THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1955

THIS is the sixtieth issue of the New Zealand Official Year-Book. In addition to the normal scrutiny and revision of material contained in each section certain new features have been added. A special article on the tourist attractions of New Zealand has been prepared by the Tourist and Publicity Department and published in Appendix (d) of this issue, while a new and greatly improved map of New Zealand has been substituted for the earlier somewhat inadequate one. A section on history, constitution, and administration replaces the previously brief references to constitutional matters, while several other sections, namely, External Trade, Building and Construction, Production, Distribution, and Industry Sector Accounts, have been substantially revised.

My sincere thanks are due to all who assisted in the preparation and printing of the Year-Book.

G. E. WOOD,
Government Statistician.

Census and Statistics Department,
6 July 1955.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS DEPARTMENT

(Obtainable from the Government Printer, Publications Branch, Wellington)

Title	Latest No.	Date of Issue	Price Per Copy (Post Free)
* £2 10s. per annum (post free). † Cyclostyled copies showing numbers with overseas War Service, enumerated in each county, borough, and town district at the 1951 Census, are available on application (no charge) from the Department. ‡ 1954 Reports being prepared for printing. NOTE.—This list is subject to revision from time to time.
			s.	d.
New Zealand Official Year-Book	1955	October 1955	15	0
Pocket Digest of New Zealand Statistics	1954	April 1955	3	6
Annual Statistical Reports:
Population, Migration, and Buildings Statistics	1953–54	May 1955	7	6
Vital Statistics	1953^‡	October 1954	7	0
Justice Statistics	1953	June 1955	7	6
Shipping and other Transport Statistics	1954	In the Press	..
External Trade Statistics, Report on and Analysis of	1953	July 1955	7	6
Farm Production Statistics	1953–54	July 1955	9	6
Industrial Production Statistics	1953–54	In the Press	..
Insurance Statistics	1953	June 1955	5	6
Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics	1953^‡	March 1955	10	6
Industrial Accidents Statistics	1953	August 1955	7	6
Income and Income Tax Statistics for the Income Year	1951–52	April 1955	8	6
National Income and Sector Accounts	1938–39 to 1954–55	In the Press	..
Balance of Payments	1950–51 to 1953–54	October 1954	4	6
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand	1952–53	May 1955	15	0
Monthly Abstract of Statistics^*			5	0
Supplements:
Retail Trading Statistics (Quarterly Issue)	June Quarter	August 1955	..
Population Projections:
New Zealand (Inch Maori) (December Abstract)	..	December 1953	..
Non-Maori (October Abstract)	..	November 1953	..
Industrial Production Statistics (March Abstract)	1953–54	April 1955	..
Special Supplements:
New Zealand Life Tables (non-Maori) (July Abstract)	1950–52	August 1953	1	6
New Zealand Life Tables (Maori) (November Abstract)	1950–52	December 1953	1	6
Retail Prices in New Zealand (October-November) Abstract	..	December 1949	2	0
Census of Distribution, 1953	1953	April 1954	6	0
Maps of Urban Areas, 1951	1951	January 1953	20	0
Census of Public Libraries, 1954	1954	June 1955	4	6
Volumes of 1951 Census Results:
Vol. I. Increase and Location of Population	1951	April 1953	7	6
Vol. II. Ages and Marital Status	1951	January 1954	10	6
Vol. III. Religious Professions (Including Summaries for Dependent Children, Race, and War Service)	1951	November 1953	5	0
Vol. IV. Industries, Occupations, and Incomes	1951	September 1954	12	6
Vol. V. Birthplaces and Duration of Residence of Overseas-Born	1951	December 1954	5	0
Vol. VI. Maori Census	1951	January 1955	6	6
Vol. VII. Dwellings and Households	1951	August 1954	6	0
Appendix A. Census of Poultry	1951	February 1953	2	6
Appendix B. Life Tables 1950–52 and Values of Annuities	1951	December 1956	5	6
War Service^†	1951	November 1953.	..

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

FOR some of the statistical series included in this issue of the Year-Book later information is available than is included in the body of the book. This later information is given in the following paragraphs, with references to the appropriate portion of the Year-Book containing more detailed information for earlier periods.

POPULATION

Inter-censal Population (p. 33).—Recent population changes are given in the following table.

POPULATION AT END OF YEAR

Year Ended	Males	Females	Total	Mean Population for Year
Total Population (Including Maoris)
30 June 1954	1,052,201	1,040,578	2,092,779	2,073,319
30 September 1954	1,057,151	1,045,381	2,102,532	2,084,223
31 December 1954	1,065,490	1,052,944	2,118,434	2,094,910
31 March 1955	1,072,090	1,058,837	2,130,927	2,105,767
Maori Population
30 June 1954	65,671	62,753	128,424	126,240
30 September 1954	66,243	63,295	129,538	127,327
31 December 1954	66,946	63,860	130,806	128,456
31 March 1955	67,560	64,405	131,965	129,611

The above figures are exclusive of the population of the Cook Islands, 15,657 (at 31 March 1954); Niue Island, 4,734 (at 31 March 1955); Tokelau Islands, 1,796 (at 31 March 1955), and Western Samoa, 94,128 (at 31 December 1954).

Natural Increase.—Owing to the uniformly high levels in births in the last few years and the relative stability in the number of deaths, population gains from natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—have been particularly marked in recent years, the excess of births over deaths in 1954 at 35,255 constituting a record.

Migration (pp. 34–36).—The total number of arrivals in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1955 was 136,294, while the total number of departures in the same year was 128,918. Excluding crews and through passengers, arrivals totalled 61,610 and departures 54,580, making the net excess of arrivals 7,030, as compared with 15,441 in 1953–54. A classification of total arrivals and departures gives the following results.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1954	1955
Migration: Arrivals
Immigrants intending permanent residence	24,896	19,453
New Zealand residents returning	17,443	20,211
Visitors—
Tourists	13,858	15,827
Others	5,648	6,119
Through passengers	7,448	11,005
Crews	55,803	63,679
Total arrivals	125,096	136,294

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1954	1955
Migration: Departures
New Zealand residents departing—
Permanently	7,048	9,012
Temporarily	18,277	21,965
Temporary residents departing	21,079	23,603
Through passengers	7,448	11,005
Crews	56,197	63,333
Total departures	110,049	128,918

Until 1953–54 recent statistics of the numbers of immigrants intending permanent residence had shown considerable increases, arrivals under this heading being 18,234 in 1950–51; 24,922 in 1951–52; and 29,005 in 1952–53. This upward trend was not only halted in 1953–54 but in fact a decrease of 4,109 was shown, the number totalling 24,896. A further decrease of 5,443 was shown in 1954–55 when immigrants intending permanent residence totalled 19,453.

The resumption of assisted passages for certain classes of immigrants is reflected in the statistics. The following were the numbers arriving under this heading over the past five years: 1950–51, 2,928; 1951–52,4,949; 1952–53,7,581; 1953–54,6,299; 1954–55,4,332.

The numbers of assisted migrants, which had been steadily rising over the last few years, showed a substantial drop during 1953–54; unassisted migration fell 13.2 per cent, as against a decrease of 16.9 per cent in assisted migrants. This trend continued in 1954–55, when unassisted immigrants fell 18.7 per cent and assisted immigrants 31.2 per cent compared with the previous year.

VITAL STATISTICS

Vital statistics for the calendar years 1953 and 1954 are shown, in summary form, in the following table. Statistics in more detail for 1953 and earlier years are given on pages 56–108.

—	1953		1954
—	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
* Infant mortality rates per 1,000 live births.
Births—
Europeans	46,414	24.12	48,431	24.63
Maoris	5,529	44.54	5,700	44.37
Total population	51,943	25.35	54,131	25.84
Deaths—
Europeans	17,009	8.84	17,667	8.98
Maoris	1,345	10.84	1,209	9.41
Total population	18,354	8.96	18,876	9.01
Marriages (total)	17,224	8.41	17,557	8.38
Infant deaths under one year—
Europeans	931	20.06^*	968	19.99^*
Maoris	404	73.07^*	334	58.60^*
Totals	1,335	25.70^*	1,302	24.05^*

Births.—The total number of births registered in 1954 (54,131) is the highest recorded in the history of New Zealand, exceeding the previous high total in 1953 by 2,188. The birth-rate, however, is still below the high figure of 27.70 recorded in 1947.

PRODUCTION

Farm Production

Estimated Areas and Yields of Principal Crops, 1955 Season.—Estimates of areas sown under wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes were collected in the spring of 1954 by inquiry from growers of these crops, and from these estimates, together with reports from Field Officers of the Department of Agriculture at the end of January 1955, total yields of wheat, oats, and barley are estimated. In compiling these estimates of yields due allowance is made for areas not threshed (fed off, etc.). Following are the estimates for 1954–55, together with the final figures for the preceding season 1953–54. (Refer pp. 472–488.)

—	1953–54 (Final Figures)		1954–55 (Estimated)
—	Area (For All Purposes)	Yield (From Area Threshed)	Area (For All Purposes)	Yield (From Area Estimated to be Threshed)
* Not available.
	(Acres)	(Bushels)	(Acres)	(Bushels)
Wheat	115,875	4,783,227	100,000	4,000,000
Oats	75,681	945,386	100,000	1,500,000
Barley	75,094	3,335,399	52,000	2,000,000
Peas for threshing	30,889	953,749	26,000	^*
		(Tons)		(Tons)
Potatoes	21,651	155,942	21,000	^*

These figures relate only to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. In addition, in the case of potatoes, a fairly considerable amount in the aggregate is grown on smaller holdings and on holdings within borough boundaries.

Livestock Figures.—See page xxxviii.

Timber Production

Timber Production (pp. 520–523).—Provisional figures issued by the New Zealand Forest Service indicate a continued high level of timber production for the year ended 31 March 1955, the output of rough-sawn timber being given as 616,000,000 board feet, an increase of 43.8 million board feet above the output of the previous year. The output of the principal species was as follows: rimu and miro, 211,000,000 board feet; matai, 37,700,000 board feet; kahikatea, 19,000,000 board feet; beech, 18,700,000 board feet; totara, 14,700,000 board feet; tawa, 16,500,000 board feet; and exotic pines, 281,500,000 board feet. Indigenous species totalled 323,600,000 board feet, and exotics, 292,400,000 board feet.

Mines and Mineral Production

Mines and Mineral Production (p. 543).—The following quantities were produced during the calendar year 1954: Coal, 2,594,300 tons; gold, 41,713 ozs.; silver, 33,049 ozs.; manganese ores, 239 tons; iron ores, 2,916 tons; tungsten ores, 28 tons; magnesite, 720 tons; evaporated salt, 1,500 tons; and petroleum, 239,800 gallons.

Factory Production Statistics, 1953–54

Totals for the year 1953–54 show a recovery from the decline recorded in 1952–53. The volume of production index for each industry group has risen, the index for all industries being 6.1 per cent greater than that of the previous year. The greatest rises in the volume of production occurred in the following groups: Paper and pulp products; textiles; electrical machinery and appliances; rubber products; chemicals and chemical products.

The amount of overtime worked increased in this year by 56 per cent, this being distributed over thirteen of the twenty groups, the number of persons engaged being some 3,200 greater than in 1952–53. Salaries and wages rose by 10.3 per cent as compared with the previous year, and added value increased by 11.9 per cent.

Capital expenditure during 1953–54 was approximately £19.2 million, compared with £18.1 million and £14.8 million in 1952–53 and 1951–52 respectively.

One final point of some note is the rise recorded in the manufacturers' surplus—from £31.3 million in 1952–53 to £35.5 million in the latest year. Expressed as a proportion of added value, manufacturers' surplus accounted for 21.9 per cent in 1953–54 as against 21.5 per cent the previous year.

This series of factory production statistics compiled by the Census and Statistics Department covers 77 per cent of the labour force engaged in manufacturing activity. Actually the proportion of factory production covered by the survey would be greater, in that all establishments of any considerable size are included.

The year covered by these statistics is in general that ending 31 March 1954, although concerns are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial years most closely corresponding to that period. In the case of dairy factories and meat-freezing works the years correspond to the respective seasons ending June and September 1954.

Summary (p. 564).—Following are the principal statistics of factory production for 1953–54, with comparable figures for the two previous years.

General Summary		1951–52	1952–53	1953–54
Number of establishments		8,547	8,512	8,377
Persons engaged	No.	144,370	143,180	146,426
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	75,038,793	78,490,492	86,579,123
Materials	£	290,682,891	318,945,336	332,858,177
Other expenses	£	32,027,622	35,359,704	40,392,917
Totals	£	397,749,306	432,795,532	459,830,217
Value of output	£	431,038,354	464,064,555	495,376,770
Manufacturers' surplus	£	33,289,048	31,269,023	35,746,553
Value added in manufacture	£	140,355,463	145,119,219	162,518,593
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	16,549,553	15,489,705	16,363,370
Volume index for industry: Base 1949–50 (= 1000)		1119	1116	1184
Premises and plant—
Value at end of year—
Land and buildings	£	56,982,657	63,278,850	69,895,860
Plant and machinery	£	40,797,235	45,828,724	53,255,370
Capital expenditure during year—
Land and buildings	£	5,370,345	6,775,499	7,047,437
Plant and machinery	£	9,426,892	11,301,031	12,132,769
Coal consumption as fuel	Ton	860,536	855,796	864,521

Principal Statistics 1953–54 (p. 586).—The following table gives the number of persons engaged, production costs, value of output, and added value for the year 1953–54, classified according to industry groups.

Industry Group	Number of Persons Engaged	Production Costs				Value of Output	Added Value
Industry Group	Number of Persons Engaged	Salaries and Wages	Materials	Other Expenses	Total	Value of Output	Added Value
		£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Food	26,154	17,752	170,923	10,215	198,890	206,387	35,463
Beverages	2,223	1,479	4,533	1,322	7,334	8,807	4,273
Tobacco manufactures	1,283	606	4,556	393	5,554	6,439	1,883
Textiles	8,187	4,412	19,517	2,190	26,119	27,478	7,961
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	24,806	10,616	21,179	2,388	34,183	36,173	14,994
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	12,157	7,691	15,882	3,832	27,405	30,601	14,719
Furniture and fittings	5,059	2,889	4,156	647	7,692	8,499	4,343
Paper and paper products	3,148	1,784	5,951	1,813	9,548	10,812	4,861
Printing, publishing, etc.	8,635	5,373	5,764	2,177	13,314	15,888	10,124
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	1,656	940	3,159	305	4,404	4,664	1,505
Rubber products	2,267	1,517	3,435	1,059	6,011	7,114	3,678
Chemicals and chemical products	4,615	2,810	14,232	2,118	19,159	21,767	7,536
Petroleum and coal products	258	179	1,069	131	1,379	1,541	472
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	5,856	3,787	4,950	3,347	12,084	13,600	8,651
Basic metal manufactures	752	505	1,314	246	2,065	2,288	974
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	6,562	4,300	7,810	1,457	13,566	15,302	7,492
Machinery (except electrical)	8,331	5,334	12,670	1,780	19,783	21,998	9,329
Electrical machinery and appliances	4,251	2,441	5,204	948	8,593	9,461	4,257
Transport equipment	17,575	10,814	24,454	3,511	38,778	42,133	17,679
Miscellaneous products	2,651	1,352	2,101	514	3,967	4,426	2,325
Totals, all groups	146,426	86,579	332,858	40,393	459,830	495,377	162,519

Volume of Industrial Production (pp. 583–584).—The following analysis shows the variations in the volume of industrial production in the several industrial groups. The series is based on the volume of production in 1949–50.

GROUP INDICES: BASE 1949–50 (= 1000)

Industry Group	1951–52 Index	1952–53 Index	1953–54
Industry Group	1951–52 Index	1952–53 Index	Index	Increase Over 1952–53
				Per Cent
Food	1028	1035	1063	2.71
Beverages	1106	1145	1182	3.20
Tobacco manufactures	1114	1127	1174	4.17
Textiles	1041	994	1185	19.20
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	1125	1011	1055	4.38
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	1184	1182	1196	1.15
Paper and paper products	1284	1301	1599	22.87
Printing, publishing, etc.	1061	1124	1174	4.40
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	1027	967	981	1.42
Rubber products	1803	1326	1439	8.49
Chemicals and chemical products	1169	1149	1238	7.83
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	1048	1117	1155	3.39
Electrical machinery and appliances	1122	1128	1286	14.03
Furniture and fittings } Petroleum and coal products } Basic metal manufactures } Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment) } Machinery (except electrical) } Transport equipment } Miscellaneous products }	1160	1200	1281	6.71
Totals, all groups	1119	1116	1184	610

BUILDING ACTIVITY (pp. 613–620)

Building Permits in Urban and Rural Districts Combined.—The following table gives a summary for New Zealand of building permits (including State building operations) for the years ended 31 March 1954 and 1955.

—	1953–54			1954–55
—	New Dwellings: Number	New Dwellings: Value	Total, All Buildings: Value	New Dwellings: Number	New Dwellings: Value	Total. All Buildings: Value
		£	£		£	£
Urban districts	12,596	31,524,239	53,972,845	15,443	40,241,573	74,590,286
Rural districts	4,861	10,212,042	15,527,020	5,420	12,525,269	18,814,951
Totals, New Zealand	17,457	41,736,281	69,499,865	20,863	52,766,842	93,405,237

Building Permits Issued: Urban Districts.—Urban districts include all cities, boroughs, town districts, and the road district of Panmure Township, together with the counties of Waitemata, Manukau. Makara, Hutt, Paparua, Waimairi, Heathcote, Peninsula, and Taieri.

Year Ended 31 March	New Dwellings		Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Value	Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
		£	£	£
1953	11,700	28,045,241	19,134,629	47,179,870
1954	12,596	31,524,239	22,448,606	53,972,845
1955	15,443	40,241,573	34,348,713	74,590,286

Building Permits Issued: Rural Districts.—Rural districts include the remaining counties of New Zealand and islands outside county boundaries.

Year Ended 31 March	New Dwellings		Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Value	Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
		£	£	£
1953	4,517	9,232,993	4,715,131	13,948,124
1954	4,861	10,212,042	5,314,978	15,527,020
1955	5,420	12,525,269	6,289,682	18,814,951

Dwelling Units Completed.—Local authorities supplying building permit figures were also requested to supply the number of dwelling units which were completed during the year. Estimates have been made in some cases where it was not possible to supply actual figures. While absolute accuracy for these statistics cannot be claimed, it is believed they will give reasonably approximate results, and also reasonably accurate comparisons of year to year changes.

The total figures on this basis for new dwelling units completed during 1954–55 were 18,500, compared with 16,600 in 1953–54 and 16,100 in 1952–53. Those completed in urban districts numbered 13,900 in 1954–55, 12,200 in 1953–54, and 11,900 in 1952–53.

EXTERNAL TRADE

Statistics of external trade in the calendar year 1954, in continuation of the statistics included in pages 265–321 of this Year-Book, are given below.

Total Commodity Trade.—Following are statistics of exports and imports in 1952, 1953, and 1954.

Calendar Year	Exports		Imports (c.d.v.)	Exports Over Imports
Calendar Year	New Zealand Produce	Total Experts	Imports (c.d.v.)	Exports Over Imports
* The corresponding c.i.f. values were £276,215,000 in 1952, £192,180,000 in 1953, and £245,380,000 in 1954.
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1952	238,419	240,561	229,447^*	11,114
1953	233,474	235,860	163,613^*	72,247
1954	242,330	244,432	213,275^*	31,157

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF TRADE

Calendar Year	Exports		Imports
Calendar Year	Value Index	Volume Index	Value Index	Volume Index
1936–38 (average)	100	100	100	100
1952	397	143	486	176
1953	389	129	346	133
1954	403	128	452	175

The total trade per head of mean population in 1954 was £218 (exports £116 and imports £102).

Exports.—New Zealand's export commodity trade in 1954 was valued at £244.4 millions, an increase of 3.6 per cent over the previous year. An indication of the movement in the value of exports in the main groups of commodities is afforded by the following table.

VALUE OF EXPORTS

Calendar Year	Butter	Cheese	Frozen Meat	Wool	Hides, Pelts, and Skins
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1952	55,929	15,769	40,475	81,998	9,949
1953	51,385	18,373	39,887	84,598	10,721
1954	44,807	16,381	51,866	88,437	10,449

Apart from the question of values, a special interest attaches to progress in the volume of our export trade in major export commodities. In the following table the fluctuations in the quantities of exports of butter, cheese, meat, and wool since 1944 are shown.

Calendar Year	Butter	Cheese	Frozen Meat	Wool
* Record.
	Tons (000)	Tons (000)	Tons (000)	Tons (000)
1944	115.3	77.7	207.8	84.2
1945	103.5	87.4	282.7	74.2
1946	101.8	75.7	337.7	163.1
1947	127.6	87.0	347.8	167.5
1948	135.6	75.6	343.5	1880
1949	147.6	93.9	344.1	191.8
1950	137.5	99.9	338.1	175.9
1951	147.1	106.6	274.8	141.5
1952	183.5^*	91.3	385.5^*	195.6^*
1953	159.6	101.4	326.7	174.8
1954	132.9	92.4	370.3	175.4

NOTE.—The figures do not include wartime supplies to Allied Forces under mutual-aid arrangements, a factor of particular importance in 1944.

Direction of Export Trade.—The table below shows the main destinations of New Zealand exports in 1954.

Country	Total Exports
	£(000)
United Kingdom	163,024
Republic of India	1,485
Pakistan	36
Federation of Malaya	637
Hong Kong	108
British West Africa	131
Rhodesia-Nyasaland Federation	252
Union of South Africa	552
Bermuda	185
British Guiana	122
British West Indies	1,964
Canada	2,953
Australia	6,491
Fiji	894
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	58
Tonga	243
Nauru	55
Western Samoa	558
Other Commonwealth countries	121
Totals, Commonwealth countries	179,869
Belgium	3,402
Czechoslovakia	252
Denmark	697
France	14,675
West German Federal Republic	10,488
Eastern Germany	136
Greece	296
Republic of Ireland	403
Italy	4,268
Netherlands	4,072
Poland	2,278
Russia	2,943
Sweden	452
Norway	83
Switzerland	117
Philippine Islands	251
Japan	1,274
French Indo-China	1,597
Belgian Congo	93
Egypt	141
Mexico	340
Netherlands Antilles	211
Panama Republic	165
United States of America	13,932
Society Islands	266
Tutuila	148
Other countries	931
Totals, all other countries	63,911
Ships' stores	652
Totals, all countries	244,432

Exports to Commonwealth countries in 1954 accounted for 74 per cent of the total exports, excluding ships' stores.

Imports.—The table following classifies imports by broad divisions.

IMPORTS VALUED AT CURRENT DOMESTIC VALUE IN COUNTRY OF EXPORT

Calendar Year	Food, Drink, and Tobacco	Apparel, Textiles, Fibres, and Yarns	Oils, Fats, and Waxes	Metals, Metal Manufactures, and Machines	Paper and Stationery	Drugs, Chemicals, and Manures	Vehicles (Including Parts and Tires)	Total^*
* Including classes not listed.
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1952	24,114	35,854	16,040	74,937	14,741	9,901	27,589	229,447
1953	20,028	24,112	13,691	53,745	8,278	7,182	15,249	163,613
1954	24,771	36,009	16,018	66,280	9,617	10,778	23,976	213,278

Direction of Import Trade.—The next table shows the main sources (origin) of New Zealand's imports in 1954.

Country	Total Imports^*
* Provisional figures.
	£(000)
United Kingdom	120,746
Bahrein Island	2,439
British Borneo	76
Ceylon	2,624
Hong Kong	471
India	2,747
Pakistan	45
Malaya and Singapore	4,817
British West Africa	967
Kenya and Uganda	234
Tanganyika	101
Seychelles	87
Union of South Africa	1,217
British West Indies	305
Canada	4,347
Australia	27,661
Fiji	1,511
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	113
Nauru Island	497
Western Samoa	358
Other Commonwealth countries	189
Totals, Commonwealth countries	171,552
Austria	226
Belgium	1,691
Czechoslovakia	179
Denmark	227
Finland	91
France	1,758
West German Federal Republic	4,362
Germany—Eastern Zone	278
Italy	1,146
Netherlands	2,278
Norway	638
Portugal	141
Spain	109
Sweden	1,670
Switzerland	1,402
Russia	150
China	220
Indonesia	2,738
Iraq	121
Japan	1,066
Tunisia	88
Brazil	68
Chile	60
Cuba	99
Peru	267
Netherlands Antilles	2,325
United States of America	17,493
Venezuela	520
Other countries	312
Totals, all other countries	41,723
Totals, all countries	213,275

Imports from Commonwealth countries in 1954 comprised 80 per cent of the total.

DISTRIBUTION STATISTICS: QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADING (pp. 658–660)

Following the Census of Distribution in 1953 a continuing quarterly retail sample inquiry was inaugurated. The results of the census formed the framework from which a random sample of firms, stratified by store-type in broad geographical divisions and size of turnover, was drawn.

The actual sample inquiry is confined to just under 10 per cent of establishments, but these, on the basis of the census, represent approximately 28 per cent of total turnover. To provide the estimates presented in the following tables the figures have been expanded to represent the activity of all retail stores with the exception of hotel, motor vehicle, and motor accessory trading, which are excluded from the sample inquiry, and also from the census figures quoted by way of comparison.

Turnover by Store-types.—In the following tables details are shown for the years ended 31 March 1953 and 1955, and for the quarters ended 31 March 1954 and 1955.

Value of turnover increased in all store-types in the year ended 31 March 1955 as compared with the year ended 31 March 1953. The largest relative increase occurred in household appliances, radios, etc., the smallest movement being in furniture and soft furnishings.

TOTAL SALES OR TURNOVER £(000)

Store-type	North Island				South Island				Totals, New Zealand
Store-type	Auckland Urban Area	Wellington and Hutt Urban Areas	Remainder or North Island	Totals, North Island	Christchurch Urban Area	Dunedin Urban Area	Remainder of South Island	Totals, South Island	Totals, New Zealand
Year Ended 31 March 1953
Butcher, etc.	3,685	2,556	7,845	14,086	2,012	1,328	3,300	6,640	20,726
Grocer	7,474	6,126	15,872	29,472	4,628	2,314	7,517	14,459	43,931
Other food and drink	8,888	4,568	11,958	25,414	3,243	2,001	4,564	9,808	35,222
Footwear	1,361	995	2,428	4,784	711	430	1,021	2,162	6,946
Other apparel	9,539	5,637	16,776	31,952	4,408	2,402	6,965	13,775	45,727
Furniture and soft furnishings	4,323	2,279	4,929	11,531	1,537	960	2,084	4,581	16,112
Household appliances, radios, etc.	1,441	1,090	2,865	5,396	695	511	1,090	2,296	7,692
Hardware	2,363	3,565	5,546	11,474	839	447	1,796	3,082	14,556
Chemist	1,649	917	2,565	5,131	695	439	1,012	2,146	7,277
General, department, and variety	11,964	4,520	30,085	46,569	6,862	2,915	12,379	22,156	68,725
Other	11,368	8,573	20,685	40,626	9,949	3,073	8,164	21,186	61,812
Totals	64,055	40,826	121,554	226,435	35,579	16,820	49,892	102,291	328,726
Year Ended 31 March 1955
Butcher, etc.	3,867	2,863	8,713	15,443	2,341	1,518	3,945	7,804	23,247
Grocer	8,168	6,536	17,278	31,982	5,036	2,575	8,394	16,005	47,987
Other food and drink	9,271	5,399	12,836	27,506	3,532	2,302	4,680	10,514	38,020
Footwear	1,622	1,131	2,756	5,509	829	491	1,255	2,575	8,084
Other apparel	10,047	6,491	18,872	35,410	4,497	2,687	7,558	14,742	50,152
Furniture and soft furnishings	4,684	2,389	5,408	12,481	1,657	1,012	2,128	4,797	17,278
Household appliances, radios, etc.	1,977	1,378	3,279	6,634	862	650	1,262	2,774	9,408
Hardware	2,967	3,874	6,265	13,106	862	493	1,992	3,347	16,453
Chemist	1,784	1,045	2,787	5,616	764	485	1,182	2,431	8,047
General, department, and variety	13,527	5,343	33,997	52,867	8,126	3,228	13,935	25,289	78,156
Other	11,795	8,983	23,223	44,001	11,410	3,185	9,276	23,871	67,872
Totals	69,709	45,432	135,414	250,555	39,916	18,626	55,607	114,149	364,704
Quarter Ended 31 March 1954
Butcher, etc.	882	632	1,977	3,491	493	356	892	1,741	5,232
Grocer	1,909	1,562	4,204	7,675	1,202	600	1,995	3,797	11,472
Other food and drink	2,218	1,413	3,230	6,861	842	560	1,240	2,642	9,503
Footwear	334	244	570	1,148	175	106	271	552	1,700
Other apparel	2,091	1,308	3,905	7,304	959	552	1,516	3,027	10,331
Furniture and soft furnishings	960	479	1,150	2,589	340	188	445	973	3,562
Household appliances, radios, etc.	359	272	720	1,351	172	122	242	536	1,887
Hardware	593	787	1,329	2,709	192	102	412	706	3,415
Chemist	418	230	656	1,304	173	108	263	544	1,848
General, department, and variety	2,840	1,057	7,646	11,543	1,675	708	3,087	5,470	17,013
Other	2,633	1,999	5,299	9,931	2,418	661	2,014	5,093	15,024
Totals	15,237	9,983	30,686	55,906	8,641	4,063	12,377	25,081	80,987
Quarter Ended 31 March 1955
Butcher, etc.	916	665	2,240	3,821	566	352	963	1,881	5,702
Grocer	1,877	1,530	4,248	7,655	1,224	606	2,119	3,949	11,604
Other food and drink	2,266	1,366	3,268	6,900	867	570	1,203	2,640	9,540
Footwear	347	259	606	1,212	189	106	288	583	1,795
Other apparel	2,043	1,470	4,161	7,674	976	613	1,600	3,189	10,863
Furniture and soft furnishings	934	556	1,162	2,652	385	217	458	1,060	3,712
Household appliances, radios, etc.	469	339	764	1,572	197	136	325	658	2,230
Hardware	693	885	1,455	3,033	190	118	454	762	3,795
Chemist	406	255	706	1,367	179	110	276	565	1,932
General, department, and variety	2,985	1,142	8,092	12,219	1,777	734	3,521	6,032	18,251
Other	2,866	2,079	5,684	10,629	2,911	716	2,108	5,735	16,364
Totals	15,802	10,546	32,386	58,734	9,461	4,278	13,315	27,054	85,788

The following table covering retail trading throughout the whole of New Zealand reflects to a certain extent both the seasonal pattern of trading (e.g., milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.) and changes due to other circumstances.

