functions of the Commission are to inquire into trade practices for the purpose of ascertaining whether any such practices are contrary to the public interest and to make orders requiring the amendment, discontinuance, or prohibiting the repetition of any such practices which it finds to be contrary to the public interest. There is a right of appeal to the Trade Practices Appeal Authority.

The Act came into force on 3 October 1958, and trading agreements were required to be registered within three months of that date or of the date they subsequently came into existence. The number of agreements which had been registered before the register was closed was 830. The 1961 Amendment Act repealed the obligation to register agreements and the register has been closed and it is no longer available for public inspection.

The Trade Practices and Prices Commission has conducted 20 inquiries. In 16 of these trade practices, which were held by the Commission to be contrary to the public interest, were collective agreements among traders for the pricing of goods or the submitting of tenders for the supply of goods or services, and concerned glazing, wire netting, phonograph records, aerated waters, wire mattresses, male hairdressing, groceries, funerals, electric lamps, imported books, electrical goods, bread at Masterton, New Zealand sea passenger booking agencies, toys, quarry metals in the Waikato district, and building in the Waikato district.

On electric lamps, the Commission did not order discontinuance of the collective pricing arrangements, but ordered the industry to discontinue its preferential discount scheme and to pass the resultant savings on to consumers. The agreement relating to wire mattresses was abandoned voluntarily and an undertaking given to the Commission that it would not be revived. In the other cases the Commission ordered the discontinuance of the collective agreements.

Two cases of unjustifiable refusal to admit firms to membership of wholesalers' associations were heard, but the Commission declined to order that the firms be admitted. In one of these cases, however, the Commission ordered the association to discontinue its efforts to dissuade manufacturers from supplying goods to other than members of the association.

There were two cases of unjustifiable refusal to supply goods. In one of these, the Commission did not make an order, because the wholesale firm gave an undertaking to continue supplying the goods (shotgun ammunition) to the complainant retailer. In the other, the Commission ordered a distributor of drugs to resume supplies to the complainant wholesaler.

An application for a revision of the order relating to groceries was refused by the Commission.

The Trade Practices Appeal Authority has heard appeals against the orders relating to wire netting, hairdressing, grocery prices, books, drugs, and the sea passenger booking agencies, and also is to hear an appeal by the Waikato master builders. The appeal was allowed in respect of two of the four grocers' associations, on the basis of the respective degrees of adherence to list prices, and, in respect of imported books, because of special characteristics of the bookselling trade and the importance of books in the fields of education, technology, and culture. The appeal by the distributor of drugs was also allowed on the ground that the public was not adversely affected by the trade practice. The appeal relating to the sea passenger booking agencies was also allowed on the ground that in fact the agreement did not unreasonably reduce or limit competition or limit the supply of shipping services to intending passengers within the meaning of the Act.

In addition to the termination or amendment of trade practices by order of the Commission an appreciable number of other trade practices have been terminated or amended following upon negotiations conducted by the Examiner with the parties concerned.

CONSUMER COUNCIL - A Consumer Council, whose functions are to protect and promote the interest of consumers of goods and services, was established under section 8 of the Finance Act 1959. The chairman and members of the Council were appointed by the Minister of Industries and Commerce, who also approved the membership of four district consumer committees on a regional basis corresponding with New Zealand's four university districts. The district committees work in close liaison with the parent body, the Consumer Council.

A conference was held in September 1959 to enlist the support of those organisations interested in consumer welfare. Citizens may become associate members of Consumers Institute on payment of a fee of 10s. a year, which entitles them to receive copies of a quarterly magazine, information broadsheets, newsletters, and other assistance from the organisation. By September 1963,45,000 persons had joined Consumers Institute. Those associate members who wish to take a more active part in the work may become members of local consumers' associations which have been formed in many centres.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL - A Monetary and Economic Council was established under the Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961 to report on the extent to which stability in prices and other economic objectives are being achieved. In its first reports the Council dealt with the economic situation and the longer-term problems of slow growth and instability, and it is intended that subsequent reports will deal with more specialised topics.

PRICE STATISTICS - Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail and wholesale prices, direct inquiry is made, export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) being mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Commission. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are given in the following table, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics: the chief use made of the prices collected, however, is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

Retail Prices - New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 21 towns) at 15 November 1963 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers' Price Index are shown hereunder.

ItemUnitPrice
  £s.d.
Milk, fresh, deliveredpint004.64
Butterlb0111.99
Cheese, mildlb020.34
Bread28 oz loaf007.54
Flour25 lb bag066.26
Oatmeal5 lb bag053.66
Ricelb0010.25
Sugar6 lb050.33
Honey1 lb carton023.37
Eggs (in carton)dozen043.02
Tealb0610
Cocoa1/2 lb packet028.25
Coffee, pure ground, looselb082.70
Jam, raspberry28 oz tin058.97
Salt5 lb bag020.63
Baked beans16 oz tin019.05
Tomato sauce10 oz bottle021.73
Tomato soup11 oz tin013.24
Milk powder, full cream2 1/2 lb tin079.48
Aerated water10 oz bottle007.88
Chocolatemedium tablet014.21
Ice creampint block0111.54
Appleslb013.32
Orangeslb013.06
Cabbagelb007.23
Carrotslb009.41
Peaches, canned30 oz tin042.53
Peas, fresh, frozen10 oz packet024
Onionslb007.43
Potatoeslb007.11
Beef-    
  Sirloinlb037.50
  Prime ribslb032.91
  Rump steaklb048.23
  Blade steaklb034.93
  Mincelb0210.13
  Corned silversidelb034.99
Mutton—    
  Leg, shank endlb029.59
  Forequarterlb016.34
  Chops, middle loinlb027.51
Pork—    
  Leglb034.82
  Loin chopslb036.75
Tripelb012.40
Sheep's liverlb030.34
Sheep's tongueeach006.23
Sausages, beeflb0110.49
Ham, cooked, slicedlb081.31
Bacon, sidelb0410.30
Tarakihi, filletslb033.02
Groper (Hapuku), pieceslb036.96
Sole or flounder, guttedlb035.04
Smoked fishlb033.50
Herrings, canned14 oz tin027.39
Men's—    
  Suit, read madeeach22141
  Sports coat, ready madeeach1297
  Overcoat, woollen gabardineeach1492
  Overcoat, oilskineach969
  Trousers, workingpair161
  Trousers, sportspair556
  Shirteach1193
  Shirt, workingeach125
  Singlet, all wooleach1130
  Singlet, cotton, athleticeach0711 1/2
  Pullover, all wooleach1139
  Pyjamas, flannelettepair1114
  Socks, wool and nylonpair 1011 1/2
  Hat, fur felteach2151
  Bathing costume, all wooleach1131
  Handkerchiefeach026
Boys'—    
  Sports Coat, ready madeeach580
  Trousers, shorts, tweedpair1159
  Raincoat, proofed cottoneach515
  Shirt, grey flanneleach1710
  Pullover, all wooleach1198
  1/4 hose, schoolpair01010 1/2
  School capeach0163
Women's—    
  Costume coat and skirt, ready madeeach18141
  Raincoat, woollen gabardineeach1588
  Skirt, worstedeach5188
  Cardigan, all wooleach3184
  Household frock, cotton printeach1151
  Stockings, fully fashioned nylonpair0109
  Underslip, nyloneach2103
  Vest, silk and wooleach0137
  Panties, interlockpair0810
  Nightdress, lockniteach11511
  Nightdress, winceyetteeach1131
  Corseteach475
  Brassiereeach150
Girl's—    
  Gym frock, sergeeach437
  Blazer, all wooleach3136
  Blouse, cotton, long sleeveseach0194 1/2
  Pyjamas, winceyettepair165
  Bloomers, interlockpair062 1/2
  Stockings, stretch nylonpair01211
  Sockettes, stretch nylonpair062 1/2
  Beret, schooleach083 1/2
Infants'—    
  Nursery squaresdoz2911
  Baby wool1 oz0211
Piece goods—    
  Wool-cotton mixtureyard099
  Velour coatingyard1120
  Figure printyard080 1/2
  Opaque nylonyard0122 1/2
  Rayonyard085 1/2
Wool, hand knitting1 oz027 1/2
Drapery—    
  Blankets, singlepair71310
  Sheets, singlepair280
  Towel, turkisheach097
  Tea towel, lineneach054 1/2
Men's—    
  Boots, heavypair477
  Shoes, heavypair390
  Shoes, lightpair508
  Sandshoespair01411
  Slippers, leatherpair254
  Shoe repairspair1011
Boys'—    
  Football bootspair2198
  Shoes, heavypair2162
  Sandalspair1135
  Gumbootspair1140
  Shoe repairspair0164 1/2
Women's—    
  Shoes, heavypair469
  Shoes, lightpair4911
  Slippers, feltpair173
  Shoe repairspair0153 1/2
Girls'—    