COMMODITY SALES OR TURNOVER OF RETAIL STORES

Commodity Group	Year Ended		Quarter Ended
Commodity Group	31 March 1953	31 March 1955	31 March 1954	31 March 1955
* Information obtained in the quarterly surveys indicates that retail trading in “Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods” was divided in the following proportions in the year ended 31 March 1955: Men's and boys' wear, 31 per cent; women's, girls', and infants' wear, 59 per cent; household drapery, 10 per cent.
	£(000)
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)	59,704	66,512	15,925	15,830
Butchers' meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables	31,008	34,422	7,870	8,372
Other foods (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)	12,061	12,834	3,182	3,101
Milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.	10,151	11,119	2,925	3,081
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries	8,990	9,079	2,117	2,110
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)	8,765	9,658	2,215	2,298
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods^*	57,348	63,538	12,886	13,994
Footwear	8,862	10,263	2,149	2,289
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles	21,765	22,530	4,651	4,931
Musical instruments, including radios	4,681	5,076	1,006	1,127
Household appliances and electrical goods	9,501	12,651	2,499	2,845
Hardware—
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware	10,557	12,017	2,509	2,778
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)	13,105	15,159	3,206	3,496
Books, stationery, etc.	9,171	9,796	2,366	2,439

Stocks.—The Census of Distribution, together with the present sample inquiry, provides stock figures as at 31 March of the last four years, and these are presented in the form of actual values and index numbers of actual value in the table which follows.

The figures for March 1955 show a rise in value of stocks of 7 per cent as compared with the March 1954 figure, an increase of 3 per cent as compared with March 1953, and an increase of 15 per cent as compared with March 1952.

VALUE OF STOCKS HELD BY RETAIL STORES AT END OF MARCH

—	Actual Value of Stocks				Index Numbers of Value of Stocks
—	1952	1953	1954	1955	1952	1953	1954	1955
Store-type—	£(000)				Base 1953 (= 1000)
Butcher, etc.	378	441	363	408	857	1000	823	925
Grocer	4,520	4,585	4,712	4,758	986	1000	1028	1038
Other food and drink	1,617	1,881	1,830	1,862	860	1000	973	990
Footwear	2,321	2,468	2,625	3,031	940	1000	1064	1228
Other apparel	14,640	15,119	15,042	17,626	968	1000	995	1166
Furniture and soft furnishings	4,328	4,391	4,345	4,565	986	1000	990	1040
Household appliances, radios, etc.	1,278	1,414	1,346	1,580	904	1000	952	1117
Hardware, builders', etc.	2,778	3,743	3,477	3,617	742	1000	929	966
Chemist	1,403	1,541	1,630	1,726	910	1000	1058	1120
General, department, and variety	12,851	14,256	13,381	14,756	901	1000	959	1035
Other	11,974	14,527	13,418	12,651	824	1000	924	871
Totals, all retail stores	58,088	64,366	62,169	66,580	902	1000	966	1034

FINANCE

Banking and Currency

Reserve Bank (p. 778).—Data showing the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand at the last balance day in May 1955 are shown below, together with the corresponding figures for the last balance day in March 1955.

—	As at Last Balance Day in
—	March 1955	May 1955
* Expressed in New Zealand currency.
Liabilities—	£	£
Total liabilities (including other)	168,416,300	136,588,085
Bank notes	69,864,703	69,943,745
Demand liabilities—
State	38,539,574	9,396,232
Marketing	1,898,614	2,086,892
Banks	44,345,750	44,397,749
Other	4,179,492	875,750
Assets—
Total assets (including other)	168,416,300	136,588,085
Investments—
Overseas^*	23,140,974	22,890,974
In New Zealand	10,337,647	10,373,555
Reserve^*—
Sterling exchange	44,679,583	47,569,686
Other exchange	448,599	349,336
Advances—
State	50,058,324	16,044,050
Marketing organizations	26,016,106	26,741,818
Other	5,818,750	5,018,750

Trading Banks (pp. 779–788).—The principal statistics of trading banks for the months of March and May are given below. Debits and clearings cover the monthly periods ended on the last Wednesday of the respective months, while the remaining figures are as at those dates.

—	As at Last Balance Day in
—	March 1955	May 1955
Bank debits—	£	£
Government	16,383,779	9,267,050
Other	144,556,809	99,746,110
Bank clearings	76,554,854	57,158,126
Advances, including notes and bills discounted	189,240,526	186,928,866
Unexercised overdrafts	98,641,216	102,010,010
Deposits—
Total	293,850,410	292,201,433
Government	16,944,577	8,316,474
Not bearing interest	237,133,978	243,843,415
Bearing interest	39,771,855	40,041,544
Reserve Bank notes—
Notes held by trading banks	9,121,593	10,788,752
Net note circulation	60,743,110	59,154,993
Ratio of advances to deposits	64.40	63.97

An analysis of advances of the trading banks at quarterly intervals is published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the classification as at the last Wednesday in March of 1954 and 1955 is contained in the following table. Figures for earlier years will be found on page 784.

Advances to	As at Last Wednesday in March
Advances to	1954	1955
	£(000)	£(000)
Farmers	24,609	29,270
Industries allied to primary production	20,840	33,207
Other manufacturing and productive industries	22,924	28,560
Merchants—
Wholesalers	14,848	19,322
Retailers	14,851	19,234
Transport	3,924	4,050
Other	44,409	50,589
Total advances	146,405	184,234

Overseas Assets of Banks (p. 790).—In the following table overseas assets of banks (on account of New Zealand business only) are shown.

—	Overseas Assets at End of
—	March 1954	March 1955
	£(000)	£(000)
Trading banks' overseas assets—
In London	27,553	29,518
Elsewhere	4,597	5,367
Reserve Bank's overseas assets—
Sterling exchange	78,211	44,680
Other overseas assets	24,741	23,692
Total gross overseas assets	135,102	103,257
Overseas liabilities of trading banks	6,041	8,970
Overseas liabilities of Reserve Bank	51	56
Net overseas assets	129,010	94,230

Savings Banks (pp. 794–800).—A summary of statistics of savings banks at 31 March 1955 is given below.

—	Post Office Savings Bank	Trustee Savings Banks	National Savings Accounts
* On deposits held during year ended 30 June 1954.
Number of depositors	1,554,549	382,357
	£	£	£
Total amount of deposits during year	117,880,900	26,924,403	11,128,289
Total amount of withdrawals during year	112,842,486	26,187,607	10,281,512
Excess of deposits over withdrawals	5,038,414	736,796	846,777
Interest credited to depositors	4,710,920	957,823	1,911,672^*
Total amount to cr. of depositors at end of March 1955	215,671,146	42,826,141	68,227,566

Post Office Savings-bank Accounts Classified by Amount Groups (p. 796).—The following is a classification of the balances in Post. Office Savings-bank accounts at 31 March 1953, 1954, and 1955, shown by amount groups and percentage of accounts within each group.

—		At 31 March 1953	Percentage of Total	At 31 March 1954	Percentage of Total	At 31 March 1955^*	Percentage of Total
* Excludes 17,343 accounts domiciled at Apia and Rarotonga.
£	£
Under 1		352,323	23.71	354,389	23.30	354,535	23.06
1 and under	10	357,796	24.08	361,868	23.79	368,070	23.94
10 and under	50	281,505	18.95	286,944	18.87	289,714	18.85
50 and under	100	120,728	8.13	122,106	8.03	123,786	8.05
100 and under	200	119,387	8.03	124,204	8.17	125,955	8.19
200 and under	300	66,367	4.47	70,782	4.65	70,734	4.60
300 and under	400	43,889	2.95	46,286	3.04	45,777	2.98
400 and under	500	33,651	2.26	35,840	2.36	36,952	2.40
500 and under	600	26,583	1.79	28,151	1.85	27,347	1.78
600 and under	700	15,379	1.04	15,801	1.04	16,486	1.07
700 and under	800	11,488	0.77	12,241	0.81	12,367	0.81
800 and under	900	9,079	0.61	9,329	0.61	10,059	0.66
900 and under	1,000	7,250	0.49	7,826	0.51	8,299	0.54
1,000 and under	1,500	21,686	1.46	23,572	1.55	23,897	1.56
1,500 and under	2,000	10,004	0.67	10,702	0.70	11,022	0.72
2,000 and under	3,000	7,391	0.50	8,604	0.57	9,217	0.60
3,000 and under	4,000	834	0.06	1,433	0.09	1,828	0.12
4,000 and under	5,000	331	0.02	575	0.04	674	0.04
5,000 and over		181	0.01	335	0.02	487	0.03
Total number of accounts		1,485,832	100.00	1,520,988	10000	1,537,206^*	100.00

Overseas Receipts and Payments.—The following statement gives statistics of exchange-control transactions for the years ended 31 March 1954 and 1955. Comparable items for the calendar years 1953 and 1954 are, however, given on pages 792–793. All figures quoted are taken from Reserve Bank sources.

—	Year Ended 31 March 1954		Year Ended 31 March 1955
—	Receipts	Payments	Receipts	Payments
Exports—	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)
Butter	50,412	..	30,563	..
Cheese	20,475	..	9,558	..
Meat	48,924	..	49,852	..
Wool	87,206	..	91,533	..
Total (including other)	239,872	..	216,230	..
Imports—
Licensed	..	38,404	..	50,944
Decontrolled	..	133,915	..	177,048
Government	..	25,141	..	20,844
Total (including other)	..	200,449	..	252,910
Transport: Freights, fares, ships' charters	1,520	1,216	1,527	3,821
Travel: Private and business (exclusive of fares)	1,605	4,783	1,950	5,925
Insurance—
Insurance	713	1,170	784	934
Reinsurance	..	598	..	1,210
Totals, insurance	713	1,768	784	2,144
International investment income—
Interest, dividends, and other private investment income	6,637	5,167	6,536	5,193
Interest on Government and local authority loans	..	2,866	..	3,117
Totals, international investment income	6,637	8,033	6,536	8,310
Government transactions—
Current expenditure by New Zealand Government overseas	..	9,890	..	8,486
Current receipts by New Zealand Government and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand	2,124	..	948	..
Totals, Government transactions	2,124	9,890	948	8,486
Miscellaneous current transactions—
Commissions, royalties, rebates, etc.	536	1,340	1,023	1,729
Films and entertainments	..	817	..	789
Unilateral transfers (immigrants' transfers, personal remittances, charitable, legacies, etc.)	5,571	5,689	6,441	7,740
Expenses of business firms	442	3,153	476	3,348
Other current transactions	705	694	513	913
Totals, miscellaneous current transactions	7,254	11,693	8,453	14,520
Capital transfers—
Private	2,799	2,899	20,583	10,739
Government	8,802	1,788	17,248	1,875
Local authority	..	154	..	425
Totals, capital transfers	11,601	4,841	37,831	13,039
Cook Islands exports or imports	101	89	84	112
Unidentified	101		63
Grand totals	271,527	242,763	274,405	309,267

PUBLIC FINANCE

Summary of the Public Account for the Financial Years 1953–54 and 1954–55 (p. 711).—The source of the following table is parliamentary paper B–6, 1955.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1954	1955
* Expenditure from Public Works Account. † Transfer from National Development Loans Account. ‡ Sale or purchase of investments by Public Account. § A number of transfer entries, such as the annual transfer from Consolidated Fund to Social Security Fund and the transfers of the surplus for previous years which do not affect the over-all cash surplus or deficit, have been excluded from both sides of the above statement. \|\| Excludes £12 million borrowed from trading banks. ¶ As from 1 April 1954, all highways taxation is credited direct to National Roads Fund. Previously it was credited partly to Customs revenue and partly to highways taxation. ** As from 1 April 1954, all expenditure on roads is being met from National Roads Fund. Previously construction expenditure was met from Public Works Account and maintenance expenditure from Consolidated Fund.
Receipts	£(m.)	£(m.)
Taxation—
Income tax	80.8	88.3
Social security charge	49.7	56.7.
Customs	26.3	28.0^¶
Sales tax	21.1	22.6
Stamp and death duties	15.0	16.2
Other taxation	7.7	7.3
Highways taxation	5.3	^¶
Totals, taxation	205.9	218.6
Interest	7.7	8.4
Profits from trading	1.8	3.1
Departmental receipts	16.7	17.4
Total Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund receipts	232.1	247.5
National Roads Funds receipts	..	18.2^¶
	232.1	265.7
Receipts from borrowing (less repayments)—
Borrowing in New Zealand—
National Savings	2.9	2.7
Post Office Saving Bank^‡	11.5	11.5
Other borrowing	21.4^\|\|	9.9
	35.8	24.1
Overseas borrowing—
London and Australia	12.4	11.6
Totals, borrowing	48.2	35.7
Other capital receipts—
Transfer from Consolidated Fund for debt repayment	6.9	12.3
Sinking Fund contributions	3.7	2.7
Transfers from Consolidated Fund to—
War Emergency Fund and Defence Fund	3.5	3.8
Public Works Account	..	6.3
National Development Loans Account	..	3.5
Miscellaneous capital receipts	7.0	9.5
	21.1	38.1
Totals	301.4	339.5
Excess receipts of trading accounts, etc., within the Public Account	7.5	3.9
Grand totals	308.9^§	343.4^§
Expenditure	£(m.)	£(m.)
Social services	105.7	114.0
Defence	29.0	24.1
Administration, etc.	21.9	23.1
Stabilization	14.5	12.9
Maintenance of works, etc.	15.1	9.0
Development of industry	13.2	13.6
Interest and management of the public debt
	19.1	21.0
Transfer for repayment of the public debt
	6.9	12.3
Transfer to Defence Fund	3.5	1.0
Transfer to Public Works Account	..	2.0
Transfer to National Development Loans Account	..	3.5
Transfer to National Roads Fund	..	1.0
Totals, Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund expenditure	228.9	237.5
Works and other capital expenditure—
Housing construction^*	10.6	9.4
School buildings^*	5.9	5.1
Highways construction^*	3.3	..
Forest development^*	1.8	1.6
Electric supply^†	13.2	12.0
Land settlement^†	1.7	1.0
Railways^†^*	6.3	6.3
State coal^†	1.1	0.2
Post Office^†	3.6	6.0
Murupara Pulp and Paper Scheme^*^†	4.3	9.2
State Advances Corporation ^‡	12.0	6.0
Other^*	3.4	3.0
Totals, works, etc.	67.2	59.8
Other expenditure—
Defence Fund	..	3.2
National Roads Fund	..	14.8^**
Purchase of miscellaneous investments not included above^‡	67.2	77.8
	6.0	10.4
Totals	302.1	325.7
Over-all cash surplus or deficit—
Sale of S.A.C. securities to trading banks^‡	−12.0	..
Fixed deposits with trading banks in New Zealand	..	14.6
Increase in cash (and imprest) balances	18.8	3.1
	6.8	17.7
Grand totals	308.9^§	343.4^§

Summary of Budget Proposals.—The presentation of the Financial Statement was made on 21 July 1955, principal changes from the existing situation being briefly recorded below.

Taxation: Income Tax.—A rebate of 20 per cent from income tax, computed in accordance with existing rates and provisions, is to be granted for the tax year 1955–56 to individual taxpayers, with an upper limit of £75 to any rebate.

Sales Tax.—A fairly lengthy list of goods, of which the most important items were bicycles, clocks, and medicinal preparations and drugs, was exempted from sales tax by Resolution of the House of Representatives.

Death Duties.—Legislation to be introduced in the present session will abolish succession duty and impose a single estate duty, calculated on the value of the estate, which will combine the two existing duties, but will effect a general concession throughout the whole range of estates (estimated to amount to 17½ per cent reduction on total death and succession duties). The new scale will apply to estates of all persons dying on or after 21 July 1955.

Gift Duties.—The rates of gift duty will also be liberally adjusted (amounting to a 20 per cent reduction) throughout the entire range of gifts, for those gifts made on or after 21 July 1955.

Social Security.—The Social Security Commission is given a discretionary authority to raise the basic rate of benefit for single persons living alone by an amount of 5s. a week (i.e., maximum benefits £3 15s. a week). As already announced, it has been decided to apply the domestic service concession to women beneficiaries who perform domestic and nursing services in private homes, hospitals, and charitable institutions. An amendment to the Act is to be introduced enabling an unmarried woman between fifty-five and sixty years of age, who is unfit for regular employment, to be paid a benefit on the same basis as an age benefit. Also, as already announced, payments of benefits for which tuberculosis sufferers may qualify will be at rates up to £4 10s. for a single person and £8 10s. for a married couple, with additions where there are dependent children. For war pensions, a discretionary power is given to the War Pensions Board to provide a similar extra payment for single war pensioners who are in receipt of economic pensions, and also single war veterans, as in the case of social security beneficiaries.

Deferred Maintenance.—The deferred maintenance provisions introduced in 1944 will be repealed with effect for the income year ending 31 March 1956.

Hire Purchase.—Hire purchase regulations were gazetted on 21 July 1955 providing for minimum deposits of 50 per cent for motor vehicles and 15 per cent for all other goods, and for maximum periods for payment of the balance of 18 months for motor vehicles and 24 months for all other goods.

Local Authority Works.—The Local Government Loans Board has been informed that it is Government policy at the present time to confine local authority works activity to the most essential classes.

Public Loan.—It is intended to issue a public loan later in the year to complete the financing of the Government's capital programme.

Estimates of Receipts and Expenditure for 1955–56 (p. 712).—The following table shows the estimated receipts and payments for 1955–56 for the Consolidated and Social Security Funds.

Estimated Receipts, 1955–56	£(m.)	Estimated Payments, 1955–56	£(m.)
Consolidated Fund
Taxation—		Interest and debt repayment	34.7
Customs	28.0	Permanent appropriations	4.2
Beer duty	6.5	Annual appropriations—
Sales tax	21.5	Stabilization	12.6
Film hire	0.1	Defence	26.7
Stamp duties	14.9	Development of primary and secondary industries	15.0
Land tax	1.0	Social services (excluding transfer to Social Security Fund)	51.8
Income tax	90.7	Other votes	43.3
	162.7	Supplementary estimates	2.0
Other receipts—
Interest	9.4	Total	190.3
Trading profits	2.9
Departmental	17.7

Total	192.7
Social Security Fund
Social security charge	60.0	Administration and special assistance	1.8
Transfer from Consolidated Fund	14.0	Monetary benefits	56.8
Miscellaneous	0.1	Medical, hospital, etc., benefits	14.8
Total	74.1	Total	73.4

Consolidated Fund (pp. 712–716).—The following table contains a summary of the receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund for the financial years ended 31 March 1954 and 1955.

—	1953–54	1954–55
* Now a payment of the National Roads Fund.
Receipts	£	£
Taxation	156,195,535	162,508,544
Interest on capital liability—
Post and Telegraph	1,183,785	1,326,103
Electric supply	2,811,803	3,179,972
Housing and Housing Construction	1,162,394	1,271,929
Land settlement	1,578,210	1,599,330
Other accounts	140,086	42,000
Interest on other public moneys	869,604	958,767
Profits on trading undertakings	1,780,287	3,143,946
Departmental receipts	16,597,591	17,185,650
Totals, receipts	182,319,295	191,216,241
Payments
Permanent appropriations—
Civil list	143,739	143,446
Debt services—
Interest	18,128,182	20,014,417
Amortization	6,883,897	12,315,865
Administration and management	1,004,709	1,033,250
Superannuation (subsidy and contribution)	3,068,000	4,305,000
Contribution to National Roads Fund	..	1,000,000
Miscellaneous	372,888	430,808
Totals, permanent appropriations	29,601,415	39,242,786
Annual appropriations—
Legislative	213,259	216,237
Prime Minister's Office	18,564	19,993
External Affairs	1,811,860	2,070,450
Finance—
Treasury	289,651	298,948
Stabilization	14,451,664	12,923,126
Customs	412,579	434,935
Inland Revenue	1,222,349	1,295,964
Audit	182,472	194,310
Totals, finance	16,558,715	15,147,283
General administration—
Public Service Commission	95,904	106,142
Internal Affairs	3,788,718	3,171,638
Island Territories	1,193,579	1,161,923
Printing and Stationery	772,365	936,095
Marine	516,491	519,445
Labour	2,168,884	1,792,394
Maori Affairs	805,108	797,625
Valuation	399,937	402,264
Census and Statistics	145,671	145,621
Rehabilitation	1,235,726	1,145,909
Totals, general administration	11,122,383	10,179,056
Law and order—	£	£
Justice	1,225,185	1,560,230
Crown Law	19,851	21,853
Police	1,758,820	1,778,284
Totals, law and order	3,003,856	3,360,367
Defence—
Navy	5,254,400	6,019,748
Army	11,840,860	7,240,188
Air	9,196,045	8,947,016
Defence construction and maintenance	2,721,184	1,891,614
Totals, defence	29,012,489	24,098,566
Maintenance—
Maintenance of public works and services	9,626,550	9,043,322
Highways maintenance	5,507,898	^*
Totals, maintenance	15,134,448	9,043,322
Development of primary and secondary industries—
Lands and Survey	1,739,378	1,882,319
Forest Service	1,790,653	2,137,008
Agriculture	2,980,973	3,801,555
Milk Marketing	652,334	..
Industries and Commerce	378,070	393,371
Tourist and Publicity	1,337,037	1,362,884
Scientific and Industrial Research	1,089,808	1,149,378
Mines	122,110	119,172
Transport	789,985	568,678
Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services	2,323,174	2,202,756
Totals, development of primary and secondary industries	13,203,522	13,617,121
Social services—
Health	5,010,226	5,195,853
Subsidies to Hospital Boards	10,270,079	10,726,676
Education	20,782,208	22,886,086
War and other pensions	7,241,673	8,013,050
Payment to Social Security Fund	14,000,000	14,000,000
Totals, social services	57,304,186	60,821,665
Totals, annual appropriations	147,383,282	138,574,060
Unauthorized expenditure	31,618	59,479
Transfer to Public Works Account	..	2,000,000
Transfer to Defence Fund	3,500,000	1,000,000
Transfer to National Development Loans Account	..	3,500,000
Totals, payments	180,516,315	184,376,325
Surplus from current year's operations	1,802,980	6,839,916
Balance in Fund at end of year	8,943,682	13,980,618

The surplus for the year 1952–53 of £3,307,043 was expended during the year 1953–54 by transfer to the Public Works Account. The corresponding surplus for the year 1953–54 of £1,802,980 was expended during the year 1954–55 by transfer to the Public Works Account.

Taxation (pp. 722–723).—Particulars of revenue from taxation for the financial years 1952–53, 1953–54, and 1954–55 are contained in the following table.

Item of Revenue	1952–53	1953–54	1954–55
* Now included under National Roads Fund taxation.
Consolidated Fund—	£	£	£
Customs	27,273,206	26,343,303	27,968,865
Beer duty	5,466,701	5,833,871	6,208,359
Sales tax	21,991,703	21,133,740	22,621,119
Film-hire tax	135,348	131,190	135,959
Highways	4,908,492	5,328,922	^*
Stamp duties	5,702,526	6,327,042	6,905,585
Death (including gift) duties	8,767,857	8,682,376	9,385,145
Land tax	1,315,136	1,615,372	966,632
Income tax	78,701,376	80,799,719	88,316,880
Totals	154,262,345	156,195,535	162,508,544
Social security taxation—
Social security charge	45,507,938	49,717,376	56,175,151
National Roads Fund taxation—
Highways revenue (less rebates)	..	889,406	16,082,403
Grand totals	199,770,283	206,802,317	234,766,098

A summary showing the amounts received from direct taxes on income and from all sources during the last eleven years is now given.

Year	Direct Taxes on Income (Including War and Social Security Charges on Income)					Total Taxation
Year	Amount	Per Head of Mean Population			Percentage of Total Taxation	Amount	Per Head of Mean Population
	£	£	s.	d.		£	£	s.	d.
1944–45	68,438,477	41	2	3	63.0	108,681,814	65	5	10
1945–46	71,582,870	41	16	11	62.3	114,954,873	67	4	0
1946–47	63,873,162	36	1	7	56.5	113,119,046	63	18	0
1947–48	63,581,244	35	3	6	52.0	122,275,911	67	12	11
1948–49	78,386,057	42	10	3	60.1	130,440,249	70	14	11
1949–50	80,186,020	42	12	5	59.2	135,556,319	72	1	1
1950–51	95,208,075	49	12	10	60.3	157,946,975	82	7	1
1951–52	121,714,371	62	2	9	60.7	200,549,807	102	7	9
1952–53	124,209,314	61	16	3	62.2	199,770,283	99	8	3
1953–54	130,517,095	63	6	4	63.4	206,802,317	100	6	5
1954–55	144,492,031	68	12	4	61.5	234,766,098	111	9	9

State Indebtedness (p. 742).—The public debt as at 31 March 1955 amounted to £730,683,878, an increase of £24,222,056 as compared with a year earlier. Of the 1955 debt figure, £99,880,283 was held in the United Kingdom, an increase of £9,999,646.

SOCIAL SECURITY AND WAR PENSIONS (pp. 177–209)

Revenue of the Social Security Fund for the year ended 31 March 1955, together with the 1953–54 figures in parentheses, was as follows: Charge on salaries and wages, £32,423,831 (£28,714,790); charge on company and other income, £23,751,320 (£21,002,586); grant from Consolidated Fund, £14,000,000 (£14,000,000); interest on investments, £35,094 (£15,639); miscellaneous receipts, £103,865 (£105,956); total receipts, £70,314,110 (£63,838,971).

Payments from the Fund in 1954–55, with 1953–54 payments in parentheses, were: Monetary benefits, £52,901,484 (£48,626,205); emergency benefits and special assistance, £565,297 (£468,887); medical, etc., benefits, £12,588,924 (£10,607,046); Christmas bonus, £3,481 (£1,644,925); administration expenses, £1,097,219 (£1,017,140); other payments, £7,231 (£6,111). Total payments from the Fund were therefore £67,163,636 (£62,370,314). The balance in the Fund at the end of March 1955 was £15,578,640.

Particulars of the various social security benefits (monetary and health) and war pensions in force at the end of March 1955, together with total payments during the financial year 1954–55, are shown in the following table.