  Shoes, schoolpair279
  Shoes, lightpair281
  Shoe repairspair0118 1/2
Infant's shoes, glace kidpair1410
Weekly dwelling renteach dwelling3010
Weekly costs of owner occupancy of dwellings—    
  Rateseach dwelling0120
  Other costseach dwelling31810
Bedstead and rails, 4 ft 6 in.each8185
Tallboy, four-drawereach11711
Mattress, 4 ft 6 in. wireeach693
Mattress, 4 ft 6 in. kapokeach1180
Mattress, 4 ft 6 in. foam rubbereach26170
Pillow, 2 lb kapokeach0161 1/2
Child's coteach8168
Dining table, drawleafeach15179
Dining chaireach476
Sideboard, leadlighteach25199
Kitchen tableeach462
Kitchen chaireach1163
Suite, upholsteredeach60184
Linoleum, inlaidyard1189
Carpet, Axminster, 27 in.yard280
Feltex, marbled, 5 ftyard293
Hammer, carpenter'seach181
Spade, gardeneach11810
Forkeach177
Axe, 4 lbeach204
Broom, hair and fibreeach112
Mop, white cottoneach094 1/2
Scrubbing brusheach0521
Bucket, galvanised, 12 in.each0107
Electric light bulb, 60 watteach019
Pressure cooker, 10 1/4 pinteach71911
Saucepan, aluminium, 8 in.each154
Pie dish, enamel, 11 in.each0710 1/2
Cup and saucer, tea size1/2 doz1711
Plate 10 in.1/2 doz199
Preserving jars, glass, quart sizedoz0168
Knives, table, stainless1/2 doz266
Forks, table, E.P.N.S. A11/2 doz238
Doormat, coireach0129
Soap, laundry2.8 lb bar036 1/2
Soap powderstandard020
 packet   
Detergent1 lb packet0210 1/2
Starch1 lb packet024
Kerosine26 oz bottle014
Boot polishmedium tin015
Household cleaning pastetin026
Toilet paperroll010
Lunch wrap75 ft in022
 container   
Torch battery, dry celleach010
Coal, domestic1/4 ton259
Cokecwt01281
Firewood (pine)bag060 1/2
Electric current (excluding water heating)1st 140 kWh061 1/2
Electric current (including water heating)1st 380 kWh1138
Gas (cooking)1600 cub ft138
Refrigeratoreach99100
Washing machineeach63100
Vacuum cleanereach2676
Radio receiving seteach18010
Electric radiatoreach5196
Electric jugeach340
Electric toastereach407
Electric ironeach41810
Electric razoreach9176
Lawnmower, hand typeeach815
Sewing machineeach5190
Bicycle, men's sports roadstereach2531
Bicycle tyreeach0199
Bicycle tubeeach093
Perambulatoreach20110
Paint, lead, final coatgallon tin358
Wallpaper, Englishroll01311
Tennis racqueteach346
Tennis ballspair063
Meccano seteach273
Teddy beareach2123
Attache case, fibreeach0177 1/2
Watch, wristlet, men'seach8810
Watch, repair feeeach1147
Alarm clockeach1113
Leather satcheleach232
Cinema admissionseat032 1/2
Football admissioneach020
Football subscriptioneach0172
Golf green feeseach052
Library subscriptionper book008
Radio licenceeach1100
Dry cleaning, men's suitper suit0112
Laundering, sheeteach010
Hair cut, meneach040
Hair cut, womeneach050
Hair seteach0100
Permanent waveeach2100
Optician 6131
Dental extractioneach0185
Dental fillingeach01510 1/2
Denturesset2758
Medical (excess over Social Security) Private general hospitalper day1179
Union dues (annual subscription)per member230
Face powder, block typeeach036
Vanishing cream2 oz jar043
Lipstickeach046
Baby talcum powdertin026
Bobby pinscard of 10066
Toothbrusheach023
Toothpastelarge tube029
Toilet soapsmall cake008
Hair creamjar040
Razor bladespacket of 10034
Aspirinpacket of 25019
Antiseptic healing creamtin030
Disinfectantbottle0211
Popular bookeach050
Dictionaryeach070
Writing padeach016
Envelopespacket of 170010
Camera filmeach029
Developing and printing filmper Sim060
Tobacco2 oz047
Cigarettespacket of 10013
Petrolgallon034

International Comparisons - The two tables next following provide comparisons of retail and wholesale prices respectively between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices, which relate generally to the month of September 1963, have been converted into New Zealand currency and the Imperial liquid and dry measure has been adopted as a common unit of quantity basis. In the first table prices shown for the United States of America are exclusive of sales tax.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS

(At September 1963 in New Zealand Currency)

ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 21 Towns)Australia (Sydney)Canada (Dominion Average)Great Britain* (London)South Africa (Cape Town)United States of America (Average 46 Large Cities)

*November 1963.

†1 /4 lb.

‡At price for 3 lb lots.

§Loose.

∥September quarter, 1963.

¶Sirloin.

**Cooking quality.

Sources:
Australia: Commonwealth Statistician.
Canada: Dominion Bureau of Statistics.
Great Britain: New Zealand High Commissioner.
South Africa: Bureau of Census and Statistics.
U.S.A.: Monthly Labor Review.

  s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.s. d.
Bread2 lb7.541 3.602 3.3411.5010.803 1.03
Flour25 lb6 6.4015 1117 2.6212 3.9210 6.4820 3
Tealb6 105 0.248 1.916 57 3.60--
Coffeelb8 2.61§--4 11.367 27 8.404 11.66
Sugarlb10.058.8010.739.25611.54
Milk (fresh)quart9 281 6.401 7.151 71 1.922 2.85
Butterlb2 03 10.323 10.333 6.503 2.165 4.29
Cheeselb2 0.362 11.254 3.662 72 11.285 2.57
Baconlb4 10.445 9.926 7.954 7.504 5.645 2.49
Pruneslb3 4.05--1 103 0.602 10.37 
Canned peaches30 oz tin4 2.342 0.883 4.852 32 4.562 4.46
Beef, rib roastlb3 1.563 3.186 5.563 62 10.085 11.66
Mutton, leglb2 8.731 9.205 0.24--3 2.4052.57
Pork—       
Leglb3 54 5.06--3 83 2.64--
Chopslb3 7.214 3.765 0.325 43 36 7.63
Margarinelb1 8**2 7.481 10.811 92 0.961 11.66

NOTE - Currency conversion basis: Australia, £1 = 16s. (N.Z.); Canada, 1 dollar = 6s. 7d. (N.Z.); Great Britain, £1 = £1 (N.Z.); South Africa, 1 rand = 10s. (N.Z.); United States of America, 1 dollar = 7s. 2d. (N.Z.).

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES

ItemUnitNew Zealand, August 1963*Canada, September 1963Great Britain, September 1963United Slates of America, September 1963

*Priced once each quarter.

†Price excluding tax (including tax the price ranges from 1s. 9.1d. to 2s. 0.17d. according to the State).

Sources:
Canada: Prices and Price Indexes - Dominion Bureau of Statistics.
Great Britain: The Economist - Intelligence Unit. U.S.A.: Survey of Current Business.