Class of Benefit or Pension	As at 31 March 1955		Payments During Year Ended 31 March 1955
Class of Benefit or Pension	Number in Force	Annual Value	Payments During Year Ended 31 March 1955
Social security benefits—
Monetary—		£	£
Superannuation	78,173	7,035,570	6,750,226
Age	121,063	22,530,894	22,251,098
Widows'	12,197	2,693,745	2,664,461
Orphans'	300	30,765	28,899
Family	298,370	18,099,124	18,179,099
Invalids'	8,110	1,665,028	1,616,562
Miners'	481	129,822	128,663
Sickness	4,277	..	1,276,817
Unemployment	19	..	5,660
Emergency	2,201	..	430,13
Totals	525,191	..	53,331,620
Medical—
Medical	..	..	3,350,180
Hospital	..	..	3,411,040
Maternity	..	..	1,147,307
Pharmaceutical	..	..	3,047,331
Supplementary	..	..	1,633,066
Totals	..	..	12,588,924
War pensions—
First World War	17,074	2,988,777	3,110,948
Second World War	24,703	2,274,279	2,341,940
War veteran's allowance	7,616	2,584,870	2,212,223
South African War	28	5,066	5,051
Mercantile Marine pensions	24	2,761	2,867
Emergency Reserve Corps	9	1,888	1,934
Kayforce	164	14,319	14,505
Totals	49,618	7,871,960	7,689,468
Sundry pensions and annuities	424	66,241	68,869
Grand totals	575,233	..	73,678,881

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 892–895).—Details of the consumers' price index for the calendar year 1954, and for each of the quarters ended 31 March 1955 and 30 June 1955, are given below.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, first quarter, 1949 (=1000)

—	Calendar Year 1954	Quarter Ended 31 March 1955	Quarter Ended 30 June 1955
Food—
Meat and fish	1902	1979	1965
Fruit, vegetables, and eggs	1466	1358	1502
Other foods	1497	1533	1549
All foods	1587	1601	1638
Housing—
Rent	1251	1297	1297
Other housing	1322	1416	1416
All housing	1293	1369	1369
Fuel and lighting	1480	1484	1497
Clothing and footwear—
Clothing	1359	1384	1391
Footwear	1487	1504	1515
Clothing and footwear	1378	1402	1409
Miscellaneous—
Household durable goods	1160	1138	1131
Other commodities	1147	1139	1140
Services	1287	1322	1322
All miscellaneous	1198	1202	1200
All groups	1395	1418	1432

Share Prices (pp. 904–907).—Index numbers of share prices in 1954, together with the average for the year ended March 1955, are given below.

Group	Index Numbers Base Average for Each Group, 1938 (= 1000)
Group	Average for 1954	Average for Year Ended March 1955
Frozen meat	2227	2323
Woollens	1943	2009
Gas	598	608
Timber	1488	1571
Minerals	1286	1295
Miscellaneous (including breweries)	1319	1339
All industrial groups	1358	1389
Banks	1252	1279
Insurance	2383	2422
Loan and agency	2682	2850
Miscellaneous	2258	2322
All finance, etc., groups	2049	2102
All groups combined	1703	1745

Monthly statistics for the first five months of 1955 are given below, together with figures for the corresponding months of 1954.

SHARE PRICES MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS, YEAR 1938 (=1000)

—	1954			1955
—	Industrial Groups	Finance Groups	All Groups	Industrial Groups	Finance Groups	All Groups
January	1259	1895	1577	1402	2135	1768
February	1280	1917	1598	1410	2139	1775
March	1298	1942	1620	1404	2116	1760
April	1304	1953	1628	1432	2133	1782
May	1321	2023	1672	1442	2136	1789

LABOUR STATISTICS

Wage-rates (pp. 912–915).—Index numbers of average nominal wage-rates of wage-earners in 1953 and 1954 are as follows.

Industrial Group	Base: All Groups 1926–30 (= 1000)
	Adult Males		Adult Females
	Average for Year		Average for Year
	1953	1954	1953	1954
Provision of—
Food, drink, etc.	2416	2593	2367	2531
Clothing, footwear, and textiles	2311	2471	2581	2765
Building and construction	2227	2385	..	..
Power, heat, and light	2298	2472	..	..
Transport by water	2513	2767	..	..
Transport by land	2238	2410	..	..
Accommodation, meals, and personal service	2161	2344	2783	3022
Working in or on—
Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre	2333	2506	..	..
Metal	2424	2614	..	..
Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals	2178	2344	..	..
Paper, printing, etc.	2459	2647	2388	2953
Skins, leather, etc.	2133	2293	..	..
Mines and quarries	2285	2483	..	..
The land (farming pursuits)	2150	2299	..	..
All groups combined	2284	2459	2611	2826

Effective Weekly Wage Rates (p. 916).—The following table shows nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult workers for the years 1953 and 1954. The base of the index numbers is in each case the average of the five years 1926–30 (= 1000).

Year	Retail Prices (All Groups)	Nominal Weekly Wage Rates		Effective Weekly Wage Rates
Year	Retail Prices (All Groups)	Males	Females	Males	Females
1953	1765	2284	2611	1294	1479
1954	1847	2459	2826	1331	1530

Revision of Nominal Wage Rate Index Numbers.—The 1954–55 revision of the wage rate index numbers has resulted in adjustments being made to the weights for occupations, occupational groups, and industrial groups. It has been found necessary to introduce some new occupations and occupational groups, but the framework of the existing industrial groups has been maintained. A full account of the revision is included as an appendix to the “Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics” for 1954. The base of the new index has been taken as the calendar year 1954 and the linking of the old series has been made through 1954 also. The all-groups index numbers of average weekly wage rates of adult wage-earners for the calender year 1954 and for adult males as at 31 March 1955 are as follows. The linked series for 1950 to 1953 are also included.

INDEX NUMBERS ALL GROUPS COMBINED

Base: All Groups 1954 (= 1000)

Year	Males	Females
1950	729	727
1951	829	817
1952	871	852
1953	929	924
1954	1000	1000
As at 31 March 1955	1032	..

The following table shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult male and female workers in each of the years 1950–54 and for adult males for the first quarter of 1955. The base of the index numbers is in each case the calendar year 1954 (= 1000).

Year	Retail Prices (All Groups)	Nominal Weekly Wage Rates		Effective Weekly Wage Rates
Year	Retail Prices (All Groups)	Males	Females	Males	Females
1950	764	729	727	954	952
1951	848	829	817	978	963
1952	914	871	852	953	932
1953	956	929	924	972	967
1954	1000	1000	1000	1000	1000
1955—
March quarter	1016	1032	..	1016	..

Average Rates of Wages (pp. 918–921).—The following table gives the prescribed minimum average weekly wage rates as at 31 March 1955, the series being confined to adult males.

Occupation	Average Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31 March 1955
NOTE.—The following perquisites (as assessed for statistical purposes), as at 31 March 1955, should be added to the listed occupations: General farm hands, ploughmen, shepherds, and dairy-farm hands, 35s. per week for board and lodging; shearers and wool pressers, 7s. per day for rations; assistant stewards (first and second grade), chief and second cooks, able and ordinary seamen, 44s. 5d. per week as value of board and lodging; and hotel chefs and waiters, 41s. 10d. per week as value of board and lodging.
Adult Males
Bakers—	s.	d.
Journeymen	232	0
Labourers	196	1
Butchers—
First shopmen	247	8
Second shopmen	230	6
Butter-factory employees—Churning and butter making: General hands	251	1
Flourmilling—
Kilnmen	224	8
Assistant smuttermen	214	3
Rollermen	241	7
Meat freezing—
Slaughtermen, per 100 sheep	105	5
General hands	239	2
Meat preserving—	s.	d.
Boners	282	10
General hands	239	2
Sausage-casing making: General Hands	246	9
Aerated water and cordial making—
Cordial makers	206	11
Bottle washers	197	2
Brewing: Labourers	220	4
Tailors—
Journeymen	229	9
Factory hands	226	0
Boot operatives	226	0
Woollen mills—
Spinners	229	9
General hands	205	3
Building—
Bricklayers	240	8
Carpenters and joiners	233	7
Plasterers	240	0
Plumbers (competent)	243	0
Builders' labourers	214	0
General labourers	193	10
Sawmilling—
Engine drivers	240	4
Sawyers	245	6
Tailers-out	223	11
Yardmen, head	240	4
General hands	220	2
Boatbuilding: Shipwrights	239	3
Metal works, etc.—
Boilermakers, journeymen	230	9
Iron and brass moulders	235	6
Tinsmiths, journeymen	237	0
Engineering fitters, etc.	237	10
Electrical workers	238	7
Motor mechanics	243	8
Printing—
Linotype operators (day)	246	9
Letterpress machinists (day)	237	4
Skin and leather workers—
Curriers	221	4
General hands	195	10
Mineral and stone workers—
Brickmakers	222	3
General hands	202	0
Mining (coal)—
Surface—
Screen worker	227	11
Miners (on day wages, per shift)	47	9
Truckers	216	9
Quarry men	200	5
Agricultural and pastoral workers—
General farm hands	156	0
Threshing-mill hands, per hour	5	4*
Ploughmen	156	0
Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)	72	6
Shepherds	156	0
Wool pressers	262	2
Dairy-farm hands	190	0
Railways—
Engine drivers, average third and sixth years	261	8
Firemen, average second and ninth years	233	9
Guards, average first and third years	250	5
Tramways—	217	6
Motormen
Conductors	209	1
Shipping and cargo working—
Assistant stewards, first grade	218	1
Assistant stewards, second grade	214	9
Chief cooks	267	4
Second cooks	241	6
Able seamen	234	2
Ordinary seamen, first class	181	3
Waterside workers: Ordinary
cargo	238	4
Hotel workers—
Chefs	227	10
Waiters	162	10
Miscellaneous—
Soft-goods assistants (male)	220	9
Grocers' assistants	216	1
Warehouse storemen	210	11

Aggregate Weekly Wage Payment in Industry (pp. 922–924).—The following data, showing the average weekly wage pay-out in industry, have largely been extracted from the half-yearly surveys conducted by the Department of Labour.

All Industrial Groups Combined	Pay-roll Strength, Males and Females Combined (Including Juveniles and Salaried Executives)	Weekly Wage Payout (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc.)
All Industrial Groups Combined		Aggregate	Average Per Person
* Does not include retrospective payments arising from the general order of the Court of Arbitration of 19 November 1953.
		£	£	s.	d.
1949 October	450,104	3,632,663	8	1	5
1950 April	459,698	3,780,634	8	4	6
1950 October	457,028	4,016,485	8	15	9
1951 April	463,888	4,526,727	9	15	2
1951 October	465,728	4,729,159	10	3	1
1952 April	475,975	4,945,724	10	7	10
0952 October	474,316	5,050,689	10	13	0
1953 April	487,913	5,401,499	11	1	5
1953 October	487,266	5,409,859	11	2	0^*
1954 April	502,442	6,089,624	12		5
1954 October	502,447	6,206,036	12	7	0
1955 April	516,573	6,590,487	12	15	2

Estimated Distribution of the Labour Force (p. 981).—The following table supplies an estimated distribution of the total labour force at 15 October 1954 and 15 April 1955.

Industrial Group	Males		Females		Totals
Industrial Group	October 1954	April 1955	October 1954	April 1955	October 1954	April 1955
Thousands
Primary industry	138.5	137.5	12.2	12.8	150.7	150.3
Manufacturing industry	145.8	152.4	46.5	46.4	192.3	198.8
Power, water, and sanitary services	10.9	110	0.7	0.8	11.6	11.8
Building and construction	65.9	67.9	1.2	1.3	67.1	69.2
Transport and communication	67.9	69.0	8.3	8.5	76.2	77.5
Distribution and finance	86.9	88.6	40.7	42.2	127.6	130.8
Domestic and personal services	19.1	19.2	26.1	26.5	45.2	45.7
Administration and professional	54.7	55.0	50.2	51.6	104.9	106.6
Totals, in industry	589.7	600.6	185.9	190.1	775.6	790.7
Armed forces	9.7	9.7	0.7	0.8	10.4	10.5
Unemployed
Totals, labour force	599.4	610.3	186.6	190.9	786.0	801.2

Half-yearly Surveys of Employment (pp. 984–986). Following is a summary of the employment statistics as returned for 15 April 1955.

—	Primary Industry (Other than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)	Manufacturing Industry	Power, Water, and Sanitary Services	Building and Construction	Transport and Communication	Distribution and Finance	Domestic and Personal Services	Administration and Professional	Totals, all Industries Covered
Male employees	10,234	134,655	10,955	47,590	50,448	65,318	11,223	41,439	371,862
Male working proprietors	304	8,489	5	5,465	1,630	8,810	2,936	491	28,130
Female employees	226	43,080	788	1,127	7,989	36,140	13,628	41,733	144,711
Female working proprietors	..	1,204	..	3	35	2,805	1,825	201	6,073
Number of establishments	603	12,375	243	5,187	2,485	14,153	4,401	3,635	43,082

The figures shown in the manufacturing industry column are further subdivided as follows.

—	Food, Drink, and Tobacco	Textiles, Clothing, and Leather	Building Materials and Furnishings	Engineering and Metal Working	Miscellaneous Manufacturing
Male employees	29,395	12,277	24,580	50,782	17,621
Male working proprietors	1,049	997	1,797	3,764	882
Female employees	6,571	23,539	1,444	5,177	6,349
Female working proprietors	468	543	31	74	88
Number of establishments	1,868	1,980	2,600	4,567	1,360

Limitations in the coverage of the figures shown above are noted on page 984.

Summary of Vacancies, Placements, and Disengaged Persons.—This table gives additional figures to those presented on page 993.

—	Vacancies at End of Month			Placements During Month			Disengaged Persons at End of Month
—	Mules	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Monthly average over calendar year—
1953	7,944	3,455	11,399	1,361	530	1,891	67	18	85
1954	8,404	4,128	12,532	997	422	1,419	48	10	58
Monthly total—
1955—
January	9,477	4,463	13,940	831	571	1,402	33	13	46
February	10,171	4,745	14,916	1,104	944	2,048	41	7	48
March	9,937	4,704	14,641	1,224	559	1,783	52	16	68
April	10,094	4,658	14,752	664	247	911	31	21	52

TRANSPORT

Shipping and Cargo Handled (pp. 334–342).—Statistics of entrances and clearances of vessels in the foreign trade in 1953 and 1954, and the total calls made in the foreign and coastal trade for the same years, are shown in the following table. The tonnage of cargo handled is also given.

—	Calendar Year
—	1953	1954
Entrances—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	673	751
Net tonnage	2,767,557	3,160,132
Clearances—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	676	735
Net tonnage	2,804,020	3,132,934
Total calls made—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	1,841	2,049
Net tonnage	7,257,775	8,332,107
Coastal—
Number of vessels	13,696	13,502
Net tonnage	4,451,465	4,782,208
Total—
Number of vessels	15,537	15,551
Net tonnage	11,709,240	13,114,315
Tonnage of cargo handled—
Inwards	5,811,371	6,650,451
Outwards	3,111,992	3,225,767
Transhipped	348,588	341,710
Total manifest tonnage	9,271,951	10,217,928

Statistics of shipping movement and cargo handled at New Zealand ports in 1953 and 1954 are given below.

—	Total Shipping Movement		Total Cargo Handled
—	1953: Net Tonnage	1954: Net Tonnage	1953: Tons	1954: Tons
	(000)	(000)	(000)	(000)
Auckland	4,406	5,270	3,028	3,264
Wellington	7,153	7,291	2,280	2,402
Lyttelton	4,400	5,031	1,024	1,173
Dunedin	1,797	2,085	536	629
Other ports	5,687	6,438	2,404	2,750
Totals	23,443	26,115	9,272	10,218

Railway Transport (pp. 346–354).—Summarized statistics of railway transport in the years ended 31 March 1953, 1954, and 1955 follow.

—	Unit	Year Ended 31 March
—	Unit	1953	1954	1955
* Including road motor and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
Railways	(000)	21,455	23,272	24,735
Railway road motor services	(000)	24,120	22,627	19,956
Tonnage of goods carried—
Timber	Tons (000)	819	772	785
Livestock	Tons (000)	647	631	647
Other goods	Tons (000)	8,560	8,231	8,904
Totals	Tons (000)	10,026	9,635	10,336
Net ton-miles run	Millions	1,063	1,034	1,109
Revenue—
Railway operation	£(000)	22,589	23,682	27,009
Total^*	£(000)	26,608	27,895	31,285
Expenditure—
Railway operation	£(000)	22,755	23,621	25,542
Total^*	£(000)	26,525	27,491	29,417

Road Transport (p. 367).—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1954 and 1955 are as follows.

Class	As at 31 March
Class	1954	1955
Cars	323,641	356,284
Trucks—
Light	56,707	58,007
Heavy	46,258	48,263
Contract vehicles	2,164	2,174
Omnibuses	1,822	2,022
Taxis	2,258	2,319
Rental cars	1,706	1,839
Private-hire cars	289	257
Service cars	723	699
Trailers	48,675	54,768
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees (other than exempted Government-owned vehicles)	47,287	49,256
Government vehicles	14,632	14,905
Motor cycles	25,754	26,244
Power cycles	3,972	4,114
Totals	575,888	621,151
Dealers' cars	2,443	2,653
Dealers' motor cycles	128	147
Grand totals	578,459	623,951

FIRE LOSS STATISTICS, 1953 (pp. 845–852)

A classification of insured property losses through fire during the calendar year 1953 is given below. The figures are comparable with those covering the year 1952 shown in Section 34c.

Type of Fire District	Number of Separate Fires	Gross Amount of Insurance Cover on Risks Affected	Gross Amount of Loss Paid on Risks Affected	Percentage of Loss Paid to Amount at Risk
		£	£
United urban fire districts	5,067	17,646,888	592,322	3.36
Urban fire districts	6,560	16,686,306	647,529	3.88
Secondary urban fire districts	791	1,618,514	136,639	8.44
Remainder of New Zealand (including floating risks)	1,829	3,984,328	273,900	6.87
Totals	14,247	39,936,036	1,650,390	4.13

The principal causes of outbreaks during 1953 are set out in the following table.

Causes of Fires	Number of Separate Fires	Insurance Cover on Risks Affected	Amount of Loss	Average Loss Per Fire
		£	£	£
Electricity	3,219	8,679,629	150,232	47
Gas	233	598,725	5,080	22
Naked lights	169	325,259	9,107	54
Defective chimneys, etc.	657	1,502,899	34,191	52
Smoking and careless use of matches	2,210	5,087,722	109,243	49
Sparks from fireplaces	5,103	5,754,764	82,279	16
Heating, boiling-down	343	906,288	23,061	67
Inflammable spirits and materials	347	5,510,617	150,089	433
Incendiarism and arson	34	147,065	58,301	1,715
Outside causes	251	583,436	21,691	86
Other causes	56	82,584	7,330	131
Unknown causes	1,625	10,757,048	999,786	615
Totals	14,247	39,936,036	1,650,390	116

REHABILITATION (pp. 256–264)

The following table gives particulars of rehabilitation-loan authorizations for the years ended 31 March 1954 and 1955, and the totals to 31 March 1955.

Class of Loan	Number			Amount
Class of Loan	1953–54	1954–55	Total to 31 March 1955	1953–54^*	1954–55^*	Total to 31 March 1955^*
* Excludes suspensory loans.
				£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Purchase of farm, etc.	685	472	10,606	6,417	4,623	57,402
Housing—
Erection	1,289	1,541	21,960	5,579	5,483	67 284
Purchase	1,747	1,320	27,225	5,579	5,483	67 284
Tools of trade	10	3	1,472	1	0.1	49
Furniture	2,454	1,617	61,174	258	158	5,731
Business	264	211	11,174	228	171	7,241
Miscellaneous	25	6	664	2	1	131
Totals	6,474	5,170	134,275	12,485	10,435	137,838

Included in the foregoing total figures are 22,735 supplementary housing loans for £2,928,838. These loans, which are not repayable so long as the ex-serviceman or his dependants continue in occupation of the property, are granted to assist in bridging the gap between present-day costs and normal values, and each case is considered on its merits.

The figures shown in the table are exclusive of 7,936 suspensory loans (5,742 residential and 2,194 farm), amounting to £3,309,458 (£961,165 residential, £2,348,293 farm), made up to 31 March 1955.

EDUCATION (p. 152)

The following table shows the number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of New Zealand during the years 1953 and 1954. Registered private schools are included.

—	1953	1954
* Exclusive of students taking part-time courses with the Correspondence School, 1,179 in 1953, and 2,085 in 1954. † Includes 636 students taking short courses at the agricultural colleges in 1953 and 707 in 1954.
Primary schools	359,537	374,657
Post-primary schools	67,478^*	75,247^*
Technical classes (part-time)	30,637	35,152
Universities	11,467^†	11,510^†
Teachers' training college	2,769	2,834
Totals	471,888	499,400
Kindergartens	5,616	6,044

MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS

Radio Licences (p. 401).—The number of radio licences for receiving stations in force on 31 March 1955 was 508,943, and for all classes of radio licences 513,715, compared with 501,756 and 506,323 respectively at 31 March 1954.

Horse Racing (p. 737).—The number of racing days in the calendar year 1954 was 362. Totalizator investments totalled £43,616,000 in 1954 (£38,611,000 in 1953), while Government taxation totalled £4,034,000 in 1954 (£3,563,000 in 1953).

Land Transfers (pp. 407–410).—Transactions under the Land Transfer Act have been on a very heavy scale during the last three financial years. The average amount per transaction (town and suburban properties) in 1954–55 was £1,889, as compared with £1,739 in 1953–54 and £1,665 in 1952–53.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1953	1954	1955
Town and suburban properties—
Number	39,325	43,427	46,978
Consideration £	65,461,000	75,503,000	88,761,000
Country properties—
Number	9,053	9,188	9,593
Area Acres	1,616,781	1,675,617	2,123,500
Consideration £	35,241,000	38,915,000	47,964,000
All properties—
Number	48,378	52,615	56,571
Consideration £	100,702,000	114,419,000	136,725,000

Mortgages (pp. 809–819).—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last three financial years are shown below. In sympathy with the movement in land transfer registrations, mortgage registrations have been heavy during recent years. The 1954–55 figure of £85,258,000 showed an increase on the total of £70,910,000 for the previous year.

Year Ended 31 March	Registered^*		Discharged^*
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Amount	Number	Amount
* Inclusive of duplicate registrations and discharges.
		£		£
1953	50,659	74,732,000	34,160	31,401,000
1954	52,834	70,911,000	36,731	36,082,000
1955	58,031	85,258,000	37,934	41,196,000

Justice.—Prisoners in gaols at end of calendar year (pp. 230–235): 1953, 1,115, or 5.44 per 10,000 of population; 1954, 1,223, or 5.83 per 10,000 of population.

Registration of Aliens (pp. 41–42).—The number of aliens on the register at 1 April 1955 totalled 24,066 (15,770 males, 8,296 females), compared with 1 April 1954 figures of 23,148 (15,304 males, 7,844 females).

Naturalizations (p. 40).—The number of certificates of naturalization issued to former aliens during the year ended 31 March 1955 was 220, compared with a total of 136 in the previous year. Certificates of registration as a New Zealand citizen were granted to 364 citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or of former aliens (250 in 1953–54), and 115 certificates of registration (65 in 1953–54) to minor children (either citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or former aliens).

LIFE ASSURANCE BUSINESS 1954 (pp. 834–841)

During 1954 further striking progress was made in life assurance business, the number of new policies issued (116,866) exceeding those for the previous year by 9,112. The total value of the new assurances amounted to £88,083,000, compared with £73,137,000 during 1953. The average amount per policy issued in 1954 was £997 for ordinary life assurance and £135 for the industrial type.

Policies in force at 31 December 1954 numbered 1,429,756 (882,018 ordinary and 547,738 industrial). The comparative figure for twelve months earlier was 1,383,709 (827,321 and 556,388). The average face value per policy in force at the end of 1954 was £625 for ordinary and £74 for industrial.

Premium revenue during 1954 totalled £19,053,000, an increase of £1,824,000 over the previous year.

LIVESTOCK ON FARMS (pp. 489–508)

Livestock figures as at 31 January 1955 on farm holdings of one acre and over outside borough boundaries were as follows, the previous year's figures being also given.

	31 Jan. 1954	31 Jan. 1955
Dairy cattle	3,110,424	3,079,053
Beef cattle	2,634,454	2,807,724
Total cattle	5,744,878	5,886,777
Pigs	648,902	681,495
Horses	158,280	147,063
Sheep shorn (season 1953–54)	35,542,836	37,361,303
Lambs shorn (season 1953–54)	8,355,947	8,115,998
Lambs tailed (season 1953–54)	23,594,805	24,239,189

Chapter 1. SECTION 1—DESCRIPTIVE

Table of Contents

AREA AND BOUNDARIES.—The administrative responsibilities of New Zealand devolve over a large area, the land territories of which consist principally of a number of islands of varying size in the South Pacific Ocean, together with a large uninhabited tract in the Antarctic Ocean. While the two largest and most important islands, the North and South Islands of New Zealand, are separated only by a relatively narrow strait, the remaining islands or island groups are very much smaller and in general are widely dispersed over a considerable expanse of ocean.

The boundaries of New Zealand inclusive of its most outlying islands and dependencies range from the northern limit of the 8th degree of south latitude to south of the 60th degree of south latitude, the complementary extremes of longitude with origin Greenwich being from the 160th degree of east longitude to the 150th degree of west longitude.

The precise boundaries as they now exist were originally defined in the relevant proclamations, letters patent, and legislation mentioned in the pages immediately following; general statements are contained in the description next presented relating to those areas over which New Zealand exercises jurisdiction or administrative responsibility. In all instances the measurement of longitude refers to the number of meridians east or west of Greenwich.

In proceeding from north to south, the first area, including the Tokelau Islands some 300 miles north of Western Samoa or 2,300 miles approximately north by east of Wellington (the capital of New Zealand), extends from the 8th to the 10th degrees of south latitude and from the 171st to the 173rd degrees of west longitude. The second area encloses the Cook and associated islands distant from Wellington in a north-easterly direction approximately 2,100 miles Lower (Southern) Group to 2,800 miles Northern Group and Niue. The Lower (Southern) and Northern Groups are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th degrees of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd degrees of south latitude. Niue Island is situated in latitude 19° 02′ south and longitude 169° 52′ west.

Then follows a third zone covering the trust territory of Western Samoa, which is some 2,000 miles distant to the north-north-east and contained within the 13th to the 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st to 173rd degrees of west longitude.

Farther south, and slightly north by east from New Zealand, a matter of roughly 1,000 miles from Wellington, are situated the Kermadec Islands. These islands lie between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude.

New Zealand as defined after the extension of boundaries in 1863 constitutes the fifth and principal area. Its boundaries extend from the 33rd to the 53rd degrees of south latitude and from the 162nd degree of east longitude to the 173rd degree of west longitude.

The sixth area relates to the Ross Dependency which is administered by New Zealand and consists of the coasts of the Ross Sea with adjacent islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude.

Jointly with the United Kingdom Government and the Government of Australia, New Zealand is responsible for the administration of the Trust Territory of the Island of Nauru. The administrative appointments for Nauru are made by the Australian Government, but New Zealand appoints a representative to the British Phosphates Commission, which controls the working of the phosphate deposits.

For statistical purposes, the following classification of the administrative area of New Zealand is the most convenient, the actual areas being also given. It should be noted also that statistics for “New Zealand” refer to the group of islands shown in (a) only, unless it is expressly stated that the other islands as a whole or in part are included.

New Zealand:—

(a) Exclusive of Island Territories—	Area in Square Miles
North Island	44,281
South Island	58,093
Stewart Island	670
Chatham Islands	372
Minor islands—
Inhabited—
Kermadec Islands	13
Campbell Island	44
Uninhabited (areas in parentheses)—	263
Three Kings (3). Snares (1).
Solander (½). Antipodes (24).
Bounty (½). Auckland (234).
Total New Zealand, exclusive of Island Territories	103,736
(b) Island Territories—
Tokelau Islands, comprised of	4
Fakaofo Island, Nukunono Island, Atafu Island
Cook and associated islands, comprised of—
Lower (Southern) Group	78
Rarotonga. Aitutaki.
Mangaia. Mauke.
Atiu. Takutea.
Mitiaro. Manuae and Te-au-o-tu.
Northern Group	12
Palmerston. Pukapuka.
Penrhyn. Suwarrow.
Manihiki. Nassau.
Rakahanga.
Niue Island	100
Total New Zealand, inclusive of Island Territories	103,930
Ross Dependency	(Estimated) 175,000
Trust Territory of Western Samoa	1,133

The total area of the foregoing groups exclusive of the Ross Dependency and the Trust Territory of Western Samoa is 103,930 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue—viz., in the section on land tenure, settlement, etc.—the aggregate area of New Zealand appears as 66,390,700 acres—i.e., 103,736 square miles. The latter area does not include the Cook and associated islands or the Tokelau Islands.