  £ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.£ s. d.
Wheatbushel0 13 60 12 6.990 10 10.180 16 10.29
Oatsbushel0 8 00 6 3.020 7 1.000 6 4.07
Flourshort ton12 4 648 0 338 0 939 12 10
Sugarcwt4 1 104 1 54 2 23 19 2
Butterlb0 1 10.500 3 6.910 2 11.890 4 3.69
Cheeselb0 1 7.88--0 2 0.640 3 0.69
Motor spiritsgallon0 2 11.75--0 4 10 0 11.83

RETAIL PRICES INDEX NUMBERS - An historical survey of retail prices in New Zealand will be found on pages 1007-1016 of the 1947-49 Yearbook, including an account of the various series of official index numbers of retail prices in New Zealand which had been current up to 1949, while pages 998-1003 of the same volume provide a brief description of the original Consumers' Price Index initiated in that year. For fuller details, however, reference should be made to the Special Supplement to the October-November 1949 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics entitled "Retail Prices in New Zealand with Special Reference to the Consumers' Price index". This index was completely revised in 1955-56 and a full description of the revision was published as a special supplement to the November 1956 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title "Consumers' Price Index, 1955 Revision". Extracts from that publication were also reprinted as an appendix to the 1957 Yearbook (pages 1214-37). For the complete regimen however (i.e., the schedule of items included along with comparative weights) as well as for a continuation up to 1955 of the historical survey of retail prices, direct reference should be made to the 1956 special supplement.

Consumers' Price Index - A brief summary of the salient features of the index is as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates primarily to urban dwellers living as families.

  3. About 85 per cent of personal expenditure is covered.

  4. The number of items regularly priced is 375.

  5. The base is: 1952-53 consumption costed at 1955 prices.

  6. Sources of group and commodity weights were (1) the Census of Distribution 1952-53; (2) an analysis of household budgets collected privately in 1952-53; and (3) an extension of regularly compiled statistics of consumable goods. Where considered desirable the base weight assigned to selected items is broadened to allow for expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  7. Prices are collected by field officers in 23 towns, including two combined areas.

  8. A scientific sample of rented houses and flats has been selected.

  9. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits, vegetables and eggs, and for transport charges.

  10. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its subgroups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and subgroups at quarterly intervals.

  11. Individual town index numbers are published for 21 towns, showing each town both on a common base and on its own base.

  12. To provide a continuous series the prerevision all-groups index has been converted to a 1955 base.

Costs of the following items are, for various reasons, outside the scope of the index: hotel accommodation, licensed and private; long-distance rail and bus transport; all sea and air transport; legal fees, commissions on sales, etc.; gambling; church and charitable donations; private and boarding school fees; music, elocution, dancing, etc., tuition fees; instalment credit interest and similar financial charges; personal accident insurance; funeral directors' charges; photographers' charges; wages of domestic servants, jobbing gardeners, etc.; fees to chiropractors, herbalists, chiropodists, etc.; sundry licences (marriage, dog, etc.); direct taxation; savings, including amortisations of capital debts, investments, and life insurance; spirits and wine; jewellery and florists' goods; durable goods other than replacements; private holiday transport; cost of removal to another locality.

In general the index assumes a constant pattern of expenditure for all towns, whether large cities or provincial centres, whether with warm or cool climates, etc. In transportation, however, the index compromises by setting up a constant base expenditure on transport for all towns but allowing a varying dissection between the various modes of transport from town to town, according to local circumstances. Consequently there are no true "each on all" indices for transportation, but "each on each" indices can be used to produce "all on all" indices. ("Each on all" means an index for an individual town which uses as base the average for all towns, etc.)

Long-term Linked Series - The table immediately following provides a long-term linked series of retail price (all groups) index numbers combining the present Consumers' Price Index with its predecessors back to 1907, the whole being placed on a uniform base, i.e., the calendar year 1955.

RETAIL PRICES INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)

LONG-TERM LINKED SERIES

Base: Calendar year 1955 (= 1000)

YearIndex NumberYearIndex Number
19073081922503
19083091923507
19093051924520
19103081925530
19113061926533
19123151927529
19133221928531
19143321929530
19153571930518
19163821931479
19174151932443
19184491933420
19194821934427
19205381935442
19215461936456
19374881952892
19385021953933
19395231954976
194054719551000
194156719561035
194258619571057
194359919581104
194461019591146
194561819601154
194662319611175
194764319621206
194869419631230
1949706  
1950745  
1951828  

The following diagram shows the movement in retail prices index numbers over the period 1907-63, the data being drawn from the figures given in the preceding table (long-term linked series) and the quarterly table following.

RETAIL PRICES INDEX NUMBERS EQUATED TO BASE - CALENDAR YEAR 1955 (=1000)

Consumers' Price Index Numbers - The tables which now follow relate to the current Consumers' Price Index only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 21 towns combined in respect of the calendar years 1956-63 and for each of the four quarters of the years 1957-63. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX - QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS) TWENTY-ONE TOWNS COMBINED

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)

 FoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—       
  Percentages of base expenditure32.2615.4010.6015.438.7617.55100.00
Calendar year—       
  19551000100010001000100010001000
  1956105710551013999101610301035
  19571054111810381005107610551057
  19581071117910741022116011601104
  19591077123610941041124012731146
  19601092128611071063121312321154
  19611102134411181086121612521175
  19621109143611441106124012941206
  19631130149711541115126313121230
Quarter ended—       
  1957—31 March102510981033998106910471041
  30 June1057111210351001107710561056
  30 September1066112410381009107610581063
  31 December1069113810441011108310611068
  1958—31 March1057115510491012109510631069
  30 June1069116910741019111410651080
  30 September1072118910861025120612641130
  31 December1085120310881031122612501137
  1959—31 March1075122010901030123412631139
  30 June1070123110901038123912741142
  30 September1078124110971045124413041154
  31 December1086125111011050124412501150
  1960—31 March1071126611081056122312371145
  30 June1068128111071061122312391147
  30 September1102129211051064120512261157
  31 December1128130411071069120212281168
  1961—31 March1098131811091074120412351163
  30 June1082132811131086121612391163
  30 September1111134311191090122212651181
  31 December1118138811291095122512691193
  1962—31 March1108140911351097122612851197
  30 June1099142711431105123812881201
  30 September1110144311451110124713001210
  31 December1118146611501112124913011218
  1963—31 March1110148211551112125213071219
  30 June1117149211521114125313081224
  30 September1134150011531116127313141233
  31 December1158151511591117127413161245

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX - QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)

 FoodHousingHousehold Operation
Meat and FishFruits, Vegetables, and EggsOther FoodsRentHome OwnershipFuel and LightHome FurnishingsDomestic Supplies and Services
Subgroups—        
  Percentages of base expenditure8.248.0315.994.6610.743.204.702.70
Calendar year—        
  195510001000100010001000100010001000
  19569951231100210481058101510101016
  195710541105102910981126104210221059
  195811521067103011431195110410551073
  195911711073103111971253112910731091
  196011761109104112321309112810881114
  196111811126105013001363113311031125
  196211831137105615041407117711171150
  196312371109108515961454119711191166
Quarter ended—        
  1957—        
  31 March9921091101010891101103910151056
  30 June10281141102910971118104310161057
  30 September10801098104211031133104310231059
  31 December11151088103511031153104410331065
  1958—        
  31 March11011066102911161172104410421067
  30 June11511061103011251187110810521071
  30 September11731047103211621202113210601076
  31 December11831094103011671218113310641079
  1959—        
  31 March11811059102911861235113410661079
  30 June11601058102911961247113310661083
  30 September11631083103112021258112810771093
  31 December11811091103412031272112010831109
  1960—        
  31 March11671042103712141289113310881113
  30 June11441045104012301303113010891114
  30 September11751149104112421314112410861114
  31 December12201201104412421331112410911114
  1961—-        
  31 March11851112104712501347112910901118
  30 June11651063105012591357113010991118
  30 September11711167105112841368113111101121
  31 December12051161105214061381114411121143
  1962—        
  31 March11821141105414481392115511181141
  30 June11801102105614881401117911171147
  30 September11801143105715211410118411151152
  31 December11901163105915601426118911181161
  1963—        
  31 March12021108106415811439119511231162
  30 June12051094108415911448119611161161
  30 September12461103109115991457119411161167
  31 December12961132110016111473120211201174

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX - QUARTERLY INDEX NUMBERS (ALL GROUPS)

 ApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—        
  Percentages of base expenditure13.062.372.486.288.534.904.12100.00
Calendar year        
  195510001000100010001000100010001000
  19569921039100710201010103510661035
  19579921078112210581014106411311057
  195810051115114011681196108311801104
  195910181164117512661396110612161146
  196010301242120312171285113012451154
  196110511282121812161272115313281175
  196210661327123412421281117714591206
  196310731346125112681287121914711230
Quarter ended—        
  1957—-        
  31 March9881054111310521013105111101041
  30 June9881076111310631014106411321056
  30 September9951090112210581014107011361063
  31 December9961092114010601014107111471068
  1958—        
  31 March9961099114010771014107711471069
  30 June10031108114011031014107911541080
  30 September10071123114012321394108512081130
  31 December10131130114212591361108912121137
  1959—        
  31 March10121129114312701384109312151139
  30 June10191141117112661406110612021142
  30 September10191183118612671458111012141154
  31 December10231203119912611335111612351150
  1960—        
  31 March10271215120112311298112312451145
  30 June10281243120112311298113012451147
  30 September10301251120612051272113012461157
  31 December10341260120412011272113812451168
  1961—        
  31 March10391266120412031272114112711163
  30 June10521276121112171271115412711163
  30 September10541287122412211272115713801181
  31 December10581300123412221273116113881193
  1962—        
  31 March10581310123412221273116314561197
  30 June10661320123412391276116514591201
  30 September10691338123412521286118814611210
  31 December10701340123412551287119114601218
  1963—        
  31 March10701344123612581287120814661219
  30 June10731344125412521287121214661224
  30 September10741348125612801287122214801233
  31 December10751349125912801287123514731245

In the table which follows, monthly figures for the food group are shown for all index towns combined.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS (FOOD), TWENTY-ONE TOWNS COMBINED

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, 1955 (= 1000)

PeriodMeat and FishFruits, Vegetables, and EggsOther FoodsAll Food
Calendar year—    
  19551000100010001000
Month—    
  1962 - January1182117210531116
  February1179113310531105
  March1184111710551103
  April1183110010551099
  May1179110410561100
  June1176110310571099
  July1176113410561106
  August1181114910561111
  September1185114710571112
  October1187112510591108
  November1192119310591126
  December1189117210591120
  1963 - January1190114510611115
  February1207109110641107
  March1208108810661108
  April1206108610731110
  May1204110610801118
  June1205109010991124
  July1219106210881115
  August1245110610911134
  September1274114210941152
  October1300114110981160
  November1296113711011160
  December1291111811011154

The following tables distinguish individual towns and groupings of towns, but the subgroup indices are omitted; the periods covered are the calendar years 1955, 1962, and 1963 and the separate quarters of 1963. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first place current prices in each town are compared with prices in the same town during the base period; in the second, current prices in each town are compared with average prices over all the 21 towns in the base period. Where the base is the individual town, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective towns, not relative current price levels.

In the second method, where the base is average prices over the 21 towns, 0horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one town or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one town than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all towns, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL TOWNS AND GROUPINGS OF TOWNS

Base: Weighted average each town, and grouping, separately, 1955 (= 1000)