The relevant Proclamations, defining from time to time the administrative area of New Zealand, are briefly referred to in the following paragraphs.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated 30 January 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34°30′ S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10′ S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0′ E. long.; on the west, 166° 5′ E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island, and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In 1842, by Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. The minor islands mentioned earlier were thus brought within the extended boundaries of New Zealand, being assigned to the appropriate province on the occasion of the 1847 Proclamation dividing the country into two provinces. The number of provinces was increased in later years, though all were finally abolished in 1875. By Proclamation bearing date 21 July 1887 the Kermadec Islands were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of 10 June 1901 the Cook Islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary lines mentioned earlier, were included as from 11 June 1901.

The territory of Western Samoa was formerly administered pursuant to a mandate conferred upon His Britannic Majesty, to be administered on his behalf by the Government of New Zealand, and confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on 17 December 1920. Following the replacement of the League of Nations by the United Nations, a draft Trusteeship Agreement for Western Samoa was prepared by the New Zealand Government and submitted to the General Assembly of the United Nations late in 1946. This draft agreement replaced the original mandate and thus brought the Territory within the framework of the international trusteeship system established under the United Nations Charter. Under the new agreement the New Zealand Government assumed direct responsibility for the administration of Western Samoa. The agreement was approved by the General Assembly on 13 December 1946. Western Samoa is comprised of two large islands, Upolu and Savai'i, and the small islands of Manono, Apolima, Fanuatapu, Namu'a, Nu'utele, Nu'ulua, and Nu'usafe'e.

By Imperial Order in Council of 30 July 1923 the coasts of the Ross Sea (in the Antarctic regions), with the adjacent islands and territories between the limits specified earlier, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act 1887. This region was named the Ross Dependency, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. The dependency is uninhabited.

By Imperial Orders in Council of 4 November 1925 the Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofo, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them, a total area of only four square miles) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and power in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of 8 March 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948, which came into operation on 1 January 1949, the Tokelau Islands were declared to form part of New Zealand. This Act emerged as the result of an agreement between the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES.—Coast Line.—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 280 miles at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coast line in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand landmass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coast line is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are the only two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use can be made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but as the surrounding country is comparatively undeveloped they are of little economic consequence at present. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater construction, etc. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river mouths or by harbour-construction work.

Mountains.—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 650 ft. contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.). Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu was particularly active from March 1945 to the end of that year, being responsible for considerable deposits of volcanic ash over a very wide area, while spectacular activity was exhibited by Ngauruhoe in 1949 and again in 1953 and 1954. In both cases violent eruptions alternated with quieter periods. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Cape Turakirae, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa ranges, white west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Colville and Moehau ranges parallel the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only country above 4,000 ft. on the west coast of this island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.), while no fewer than seventeen peaks exceed 10,000 ft. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Raglan ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

As might be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a greater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps were an effective barrier to communication by land between the east and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaux determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor as extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Owing to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

In the 1931 issue of the Year-Book a list was given, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 9,000 ft. in the South Island. The list has been compiled from various sources, and does not purport to be free from omissions.

Mountain or Peak	Height (Feet)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu	9,175
Egmont	8,260
Ngauruhoe	7,515
Tongariro	6,458
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges—
Tapuaenuku	9,465
Alarm	9,400
Southern Alps—
Cook	12,349
Tasman	11,475
Dampier	11,287
Silberhorn	10,757
Lendenfeldt	10,450
David's Dome	10,443
Malte Brun	10,421
Torres	10,376
Teichelmann	10,370
Sefton	10,354
Haast	10,294
Elie de Beaumont	10,200
Douglas Peak	10,107
La Perouse	10,101
Haidinger	10,059
De la Beche	10,058
The Minarets	10,058
Aspiring	9,975
Hamilton	9,915
Glacier Peak	9,865
Arguilles Rouges	9,731
Nazomi	9,716
Darwin	9,715
Chudleigh	9,686
Annan	9,667
Lowe	9,653
Haeckel	9,649
Le Receveur	9,562
Goldsmith	9,532
Big Mac	9,511
Conway Peak	9,510
Bristol Top	9,508
Walter	9,507
Grey	9,490
Green	9,307.
Hutton	9,297
D'Archiac	9,279
Bell	9,276
Hochstetter Dome	9,258
Earnslaw	9,250
Nathan	9,200
Barnicoat	9,183
Sibbald	9,181
Arrowsmith	9,171
Spencer	9,167
The Footstool	9,073
Rudolf	9,039
The Dwarf	9,025
Darran Range—
Tutoko	9,691
Madeline	9,042

Glaciers.—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 1¼ miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley (8 miles), and the Hooker (7¼ miles), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 9¾ miles and 8½ miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft. and 690 ft.

As will be realized, these glaciers are an important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilized for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers.—Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes, and a further major development is now being undertaken on the Clutha. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago where the rivers are so utilized.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand, but space in this issue is, however, available only for a list of the more important ones. The lengths of rivers shown have been recently revised and differ in many instances from those previously given. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

NORTH ISLAND

Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—	Miles
Piako	65
Waihou (or Thames)	95
Rangitaiki	95
Whakatane	65
Waiapu (from source Mata River)	75
Waipaoa (from source Waipapa Stream)	70
Wairoa (from source Hangaroa River)	85
Mohaka (from source Taharua River)	95
Ngaruroro	90
Tukituki	70
Flowing into Cook Strait—
Ruamahanga	90
Hutt	35
Otaki	30
Manawatu	120
Rangitikei	130
Turakina	70
Wangaehu	100
Wanganui	180
Waitotara	55
Patea	75
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
Waitara	85
Mokau	85
Waikato (from source Upper Waikato River)	270
Wairoa (from source Waiotu Stream)	115
Hokianga (from source Waihou River)	45

SOUTH ISLAND

Flowing into Cook Strait—	Miles
Aorere (from source Spee River)	45
Takaka (from source Cobb River)	45
Motueka	70
Waimea (from source Wai-iti River)	30
Pelorus	40
Wairau	105
Awatere	70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—
Clarence	130
Conway	30
Waiau-uha (or Waiau)	105
Hurunui	90
Waipara	40
Ashley	60
Waimakariri	100
Selwyn	50
Rakaia	90
Ashburton	70
Rangitata (from source Clyde River)	75
Opihi	50
Pareora	35
Waihao	45
Waitaki (from source Hopkins River)	135
Kakanui	40
Shag	45
Taieri	175
Clutha (from source Makarora River)	210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait—
Mataura	140
Oreti	120
Aparima (Jacobs River)	70
Waiau (from source Clinton River)	135
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
Hollyford	50
Cascade	40
Arawhata	45
Haast	60
Karangarua	25
Cook	25
Waiho (from source Callery River)	20
Whataroa	35
Wanganui	35
Waitaha	25
Hokitika	40
Arahura	35
Taramakau	50
Grey	75
Buller (from source Travers River)	110
Mokihinu	35
Karamea	50
Heaphy	25

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatization of fresh-water fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes.—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Owing to the excellence of their fishing, the North Island lakes possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect.

An article on the lakes of New Zealand will be found in the 1932 Year-Book. Some particulars of the more important are given in the following table.

Lake	Length, in Miles	Greatest Breadth, in Miles	Area, in Square Miles	Drainage Area, in Square Miles	Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet Per Second	Height Above Sea Level, in Feet	Greatest Depth, in Feet
NORTH ISLAND
Taupo	25	17	238	1,250	5,000	1,211	534
Rotorua	7½	6	32	158	420	915	84
Rotoiti	10¾	2¼	14	26	500	913	230
Tarawera	64	6½	15	75	..	1,032	285
Waikaremoana	12	6¼	21	128	772	2,015	846
Wairarapa	10	4	27	1,250	..	..	64
SOUTH ISLAND
Rotoiti	5	2	2¾	86	..	1,997	228
Rotoroa	7	2½	8	146	..	1,470	..
Brunner	5	4	16	145	..	280	357
Kaniere	5	1¾	8	11	..	422	646
Coleridge	11	3	18	70	..	1,667	680
Tekapo	12	4	32	580	5,000	2,323	620
Pukaki	10	5	31	515	6,000	1,588	..
Ohau	10	3	23	424	5,000	1,720	..
Hawea	20	5	48	518	5,700	1,062	..
Wanaka	30	4	75	960	..	922	..
Wakatipu	52	3	112	1,162	13,000	1,016	1,242
Te Anau	33	6	132	1,320	12,660	694	906
Manapouri	12	6	56	416	..	596	1,458
Monowai	12	1	12	51	700	600	..
Hauroko	20	3	25	195	1,800	611	..
Poteriteri	17	2	17	162	..	96	..
Waihola	4½	1⅛	34	2,200	..	(Tidal)	52
Ellesmere	16	10	1074	745	..	(Tidal)	45

GEOLOGY.—An article on the geology of New Zealand prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.R.S.N.Z., former Director of the Geological Survey, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. For more detailed information the reader is referred to the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall, the bulletins of the Geological Survey, and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions of the New Zealand Institute” (now the Royal Society of New Zealand).

EARTHQUAKES.—An article on earthquakes in New Zealand appeared in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book. The information given below has been supplied by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Director of the Seismological Observatory.

Seismicity and Earthquake Distribution.—A comparison between the records of destructive earthquakes in New Zealand and those in other seismic countries shows that the seismicity of New Zealand, on the whole, is surprisingly high. However, this is due to the occurrence of a large number of earthquakes of the semi-destructive type (M.-M. 7) with comparatively few major destructive shocks (M.-M. 8–12).

During the period 1835–1954, 80 destructive earthquakes are known to have occurred in New Zealand, 60 of which were of the semi-destructive type (not exceeding intensity M.-M. 7). Of the remainder 14 were of intensity M.-M. 8–9 and 6 of intensity M.-M. 10–12.

The total number of earthquakes of all intensities, and the maximum intensity, reported felt in New Zealand in each of the years 1922 to 1954 were as follows.

Year	Number of Earthquakes Reported Felt	Maximum Intensity of Heaviest Shock		Year	Number of Earthquakes Reported Felt	Maximum Intensity of Heaviest Shock
Year	Number of Earthquakes Reported Felt	R.-F. Scale	M.-M.^* Scale	Year	Number of Earthquakes Reported Felt	R.-F. Scale	M.-M.^* Scale
* Modified Mercalli Scale of 1931, which is now used for recording earthquake effects in New Zealand.
1922	1,187	8	7	1939	157	7	6–7
1923	76	6	5–6	1940	120	7	6–7
1924	70	7	6–7	1941	107	8	7
1925	76	8	7	1942	198	9 +	9
1926	173	8	7	1943	176	8	7
1927	107	8	7	1944	95	6	5+
1928	80	8	7	1945	127	7	6+
1929	678	10	10	1946	302	8	7
1930	748	8	7	1947	233	8+	7 +
1931	432	10	10	1948	127	8 +	8
1932	313	9	8 +	1949	91	6–7	6
1933	108	7	6–7	1950	188	7	6–7
1934	230	9	8 +	1951	226	8	7–8
1935	150	7	6–7	1952	83	6–7	6
1936	123	6	5–6	1953	133	8	7
1937	179	6–7	6	1954	94	6–7	6
1938	132	8	7

The abnormally large number of earthquakes reported in the year 1922 was due to the swarm of local shocks in the Taupo region in the latter half of that year. Abnormally large numbers of shocks also occurred in 1929–30, due to aftershocks of the Buller earthquake of 17 June 1929.

Summary of Earthquake Activity in New Zealand During the Year 1954.—Seismic activity was unusually low in 1954, although there was relatively more activity than usual in the South Island.

The maximum felt intensity reported was M.-M. 6. This occurred during swarms of shallow local shocks in the thermal regions from August to October. Detailed reports of these disturbances were furnished by Geophysical and Geological Survey officers in the Rotorua area. The earthquakes were associated with frequent rumblings and explosive sounds.

In January and February several strong earthquakes centred in the vicinity of Auckland Islands were perceptible in the southern parts of New Zealand. The maximum intensity reported was M.-M. 5 at Stewart Island.

A shock on 4 May was felt widely in the southern districts, with maximum intensity M.-M. 5 at Queenstown.

On 20 July a shock was felt extensively in the northern parts of the South Island, with maximum intensity M.-M. 5 at Murchison.

Ninety-four shocks were reported felt during the year. Eighty of these were in the North Island and seventeen in the South Island, while three were felt in some part of both Islands.

Regional Distribution.—New Zealand earthquake statistics over the past hundred years or so show that certain parts of the country are subject to almost continuous seismic activity with occasional destructive shocks, while other parts are more or less free from seismic disturbances. By combining early earthquake records with the more precise data of later years it is possible to divide the country roughly into four seismic regions. These regions are classified below, in order of seismicity.

All areas of the North Island east and south of an approximate line from the vicinity of Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty to the vicinity of Hawera in South Taranaki, and all areas of the South Island north of an approximate line from the vicinity of Hokitika on the West Coast, through the region of Lake Coleridge, to Banks Peninsula:
South Auckland, western Bay of Plenty, Waikato, and Taranaki (except the southern portion):
Areas of the South Island, south of the boundary of region I:
Areas north of Auckland.

The following table shows the average frequency of earthquakes in each of the four regions defined above.

Region	Average Number of Earthquakes Per Year (1921–1940)	Average Number of Destructive Shocks Per Decade (1835–1940)		Relative Seismicity Based on Destructive Shocks
Region	Average Number of Earthquakes Per Year (1921–1940)	Minor Shocks (R.-F. 8)	Major Shocks (R.-F. 9, 10)	Relative Seismicity Based on Destructive Shocks
I	97.8	4.1	1.7	11.5
II	23.0	1.1	..	1.1
III	12.1	0.1	..	0.1
IV	1.1	..	..	0.0

The boundaries between the seismic regions are not well defined, since one region generally merges more or less imperceptibly into another. Further, seismic frequency is not uniform. This leads to the number of shocks being considerably above the average in some years and below it in others. The normal irregularity is increased by the occasional occurrence of earthquake swarms in certain regions. Probably the most notable swarm in New Zealand was that which occurred in the Taupo region in the latter half of 1922. The number of minor local shocks in this swarm was so great that only the stronger ones, or those affecting the adjacent region, were used in determining the average frequency of region I. Major earthquakes occur chiefly in the eastern and southern parts of region I.

Deaths Due to Earthquakes.—During the period 1848–1954 the number of deaths recorded in New Zealand as due directly or indirectly to earthquakes was 284. Of these, 255 were due to the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931.

CLIMATE.—The collection of climatic data for the use of Government Departments and the general public is a function of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. It maintains approximately 130 stations within New Zealand and 35 on islands of the South West Pacific for the recording of full climatic data, supplemented by approximately 980 stations in New Zealand and 130 in the Pacific Islands recording rainfall. Most of these stations are operated by public bodies, Government Departments, or voluntary observers. Additional records are provided by over a hundred stations which report by telegraph or radio for forecasting purposes.

A general description of the climate of New Zealand is contained in an article supplied by Dr. M. A. F. Barnett, O.B.E., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., Director of the New Zealand Meteorological Service, which was included in the 1942 and earlier editions of the Year-Book.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually in the Meteorological Observations. Work on this publication ceased during the war years, and this has delayed the appearance of recent issues, the latest available being that for 1950. Current statistics appear monthly in a climatological table included in the New Zealand Gazette.

The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

CLIMATOLOGICAL AVERAGES (OVER A PERIOD OF YEARS)

Station	Altitude	Average Annual Rainfall^*	Average Number of Rain Days	Average Bright Sunshine	Temperature in Shade, Degrees Fahrenheit
					Mean Daily Maximum			Mean Daily Minimum
					Jan.	July	Year	Jan.	July	Year
* Rainfall averages refer to standard period (1921–1950). † Normals relate to present site.
	Ft.	In.		Hrs.
Te Paki, Te Hapua	200	56.71	169	2,169	72.8	59.2	65.9	57.0	45.9	52.0
Auckland	160	48.80	182	2,059	72.8	56.7	64.9	60.0	46.1	53.2
Tauranga	10	53.42	152	2,376	74.5	57.4	66.1	54.7	40.1	47.6
Hamilton East	131	45.95	161	2,056	74.6^†	55.9^†	65.5^†	51.7^†	37.1^†	44.7^†
Rotorua	969	54.44	145	2,061	74.3^†	53.6^†	63.6^†	51.3^†	36.9^†	44.5^†
Gisborne	12	39.75	147	2,284	75.7^†	55.8^†	65.9^†	53.8^†	39.5^†	47.1^†
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana	2,100	76.90	183	..	68.1	47.6	58.0	42.0	37.7	45.0
New Plymouth	160	61.16	186	2,211	69.1	54.8	62.2	55.2	42.9	49.3
Napier	5	31.20	114	2,406	73.9	55.1	64.8	57.0	39.4	48.7
“Hiwi”, Taihape	2,157	36.93	179	..	68.2	47.2	57.9	50.1	36.1	43.2
Wanganui	72	34.32	155	2,182	71.0	54.2	63.0	55.9	41.0	48.9
Plant Research Bureau, Palmerston North	110	39.05	170	1,839	70.5	53.1	62.2	54.3	39.1	46.9
Waingawa, Masterton	340	38.01	142	2,091	74.3	53.3	63.7	50.5	35.8	43.4
Kelburn, Wellington	415	47.47	166	2,045	67.6	51.2	59.8	54.4	41.5	48.3
Nelson	24	38.63	116	2,490	71.2	54.2	63.0	54.5	37.1	46.1
Blenheim	12	25.84	110	2,449	72.0^†	53.0^†	63.5^†	52.7^†	35.1^†	44.4^†
Hanmer	1,270	45.25	133	1,966	71.6	48.2	60.9	47.8	29.0	39.1
Hokitika	15	110.40	197	1,898	55.3^†	51.7^†	58.8^†	50.9^†	35.6^†	43.8^†
Lake Coleridge	1,195	31.54	114	..	70.1^†	48.1^†	60.6^†	48.6^†	29.8^†	40.2^†
Christchurch	22	26.28	125	1,988	70.2	50.0	60.9	52.7	34.7	44.0
Timaru	56	23.46	116	1,927	70.0	49.4	60.7	51.4	33.4	42.8
Milford Sound	20	253.50	194	..	64.4	48.3	57.0	50.0	34.2	42.5
Queenstown	1,100	32.03	104	2,003	69.8	45.6	58.8	49.0	30.9	40.9
Alexandra	520	13.22	99	2,143	72.6	44.6	60.9	50.8	28.0	40.2
Musselburgh, Dunedin	5	29.74	161	1,715	65.2^†	49.3^†	59.0^†	51.2^†	36.2^†	44.3^†
Invercargill	32	43.30	201	1,640	66.3	48.8	58.3	48.4	33.8	41.7

Brief Review of 1953.—Rainfall was near to or above normal over the greater part of the country. The excess was greatest in Northern Wairarapa, Marlborough, and North Canterbury; for quite a number of stations in these districts this was the wettest year in over thirty years of records. Rainfall was appreciably below normal in Gisborne, northern Hawke's Bay, and most of Otago and Southland. The percentage deficiency was greatest in a small area surrounding the town of Gisborne.

Annual temperatures were generally above normal throughout the North Island, and in Nelson and Westland. The departure was as much as 1° F. in parts of Northland. The remainder of the South Island was slightly cooler than the average.

Sunshine was below average over the whole country. The deficiency exceeded two hundred hours over most of the North Island, and also over Nelson and Buller. For the cities of New Plymouth, Wellington, and Nelson, sunshine was the lowest in over thirty years of records.

Seasonal Notes.—January followed the general pattern of the two previous months with warm sunny weather in Westland, but high rainfall in eastern areas. In many districts from North Canterbury to Hawke's Bay it was the wettest January for more than fifty years. Towards the end of the month there were serious floods in the Ashley, Clarence, Porangahau, and Manawatu rivers.

Rainfall decreased generally in February, but conditions were predominantly cloudy and cool. March was a month of comparatively settled weather with more plentiful sunshine until near the end, when heavy rains affected most of the South Island. On the whole it was not a favourable season for primary production.

For the next three months the weather was cloudier than usual, and rainfall was above average over the North Island. April was cool and stormy, with an exceptionally high frequency of strong winds from Cook Strait southward. May and June were both comparatively mild.

July was a sunny month and also rather dry. However, heavy rain over the Auckland province during 3–5 July caused serious flooding in the lower Waikato on 7 July, and some areas of farmland were under water for several weeks. Snow fell to low levels in eastern districts of the South Island on 10 and 11 July. August was cloudy and milder, and provided favourable conditions for lambing in the North Island. Stock wintered reasonably well in most districts, but were adversely affected by the waterlogged ground in the Auckland and Taranaki provinces.

The next three months were all comparatively dry. Temperatures were mild, apart from three exceptionally cold southerly changes which affected eastern districts of the South Island between 25 September and 7 October. Many lambs were lost in Southland and West Otago, while late frosts ruined a considerable proportion of the Central Otago fruit crop. The dry weather proved rather welcome at first, but in November strong winds dried up the ground and retarded pasture growth. For the provinces of Auckland and Hawke's Bay, December, like the previous month, was warm, with deficient rainfall; in some areas farmers complained of very dry conditions.

Brief Review of 1954.—Year.—Over the districts of Taranaki, Wellington, Canterbury (except North Canterbury), and Otago rainfall was mainly 15 to 25 per cent below normal. Over the remainder of the country it was about normal, except in northern Hawke's Bay and the Gisborne district, where there was a surplus of 15 to 30 per cent.

Temperatures were well above normal over the whole country, mainly by about a degree. The departure reached 1½° in the National Park - Wanganui area and in Central Otago and western Southland.

It was a cloudy year for the North Island, with sunshine deficiencies mainly exceeding 100 hours. The South Island fared better, sunshine being mainly close to normal. The Ashburton-Christchurch area was specially favoured, with a surplus of over 100 hours. In parts of South Canterbury, however, sunshine was more than 100 hours below normal.

Seasonal Notes.—The first two months of the year were both warm and dry, February being, in fact, the hottest month since February 1938. The combined effect of two to four months of dry weather and unusually high temperatures caused a serious shortage of green feed in most North Island districts. Although the warm weather continued into March, the dry spell was broken by considerable rain, especially in the North Island, and it was a month of good pasture growth. The Auckland district suffered damage from north-easterly gales and flooding from 6–8 March.

In contrast to the three previous months, April was appreciably cooler than usual. However, May and June were both mild months; in fact, in the South Island it was the warmest June for at least forty-five years. For a large part of the country these two months were also somewhat drier than usual, and the combination proved beneficial to pasture growth. There was serious flooding in parts of the Auckland district as a result of four days of continuous rain from 17 May, the Hauraki Plains suffering most damage. Serious flooding also occurred in the Wairau River, Marlborough, on 16 and 17 June.

The mild weather of autumn and early winter gave place to dull, unsettled, and colder weather early in July, and similar conditions persisted in August. These months were notable for three or four rather extensive falls of snow. In the first, from 8–10 July, low levels as far north as the King Country were affected, some areas receiving their first snowfall for twenty-five years. About a fortnight later there was a rather heavy fall on the central plateau of the North Island. The third extensive fall occurred in the middle of August in Central Otago and the Canterbury high country, and it led to considerable losses of lambs in these districts. On 14 and 15 August strong gales affected many parts of the country, several hundred trees being blown down in the Nelson-Buller-Westland area. On 26 and 27 August heavy rain caused extensive surface flooding in the Manawatu-Rangitikei-Wanganui area.

In marked contrast to July and August, the spring season was very dry; in fact, the total rainfall from September to November was the lowest in over fifty years. The first two months were sunny, but November was cloudy and also exceptionally warm. The dry weather proved beneficial at first, but growth slowed up during October, and dairy production soon declined. Hay crops were everywhere very light. A severe frost in Hawke's Bay on 16 October spoilt a considerable part of the fruit crop. There were several falls of snow on the high country, the last about the middle of November.

December was a dull, wet month in most eastern districts, but comparatively warm and sunny in Westland. Most parts of the country received sufficient rain to restore pastures to good condition.

SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1953 were taken at 0900 hours New Zealand Standard Time—i.e., 2100 hours Greenwich Mean Time.

Station	Temperatures in Shade—Degrees Fahrenheit							Hours of Bright Sunshine	Rainfall
	Mean Daily Maximum	Mean Daily Minimum	Approximate Mean Temp.	Extremes for 1953		Extremes^*			Rainfall
	Mean Daily Maximum	Mean Daily Minimum	Approximate Mean Temp.	Maximum and Month	Minimum and Month	Absolute Maximum	Absolute Minimum		Total Fall (Inches)	No. of Rain Days
* Highest and lowest temperatures for duration of records.
Te Paki, Te Hapua	66.9	52.4	59.7	77.5 Mar.	30.3 July	80.2	27.0	2,116.6	53.83	176
Auckland	66.3	53.7	60.0	80.9 Dec.	36.1 July	90.4	31.9	1,800.9	54.63	182
Tauranga	66.0	48.7	57.3	82.1 Dec.	28.2 July	91.9	22.5	2,200.2	49.19	156
Hamilton East	64.9	45.9	55.4	80.9 Dec.	23.5 July	94.4	14.2	1,734.9	53.60	179
Rotorua	63.5	45.8	54.7	82.8 Dec.	26.7 July	98.0	21.3	1,832.9	60.37	153
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana	58.3	45.0	51.6	79.8 Nov.	26.3 July	88.1	22.2	..	64.78	190
Gisborne	66.6	46.9	56.7	89.0 Nov. & Dec.	25.9 July	95.8	25.9	2,176.4	30.20	142
New Plymouth	62.2	50.3	56.3	76.0 Feb.	32.5 June	86.0	29.1	1,8700	59.21	182
Napier	65.9	49.1	57.5	86.6 Mar.	28.4 July	96.5	27.5	2,188.3	24.47	120
Wanganui	63.2	50.1	56.6	83.2 Dec.	28.6 July	88.0	28.6	1,824.7	41.63	175
Plant Research Bureau, Palmerston North	63.1	47.3	55.2	82.0 Dec.	28.2 July	87.0	21.2	1,585.8	46.62	194
Waingawa, Masterton	63.1	43.8	53.5	83.0 Dec.	23.0 July	95.4	19.5	1,837.5	52.60	188
Kelburn, Wellington	59.3	48.8	54.1	75.9 Dec.	34.4 Aug.	88.0	28.6	1,797.8	58.25	166
Nelson Airfield	61.9	44.7	53.3	78.8 Dec.	24.0 July	92.0	22.4	2,261.4	42.71	144
Blenheim	63.8	44.6	54.2	86.8 Dec.	26.1 July	94.6	16.1	2,317.1	35.38	130
Hanmer	60.2	38.9	49.6	85.0 Feb.	17.2 July	97.0	8.2	1,794.4	56.46	162
Hokitika	59.3	44.4	51.8	77.0 Jan.	27.4 July	84.5	25.0	1,790.3	118.94	209
Lake Coleridge	59.7	40.7	50.2	87.0 Feb.	22.6 June	92.0	10.0	..	34.22	132
Christchurch	61.5	43.8	52.6	88.2 Mar.	24.8 July	95.7	19.3	1,864.3	29.23	133
Timaru	61.0	42.5	51.7	86.6 Nov.	26.2 June	99.0	19.8	1,810.9	26.25	120
Milford Sound	57.8	42.6	50.2	72.8 Feb.	27.2 July	79.8	23.1	..	227.63	180
Alexandra	61.5	39.7	50.6	88.1 Feb.	19.0 June	94.4	11.0	2,072.3	11.21	94
Musselburgh, Dunedin	58.5	44.1	51.3	85.2 Nov.	27.8 June	94.0	23.0	1,651.2	28.56	171
Invercargill	58.1	42.2	50.1	83.0 Feb.	24.0 June	90.0	19.0	1,601.6	36.79	172

For 1953 the mean sea-level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hrs. New Zealand Standard Time were: Auckland, 1015.8; Wellington, 1013.5; Nelson, 1013.8; Hokitika, 1013.9; Christchurch, 1011.9; and Dunedin, 1011.2.

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND.—Those desiring information on the flora and plant covering of New Zealand are referred to the article by Dr. W. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc., F.R.S.N.Z., which appeared in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, while a brief reference to the geographical distribution of the forest trees is made in the section of this Year-Book dealing with Forestry (Section 21). For more detailed information the following works may also be consulted: “Plants of New Zealand,” by R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell, ed. 4, 1940; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora,” by T. F. Cheeseman, ed. 2, 1925; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips-Turner, 1950 (reprint); “The Forest Flora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889; “New Zealand Trees and Shrubs and How to Identify Them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbie, ed. 4, 1952; “New Zealand Plants and Their Story,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 3, 1927; “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 2, 1928; “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “The Flora of New Zealand,” by W. Martin, ed. 3, 1947; “The Botanical Names of the Flora of New Zealand,” by A. Wall and H. H. Allan, ed. 2, 1950; “Grasses of New Zealand,” by H. H. Allan, 1936; “A Handbook of the Naturalized Flora of New Zealand,” by H. H. Allan, 1940; “Poisonous Plants in New Zealand,” by H. E. Connor, 1951; and numerous articles published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

FAUNA.—A brief article on the fauna of New Zealand, originally prepared by the late Mr. James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S., and revised by him in 1935, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. Later publications dealing with this topic include “Native Animals of New Zealand,” by A. W. B. Powell, 1947, and “Introduced Mammals of New Zealand,” by Dr. K. A. Wodzicki, 1950.

Chapter 2. SECTION 2—HISTORY, CONSTITUTION, AND ADMINISTRATION

Table of Contents

EARLY HISTORY: General.—When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands many centuries previously. At what time the discovery of New Zealand was made by the Maoris, and from what country they came, cannot be stated accurately, for being an unlettered people they had only oral records of their history. The origins of the Maori people prior to their final migration are even more obscure, but in accordance with the general tradition of the Polynesian race it would seem that from Asia they migrated eastward by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. According to their mythology their Pacific home was the island of Hawaiki—the position of which is now unknown—and from there, many generations ago, one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, reached the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a glowing description of the country he had discovered, this chief persuaded a number of his people to set out in a fleet of double canoes for the new land. This migration was followed by others, and from comparisons of the tribal legends it has been possible to obtain a definite knowledge of the subsequent division and history of the numerous tribes after their occupation of New Zealand. On their arrival the Maoris found inhabitants on the east coast of the North Island of similar racial origins to themselves. Known to the Maoris as Morioris, “inferior people”, this race was driven to the South Island and to the Chatham Islands. Through absorption by the dominant Maoris, the Morioris finally became extinct by the death of their last member during the last decade. Of their history nothing is known, and their origins remain a mystery.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilization, with marked superiority in the arts of wood-carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the sub-tribes and tribes. With highly developed social and ritualistic customs, their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the sub-tribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals they displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

The immediate effect of European contacts on the Maoris was the outburst of a series of tribal wars waged with greater ferocity and a vastly greater loss of life than was customary in pre- European tribal engagements. The high mortality could, of course, be credited to the acquisition of a more lethal weapon, the musket. The advantage lay originally with the coastal tribes as a result of their earlier contact with Europeans, the wars continuing until all tribes were equally well armed. These wars were later followed by wars against the colonists, but after 1870 the story has been one of unbroken peace between Maoris and Europeans.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilization on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually 'asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing.

Other island groups such as the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Tokelau Islands, had also long been inhabited by Polynesians from various successive migrations extending over considerable periods prior to their discovery by Europeans.

Discovery by Europeans.—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Straaten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land. His exploration was of necessity very cursory, for having explored only part of one coast he had no knowledge of the country's extent or shape.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain Cook sighted land on 6 October 1769, at Young Nick's Head. On his first voyage Cook spent six months exploring the New Zealand coast-line, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can be best described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on the map, and left it an archipelago.” Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the truculent Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777.

Several other explorers also visited New Zealand during the latter portion of the eighteenth century, amongst whom may be mentioned M. de Surville 1769, M. Marion du Fresne 1772, Captains Vancouver and Broughton 1791, Captain Raven 1792–93, Alejandro Malaspina and Jose de Bustamentey Guerra 1793, Lieutenant Hanson 1793.

The European discovery of many of the islands of the Cook group was made by Captain Cook in 1773. Rarotonga and Mauke were not officially discovered for another fifty years, although there were records of earlier visits by the Bounty under the control of the mutineers in 1778 and later, in 1814, by the Cumberland. Niue Island was discovered by Cook in 1774. The first recorded discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by Quiros in 1606. Of the remaining islands of the group, Atafu was discovered in 1765, Nukunono in 1791, and Fakaofa in the 1840's.

European Settlement and Colonization.—So far as is known, the first instance of Europeans being left in New Zealand to their own resources occurred in 1792, when Captain Raven of the Britannia landed a sealing-party at Facile Harbour, on the west coast of the South Island, where they remained a little over twelve months before being called for.

In the years that followed, whaling stations sprang up along the coast, and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber—to say nothing of the disreputable traffic in dried tattooed heads. Attracted to New Zealand were deserters from whaling vessels and escaped convicts from Australia, who, in the absence of any jurisdiction, soon became notorious for their extreme lawlessness. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, obtained permission to send two of his proteges, Kendall and Hall, to the Bay of Islands to consider the desirability of establishing a mission station. Later they returned to Sydney for Marsden, who arrived in New Zealand to preach his first sermon at the Bay of Islands on Christmas Day, 1814. Of the many admirable activities undertaken by the missionaries, their action in having the Maori language “reduced to a rational orthography” deserves special mention.

In 1825 three separate, but abortive, attempts were made to found colonies; however for some years the only settlements were those round the principal whaling stations, although a number of Europeans gradually penetrated inland and resided there permanently, many marrying Maori women.

The first body of immigrants under a definite scheme of colonization arrived in Port Nicholson in January 1840, there to found the town of Wellington. The New Zealand Company, whose moving spirit was Edward Gibbon Wakefield, endeavoured to systematize colonization by transplanting sections of English society into virgin country.

It was hoped that, by producing a proper balance of capitalists and artisans, self-contained communities could be successfully established. However, owing to the unsatisfactory nature of the land-purchases, considerable difficulty was experienced in these initial settlements, and friction grew up not only between the settlers and the Maoris, but also between the Governor and the settlers. Before his death in 1843 Governor Hobson had transferred his capital from Russell to Auckland, but this transfer was of little assistance to the colonists, who had extended their settlements to Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. In 1865 the seat of government was removed to Wellington.

Following the death of Hobson, the existence of the colony became precarious, for, through lack of funds and weak administration, Maori aggression became a real menace. To cope with the situation, the Colonial Office appointed Captain George Grey as Governor. Being well equipped with troops and funds, as well as being a man of vigour and perception, Grey soon restored order and won the confidence of both the settlers and the Maoris. During Grey's term two further organized settlements were made. In co-operation with the New Zealand Company the Free Church of Scotland sponsored the Dunedin Settlement of 1848, and the Church of England the Canterbury Settlement of 1850. These settlements, owing to their more favoured situations, their satisfactory land-purchase agreements, and their freedom from trouble with the Maoris, achieved a greater measure of success in carrying out the company's avowed aims.

After Grey's departure the question of relationship with the Maoris again came to the fore through the land-purchasing activities of the settlers—a situation aggravated by subsequent lack of consideration for the Maori system of land-tenure. Following an incident at Waitara in the Taranaki district, where a dispute arose concerning land titles, war broke out in 1860 and lasted spasmodically till 1870. The recall of Grey did not solve the problem, as Grey, an autocrat, could not work with the elected Ministers, nor did his presence prevent the confiscation of land belonging to the Maoris, whether friendly or hostile. It was under the sympathetic administration of Sir Donald McLean as Minister for Maori Affairs that the dispute finally died down.

These hostilities were confined to the North Island; and, in the meantime, in 1861, large alluvial deposits of gold had been discovered in the South Island—leading to a tremendous influx of population and an alteration of the economic structure of the country.

No organized form of European colonization has at any time taken place in the Cook Islands, Niue Island, or the Tokelau Islands.

SUBSEQUENT HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT (1870 ONWARDS).—The discovery of gold, by its increase of wealth, allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover with the subsequent agrarian expansion, especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self sufficient agriculturally, but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool, which it has maintained to the present day.

These factors, together with freedom from strife with the Maori population, led after 1870 to a quickening in political activities. Under the leadership of Sir Julius Vogel a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction was begun. The Provincial system which really commenced in 1853 had largely outlived its usefulness; in fact, the parochialism of their assemblies had frequently proved obstructive, and in consequence the provincial system was abolished in 1875, local administration being provided for by the Counties Act and the Municipal Corporations Act of 1876.

Of great social significance was the passing in 1877 of the Education Act, making education free, compulsory, and secular, while the laying during that decade of the first cable between Australia and New Zealand was a major advance in communications. At this time party politics began to enter into the parliamentary system, and the slump conditions which prevailed in the “eighties" (due to a fall in the world price level) intensified the political atmosphere. By the abolition of plural voting in 1889, and the introduction of female suffrage in 1893, the way was opened for a practical expression of political convictions by all adult members of the community.

In 1891 Ballance, as Leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier, to be followed on his death in 1893 by Seddon, and during the next decade the legislative essays of this party evoked world-wide interest. The main aim of the legislation was social justice, and its principal manifestations were in land division, the establishment of the Court of Arbitration, and the introduction of old-age pensions. The policy of land division aimed at closer land settlement, and it was achieved by the compulsory subdivision of large estates, with subsequent loans to small independent farmers wishing to establish themselves. In inaugurating the Court of Arbitration the object was to eliminate strikes by giving labour a recognized bargaining status; and the enactment was in accord with the enlightened code of labour legislation passed at that time.

With the commencement of the refrigerated trade in 1882, the policy of closer settlement progressed rapidly, since the production of frozen meat and dairy produce for export encouraged more intensive farming. There thus arose a new farming class which in 1911, some five years after Seddon's death, was mainly responsible for the overthrow of the Liberal regimé.

The policy of the succeeding Reform Party under Massey was one favouring agricultural production. Farming interests were given constant encouragement by a series of enactments of which the extension of rural credit was typical. Three years after the advent of the Reform Party the First World War 1914–18 broke out, leading to the formation of a Coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports. War activities were marked by heavy casualty lists, in proportion to the population, and by enhanced cordiality in Imperial relations. One noteworthy outcome of the war commandeer was the precedent given for the establishment, after the war, of Control Boards to regulate the export of pastoral products.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reductions, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilize economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and, from the administrative side, it was characterized by extensive public-works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways.

Owing to the encouragement given to farming, pastoral production constantly expanded, so that New Zealand became one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. As a consequence, her national income was extremely sensitive to price fluctuations of these products; so that, with the advent of the depression in 1930, her economic position became extremely vulnerable. In order to produce balanced budgets, both public and private, various legislative remedies were attempted. In particular, enactments were provided for unemployment relief, for the suspension, in effect, of compulsory arbitration, for the establishment of a Reserve Bank, for a mortgage moratorium, for raising the exchange rate, and for reduction in interest rates and wages. With the recovery in price levels and consequent general economic revival, amendments were made to several of these Acts, removing the more stringent measures. The election of a Labour Government in 1935 led to a change in administrative policy, the preoccupation being mainly with social problems. Further amendments were made to the depression legislation, certain restrictive measures were removed, and other temporary adjustments made permanent.

The general climate of opinion and gradual maturity of outlook furnish the background in which certain distinctive trends appear in legislation passed from 1936 to 1955.

The first major influence was an attitude which forcefully rejected the human suffering and economic waste associated with a major depression. Evidence of this is implicit in the provision for a basic wage, and later for a minimum wage, employment-promotion legislation, amendments to workers' compensation, industrial conciliation and arbitration, mining, etc., legislation, the system of guaranteed prices for certain primary produce, the creation of farm industry reserves, and the rationalization of production and marketing by the establishment of boards for certain items of primary produce.

The second major influence on legislation was conditioned by the outbreak of the Second World War 1939–45. A vast body of legislation was placed on the statute book during the war period dealing with the control of manpower and materials, stabilization of prices, wages, and rents, conditions of employment and suspension of certain peacetime features of industrial activity, discouragement of some industries and diversion to or encouragement of other industries, provision for rehabilitation, etc.

A third dominant trend was the acceptance of the principle that society should take active steps towards the improvement of the working, living, and social circumstances of its members. Foremost in this category was the Social Security Act and its later extensions providing for monetary benefits such as age, superannuation, family allowances, sickness, and unemployment, and for removal of the fear of want; failure to obtain needed medical assistance and hospitalization by the deterrence of crippling costs was obviated by the provision of a system of medical benefits.

Other legislative enactments under this heading include the provision for paid annual holidays, joint family homes, reduction of working hours, extension of workers' compensation insurance, improvement in safety and health and welfare conditions in industry, and extension of educational facilities and opportunities.

A fourth approach to law-making resulting from maturity of outlook has been the increased participation by New Zealand in international affairs consequent on its acceptance of responsibility in the wider issues of the present era. Legislation authorizing participation in the United Nations' activities generally and in particular emergencies, such as army and naval service in Korea; the extension of New Zealand representation in overseas countries and with the United Nations; the greater frequency of Commonwealth consultation; extension of aid to less developed countries, e.g., to Greece, and participation in the Colombo Plan; all bear witness to this change in outlook.

Another influence on legislation presents some parallels to that last mentioned, but is more concerned with the domestic sphere. It is exemplified in the increasing interest taken in welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of New Zealand's island and trust territories, such as the Cook Islands and Western Samoa.

Contemporaneously with the expansion of the field of legislative interest, other economic and industrial development of the country has proceeded with marked impetus in recent years. Partly induced by war-time shortages and the lack of self-sufficiency, and partly because the predominantly fanning section of the country cannot absorb any very large inflow into the labour force, there has been in evidence a marked expansion with greater diversification of secondary industry. At the same time the basic industries of the country, those concerned with primary production, have prospered, assisted by the rapid absorption into practice of the technological improvements and achievements of the period.

The history of New Zealand's island territories has been largely one of wise paternal oversight, particularly in the earlier periods, by the New Zealand Government and by the various missions established in the islands. More recently, successive Governments have in various ways encouraged the inhabitants to take an increasing share in the administration of their communities, thus paving the way for some form of self-government. Much attention has been paid to combating tropical diseases and to health problems generally; such island industries as citrus, orange, and banana growing being fostered and encouraged in various ways, with outlets being found for produce available for export. By and large, however, their economy is necessarily one of a subsistence type only, with financial and other assistance provided from Government sources for the expansion of educational facilities and opportunities, public works such as roading, conservation of water supplies by reservoir construction, communication facilities, etc.

Owing to limitations of space, the foregoing is but a brief résumé of New Zealand history. For detailed information, reference should be made to the many excellent books dealing with the subject, of which the more recent ones are listed in the General Bibliography appearing in Appendix C of this volume, and others in earlier issues.

SOVEREIGNTY.—Following representations from Maori chiefs for protection from the prevailing turmoil and lawlessness caused by inter-tribal warfare and the rough element around the whaling stations, the New South Wales Government appointed, in 1832, Mr James Busby as British Resident at Russell. Owing to the failure to supply him with any means of exerting authority, his appointment was largely ineffective. Finally the disorder, and the friction between the two races, became so intolerable that even the missionaries, who were opposed to annexation, made representations for British sovereignty.

On 29 January 1840, Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Maoris, to proclaim the sovereignty of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. Hobson formally read his commissions at Kororareka on 30 January 1840, and on 6 February of the same year a compact called the Treaty of Waitangi was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred by Hobson from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and an appointed Superintendent. Of these the provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950. In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

With the gradual development of the country's economy, the acquisition of political and administrative experience, and the increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, the stage was set for more complete self-government. Accordingly the country ceased to be a colony and was raised to the status of a Dominion, this change taking place from 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931, was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth Legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply. In other words, its operation in any of the self-governing members of the Commonwealth required specific adoption by the Legislature of that country. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminster.

As far as the island territories are concerned, the Cook Islands were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888, and in 1901 were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895. Niue Island is part of the Cook Islands, though separately administered, and became part of New Zealand in 1901 with the extension of boundaries to include the Cook Islands. The Tokelau Islands were placed under the protection of Great Britain in 1877, formally annexed at the inhabitants' request in 1916, and from 1925 were administered by New Zealand at the request of the United Kingdom Government. From 1948 they have become part of New Zealand by virtue of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General.—New Zealand is a monarchical state; it is also a constituent member of the Commonwealth. It is in this context that the preamble to the Royal Titles Act 1953 is significant … whereas it is expedient that the style and titles at present appertaining to the Crown should be altered so as to reflect more clearly the existing relationships of the Members of the Commonwealth to one another and their recognition of the Crown as the Symbol of their free association and of the Sovereign as the Head of the Commonwealth …

Constitutional elements besides that of the titular head, the Monarch, can be reviewed under the categories of legislative authority, the executive and administrative structure, and the judiciary. This division is a convenient one, even though there is no absolute line of demarcation between the three phases (e.g., legislation may and often does arise through the day to day experience of those responsible for administration and execution of policy, or through difficulties or anomalies made explicit in the course of dispensing justice or interpreting law). Conversely, in the exercise of the powers and functions of industrial and other tribunals, commissions, authorities, etc., both administrative and judicial elements may be discerned.

THE MONARCH.—The New Zealand Parliament in the Royal Titles Act 1953 gave its assent to the use of the royal style and titles as follows: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

While the seat of the Monarch is normally in the United Kingdom, the Queen is represented in New Zealand by the Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of Her New Zealand Ministers. The Governor-General has however an official existence, even in the country to which he has been appointed, only in the absence of the Queen from that country. In the island territories the Crown is represented by the Resident Commissioner or Resident Agent, and in the trust territory of Western Samoa by the High Commissioner. These officials carry out any constitutional functions of the Crown, but they also possess in varying degree certain executive and legislative powers, being responsible to the New Zealand Government for the administration and good government of the islands concerned.

Many powers held by the Monarch (or her representative) comprise but the means of giving effect to the public will. In New Zealand the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Ministers, which cannot be constitutionally ignored. Despite the long-term trend for powers to be assigned directly to Ministers without any necessity for vice-regal consultation, there are still many phases of Government which require Royal participation.

The Queen (in her absence the Governor-General) gives consent or approval prior to a Minister taking office or the formation of a Ministry; summons and prorogues Parliament; delivers the Speech from the Throne at the opening of a session; gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed all stages in the House of Representatives, without which they have not the force of laws; makes appointments to most important State offices, to Knighthoods, and other honours, etc.; and also provides that background of stability, continuity, and experience in many facets of government which is so desirable whenever there are sweeping changes in the dominance of political parties.

Besides those duties associated with the constitutional role, the Royal personage or representative makes an important contribution to the ceremonial life of the nation. This was particularly well illustrated during the sojourn of the Royal visitors to New Zealand in 1953–54. Both as the symbol of the nation and in virtue of her identification with the life and interests of her people, the Queen becomes the focus for all State occasions, as does the Governor-General in her absence.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY.—The Supreme law-making body with power to legislate for the whole country is Parliament, which consists of the House of Representatives only, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since the close of 1950.

The powers of Parliament to make laws are constitutionally untrammelled. This was not always so, for prior to the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 there was incapacity to make laws on certain matters which conflicted with United Kingdom statutes extending to New Zealand. There was also some doubt as to New Zealand's power to make laws possessing extra-territorial validity.

While the law-making function is the prerogative of the members of Parliament, it must be remembered that, as in most democracies, by far the great majority of laws made are passed because of their acceptability to the majority party in Parliament—i.e., the Government party. Furthermore the initial acceptance will have probably been made in the deliberations of Cabinet.

With the increasing range and complexity of the statutory field, the multifarious concerns of a modern twentieth century government, and the necessity of conserving time for consideration of more important issues, much of the detailed procedural steps and other amplifying matter must become the subject of Orders in Council or of regulations made under the authority of some statute, rather than being incorporated in the statute itself. In this form of what has been termed legislation by delegation, the power to originate and sanction regulations rests with that comparatively small proportion of the majority party in Parliament individually known as Members of the Executive Council (or of Cabinet) and who collectively, together with the Governor-General, comprise the Executive Council. The same individuals, excluding the Governor-General, in New Zealand are members of the Cabinet provided that each is the holder of a portfolio.

Cabinet may and often does function in a deliberate sense as well as in an executive or administrative sense. However regulations, etc., though originating in Cabinet and becoming effective in the proceedings of the Executive Council, still remain subject eventually to the sovereign will of Parliament as a whole.

Parliament—The General Assembly now consists of the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council (in existence 1854 to 31 December 1950) having been abolished by the Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950.

Meeting of Parliament.—A meeting of Parliament is summoned, and at the expiry of the life of Parliament is dissolved, by proclamation issued by the Governor-General. A session is that period between the meeting of Parliament (whether after a dissolution and subsequent general elections or prorogation) and the date on which it is prorogued. Prorogation implies the termination of all affairs on hand until such time as Parliament is summoned (e.g., bills not passed would have to be re-introduced); an adjournment, on the other hand, does not affect any matters which have not been completed. The length of a session varies, but is usually from autumn to late November or early December.

Parliamentary Privileges.—While in session these include freedom of speech and freedom from arrest, and also the right to engage in secret debate, if required, etc.

The Party System.—There are two political parties represented in Parliament in New Zealand at present: National and Labour. At any General Election these parties, together with any other political parties which may be desirous of so doing and also those standing as independents, state their respective policies before the electors. Each party normally puts forth one candidate for each of the eighty electorates into which the country is divided. The party which wins the majority of seats, although not necessarily the majority of votes, at the General Election forms the Government. The leader of the elected members of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister, who selects the most outstanding or experienced persons from among the majority party (Government members) for Ministerial appointments. The leader of the minority party in Parliament becomes the Leader of the Opposition. The effectiveness of the party system relies largely on the general agreement that the majority party is to govern and the minority is to criticize—so that there is ample time allocated for debate on Government measures in Parliament. While party control is exercised by national and local organizations outside Parliament, within the latter it is maintained by the respective party Whips.

Parliamentary Procedure.—The House of Representatives has its Standing Orders, but the main means by which Parliament does its work is through the system of debate and Committees. The Speaker's prime function is to control debates, having power to set limits on members' times, and his rulings and points of order are followed.

Parliamentary Functions and Control.—The Parliament controls the Government in power in the last resort by its power to pass a resolution of no confidence in the Government, or to reject a proposal which the Government considers so necessary that it is made a matter of confidence, and thus force the Government to resign.

Financial control is exercised by the fact that expenditure of public money must be authorized by the House of Representatives in the form of an Appropriation Act, which authorizes or grants money to the Government for the purposes approved. The authority for the raising of revenue by taxation or borrowing must also be given by Parliament. The functions of Parliament are of course the passing of legislation and taking action to make available finances or funds as required for State expenditure, while it also controls the Government. Legislation can be initiated from any member of Parliament, but in practice almost all Bills are introduced by the Government in power as a result of policy decisions taken in Cabinet, sometimes at the instigation of those Government Departments which will be responsible for their administration when the Bills become law. The chief exceptions are private Bills, which relate usually to some matter of individual interest or individual, and local Bills which relate largely to matters of local (as distinct from central) government business. The process of passing a public Bill is as follows: it receives a formal first reading on introduction, is then printed, and after some time may be given a second reading as a result of a debate on its general merits or principles. It is then referred either to one of the Standing Committees, or it may be the whole House sitting in Committee, and during this stage members may suggest appropriate amendments which can be incorporated in the Bill if the majority so decide. After this stage the Bill is reported to the House and a further debate takes place. Finally, it is submitted for a third reading, and if passed it is sent to the Governor-General for assent. The Bills providing for receipt of moneys, such as the Finance Bill, and expenditure of moneys, such as the Appropriation Bill, are initiated only by a Minister of the Crown, normally the Minister of Finance.

Duration of Parliaments.—Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act 1942 extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but with a proviso for a motion to be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. During the 1943 session a motion in favour of dissolution was carried, and Parliament was dissolved on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliaments has been of three years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved after the expiration of approximately twenty months.

Number of Representatives.—The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “Members of Parliament”. The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South Island.

Qualifications of Members.—Under the Electoral Act 1927 every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under “Franchise" post); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a contractor to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Though women's suffrage has been operative since 1893, women were not eligible as parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act 1919, the provisions of which are now embodied in the Electoral Act 1927. Under the Electoral Act public servants were prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition was removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1936, which provided that if elected they immediately cease to be public servants.

Salaries, etc.—In accordance with the recommendations contained in the report (issued in 1951) of the Royal Commission upon parliamentary salaries and allowances, the Prime Minister's salary, as from 1 September 1951, was increased to £3,000 with a tax-free allowance of £1,000 for the expenses of his office and the Ministerial residence. In addition, while travelling on official business he receives £3 3s. per day to meet expenses, and by virtue of his office is entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. The salary of each Minister holding a portfolio is £2,000 with a tax-free expense allowance of £450, and that of each Minister without portfolio £1,650, with £400 tax-free expense allowance. Where the office of Minister of External Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister the expense allowance is increased to £600. Any Minister not occupying a Ministerial residence receives an allowance in lieu at the rate of £300 per annum. This allowance or the assessed value of the residence where one is provided is subject to income tax. Previously Ministers did not receive an expense allowance as such, but the Commissioner of Inland Revenue allowed a deduction from salary of £250 as an expense allowance. Ministers also receive an allowance of £3 3s. per day when travelling on official business.

The Civil List Amendment Act 1936 made provision for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, an innovation in executive control in New Zealand. The rate of salary attachable to such position is now £1,250, with the same house provision or allowances, and travel allowance while on official business, as for Ministers. An expense allowance of £350 is also payable. Since the general election of November 1954, no appointments or reappointments have been made.

The Civil List Act 1950 provided that, on a recommendation of a Royal Commission, the salaries and allowances of Ministers and Members of Parliament may be fixed by Order in Council, in which event the salaries and allowances so fixed will be payable instead of those specified in the Civil List Act 1950. In conformity with the recommendations of the Royal Commission issued in 1951 the honorarium paid to members of the House of Representatives has been increased to £900 per annum. They are also paid a basic allowance at the rate of £250 per annum for expenses incurred in connection with parliamentary duties and a sessional allowance of £150 per annum to all members except those representing the nine electorates in or around Wellington. To meet the higher travelling and other expenses for partly rural and predominantly rural-electorates additional increments of £75 and £150 respectively are paid to members representing such electorates, subject to the classification of electorates by the Representation Commission into the four classes of (a) urban electorates in or near Wellington or Lower Hutt, (b) urban electorates other than Wellington electorates, (c) partly urban and partly rural electorates, and (d) predominantly rural electorates (refer Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1951). Payment to members is subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. In addition to the honorarium, members are entitled to certain privileges in respect of railway and other forms of travel, a stamp allowance of £4 a month, etc.

Part V of the Superannuation Act 1947 introduced a contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives, which provided a minimum retiring allowance of £250 per annum for a member with nine years' service, the allowance increasing by £25 per annum for every year's service in excess of that period until a maximum allowance of £400 per annum is reached after fifteen years' service.

A member must be fifty years of age before he qualifies, on ceasing to be a member, to receive the allowance. The annual contribution, which is compulsory, is £50 per annum, but a member may if he so desires receive a refund of his contributions upon ceasing to be a member.

In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of two-thirds of the retiring allowance to which her husband was entitled at the time of his death.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £1,600 per annum, in addition to which he receives an expense allowance of £500 and residential quarters in Parliament House. The honorarium of the Chairman of Committees is £1,300, and an allowance of £350 per annum to cover expenses incurred in connection with his parliamentary and official duties is also paid.

The Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary of £1,600 with an expense allowance of £400. In addition, a secretary and typist are provided by the State and an allowance of £150 is payable for travel outside his electorate. His official stamp allowance is £10 per month.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY.—After the election of a new Parliament, the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the majority party in the elected members, is given the task of selecting the members of the Executive Council (i.e., the new Ministry). Each of those members of Parliament to form the Government is entrusted by the Prime Minister with responsibility for administration of a specified field or aspect of government. This field is entitled a portfolio e.g., all relevant matters relating to Customs would be allocated to one member, who is henceforth known as the Minister of Customs. He may also have other portfolios and the supervision of one or more Government Departments in which the activities carried out though important, either do not rank as portfolios or are subsidiary aspects of the field—in these cases the Minister's responsibility will extend to being in charge of the named Department. One or other of the appointed Ministers in this way is responsible for the direction of activities and executive acts of each of the Government Departments and offices, etc., embracing the entire range of State activities. Thus arises the concept of Ministerial responsibility.