TownFoodHousing
Annual 1995Annual 1962First Quarter 1963Second Quarter 1963Third Quarter 1963Fourth Quarter 1963Annual 1963Annual 1955Annual 1962First Quarter 1963Second Quarter 1963Third Quarter 1963Fourth Quarter 1963Annual 1963
Auckland10001119112711361152117211471000145415121521152715461527
Wellington-Hutt10001105109811091132114711221000145214901508152215351514
Christchurch10001123112111281140117111401000143114611470148214941477
Dunedin10001108111811271156120011501000136614061411141114251413
  Four chief centres10001115111811261145116911401000143914851495150415191501
Hamilton10001072106910801095110610881000155615961625163016431624
Gisborne10001091107610931109112211001000147314861493150615021497
Napier-Hastings10001098108611041121114811151000140114401461146614821462
New Plymouth10001111111111181124113911231000143614741472147214761474
Wanganui10001098109210921109112411041000142515091516152115091514
Palmerston North10001084108210901104112511001000139514581463147715001475
Nelson10001110110311051103114111131000138614171444147414811454
Timaru10001104111111131122116711281000149015311555155816111564
Invercargill10001113113811221137119411481000135713901339134213531356
  Nine provincial towns10001095109411001113113811111000143814831491149815111496
Whangarei10001109111711091110112411151000142214681496151715261502
Tauranga10001115110911011109114011151000147314911512151915321514
Rotorua10001105111111171112113211181000138714661479148115111484
Masterton10001093107710921112113411041000138714351442144914611447
Blenheim10001117110611171131114711251000146814971504151415181508
Greymouth10001102109510961129116211211000136713891386138413971389
Ashburton10001110110511181122116811281000143615181520153015461529
Oamaru10001112111311241130116611331000140114671473147314921476
  Eight other towns10001107110411071118114411181000141214591470147614911474
  Twenty-one towns combined10001109111011171134115811301000143614821492150015151497
TownHousehold OperationApparel
Annual 1995Annual 1962First Quarter 1963Second Quarter 1963Third Quarter 1963Fourth Quarter 1963Annual 1963Annual 1955Annual 1962First Quarter 1963Second Quarter 1963Third Quarter 1963Fourth Quarter 1963Annual 1963
Auckland10001136114511401141114611431000107710811087108710891086
Wellington-Hutt10001156117411741171117111731000112211311132113211291131
Christchurch10001158117111681170117811721000112611301132113811,4211136
Dunedin1000118812021201120012281201000112111261127113211271128
  Four chief centres10001151116411611161116811641000110211081111111311141112
Hamilton10001131113811401139114011391000112311281129112611291128
Gisborne10001105110811021102109811031000113911511146114211421145
Napier-Hastings10001148116111581168117011641000110211141112112111161116
New Plymouth1000113511441132113211311371000111211191117111911191119
Wanganui10001112112311221126112711251000114111461145115111561150
Palmerston North10001126112311201124112811241000111711111110110511061108
Nelson1000109911071103110511151108100011161120112111311351127
Timaru1000116711841179120412261198100010891103111111111131111
Invercargill100011321151115211501155115210001091109897110411101102
  Nine provincial towns100011311139113611411145114010001114112011112211231121
Whangarei10001123113011321132113111311000108110861093109410951092
Tauranga10001106111211071107111011091000108910981096109811021099
Rotorua10001138115911511134113911461000116912011184118911991193
Masterton10001134115411531159116111571000110811141119112011221119
Blenheim10001116112511141108111411151000107010761079108710881083
Greymouth10001144115311491146115211501000108611001105113111361118
Ashburton10001119113011261126113311291000110011101115111911251117
Oamaru10001134113511331137113811361000113311401141113811401140
  Eight other towns10001129114011361133113711371000110611181118112511291123
  Twenty-one towns combined10001144115511521153115911541000110611121114111611171115

Base: Weighted average each town, and grouping, separately, 1955 (= 1000)

TownTransportationMiscellaneous
Annual 1995Annual 1962First Quarter 1963Second Quarter 1963Third Quarter 1963Fourth Quarter 1963Annual 1963Annual 1955Annual 1962First Quarter 1963Second Quarter 1963Third Quarter 1963Fourth Quarter 1963Annual 1963
Auckland10001255126512661282128412741000128713031304131513171311
Wellington-Hutt10001267127712731290129112831000129613101311131113141312
Christchurch10001210122312341255125512421000129513031305130613081306
Dunedin10001251126212791296129712841000129313091309132113241316
  Four chief centres10001249125912631280128112711000129213051306131313151310
Hamilton10001230124512401263125712511000129013071309132013211314
Gisborne10001218123112261250125012391000129013051306130613091307
Napier-Hastings10001213123412291265127012501000130013151315131613181316
New Plymouth10001225123812391262126212501000129913141315131613191316
Wanganui10001226123912341257125812471000130013151315131613181316
Palmerston North10001234124812431267126712561000129913151315131613181316
Nelson10001230124412401262126312521000129913081310131013121310
Timaru10001233124712421263125912531000129813081310131213141311
Invercargill10001225123812331257125912471000129413091308132113241316
  Nine provincial towns10001226124112361262126212501000129713111312131613181314
Whangarei10001230124412391271127112561000129613121313132413261319
Tauranga10001231125712511277127812661000129313071308132013211314
Rotorua10001202121512111232123312231000129713121313132513261319
Masterton10001226124012451271127112571000130013151315131613181316
Blenheim10001209122312181242125712351000130313121314131513171315
Greymouth10001199121112071228125112241000129613031305130613081306
Ashburton10001236125212461273127412611000129913081310131113131311
Oamaru