In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers, together with the Governor-General, comprise the Executive Council; for purposes of prior and informal discussion on executive or administrative action, deliberation on proposed policy, they, with the exclusion of the Governor-General, become what is known as Cabinet.

Executive Council.—The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

At present (January 1955) the Executive Council consists of sixteen members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act 1950, which consolidated and amended the Civil List Act 1920 and its amendments, His Excellency the Governor-General receives an honorarium of £5,000 per annum, an allowance of £5,000 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his establishment (exclusive of the Official Secretary), plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet.—There is a very close relationship between the Cabinet, in itself not a legal entity, and the Executive Council, a statutory body. Cabinet, as stated previously, consists of the Ministers of Crown but does not include the Governor-General, being virtually the same body. Where certain Cabinet decisions have to bear the imprint of legal form to become effective, it is the Executive Council which, in the shape of Orders in Council or regulations, confirms these decisions. The preliminary review of proposed policy or of current administrative developments which take place in the informal discussion atmosphere of Cabinet meetings implies both deliberate or selective and administrative procedures on the part of this body. Consequently, as a result of the device of Cabinet, a general consensus of agreement can exist on any proposed line of action by either an individual Minister, or by the Government as a whole, which enables (a) the Executive Council confirmation to proceed smoothly and expeditiously, (b) the Minister in introducing legislation into the House of Representatives or on other occasions to be confident that his measure will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have individually been apparent before the general agreement in Cabinet was made, (c) a consistent and agreed upon course of action or attitude can be followed on any particular issue. Thus the concept of collective responsibility of the Government is introduced and exemplified in the workings of Cabinet.

Complex questions and/or related problems may be initially considered by committees of Cabinet composed of those Ministers primarily concerned. Some executive action may be undertaken by these committees within the lines of established Government policy. Their work is subject to periodical report to and overall supervision by the entire Cabinet. On occasions also ad hoc committees may be established to review or investigate particular questions of the moment and to present their conclusions and recommendations to Cabinet for decision or for authority to take executive action. The decisions of Cabinet which require executive action, although notified to all concerned, are usually made effective through the agency of the Minister concerned.

Cabinet deliberations being investigatory or preliminary to action in other organs of Government are naturally informal, while anonymity as to the individual advocacy of opposition to some concerted line of action or area or general agreement is preserved in the form of recording system adopted. A small Cabinet secretariat is set up for the purpose of achieving co-ordination, continuity of action, and review, and to enable the smooth functioning of the work of Cabinet.

In brief, the functions of a Cabinet have been described as (a) the final determination of the policy to be submitted to Parliament, (b) the supreme control of the national executive in accordance with the policy prescribed by Parliament, (c) the continuous co-ordination and delineation of the activities of several Departments of State.

Government Departments.—The Minister as the political head of a Department of State may in fact have several Departments under his control. There are however some forty-four different Departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these has a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the Department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the Department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the Ministerial policy and policy communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day to day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing sub-group, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's Office, External Affairs, Printing and Stationery, Law Drafting, Valuation, Census and Statistics, and Audit; the finance sub-group—Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory sub-group—Public Service Commission, Internal Affairs, Island Territories, Labour, Marine; the defence and law and order sub-group—Navy, Army, Air, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the publicity and research sub-group—New Zealand Broadcasting Service, Tourist and Publicity, Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications sub-group, such as Transport, Post and Telegraph, and Railways; the developmental—Ministry of Works, Agriculture, Lands and Survey, Mines, State Hydro-electric, Maori Affairs, and Industries and Commerce; the commercial—Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Advances Corporation, and State Fire and Accident Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Security Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate in which field the dominant activity or purpose of the particular Department is engaged on or concerned with. Most Departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions, and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government Departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that the Governor or Board of Directors is to give effect to any resolution of the House of Representatives in respect of the bank's functions or business.

A further instance of this principle is shown by the National Airways Corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such are the Railways Commission and the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet make use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organizations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, Licensing Commission, and Local Government Commission.

JUDICIARY.—The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Court. Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are other Courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category are the Court of Arbitration, concerned with awards and general orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry; the Compensation Court dealing with workers' compensation; and the Land Valuation Court, which settles land valuation disputes and compensation claims where land is taken for public works. For further details refer to Section 8 (Justice) of this issue.

ELECTORAL PROVISIONS.—Following each population census, which is normally taken every five years, New Zealand is divided anew into seventy-six European electorates. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering a portion of the North Island together with the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time, by Proclamation, alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, but, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is the total population as disclosed by the census, with the following exceptions:

Maoris:
Persons detained in mental institutions:
Persons detained in prisons:
Persons on board ship:
Temporary guests in licensed hotels:
Persons residing temporarily in military, etc., camps:
Patients in public hospitals.

Provision exists for an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of ½ per cent of the total population where districts containing the exact quota could not be formed consistently with consideration of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

These provisions, which differ considerably from those previously in force, are contained in the Electoral Amendment Act 1950. This Act also provided that all general elections and by-elections shall be held on a Saturday and for both European and Maori elections to be held on the same day. Previously the Maori elections were held on the day preceding the European elections. An amendment in 1951 provides for the polling hours in Maori electorates to be extended to 7 p.m., as in the case of European electorates.

The Electoral Amendment Act 1951 provided that, if at any time Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the general and supplementary rolls used in the previous general election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if in the opinion of the Chief Electoral Officer it is impracticable to print new general rolls. The same rolls, together with a further supplementary roll, are to be used for any by-election occurring before the next following general election.

The latter amending Act also provides for the voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen serving overseas who are or will be of, or over the age of, twenty-one years before the date of the election or poll, whether or not registered as electors of any electoral district. Each such serviceman shall be qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which is situated his usual place of residence before he last left New Zealand.

FRANCHISE.—Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893 every person twenty-one years of age or over has had the right to exercise a vote in the election of members for the House of Representatives. To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in New Zealand, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924, but for Maori electors a Proclamation was necessary before registration became operative. The Electoral Amendment Act 1948, however, provided for the preparation of rolls for Maori electoral districts, which, subject to and after notification in the Gazette that these rolls have been formed, shall be for all purposes the electoral rolls of the districts concerned.

Legislative provisions exist enabling persons to vote as absent voters (those away from electorates on polling day) and postal voters (those ill or infirm), and for voting on declaration (those persons qualified to be enrolled as electors but whose names are not on the rolls due to becoming qualified after the date of the issue of the writ), etc.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the foregoing, for, if a person is classified as one of the following, he or she is not entitled to register as an elector or to vote:

An alien:
A mentally defective person:
A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of Her Majesty's Dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act 1927 as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

Maoris are qualified to vote only at elections of the four members representing the Maori race. A Maori half-caste is entitled to be registered either as an elector of a Maori or a European electoral district, while special provisions govern any changeover of registration.

By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937, which made provision for a secret ballot in Maori elections, Maori electors were granted the same privileges, in the exercise of their vote, as European electors.

For the system of local-government administration a modified form of franchise exists, a ratepaying qualification being necessary for the exercising of votes on financial issues. Further reference to this aspect of franchise will be found in Section 31 of this Year-Book.

Chapter 3. SECTION 3—POPULATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL REVIEW.—A population census was taken as for the night of Tuesday, 17 April 1951, in New Zealand, while censuses of its island territories were conducted by the Department of Island Territories for the night of Tuesday, 25 September 1951.

The minor islands (see page 2), other than the Kermadec Islands and Campbell Island, were uninhabited at the date of the census, as was also the Ross Dependency, situated in Antarctic regions.

The 1951 census population of geographic New Zealand (i.e., excluding Island Territories) was 1,939,472, inclusive of 115,676 Maoris.

For the Island Territories 1951 census figures were: Cook Islands and Nine Island, 19,632; Tokelau Islands, 1,580; Trust Territory of Western Samoa, 84,909. The total census population of New Zealand and Island Territories was 2,045,593. Armed Forces personnel overseas at the time of the census and not included in the population numbered 1,894 (Europeans 1,830, Maoris 64).

The figures contained in the following summary are the latest available.

—	Date	Males	Females	Totals
* Includes population of the inhabited minor islands—i.e., Kermadec Islands, 10 (males); and Campbell Island, 5 (males).
New Zealand—
(a) Exclusive of Island Territories—
Europeans	30 September 1954	990,926	982,116	1,973,042
Maoris	30 September 1954	66,243	63,295	129,538
Totals, New Zealand (excluding Island territories)	30 September 1954	1,057,169	1,045,411	2,102,580
(b) Island Territories—
Tokelau Islands	30 June 1954	846	940	1,786
Cook Islands	31 March 1954	8,158	7,499	15,657
Niue Island	30 September 1954	2,315	2,448	4,763
Totals, New Zealand (including Island territories)	..	1,068,488	1,056,298	^*2,124,786
Trust Territory of Western Samoa	30 June 1954	47,624	45,193	92,817

INCREASE OF POPULATION.—Since the commencement of European settlement in New Zealand the European population has in every year shown an increase, though the rate of increase has fluctuated considerably. As will be seen later in this Section, the movement of Maori population has followed a different course. Census records for the last half-century are quoted in the succeeding table and include Maoris.

Date of Census	Numbers	Intercensal Numerical Increase	Intercensal Percentage Increase	Average Annual Percentage Increase
* Excludes New Zealand Armed Forces personnel overseas. † Includes New Zealand Armed Forces personnel overseas.
March 1901^*	815,853	72,646	9.77	1.89
April 1906	936,304	120,451	14.76	2.75
April 1911	1,058,308	122,004	13.03	2.52
October 1916^*	1,149,225	90,917	8.59	1.50
April 1921	1,271,664	122,439	10.65	2.27
April 1926	1,408,139	136,475	10.73	2.06
March 1936	1,573,810	165,671	11.77	1.13
September 1945^*	1,702,298	128,488	8.16	0.83
September 1945^†	1,747,679	173,869	11.05	1.11
April 1951^*	1,939,472	237,174	13.93	2.37
April 1951^†	1,941,366	193,687	11.08	1.91

In no fewer than four of the nine censuses covered by the above table the figures are disturbed by the absence overseas of Armed Forces in time of war. Increase during the intercensal period preceding the census is thus diminished and in the period following is augmented by the return of such personnel or, more accurately and regrettably, the survivors. Numbers of Armed Forces personnel overseas at the respective dates were: 1901, 2,500 (approx.); 1916, 44,000 (approx.); 1945, 45,381; and 1951, 1,894.

It will be noted that the growth of population has been substantial in each period. The lowest rates are those of 1926–36, a result of the great economic depression, and of 1936–45, which included six years of war.

Omitting movements of army and air force personnel but including naval crews, post-war increases in population have been—

	Numbers	Per Cent
* 1.77 for a full year.
1946	34,932	2.02
1947	33,716	1.89
1948	33,710	1.85
1949	38,363	2.07
1950	36,678	1.94
1951	43,392	2.25
1952	53,913	2.74
1953	50,384	2.49
1954 (9 months)	27,505	1.33^*
Total	352,593	..

The increase in the rate of population growth, after an upward movement from 1950 to 1952 (the highest gain in the history of New Zealand), showed a downward trend in 1953 which has continued in the first nine months of 1954 to an even more marked degree.

Sources of population increase are threefold—viz., enlargement of territory, excess of arrivals over departures, and excess of births over deaths or natural increase. The first is inapplicable to New Zealand, the second is dealt with later in this Section, and the third is discussed in the Section relating to vital statistics. One aspect of the latter may, however, be given here. This is the reproduction index which, though not free from error, is a convenient indication of the growth or decline of a population. It is based on female children born (gross rate) and probably surviving to maturity (net rate). A net rate of 1.0 indicates a stationary population; above unity a rising population and Mow unity a falling population.

Reproduction rates during the last four years were as follows, the figures relating only to the European population.

Year	Gross Rate	Net Rate
1950	1.650	1.587
1951	1.640	1.578
1952	1.717	1.652
1953	1.696	1.632

A cautionary observation may be appended here. Though the total increase of population is the sum of natural increase and migration increase, certain discrepancies may be noted. The reason is that, following the census, revisions have been made to statistics of total population, but it has not been possible to make corresponding adjustments to migration or natural increase figures. A further discrepancy may be due to the exclusion from the migration statistics of movements of members of the Armed Forces.

POPULATION PROJECTION.—It is of interest to note that New Zealand reached its first million of population in December 1908 and the second million in August 1952, the population thus having doubled in approximately 43¾ years.

Interest in the future population of New Zealand was such that it was obvious there was a real need for up-to-date forecasts. However, to produce forecasts of real value, considerable work is involved in making careful studies of trends in fertility, mortality, immigration, etc. To meet the needs of those wishing to make estimates based on probable future changes in population, the following provisional projections have been made for the total population, inclusive of Maoris. These are based on two assumptions:

That the annual rate of natural increase will be 15 per thousand persons living.
That the net inflow due to migration will be 10,000 persons per annum.

MEAN POPULATION FOR TWELVE MONTHS ENDING 31 MARCH (INCLUDING MAORIS)

Year	Estimated Population
	(000)
1955	2,090
1956	2,132
1957	2,174
1958	2,216
1959	2,260
1960	2,303
1961	2,348
1962	2,393
1963	2,439
1964	2,486
1965	2,533
1966	2,581
1967	2,630
1968	2,679
1969	2,729
1970	2,780
1971	2,832
1972	2,884
1973	2,938
1974	2,992
1975	3,047
1976	3,102
1977	3,159
1978	3,216
1979	3,275
1980	3,334
1981	3,394
1982	3,455
1983	3,516
1984	3,579
1985	3,643
1986	3,707
1987	3,773
1988	3,840
1989	3,907
1990	3,976
1991	4,046
1992	4,116
1993	4,188
1994	4,261
1995	4,335
1996	4,410
1997	4,486
1998	4,563
1999	4,642
2000	4,721

Population Projections by Age-Groups.—Population projections are used for many purposes, but the practical uses generally have one objective in common—planning for the future. It is therefore necessary that careful studies of trends in fertility, mortality, longevity, immigration, etc., should be made in order that population projections can be made on the bases of reasonable assumptions. However, such estimates must not be construed as predictions of what the population will be at any given future time, they merely show the effect on the existing population of the stated assumptions, without implying that these assumptions will necessarily be fulfilled. If any one wishes to predict the future population of New Zealand, the figures given and the validity of the assumptions made should be examined.

Before commencing the current projections careful investigation was made of the basic data used. Sources of population increase in New Zealand are excess of births over deaths (natural increase) and excess of arrivals over departures. Briefly stated, the basic material used was as follows:

The existing population, by quinquennial age groups at the end of December 1952, was taken as the starting point.
Chances of surviving were taken from the New Zealand Life Tables, 1950–52, for non-Maori and Maori lives and were applied to births and the net inflow from migration as well as the existing population.
Expected births have been calculated with reference to the average number of women of child-bearing age, using an average annual birth rate for each quinquennial age group of mothers based on the period 1949–52. In the case of Maoris it was necessary to assume that ages of mothers would be more or less the same as in the non-Maori population, as Maori birth registrations have not included provision for age of mothers to be stated.
Age and sex distribution of the net inflow from migration was assumed to be the same as for the period 1934–53. It has not been necessary to include any figures for migration in the Maori estimates.

POPULATION PROJECTIONS, INCLUDING MAORIS

(a) Assuming No Net Inflow from Migration

	1957				1962
	Males	Females	Total		Males	Females	Total
0 and under 15	352,550	336,500	689,050	0 and under 15	376,700	358,500	735,200
15 and under 65	650,700	640,450	1,291,150	15 and under 65	701,050	687,000	1,388,050
65 and over	90,060	106,420	196,480	65 and over	90,410	112,360	202,770
Totals	1,093,310	1,083,370	2,176,680	Totals	1,168,160	1,157,860	2,326,020

	1967				1972
	Males	Females	Total		Males	Females	Total
0 and under 15	395,100	375,150	770,250	0 and under 15	430,800	408,850	839,650
15 and under 65	760,750	745,500	1,506,250	15 and under 65	816,750	800,600	1,617,350
65 and over	95,860	118,810	214,670	65 and over	104,810	127,270	232,080
Totals	1,251,710	1,239,460	2,491,170	Totals	1,352,360	1,336,720	2,689,080

(b) Assuming 5,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Migration

	1957				1962
	Males	Females	Total		Males	Females	Total
0 and under 15	355,950	339,500	695,450	0 and under 15	384,250	365,450	749,700
15 “ 65	662,800	647,900	1,310,700	15 and under 65	726,100	702,400	1,428,500
65 and over	90,260	106,870	197,130	65 and over	90,860	113,260	204,120
Totals	1,109,010	1,094,270	2,203,280	Totals	1,201,210	1,181,110	2,382,320

	1967				1972
	Males	Females	Total		Males	Females	Total
0 and under 15	407,400	386,500	793,900	0 and under 15	447,850	424,750	872,600
15 and under 65	799,100	769,500	1,568,600	15 and under 65	869,200	833,900	1,703,100
65 and over	96,560	120,260	216,820	65 and over	106,060	129,420	235,480
Totals	1,303,060	1,276,260	2,579,320	Totals	1,423,110	1,388,070	2,811,180

	1957				1962
	Males	Females	Total		Males	Females	Total
0 and under 15	359,400	342,500	701,900	0 and under 15	391,850	372,350	764,200
15 and under 65	674,950	655,300	1,330,250	15 and under 65	751,100	717,750	1,468,850
65 and over	90,460	107,370	197,830	65 and over	91,210	114,260	205,470
Totals	1,124,810	1,105,170	2,229,980	Totals	1,234,160	1,204,360	2,438,520

	1967				1972
	Males	Females	Total		Males	Females	Total
0 and under 15	419,650	397,950	817,600	0 and under 15	464,900	440,700	905,600
15 and under 65	837,500	793,350	1,630,850	15 and under 65	921,600	867,100	1,788,700
65 and over	97,310	121,760	219,070	65 and over	107,360	131,620	238,980
Totals	1,354,460	1,313,060	2,667,520	Totals	1,493,860	1,439,420	2,933,280

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—In the following summary of certain selected countries the two most recent census years are quoted together with the annual average percentage increase of population during the respective intercensal periods.

Country	Census Period	Average Annual Percentage Increase
* Excluding Newfoundland. † European population. ‡ Including Hyderabad, but excluding Kashmir, Jammu, and the tribal areas of Assam. § Excluding full-blooded aborigines. NOTE.—Minus sign (−) denotes a decrease.
New Zealand	1945–51	2.37
England and Wales	1931–51	0.46
Scotland	1931–51	0.26
Northern Ireland	1937–51	0.48
Austria	1939–51	0.33
Denmark	1945–50	1.04
Finland	1940–50	0.82
France	1936–46	−0.34
Hungary	1941–49	−0.15
Republic of Ireland	1946–51	0.03
Netherlands	1930–47	1.18
Portugal	1940–50	0.95
Sweden	1945–50	1.09
Switzerland	1941–50	1.12
Canada^*	1941–51	1.72
Union of South Africa^†	1946–51	2.18
India ^‡	1941–51	1.26
Pakistan	1941–51	0.75
Ceylon	1931–46	1.51
Australia^§	1947–54	2.46
United States of America	1940–50	1.36

It will be noted from the above table that the highest annual rate of increase is that shown for Australia—2.46 per cent for the intercensal period 1947–54. During the previous intercensal period 1933–47, the annual rate of increase was only 0.96 per cent. The large rise in the annual rate, thus revealed, is due mainly to post-war immigration.

The next highest rate of increase is that shown for New Zealand, 2.37 per cent. This however would be reduced to 1.91 per cent if members of the Armed Forces absent overseas in 1945 and 1951 were added to the totals at census dates and not regarded as population gains in the intercensal period.

The Commonwealth countries, Union of South Africa (2.18 per cent), Canada (1.72 per cent), and Ceylon (1.51 per cent), show the next highest rates of increase. On the other hand, European countries show the lowest rates of increase—France and Hungary actually show decreases—with the United Kingdom countries recording very low figures.

SEX PROPORTIONS.—Latest available figures (September 1954) show that males outnumber females by 8,810 in the European population, 2,948 in the Maori population, and 11,758 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males were: European, 991; Maori, 955; total population, 989. Net increase of population from migration adds to the male preponderance, but the major source of population increase is the excess of births over deaths, and this results in a female preponderance. In the relatively near future it seems probable that females will outnumber males. Females per 1,000 males at the last four censuses have been—

1926	957	1945 (including Armed Forces abroad)	991
1936	970	1951	991
1945	1044	1951 (including Armed Forces abroad)	989

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand. The following observations relate to the census of 1951 and give the number of females per 1,000 males.

In the aggregate of cities and boroughs the ratio was 1,071; in town districts, 1,010; and in counties, 885. For the provincial districts ratios were—

Canterbury	1028
Otago (Otago portion)	1016
Hawke's Bay	1003
Wellington	999
Auckland	982
Marlborough	960
Taranaki	958
Otago (Southland portion)	951
Nelson	948
Westland	937

Female preponderance in towns does not appear to have a direct relation to the size of the towns. Of the fifteen urban areas which comprise the largest centres of population eight had ratios higher than the average for all cities and boroughs, but seven were below the average, and of these Hutt, fifth largest urban area, even had an excess of males.

New Plymouth	1119
Dunedin	1100
Timaru	1098
Gisborne	1089
Christchurch	1087
Napier	1085
Hastings	1083
Wanganui	1075
Palmerston North	1070
Invercargill	1062
Hamilton	1059
Nelson	1058
Auckland	1057
Wellington	1052
Hutt	991

METHOD OF COMPILATION.—In common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country in normal times is taken quinquennially. The minutiae of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics compiled from census data, will be found in the official publications compiled after each census.

The basis adopted for the census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of the population present, which may be defined as the population present at the place of enumeration at the time of the enumeration.

Intercensal population statistics for New Zealand are statistics of record; those for lesser divisions such as provincial districts, counties, or boroughs are estimates.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand—i.e., Island Territories are omitted except in the first table where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Cook Islands, Niue Island, and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately.

Maoris are included in all population data unless the contrary is stated. Maori-Europeans who are in half or greater degree of Maori origin are included with Maoris. For some purposes the population dichotomy of European and Maori is necessary or desirable and “European" is used, conveniently if not altogether accurately, as referring to all population other than Maori, a usage long established in New Zealand.

INTERCENSAL RECORDS.—The intercensal statements of total population, prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration, have been, by virtue of the favourable position of New Zealand in this respect, relatively accurate. Moderate discrepancies, however, are inevitable and, in the tables following, revisions have been made for figures subsequent to the 1945 census to conform with the 1951 census figures.

The following population figures exclude members of New Zealand Armed Forces who were overseas, and also members of the Armed Forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

—	Population (Including Maoris) at End of Year			Increase During Year		Mean Population for Year
—	Males	Females	Totals	Numerical	Per Cent	Mean Population for Year
Years Ended 31 March
1944	789,772	854,128	1,643,900	9,806	0.60	1,637,570
1945	814,470	865,502	1,679,972	36,072	2.19	1,664,585
1946	878,739	878,017	1,756,756	76,784	4.57	1,710,680
1947	894,810	894,666	1,789,476	32,720	1.86	1,770,291
1948	915,359	912,666	1,828,025	38,549	2.15	1,807,611
1949	935,019	929,541	1,864,560	36,535	2.00	1,843,767
1950	955,427	947,456	1,902,883	38,323	2.06	1,881,317
1951	973,082	964,950	1,938,032	35,149	1.85	1,917,934
1952	997,468	987,262	1,984,730	46,698	2.41	1,958,729
1953	1,024,463	1,013,090	2,037,553	52,823	2.66	2,009,506
1954	1,049,963	1,037,777	2,087,740	50,187	2.46	2,061,376
Years Ended 31 December
1943	790,842	851,199	1,642,041	5,638	0.34	1,635,635
1944	813,568	862,718	1,676,286	34,245	2.09	1,655,795
1945	855,494	872,323	1,727,817	51,531	3.07	1,694,641
1946	891,321	889,893	1,781,214	53,397	3.09	1,759,526
1947	910,055	907,398	1,817,453	36,239	2.03	1,798,262
1948	929,233	924,573	1,853,806	36,353	2.00	1,834,655
1949	949,443	942,599	1,892,042	38,236	2.06	1,871,748
1950	967,308	960,321	1,927,629	35,587	1.88	1,909,092
1951	989,513	981,009	1,970,522	42,893	2.23	1,947,529
1952	1,017,874	1,006,682	2,024,556	54,034	2.74	1,996,149
1953	1,043,143	1,031,638	2,074,781	50,225	2.48	2,048,826

The figures given in the preceding table show the population inclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population exclusive of Maoris.

—	Population (Excluding Maoris) at End of Year			Increase During Year		Mean Population for Year
—	Males	Females	Totals	Numerical	Per Cent	Mean Population for Year
Years Ended 31 March
1944	739,744	805,297	1,545,041	7,404	0.48	1,539,978
1945	763,155	815,236	1,578,391	33,350	2.16	1,564,436
1946	826,877	828,967	1,655,844	77,453	4.91	1,610,193
1947	841,070	843,870	1,684,940	29,096	1.76	1,667,631
1948	860,419	860,538	1,720,957	36,017	2.14	1,701,873
1949	878,487	876,111	1,754,598	33,641	1.95	1,735,223
1950	897,618	892,710	1,790,328	35,730	2.04	1,770,130
1951	913,852	908,674	1,822,526	32,198	1.80	1,803,944
1952	936,338	929,104	1,865,442	42,916	2.35	1,841,332
1953	961,389	952,965	1,914,354	48,912	2.62	1,888,334
1954	984,822	975,534	1,960,356	46,002	2.40	1,936,202
Years Ended 31 December
1943	741,045	802,741	1,543,786	3,156	0.20	1,538,651
1944	762,566	812,885	1,575,451	31,665	2.05	1,556,318
1945	804,809	823,548	1,628,357	52,906	3.36	1,593,898
1946	838,010	839,488	1,677,498	49,141	3.02	1,657,851
1947	855,480	855,640	1,711,120	33,622	2.00	1,693,168
1948	873,062	871,489	1,744,551	33,431	1.95	1,726,839
1949	891,991	888,237	1,780,228	35,677	2.05	1,761,204
1950	908,479	904,467	1,812,946	32,718	1.84	1,795,830
1951	928,879	923,337	1,852,216	39,270	2.17	1,831,058
1952	955,354	947,102	1,902,456	50,240	2.71	1,875,940
1953	978,636	969,999	1,948,635	46,179	2.43	1,924,680

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.—Statistics of external migration have been recorded in New Zealand since 1860. Since 1 April 1921 they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving New Zealand.

Including crews of vessels, 117,648 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1954, which, compared with 1952–53, shows a decrease of 3,823. During the same period 102,601 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1952–53, shows an increase of 1,464.

In addition to the figures just quoted there were also 7,448 “through" passengers who called at a port of New Zealand en route to their destination.

The excess of total arrivals over total departures for 1953–54 was 15,047, compared with a similar excess of 20,334 during 1952–53.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last eleven years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, “through" passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and members of the Armed Forces, etc., have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 March	Arrivals			Departures			Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
Year Ended 31 March	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals	Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
1944	2,122	1,625	3,747	1,848	1,792	3,640	107
1945	3,667	3,540	7,207	3,112	3,077	6,189	1,018
1946	6,416	6,893	13,309	5,657	5,309	10,966	2,343
1947	12,682	12,676	25,358	11,417	10,903	22,320	3,038
1948	17,004	16,140	33,144	13,945	13,443	27,388	5,756
1949	18,646	17,300	35,946	15,837	15,928	31,765	4,181
1950	26,190	24,690	50,880	21,471	21,529	43,000	7,880
1951	28,309	26,335	54,644	23,411	23,711	47,122	7,522
1952	33,162	29,336	62,498	24,009	22,825	46,834	15,664
1953	35,574	30,666	66,240	22,399	21,809	44,208	22,032
1954	32,266	29,579	61,845	24,176	22,228	46,404	15,441

The number of arrivals in 1952–53 was the highest in the history of New Zealand migration statistics. However in 1953–54 arrivals showed a substantial drop of 4,395. The number of departures, after showing a decrease for two successive years, showed in 1953–54 an increase of 2,196. These two factors, in conjunction, were responsible for the large decrease of 6,591 in the figure for excess arrivals over departures.

In the nine-year period ending 31 March 1954 the net gain from passenger migration was 83,857, while if movement of crews is taken into account this is increased to 86,596.

Classes of Arrivals and Departures.—The following table gives an analysis of all classes of arrivals during the last five years, including “through" passengers, and crews. In classifying arrivals or departures as “permanent" the commonly used international rule is applied—i.e., residence or absence of one year or more.

—	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53	1953–54
Immigrants intending permanent residence	17,701	18,234	24,922	29,005	24,896
New Zealand residents returning	18,463	19,976	20,426	18,570	17,443
Visitors—
Tourists	10,768	12,183	12,325	13,309	13,858
On business	1,936	2,406	2,846	2,502	2,834
Theatrical, entertaining, etc.	1,117	634	582	785	686
Educational purposes	97	111	133	199	128
Others, officials, etc.	313	469	613	1,035	1,198
In transit	485	631	651	835	802
Through passengers	2,489	2,923	2,744	5,645	7,448
Crews	47,499	47,263	49,561	55,231	55,803
Totals	100,868	104,830	114,803	127,116	125,096

The succeeding table gives a similar analysis of departures.

—	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53	1953–54
New Zealand residents departing—
Permanently	6,886	7,788	7,300	6,271	7,048
Temporarily	20,106	21,371	21,090	18,315	18,277
Temporary residents departing	16,008	17,963	18,444	19,622	21,079
Through passengers	2,489	2,923	2,744	5,645	7,448
Crews	45,958	46,411	49,746	56,929	56,197
Totals	91,447	96,456	99,324	106,782	110,049

Ages.—The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the twelve months ended 31 March 1954.

Age, in Years	Permanent Arrivals			Permanent Departures			Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals	Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
0–14	2,511	2,260	4,771	576	644	1,220	3,551
15–24	3,169	2,568	5,737	815	793	1,608	4,129
25–34	3,909	3,458	7,367	1,021	1,037	2,058	5,309
35–44	1,750	1,752	3,502	418	475	893	2,609
45–59	1,008	1,186	2,194	325	422	747	1,447
60 and over	415	829	1,244	192	317	509	735
Unspecified	27	54	81	3	10	13	68
Totals	12,789	12,107	24,896	3,350	3,698	7,048	17,848

Of the permanent arrivals during the year 1953–54, 19 per cent were under fifteen years of age, 42 per cent under twenty-five years, 72 per cent under thirty-five years, and 86 per cent under forty-five years. Permanent departures represented a similar age distribution with percentages of 17, 26, 69, and 82 respectively.

Origin.—The following table shows for the last three years the birthplaces of immigrants intending permanent residence and of New Zealand residents departing permanently.

Abnormal figures are reflected in some years, particularly in those cases where the acceptance of displaced persons or assisted immigrants from countries other than Great Britain (e.g., Netherlands) was for a limited period only.

Country of Birth	Immigrants Intending Permanent Residence			New Zealand Residents Departing Permanently
Country of Birth	1951–52	1952–53	1953–54	1951–52	1952–53	1953–54
Commonwealth Countries
England and Wales	8,510	11,416	10,725	1,379	1,325	1,677
Scotland	1,506	2,166	2,338	270	263	279
Northern Ireland	227	490	507	81	43	61
United Kingdom (undefined)	160	221	240	17	8	35
Republic of India	359	347	370	106	87	78
Canada	112	130	201	62	67	50
Australia	1,362	1,851	2,091	762	565	765
Cook Islands and Niue	245	345	314	30	31	29
Fiji	155	179	200	47	32	42
New Zealand	3,439	3,866	3,622	4,087	3,342	3,359
Other Commonwealth countries in the Pacific	268	250	218	55	53	61
Other countries within the Commonwealth	315	352	387	63	56	101
Totals, Commonwealth countries	16,658	21,613	21,213	6,959	5,872	6,537
Other Countries
Republic of Ireland	305	597	601	50	57	71
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	235	20	32	11	12	14
Poland	210	56	38	15	11	16
Germany	291	137	114	7	12	18
Netherlands	3,356	5,024	1,681	5	30	82
Czechoslovakia	214	20	9	3	4	4
Yugoslavia	400	59	61	3	2	8
Rumania	694	19	17	4		5
Indonesia	372	237	44	3	4	7
China	279	237	225	22	18	9
United States of America	230	170	248	117	132	133
Others	1,668	795	593	96	117	139
Totals, other countries	8,254	7,371	3,663	336	399	506
At sea	1	2	1	..	..	..
Not specified	9	19	19	5	..	5
Grand totals	24,922	29,005	24,896	7,300	6,271	7,048

Assisted Immigration.—Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). The scheme that was operating prior to 1947 had been largely suspended since 1927, and only 50 immigrants received financial assistance during the ten years ended 31 March 1946.

To alleviate the shortage of staffs in mental hospitals the Government decided in 1946 to recruit labour in the United Kingdom, and the number of arrivals under this system totalled 240 (all females).

In July 1947 a comprehensive assisted passage scheme was introduced by the Government. Under this scheme financial aid was granted to certain categories of immigrants. Eligibility was confined to single residents of the United Kingdom (with no dependants) between the ages of twenty and thirty-five years who were suitable for, and willing to accept employment in, a wide variety of productive and servicing occupations. All assisted immigrants were required to enter into a contract with the New Zealand Government that they would engage in approved employment for two years after their arrival in New Zealand.

A scheme of child migration from the United Kingdom was in operation from June 1949 to May 1953. Arrivals of British children between the ages of five and seventeen years totalled 169 in 1949–50, 107 in 1950–51, 99 in 1951–52, 87 in 1952–53, and 68 up to terminating date during 1953–54.

In May 1950 a new immigration policy was announced by the Government, the main changes being as follows:—

The existing scheme in regard to unmarried British immigrants, including nominations, to continue, but with an extension of the age limit from thirty-five to forty-five years of age.
Extension of the free passage scheme to certain categories of married British immigrants with up to two children.
The acceptance, after negotiation and conclusion of agreements with the countries concerned, of a number of single non-British men and women between the ages of twenty and thirty-five years. Such an agreement was later entered into with the Netherlands Government.

Arrivals of “assisted" Dutch immigrants were 55 males in 1950–51,937 males and 163 females in 1951–52, 2,108 males and 601 females in 1952–53, and 495 males and 193 females in 1953–54.

The number of assisted immigrants (exclusive of displaced persons) arriving in New Zealand since the reintroduction of the scheme in 1947 was as follows.

Year ending 31 March	Number
1947	158
1948	1,140
1949	1,527
1950	2,532
1951	2,928
1952	4,949
1953	7,581
1954	6,299

In the preceding migration tables assisted immigrants are included in the totals of “Immigrants intending permanent residence”.

Displaced Persons.—Commencing with the year 1949–50 the Government agreed to accept drafts of displaced persons from Europe, who were brought to New Zealand in shipping provided by the International Refugee Organization. These settlers were chosen by a New Zealand Selection Mission, and arrivals totalled 941 in 1949–50, 978 in 1950–51, and 2,663 in 1951–52, made up of young single men and women, widows with one child, family groups, orphans, and a number of elderly people. This scheme was brought to an end with the arrival in April 1952 of the final two displaced persons accepted by the Government.

PASSPORTS.—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act. 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington and Auckland. United Kingdom, Canadian, and Australian passports are issued by the respective High Commissioners for those countries. The representatives of New Zealand at London, Washington, New York, San Francisco, Ottawa, Canberra, Paris, The Hague, Bombay, and Tokyo are authorized to issue and renew New Zealand passports.

Entry into New Zealand.—Apart from British subjects arriving from Australia, no person sixteen years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a valid passport or other travel document satisfactorily establishing nationality and identity. Exemption (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs. With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, all aliens require a British visa.

People born in Niue and Cook Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. They require to obtain formal exit permission from the Resident Commissioner if they wish to proceed to New Zealand.

Most people born in Western Samoa are New Zealand protected persons. If they wish to visit New Zealand for periods of up to three months they must obtain prior permission from the High Commissioner for Western Samoa. Those desiring to enter New Zealand for longer periods than three months are required to make prior application to the Secretary of Labour, Department of Labour, Wellington.

A British subject who is the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

Departure from New Zealand.—British subjects leaving New Zealand, with the exception of those travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.—The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act 1908 and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919.

The Immigration Restriction Act is administered by the Department of Labour, while the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act is administered by the Department of Justice.

Subject to certain exemptions, the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Department of Labour. (Note.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage by reason that he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject or by reason that he is an aboriginal Native or the descendant of an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of Her Majesty.)
Idiots or insane persons.
Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.
Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.
Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the country.
Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath (or make an affirmation) of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

To obtain permits to enter New Zealand as permanent residents, application must be made by the intending immigrants themselves to the Secretary of Labour, Wellington. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin, in which country the applicant must have resided for at least twelve months prior to the date of application. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons covered by clause (1) above to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to some period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit may be required in respect of such temporary permit, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit have been complied with. A deed to be entered into by some approved person or persons resident in New Zealand guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom may also be required.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Restricted Immigrants.—When persons who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm arrive in New Zealand and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons came to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond of £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for his support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

Declaration by Persons Arriving in New Zealand.—Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Immigration, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name, age, marital status, occupation, birthplace, nationality, race, particulars of children under fifteen years of age arriving with him, residence, etc.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALIZATION.—The British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, which came into force on 1 January 1949, was enacted following a conference of nationality experts of Commonwealth countries in February 1947, to discuss the basis of fresh nationality legislation. The scheme of the new legislation recommended by the Conference and accepted by Commonwealth Governments, is the “common status” of all British subjects, namely, that in each Commonwealth country all persons are recognized as British subjects who possess citizenship under the citizenship laws of any of the members of the Commonwealth. (Note.—The Act states that “British subject” and “Commonwealth citizen” have the same meaning.)

Upon the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship was automatically conferred on the following classes of British subjects:—

Those born in New Zealand.
Those naturalized in New Zealand.
Those ordinarily resident in New Zealand throughout the whole of the year 1948.
Those whose fathers were British subjects born or naturalized in New Zealand.
Women (being British subjects) married before the commencement of the Act to men who become citizens under the various provisions of the Act.

After the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways:—

By birth in New Zealand.
By descent.
By registration.
By naturalization.

Citizens of other Commonwealth countries acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration. The requirement is twelve months' ordinary residence. A British woman married to a New Zealand citizen is entitled to registration without any residence qualification.

The principal conditions governing the grant of naturalization to aliens under the 1948 Act are that the applicant shall satisfy the Minister of Internal Affairs (a) that he has resided in New Zealand for a period of five years, (b) that he is of good character and has a sufficient knowledge of the English language, (c) that if his application is granted he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand, (d) that the applicant gives a year's notice of his intention to apply, and (e) that the applicant possesses a sufficient knowledge of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship. There is discretionary provision for the Minister to allow residence in other Commonwealth countries to be reckoned for the purposes of the first condition, but in such cases a minimum of two years' residence in New Zealand is essential.

Naturalization granted to a married man does not automatically confer New Zealand citizenship on his wife and children, if they are aliens. These dependants may apply to be registered as New Zealand citizens after the head of the family has been naturalized. An alien woman marrying a British subject does not acquire her husband's nationality on marriage, but may apply to be registered as a British subject and New Zealand citizen. Acquisition of citizenship by naturalization or registration automatically confers the status of a British subject, and the two methods of acquiring citizenship are differences in legal procedure only.

A British woman marrying an alien does not lose her nationality under the present Act.

The complete numbers of naturalizations, registrations, etc., during the year ended 31 March 1954 were as follows.

Country of Birth	Certificates of Naturalization (Aliens and British-protected Persons)		Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen (British Subjects, Irish Citizens, British-protected Persons, and Aliens)		Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen—Minor Children (British Subjects and Aliens)
Country of Birth	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females
United Kingdom	..	..	75	39	6	5
Union of South Africa	..	..	1	..	..	1
Republic of India	..	..	11	14	14	6
Pakistan	..	..	..	1	..	..
Canada	..	..	1	..	..	..
Australia	..	..	7	2	..	..
Cyprus	..	..	..	2	..	1
Western Samoa	1	..	..	1	..	..
Fiji	..	..	..	3	..	..
Tonga	1	..	1	..	..	..
Republic of Ireland	..	..	6	..	..	..
Finland	1	..	..	1	..	..
Estonia	..	2	..	..	..	..
Latvia	1	1	..	3	..	..
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	..	..	1	2	1	..
Poland	14	7	..	9	..	2
Norway	3	..	..	..	..	..
Sweden	1	..	..	..	..	..
Denmark	8	..	..	2	..	..
Germany	6	4	..	11	1	..
Switzerland	1	1	..	1	..	..
Netherlands	10	..	..	8	5	2
Belgium	..	..	1	1	1	1
Italy	7	..	..	10	1	1
Czechoslovakia	4	3	..	2	1	..
Austria	6	2	1	4	..	..
Hungary	2	2	..	2	1	..
Yugoslavia	19	2	..	7	1	1
Greece	4	..	..	3	..	1
Burma	..	..	3	2	1	..
Indonesia	4	..	1	3	4	3
United States of America	2	..	..	4	..	..
Bolivia	..	..	..	..	1	1
Israel	..	1	..	..	..	..
Egypt	..	2	..	..	..	..
Lebanon	1	..	..	1	..	..
Turkey	..	1	1	..	..	..
China	9	..	..	..	..	..
Other countries	3	..	1	1	..	2
Totals	108	28	111	139	38	27

Of the certificates of registration granted to adult males, 108 were to British subjects or Irish citizens who acquired New Zealand citizenship by virtue of one year's residence in the country immediately preceding the date of application, and 3 to British subjects generally resident outside New Zealand who were registered as New Zealand citizens by virtue of their close associations by way of descent, residence, or otherwise, with New Zealand.

The certificates of registration granted to adult females were 51 to British subjects who acquired New Zealand citizenship by virtue of one year's residence in the country immediately preceding the date of application, 17 to British wives of New Zealand citizens, and 71 to alien women married to New Zealand citizens by birth or naturalization.

Certificates of registration granted to minor children were 62 (35 males, 27 females) to children of New Zealand citizens, by naturalization or registration, and 3 to males who lodged applications independently.

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS.—The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, the administration being carried out by the Police Department. This Act repealed earlier enactments relating to aliens.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at 1 April 1954 was 23,148, comprising 15,304 males and 7,844 females. This is not the complete number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under sixteen years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, Consuls, or employees of Embassies, Legations, and Consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand; (d) Western Samoans, except in special circumstances. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The following table shows the numbers on the register at 1 April 1953 and 1 April 1954.

Country of Nationality	1 April 1953			1 April 1954
Country of Nationality	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
Norway	134	39	173	122	43	165
Sweden	84	33	117	80	33	113
Denmark	364	188	552	365	197	562
Finland	27	17	44	35	26	61
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	128	89	217	130	87	217
Estonia	74	103	177	72	105	177
Latvia	232	247	479	233	248	481
Lithuania	84	89	173	86	89	175
Poland	996	703	1,699	1,003	699	1,702
Germany	184	203	387	152	203	355
Netherlands	6,574	2,604	9,178	7,227	3,277	10,504
Belgium	35	9	44	33	11	44
France	73	74	147	76	86	162
Portugal	5	10	15	5	10	15
Switzerland	282	294	406	302	140	442
Italy	225	168	393	239	167	406
Czechoslovakia	251	117	368	248	112	360
Austria	135	52	187	203	50	253
Hungary	178	111	289	165	115	280
Yugoslavia	744	327	1,071	712	333	1,045
Albania	31	1	32	31	1	32
Rumania	49	28	77	47	27	74
Bulgaria	140	12	152	141	11	152
Greece	601	423	1,024	606	431	1,037
Lebanon	18	13	31	20	13	33
China	2,373	842	3,215	2,271	932	3,203
United States of America	548	238	786	536	267	803
Other countries	65	29	94	57	31	88
Stateless	98	101	199	107	100	207
Totals	14,732	6,994	21,726	15,304	7,844	23,148

The number of aliens on the register as at 1 April 1954 shows an increase of 1,422 as compared with twelve months earlier. The only country which contributed a substantial increase in the number of aliens at 1 April 1954, as compared with twelve months earlier, was Netherlands, the increase being 1,326. Other countries showing increases of note were Austria, 66 and Switzerland, 36.

Decreases were shown by several countries, the largest being Yugoslavia, 26.

The age distribution and occupations of aliens on the register at 1 April 1952 will be found on page 31 of the 1953 issue of the Year-Book.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and these are published in Vol. I—Increase and Location of Population. In the 1951 issue will be found figures for provincial districts, land districts, urban areas, counties, cities, boroughs, town districts, extra-county islands, and shipping. In addition, county figures are subdivided further into (a) ridings, and (b) townships, localities, etc.

North and South Islands.—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census Year	Population (Excluding Maoris)			Proportions Per Cent
Census Year	North Island	South Island	Totals	North Island	South Island
* Includes Maori half-castes (total, 4,236) living as Europeans.
1901	388,626	381,678	770,304	50.45	49.55
1906	474,605	411,390	885,995	53.57	46.43
1911	561,281	444,304	1,005,585	55.82	44.18
1916	648,439	447,789	1,096,228	59.15	40.85
1921	741,255^*	477,658^*	1,218,913^*	60.81	39.19
1926	831,813	512,656	1,344,469	61.87	38.13
1936	938,939	552,545	1,491,484	62.95	37.05
1945	1,050,984	552,570	1,603,554	65.54	34.46
1951	1,202,357	621,439	1,823,796	65.93	34.07

The natural increase of European population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the North Island during the 1945–51 intercensal period was 103,954, and the total net increase 151,373. For the South Island the natural increase was 48,806, and the total net increase 68,869. It is clear that in the strict sense of the term there was no “northward drift” of population in this period. Inclusive of Maoris, the North Island increase was 167,577, or 14.62 per cent, and the South Island increase 69,597, or 12.52 per cent. In contrast to preceding periods the South Island rate of increase approaches fairly closely that of the North Island.

At the 1951 census the North Island population was 1,313,869, inclusive of 111,512 Maoris; and the South Island population 625,603, inclusive of 4,164 Maoris.

At 31 March 1954 the North Island population was estimated as 1,428,976, inclusive of 123,070 Maoris; and the South Island population as 658,764, inclusive of 4,314 Maoris.

Provincial Districts.—The approximate areas and the estimated populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are given in the next table.

For the guidance of overseas readers it is necessary to explain that there have been no provinces in New Zealand since 1875. Provincial districts are simply the former provinces, but they have no functions and are now merely historic divisions serving as useful units for a primary geographical break-down. There is no Southland Provincial District and the “Southland portion of Otago” has little resemblance in area to the former Southland Province.

Provincial District	Area (Square Miles)	Estimated Population 1 April 1954
Auckland	25,420	817,276
Hawke's Bay	4,260	98,000
Taranaki	3,750	92,100
Wellington	10,870	421,600
Marlborough	4,220	24,700
Nelson	10,870	71,400
Westland	4,880	18,800
Canterbury	13,940	295,964
Otago—
Otago portion	14,050	167,100
Southland portion	11,480	80,800
New Zealand	103,740	2,087,740

The foregoing table illustrates the wide disparities in the size of the provincial districts, whether measured by area or by population.

Urban and Rural Population.—On 17 April 1951 somewhat over two-fifths (43–7 per cent) of the population of New Zealand (excluding Maoris) were included in the five principal urban areas—Auckland, Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and over one-half (54–4 per cent) in these or in the ten secondary urban areas. In the following table urban population means the population in cities and boroughs, while rural population covers counties, all town districts, and extra-county islands. It will be observed that there was a marked slackening in the rate of the urban drift between 1926 and 1936, but the 1945 figures, due, no doubt, to wartime influences, disclosed a substantial increase in the urban population, whereas the rural population, for the first time, recorded a decrease. In the 1945–51 period a substantial gain was recorded in the rural population, but it was insufficient to prevent further deterioration of its ratio to total population.

Census	Population			Percentage of Total
Census	Rural	Urban	Migratory	Rural	Urban	Migratory
* Figures exclude military and internment camps. † Figures include Armed Services in New Zealand at census date and internment camps, but exclude members of the United States Forces present in New Zealand and also enemy prisoners of war. ‡ Inclusive of Maori half-castes (3,221 in 1916 and 4,236 in 1921) living as Europeans.
Excluding Maoris—
1901	416,701	349,842	3,761	54.09	45.42	0.49
1906	457,297	424,251	4,447	51.61	47.89	0.50
1911	495,577	505,003	5,005	49.28	50.22	0.50
1916^*^‡	501,956	585,306	3,463	46.02	53.66	0.32
1921^‡	531,694	681,988	5,231	43.62	55.95	0.43
1926	552,344	785,040	7,085	41.08	58.39	0.53
1936	602,519	884,293	4,672	40.40	59.29	0.31
1945^†	591,855	1,008,534	3,165	36.91	62.89	0.20
1951	654,921	1,163,090	5,785	35.91	63.77	0.32
Including Maoris—
1926	610,446	790,555	7,138	43.35	56.14	0.51
1936	677,087	892,024	4,699	43.02	56.68	0.30
1945^†	674,821	1,024,292	3,185	39.64	60.17	0.19
1951	748,922	1,184,672	5,878	38.62	61.08	0.30

Another conception of urban and rural population is presented in the next table. For this purpose urban population has been taken as that enumerated in cities, boroughs, or town districts with a minimum population of 1,000. Migratory population is excluded.

—	Including Maoris		Excluding Maoris
—	1926	1951	1926	1951
Numbers
Urban: towns of—
1,000– 2,500	104,360	88,532	102,201	86,560
2,500– 5,000	86,408	123,596	85,430	114,757
5,000– 10,000	82,662	107,251	82,144	115,666
10,000– 25,000	186,545	251,812	185,580	236,930
25,000 or over	338,213	625,666	337,221	617,921
Totals, urban	798,188	1,196,857	792,576	1,171,834
Rural	602,813	736,737	544,808	646,177
Totals, New Zealand	1,401,001	1,933,594	1,337,384	1,818,011
Percentages
Urban: towns of—
1,000– 2,500	7.45	4.58	7.64	4.76
2,500– 5,000	6.17	6.39	6.39	6.31
5,000– 10,000	5.90	5.55	6.14	6.36
10,000– 25,000	13.31	13.02	13.88	13.03
25,000 or over	24.14	32.36	25.21	33.99
Totals, urban	56.97	61.90	59.26	64.45
Rural	43.03	38.10	40.74	35.55
Totals, New Zealand	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

Some apparent anomalies where the numbers exclusive of Maoris exceed those inclusive of Maoris arise from the transfer of towns to other categories as a result of the different basis of population.

An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population, the more highly urbanized portion of the community is localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres (counting Wellington and Hutt as a single conurbation) have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country. An interesting feature is the wide gap which has long existed between the four major centres and the next largest towns.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island.

RECENT MOVEMENTS IN TOWNS AND COUNTIES: Urban Areas.—These are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. In addition to the central city or borough, they include neighbouring boroughs, town districts, and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population.

Urban areas were formed in 1917 and, except for two additions and one deletion, remained unaltered until 1951, when a revision of boundaries was made and the new areas used in the 1951 census. From census records and maps revised population figures were prepared on the basis of the new boundaries. In the case of European population the figures were revised for each census back to 1911, and on the basis of population including Maoris the revision was possible back to the 1926 census. The most significant change resulting from this revision was the division of the former Wellington Urban Area, plus additional areas to the north, into the two adjacent urban areas of Hutt and Wellington. The two areas in a sense form a single conurbation, and for some purposes it may still be convenient to use a combined figure. However, the extent and pattern of development in the Hutt Valley have been such as to establish it as a centre complementary to Wellington but no longer suburban to it. In Auckland the boundaries were extended considerably, but in most other cases it was found that little change was necessary.

Urban Area	Population (Including Maoris)				Population Increase 1945–51
Urban Area	1926	1936	1945	1951	Numerical	Percentage
Auckland	204,549	226,366	286,767	329,123	42,356	14.77
Hamilton	17,271	20,096	27,319	33,137	5,818	21.30
Gisborne	15,089	15,878	16,995	19,774	2,779	16.35
Napier	18,594	19,170	20,741	24,538	3,797	18.31
Hastings	14,612	17,920	20,306	23,797	3,491	17.19
New Plymouth	16,344	18,597	21,057	24,923	3,866	18.36
Wanganui	26,521	25,750	26,262	29,717	3,455	13.16
Palmerston North	20,107	24,372	27,820	32,908	5,088	18.29
Hutt	25,327	37,295	55,786	74,878	19,092	34.22
Wellington	103,687	122,062	132,305	133,414	1,109	0.84
Nelson	11,746	13,493	16,523	20,497	3,974	24.05
Christchurch	118,708	133,515	151,068	174,221	23,153	15.33
Timaru	16,959	18,771	19,672	22,851	3,179	16.16
Dunedin	88,862	85,607	87,587	95,457	7,870	8.99
Invercargill	22,054	25,912	27,755	31,613	3,858	13.90
Totals	720,430	804,804	937,963	1,070,848	132,885	14.17

In the quarter-century covered by the table all urban areas, with two exceptions, have consistently recorded increases in population. Of these exceptions, one comprised a slight recession at Wanganui, 1926–36. The other was Dunedin, 1926–36, but there the recession arose from the inflation of the 1926 population by visitors to the exhibition then being held at Dunedin. In numbers, growth during the twenty-five years is led by Auckland; in rate, Hutt and Hamilton are outstanding.

The Wellington Urban Area increase of 0.84 per cent between 1945–51 is partly explained by the substantial growth in the adjacent Hutt Urban Area. However, the increase for the two urban areas combined is 10.74, a rate exceeded by all urban areas except Dunedin.

Of particular interest is the marked increase in the Maori population in urban areas during the last twenty-five years. In Auckland the number of Maoris increased from 1,209 in 1926 to 7,621 in 1951. In the fifteen urban areas there were 3,457 Maoris in 1926, as compared with 16,010 in 1951.

The next table contains the population (Maoris included) of the fifteen urban areas as estimated for 1 April 1954. The component parts of the five largest centres of population are given in detail, while for the remaining ten areas totals only are quoted. In most of the ten cases the urban area comprises the central city or borough plus the urban portion of the adjoining county. At 1 April 1954 the five largest urban areas had a total population of 870,700, this being equivalent to 41.71 per cent of the New Zealand total. The total for urban areas at the same date was 1,158,400, or 55.49 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

Urban Area	Population (Including Maoris)
Auckland
Auckland City	134,500
East Coast Bays Borough	7,800
Birkenhead Borough	5,270
Northcote Borough	3,550
Takapuna Borough	17,250
Devonport Borough	12,000
Henderson Borough	2,390
Glen Eden Borough	3,220
New Lynn Borough	7,120
Mount Albert Borough	26,700
Mount Eden Borough	19,450
Mount Wellington Borough	9,490
Newmarket Borough	2,580
Ellerslie Borough	4,060
One Tree Hill Borough	13,000
Mount Roskill Borough	23,300
Howick Borough	2,830
Onehunga Borough	17,750
Otahuhu Borough	8,580
Papatoetoe Borough	9,880
Manurewa Borough	3,780
Papakura Borough	4,190
Panmure Township Road District	750
Remainder of urban area	22,160
Total	361,600
Hutt
Lower Hutt City	47,800
Upper Hutt Borough	10,200
Petone Borough	10,600
Eastbourne Borough	2,790
Remainder of urban area	11,510
Total	82,900
Wellington
Wellington City	127,700
Tawa Flat Borough	3,350
Remainder of urban area	9,350
Total	140,400
Christchurch
Christchurch City	141,000
Riccarton Borough	8,480
Lyttelton Borough	3,660
Heathcote County	4,700
Remainder of urban area	28,660
Total	186,500
Dunedin
Dunedin City	71,900
Port Chalmers Borough	3,130
West Harbour Borough	2,050
St. Kilda Borough	7,440
Green Island Borough	3,960
Mosgiel Borough	3,470
Remainder of urban area	7,350
Total	99,300
Hamilton	36,800
Gisborne	21,900
Napier	26,900
Hastings	26,100
New Plymouth	27,300
Wanganui	32,000
Palmerston North	36,400
Nelson	22,200
Timaru	24,700
Invercargill	33,400

Counties.—The following table gives the estimated population (including Maoris) of individual counties at 1 April 1954, together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “Administrative Counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include town districts which form parts of counties.

Administrative County	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Square Miles
North Island—
Mangonui	7,850	958
Whangaroa	2,480	240
Hokianga	7,990	613
Bay of Islands	11,890	823
Whangarei	14,600	1,044
Hobson	6,530	745
Otamatea	6,460	421
Rodney	5,980	477
Waitemata	23,400	600
Eden	1,810	1
Great Barrier Island	280	110
Manukau	17,850	240
Franklin	17,310	550
Raglan	11,400	930
Waikato	15,090	644
Waipa	15,270	444
Otorohanga	6,370	600
Kawhia	1,980	325
Waitomo	7,910	1,138
Taumarunui	3,750	878
Coromandel	2,740	444
Thames	3,130	414
Hauraki Plains	5,390	233
Ohinemuri	4,360	241
Piako	11,900	444
Matamata	16,200	994
Tauranga	16,200	717
Rotorua	11,450	1,040
Taupo	9,400	3,040
Whakatane	13,450	1,682
Opotiki	5,130	1,326
Matakaoa	1,990	295
Waiapu	6,260	793
Uawa	1,710	261
Waikohu	3,550	1,018
Cook	8,250	832
Wairoa	8,040	1,371
Hawke's Bay	17,800	1,671
Waipawa	3,760	524
Waipukurau	1,130	128
Patangata	3,170	651
Dannevirke	4,410	428
Woodville	1,840	156
Weber	330	118
Ohura	1,900	423
Whangamomona	780	447
Clifton	2,680	443
Taranaki	7,980	229
Inglewood	3,330	199
Egmont	5,040	239
Stratford	5,310	419
Eltham	3,710	207
Waimate West	2,870	83
Hawera		191
Patea	3,880	591
Kaitieke	3,720	550
Waimarino	2,270	829
Waitotara	3,650	468
Wanganui	3,910	460
Rangitikei	12,550	1,729
Kiwitea	2,380	359
Pohangina	1,350	259
Oroua	4,170	190
Manawatu	6,730	265
Kairanga	5,750	184
Horowhenua	9,300	544
Hutt	21,100	450
Makara	7,560	99
Pahiatua	2,770	286
Akitio	1,250	321
Castlepoint	620	230
Eketahuna	1,830	311
Mauriceville	550	115
Masterton	3,350	586
Wairarapa South	3,110	440
Featherston	4,070	952
Totals	493,630	43,700
South Island—
Sounds	950	507
Marlborough	8,380	1,896
Awatere	1,600	1,030
Kaikoura	3,210	906
Amuri	2,670	2,285
Cheviot	1,370	327
Waimea	16,350	1,537
Takaka	2,620	458
Collingwood	1,020	552
Buller	4,820	1,885
Murchison	1,460	1,372
Inangahua	3,480	942
Grey	5,280	1,579
Westland	4,660	4,410
Waipara	2,510	937
Kowai	1,970	157
Ashley	670	309
Rangiora	3,470	96
Eyre	1,730	175
Oxford	1,600	318
Tawera	740	941
Malvern	3,460	250
Paparua	10,450	136
Waimairi	20,700	43
Heathcote	4,700	13
Halswell	2,850	40
Mount Herbert	590	66
Akaroa	1,520	169
Chatham Islands	480	372
Wairewa	910	170
Springs	2,220	91
Ellesmere	2,880	231
Selwyn	1,620	954
Ashburton	10,500	2,459
Geraldine	5,200	691
Levels	5,060	263
Mackenzie	3,190	2,739
Waimate	6,100	1,383
Waitaki	9,270	2,391
Waihemo	1,180	338
Waikouaiti	3,600	316
Peninsula	4,090	40
Taieri	6,880	902
Bruce	3,860	520
Clutha	5,980	1,025
Tuapeka	7,930	1,388
Maniatoto	2,680	1,340
Vincent	4,290	2,922
Lake	1,740	3,871
Southland	25,820	3,723
Wallace	9,320	3,727
Fiord	20	3,035
Stewart Island	560	670
Totals	240,210	58,897
Grand totals	733,840	102,597

During the year ended 1 April 1954 nine counties are estimated to have gained population to the extent of 500 persons or more. However, during the year several large boundary changes between boroughs and surrounding counties must be considered as abnormally affecting increases or decreases of certain counties. For instance, the population of Waimairi County decreased by 8,500 (due to transfer of area to Christchurch City) and that of Waitemata by 8,100 (due to constitution of East Coast Bays Borough). Other decreases of over 1,000 as a result of boundary changes were shown by Heathcote County 2,960, and Waitaki County 1,230.

With the constitution of Kawerau Borough, Whakatane County showed a drop of 500. The rapid expansion of population in this county owing to the paper and pulp project was responsible for the relatively small decrease considering a new borough had been formed from a portion of the county.

Four other counties—namely, Bay of Islands 400, Mackenzie 300, Waimarino 230, and Buller 100—registered decreases.

Of the nine counties showing increases, Makara County headed the list with an increase of 1,290. This was chiefly attributable to the development of the State housing area at Titahi Bay. Matamata County then followed with an increase of 1,200. A major factor in this increase was the development of the forest industry, particularly at Tokoroa, a township built to house the employees of the timber mills at Kinleith, 4½ miles away. Next in order was Hutt County with a population increase of 1,000.

Other counties with increases of over 500 were Rotorua 850, Ohinemuri 820, Manukau 650, Levels 650, Rangitikei 600, and Paparua 590.

The increase in Ohinemuri County was caused by the transfer of the Waihi Beach portion of Waihi Borough to the county, while Levels County increased as a result of Pleasant Point Town District being merged into the county.

Boroughs.—Similar information as in the case of counties is now given for boroughs.

Borough	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Acres
North Island—
Kaitaia	2,040	1,310
Kaikohe	1,830	1,342
Whangarei	13,250	3,507
Dargaville	3,020	2,800
Helensville	1,230	1,315
East Coast Bays	7,800	3,850
Birkenhead	5,270	3,084
Northcote	3,550	1,190
Takapuna	17,250	3,280
Devonport	12,000	1,100
Henderson	2,390	1,265
Glen Eden	3,220	1,244
New Lynn	7,120	1,393
Auckland (City)	134,500	18,253
Mount Albert	26,700	2,430
Mount Eden	19,450	1,476
Mount Wellington	9,490	3,770
Newmarket	2,580	182
Ellerslie	4,060	745
One Tree Hill	13,000	2,430
Mount Roskill	23,300	4,605
Howick	2,830	1,103
Onehunga	17,750	1,876
Otahuhu	8,580	1,345
Papatoetoe	9,880	1,587
Manurewa	3,780	1,545
Papakura	4,190	2,010
Pukekohe	4,220	3,470
Huntly	4,010	1,678
Ngaruawahia	2,380	1,112
Hamilton (City)	33,300	6,145
Cambridge	3,300	1,280
Te Awamutu	4,360	1,162
Otorohanga	1,710	560
Te Kuiti	3,540	1,668
Taumarunui	3,340	1,925
Thames	4,890	2,712
Paeroa	2,730	1,419
Waihi	2,950	1,330
Te Aroha	2,800	2,783
Morrinsville	3,140	950
Matamata	2,630	934
Putaruru	2,320	975
Mount Maunganui	2,840	3,475
Tauranga	9,360	2,748
Te Puke	1,690	1,047
Rotorua	11,700	3,611
Taupo	1,870	2,290
Whakatane	4,590	1,539
Kawerau	1,560	1,330
Opotiki	2,120	772
Gisborne	19,250	3,378
Wairoa	3,620	1,603
Napier (City)	21,800	3,007
Hastings	19,150	2,612
Taradale	2,770	1,000
Havelock North	2,380	1,165
Waipawa	1,500	1,710
Waipukurau	2,650	971
Dannevirke	4,980	1,300
Woodville	1,300	1,054
Waitara	3,440	1,587
New Plymouth (City)	24,000	4,132
Inglewood	1,610	703
Opunake	1,170	676
Stratford	4,890	2,016
Eltham	2,050	1,599
Hawera	5,700	897
Patea	1,810	1,420
Ohakune	1,680	2,079
Raetihi	1,200	958
Wanganui (City)	29,500	5,731
Taihape	2,380	1,923
Marton	3,840	1,415
Feilding	6,490	2,031
Foxton	2,400	757
Palmerston N. (City)	34,200	6,943
Shannon	1,130	844
Levin	5,690	1,332
Otaki	2,900	1,390
Upper Hutt	10,200	2,165
Lower Hutt (City)	47,800	7,688
Petone	10,600	1,132
Eastbourne	2,790	1,546
Wellington (City)	127,700	17,798
Tawa Flat	3,350	799
Pahiatua	2,250	720
Eketahuna	740	948
Masterton	12,650	3,116
Carterton	2,390	1,265
Greytown	1,370	1,927
Featherston	1,170	759
Martinborough	990	1,070
Totals	916,890	214,118
South Island—
Picton	2,050	1,052
Blenheim	8,790	1,945
Nelson (City)	18,250	5,550
Richmond	2,360	2,600
Motueka	2,880	2,523
Westport	5,750	760
Runanga	1,840	1,186
Greymouth	9,190	2,594
Brunner	1,180	5,700
Kumara	490	842
Hokitika	3,110	674
Ross	470	3,800
Rangiora	3,020	877
Kaiapoi	2,490	786
Riccarton	8,480	728
Christchurch (City)	141,000	24,737
Lyttelton	3,660	2,560
Akaroa	590	233
Ashburton	8,780	1,860
Geraldine	1,630	745
Temuka	2,340	795
Timaru (City)	23,100	3,524
Waimate	3,160	771
Oamaru	9,900	1,755
Hampden	280	630
Palmerston	940	900
Waikouaiti	620	1,958
Port Chalmers	3,130	714
West Harbour	2,050	2,181
Dunedin (City)	71,900	3,536
St. Kilda	7,440	462
Green Island	3,960	878
Mosgiel	3,470	965
Milton	1,810	315
Kaitangata	1,250	1,280
Balclutha	2,730	1,000
Tapanui	450	129
Lawrence	700	615
Roxburgh	840	515
Naseby	220	112
Alexandra	1,570	815
Cromwell	870	972
Arrowtown	200	457
Queenstown	1,100	998
Gore	6,320	2,276
Mataura	1,770	1,272
Winton	1,170	505
Invercargill (City)	28,400	6,571
South Invercargill	1,270	2,204
Bluff	2,310	2,111
Riverton	1,230	989
Totals	412,510	113,957
Grand totals	1,329,400	328,075

During the year 1953–54 it was estimated that Christchurch City, with a gain of 14,400 persons, had the highest numerical increase in population of all cities and boroughs. This large increase was mainly owing to the transfer to the city of nine areas of Waimairi County with a population of 9,000, and five areas of Heathcote County with a population of 3,000. Thus with an estimated population of 141,000 Christchurch becomes the largest city in New Zealand, exceeding Auckland by 6,500.

Auckland City increased by 3,100 for the same period, then followed Takapuna Borough with an increase of 2,500, chiefly owing to the inclusion in the borough of a portion of Waitemata County. Another borough largely affected by boundary changes was Oamaru with an increase of 1,450, the majority of this increase being gained from the transfer of part of Waitaki County to the borough Seven other cities or boroughs each gained 1,000 or more.

A large population decrease of 770 was shown by Waihi Borough, principally owing to the transfer of the Waihi Beach portion of the Borough into Ohinemuri County.

Devonport 150, Petone 150, South Invercargill 60, and Newmarket 50 were the only other boroughs to show decreases of fifty or more.

During 1953–54 several boroughs were newly created or constituted. Most important of these was the constitution of East Coast Bays Borough, with an estimated population of 7,800, from Waitemata County. Although much smaller in size, of similar importance was the constitution of Kawerau Borough with a population of 1,560 from Whakatane County. The development of the pulp and paper project in Whakatane County will centre on this borough, whose future growth will be bound up in the progress of this scheme.

New boroughs created from existing town districts were those of Tawa Flat, Taradale, Taupo, and Otorohanga.

Town Districts.—As stated earlier, the population of independent town districts—i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts—section (b)—is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town District	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Acres
* Parent county shown in parentheses.
(a) Town Districts Not Forming Parts of Counties
North Island—
Kawakawa	680	280
Hikurangi	940	960
Kamo	880	852
Warkworth	790	1,420
Waiuku	1,270	1,275
Tuakau	1,200	1,265
Leamington	1,060	1,330
Manunui	840	1,251
Ohura	560	815
Manaia	680	510
Waverley	820	484
Mangaweka	380	955
Hunterville	530	791
Bulls	720	677
Totals	11,350	12,865
South Island—
Takaka	620	585
Leeston	770	391
Tinwald	900	1,525
Wyndham	590	680
Lumsden	510	1,264
Nightcaps	610	285
Otautau	740	954
Totals	4,740	5,684
Grand totals	16,090	18,549
(b) Town Districts Forming Parts of Counties^*
North Island—
Kohukohu (Hokianga)	230	1,020
Rawene (Hokianga)	500	280
Russell (Bay of Islands)	640	1,066
Onerahi (Whangarei)	1,100	990
Mercer (Franklin)	310	1,000
Te Kauwhata (Waikato)	690	1,290
Ohaupo (Waipa)	310	1,281
Kihikihi (Waipa)	510	523
Te Karaka (Waikohu)	410	700
Patutahi (Cook)	220	1,275
Kaponga (Eltham)	450	558
Normanby (Hawera)	410	260
Totals	5,780	10,243
South Island—
Havelock (Marlborough)	290	210
Southbridge (Ellesmere)	390	531
Outram (Taieri)	360	886
Edendale (Southland)	520	696
Totals	1,560	2,323
Grand totals	7,340	12,566

Extra-county Islands and Migratory Population.—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include migratory population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 8,410 people at 1 April 1954.

Of the islands concerned, Waiheke, estimated at 2,020 for 1 April 1954, was the only one with a population of any size.

AGE DISTRIBUTION.—The following table shows the estimated age distribution of the population at 31 December 1953 and of the mean population for the year 1953. The figures are based on the 1951 census data and brought up to date from statistics of births, ages of persons dying, and ages of persons arriving in or departing from New Zealand.

Age, in Years	Estimated Numbers. Excluding Maoris			Estimated Numbers. Maoris
Age, in Years	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Age Distribution at 31 December 1953
Under 5	113,196	107,999	221,195	12,192	11,459	23,651
5 and under 10	101,700	97,700	199,400	9,520	9,130	18,650
10 and under 15	80,600	77,200	157,800	8,360	7,990	16,350
15 and under 20	63,800	61,900	125,700	7,090	6,980	14,000
20 and under 25	66,200	62,900	129,100	5,480	5	11,080
25 and under 30	74,200	68,900	143,100	4,520	4,000	9,120
30 and under 35	70,900	70,400	141,300	3,620	3,630	7,250
35 and under 40	66,200	67,500	133,700	2,930	3,070	6,000
40 and under 45	66,600	65,200	131,800	2,950	2,670	5,620
45 and under 50	59,900	57,400	117,300	2,230	1,850	4,080
50 and under 55	51,700	50,100	101,800	1,800	1,560	3,360
55 and under 60	40,500	44,000	84,500	1,260	960	2,220
60 and under 65	36,100	40,100	76,200	990	790	1,780
65 and under 70	33,100	36,600	69,700	720	620	1,340
70 and under 75	26,500	29,400	55,900	440	390	830
75 and under 80	16,500	18,910	35,410	240	190	430
30 and over	10,940	13,790	24,730	165	220	385
Totals, adults (21 and over)	606,840	613,300	1,220,140	26,125	24,980	51,105
Totals, minors (under 21)	371,796	356,699	728,495	38,382	36,659	75,041
Grand totals, all ages	978,636	969,999	1,948,635	64,507	61,639	126,146
Age Distribution of Mean Population, Year 1953
Under 5	112,451	107,259	219,710	11,943	11,243	23,186
5 and under 10	98,300	94,300	192,600	9,320	8,950	18,270
10 and under 15	78,900	75,900	154,800	8,300	7,950	16,250
15 and under 20	63,000	61,000	124,000	6,930	6,750	13,680
20 and under 25	66,400	63,000	129,400	5,430	5,530	10,960
25 and under 30	73,500	68,600	142,100	4,460	4,510	8,970
30 and under 35	69,700	69,600	139,300	3,520	3,550	7,070
35 and under 40	66,100	67,200	133,300	2,950	3,070	6,020
40 and under 45	65,900	64,300	130,200	2,910	2,600	5,510
45 and under 50	59,100	56,500	115,600	2,200	1,830	4,030
50 and under 55	50,800	49,600	100,400	1,770	1,510	3,280
55 and under 60	40,000	43,500	83,500	1,240	950	2,190
60 and under 65	36,200	40,000	76,200	980	790	1,770
65 and under 70	33,200	36,400	69,600	730	610	1,340
70 and under 75	26,300	29,100	55,400	435	380	815
75 and under 80	16,140	18,360	34,500	240	180	420
80 and over	10,660	13,410	24,070	160	225	385
Totals, adults (21 and over)	611,500	607,570	1,209,070	25,825	24,575	50,400
Totals, minors (under 21)	365,151	350,459	715,610	37,693	36,053	73,746
Grand totals, all ages	966,651	958,029	1,924,680	63,518	60,628	124,146

NOTE.—The age stated is the age last birthday.

DENSITY OF POPULATION.—The relation of population to area, which is commonly referred to as “density of population,” is a subject of much interest and a source of serious misconceptions. Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon land-utilization or industrialization. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, while there are also large areas of water or of broken, swampy, or hilly country which is either incapable of effective use or which can be used profitably only for pastoral purposes, afforestation, or the like. No exact figures for the whole country are available, but it is known that only a moderate fraction of the total area of New Zealand is potentially arable.

There are no large areas of good land still to be brought into occupation, and most of the land remaining will require special methods or heavier capital expenditure to bring into use. Ultimately many such areas will be developed, and, in addition, improved methods and facilities will no doubt increase production from the land, but it seems unlikely that exceptional development may be expected in the near future.

While industrial development has made very marked growth in New Zealand over the years, and extensive further development appears certain, there are factors unfavourable to the growth of industry to a point where dense populations could be supported—not the least of which are weakness in mineral resources, relative smallness of the home market (even with an expanded population), and distance from export markets.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The North Island, with an area of 44,294 square miles, had a population density of 29.66 persons per square mile at the 1951 census date, and the South Island, with an area of 59,442 square miles, had a population density of 10.52 persons per square mile at the same date.

The following table provides comparative density figures on a provincial district basis.

Provincial District	Area, in Square Miles	Persons Per Square Mile
Provincial District	Area, in Square Miles	1901	1911	1921	1936	1951
Auckland	25,420	8.06	11.75	16.00	21.52	29.31
Hawke's Bay	4,260	9.30	12.46	14.94	18.07	21.41
Taranaki	3,750	10.79	14.44	17.40	20.71	23.17
Wellington	10,870	13.46	18.80	23.43	29.11	35.94
Marlborough	4,220	3.26	3.90	4.33	4.54	5.42
Nelson	10,870	3.50	4.48	4.39	5.47	6.23
Westland	4,880	2.98	3.24	2.92	3.83	3.72
Canterbury	13,940	10.34	12.52	14.34	16.81	20.09
Otago—
Otago portion	14,050	8.95	9.46	9.76	10.76	11.33
Southland portion	11,480	4.18	5.17	5.44	6.35	6.76
Totals	103,740	7.86	10.20	12.26	15.17	18.70

MAORI POPULATION.—The first official general census of Maoris was taken in 1857–58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy.

According to census records the Maori population suffered a period of almost unbroken decline from 1858 to 1896. The following causes no doubt contributed to this decline—internecine Warfare of the tribes and the heavier casualties which resulted from the introduction of firearms; the susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and other diseases introduced with the white race; and the mental outlook of the Maori under the new conditions.

During the last fifty years, however, the Maori population has increased continuously, at first steadily and of later years at a fairly rapid rate. In fact, the vitality exhibited by the Maori race in recent years is a most outstanding feature. The rate of natural increase of the Maori population is about double that of the European.

A statement of Maori population is now given for each census from 1901 to 1951.

Year	Maori Population.	Intercensal Increase	Intercensal Increase	Average Annual Increase
* Includes members of Armed Forces overseas at census date.
		Number	Per Cent	Per Cent
1901	45,549	3,436	8.2	1.6
1906	50,309	4,760	10.5	2.0
1911	52,723	2,414	4.8	1.0
1916	52,997	274	0.5	0.1
1921	56,987	3,990	7.5	1.6
1926	63,670	6,683	11.7	2.2
1936	82,326	18,656	29.3	2.6
1945	98,744	16,418	19.9	1.9
1945^*	100,044	17,718	21.5	2.1
1951	115,676	16,932	17.1	2.9
1951 ^*	115,740	15,696	15.7	2.7

The average annual percentage increase from 1945 to 1951 was 2.89, which is considerably higher than the corresponding figure for the European population—viz., 2.34 per cent. Movements of troops have tended to invalidate this comparison; the natural increase ratios for the year 1953 shown below afford a better illustration.

	European	Maori
Birth rate	24.12	44.54
Death rate	8.84	10.84
Natural-increase rate	15.28	33.70

Of the 115,676 Maoris at the 1951 census, 111,512 were in the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk of the Maoris, particularly in the Auckland Peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. In the South Island Maoris do not attain any numerical significance. Maoris have always been residents in rural communities and this is still substantially true. A marked change is, however, taking place which probably acquired impetus during the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 census only 8,249 Maoris (1002 per cent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1951 census the comparative figure was 22,726 (19.65 per cent). The largest concentration is in Auckland Urban Area, where 7,621 Maoris were enumerated.

The records of the 1945 and 1951 censuses permit of a statement of the total numbers wholly or partly of Maori blood.

Counted in the Maori population—

	1945	1951
Full Maori	61,440	76,918
Maori-Europeans—
Three-quarter caste	18,956	15,201
Half-caste	18,348	23,183
Maori-other Polynesian	..	374
Totals	98,744	115,676

Counted in the population other than Maori—

	1945	1951
Maori-European quarter-caste	16,902	18,421
Maori-Polynesian	263	..
Maori-Japanese	20	16
Maori-Chinese	198	369
Maori-Indian	134	220
Maori-Syrian	57	42
Maori-Lebanese	57	31
Maori-American Indian	28
Maori-Negro	19	11
Maori-Filipino	8	10
Maori-West Indian	11	13
Maori-Melanesian	10	33
Totals	17,650	19,166

In 1951 there were recorded in New Zealand some 134,842 persons wholly or partly of Maori origin, compared with 116,394 in 1945.

STATISTICS OF THE 1951 CENSUS.—The tabulation and analysis of the population census taken for the night of 17 April 1951 is practically complete. All subject volumes (listed below) have been published, and the only remaining volume is the General Report.

Volume I—Increase and Location of Population.
Volume II—Ages and Marital Status.
Volume III—Religious Professions, etc.
Volume IV—Industries, Occupations, and Incomes.
Volume V—Birthplaces and Duration of Residence of Overseas Born.
Volume VI—Maori Census.
Volume VII—Dwellings and Households.
Appendix A—Census of Poultry.
Appendix B—New Zealand Life Tables, 1950–52, and Values of Annuities.
Interim Returns of Population and Dwellings.

Certain statistics of the 1951 Census will be found on pages 44–54 of the 1954 Year-Book.

Chapter 4. SECTION 4—VITAL STATISTICS

Table of Contents

4 E—TOTAL POPULATION, INCLUDING MAORIS

4 F—MORBIDITY

4 A—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION.—The law as to registration of European births is embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within two months without fee. After two months and within six months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration of the particulars required to be registered has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of the prescribed fee. A birth may be registered after six months only upon the direction of the Registrar-General, who may authorize registration in any case within two years after the date of birth. An information for neglect to register must be laid within two years of date of birth. In cases of neglect or refusal to give the Registrar information in respect of any birth the Registrar-General may at any time within two years after the birth of the child authorize some person to give the Registrar the information required to enable him to register the birth, and to sign as informant the entry in the register, upon which the Registrar shall register the birth.

Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, power is given by the Act for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed. Satisfactory evidence on oath, and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary, are required. This provision does not, however, relieve any person from liability to prosecution for failure to register in the proper manner.

Although two months are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval. The occupier of any premises in which a child is born is to give notice to the Registrar according to the best of the knowledge and belief of the occupier of the fact of the birth, the date on which it occurred, the name and address of the mother or father of the child, and of such other particulars as the Registrar-General may require. Any such notice is to be in writing, signed by the occupier and endorsed by some other person, if any, in attendance at the confinement, and is to be delivered or posted to the Registrar within forty-eight hours after the birth if in a borough, or seven days in any other case. Births are to be registered by the Registrar whose office is nearest to the place of birth.

Particulars required to be registered are: date and place of birth; name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage; and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The father of an ex-nuptial child is not required to give information, nor is his name entered in the register unless at the joint request of the mother and himself, or unless he subsequently marries the mother. A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of eighteen months may be registered within six months of arrival. The Registrar-General may authorize registration of such a child who is over eighteen months but under three years of age. Additional information required on notification of birth—but not registration—includes (a) weight of child at birth, and (b) period of gestation of mother. These particulars are required for statistical purposes.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year irrespective of the year of birth. The figures do not include still-births, except in the tables on pages 60–61. A special classification of still-births is given on pages 67–68.

Registration of Maori Births.—Registration of the births of Maoris are effected with the Maori Registrars in the various districts set up for this purpose. Statistics relating to the births of Maoris are not included in this subsection, but are fully covered in Section 4D.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The general long-term history of the birth rate in New Zealand has been downward. A reference to the diagram on page 59 and to the table on page 57, showing quinquennial average birth rates, indicates this trend very clearly. After the pioneering days of the nineteenth century, when the population consisted very largely of young immigrants faced with the raising of a family, the birth rate began to decline appreciably. A further migration wave at the turn of the century reversed the trend temporarily, but in 1909 the downward movement was again resumed. With minor fluctuations in the earlier stages and in the years influenced by the First World War this decline continued until 1936. In that year a slight upward movement began, and by 1940 some of the deficit had been made up by the gradual rise. This was accelerated during the Second World War (with minor fluctuations) until successive record high totals (as regards the numbers of births) were established in 1945–47. In 1948 a decline in births was shown with a further recession in 1949. The decreases were not large, and in 1950–52 increases were again in evidence with the 46,469 births registered in 1952 as the highest recorded in the history of New Zealand. This record was not maintained, however, and a very small decrease was shown in 1953. The numbers and rates of births (children born alive) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1934	24,322	16.51
1935	23,965	16.17
1936	24,837	16.64
1937	26,014	17.29
1938	27,249	17.93
1939	28,833	18.73
1940	32,771	21.19
1941	35,100	22.81
1942	33,574	21.73
1943	30,311	19.70
1944	33,599	21.59
1945	37,007	23.22
1946	41,871	25.26
1947	44,816	26.47
1948	44,193	25.59
1949	43,988	24.98
1950	44,309	24.67
1951	44,651	24.39
1952	46,469	24.77
1953	46,414	24.12

Much of the movement in the birth rate during recent years has been allied to movement in the marriage rate. As may be expected, the movement in the birth rate reflects the tendency for couples to marry and have children in prosperous years rather than in years of depression.

Comparisons of birth rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the “crude" rates—i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The “crude" rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of interest to supplement the table of “crude" rates with a computation of the legitimate birth rate per 1,000 married women of 15 and under 45 years of age, or the total birth rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand for each census from 1901 to 1951 together with the “crude" rate for the year.

Year	Birth Rate Per 1,000 Women 15 and Under 45 Years		“Crude" Birth Rate
Year	Legitimate^*	Total	“Crude" Birth Rate
* Per 1,000 married women.
1901	246.2	111.7	26.34
1906	235.3	114.1	27.08
1911	211.7	109.5	25.97
1916	193.6	106.7	25.94
1921	181.6	99.0	23.38
1926	166.9	90.9	21.06
1936	136.6	72.2	16.64
1945	166.5	99.8	23.22
1951	172.8	116.9	24.39

The legitimate rate per 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 fell steadily at each census date from 1901 to 1936, the figure registered in the latter year being equal to a decline of 44 per cent. Considerable improvement was, however, effected in 1945, with a further improvement in 1951, but the latter rate shows a fall of 42 per cent on the 1901 figure. The rate on the basis of all women between the ages of 15 and 45 did not exhibit such a large fall, the 1936 figure being 35 per cent lower, but again substantial improvement was shown in 1945 and 1951, the latter rate being equivalent to an increase of 5 per cent. The proportion of married women in the child-bearing ages is now much higher than in former years; in fact the percentage in 1901 was 43.3 as compared with 64.8 in 1951.

The “crude" birth rates have fluctuated more so than the refined rates, but the decline in 50 years has not been great, the 1951 figure being equal to a fall of 7 per cent on the 1901 rate.

A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth rate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

NATURAL INCREASE.—The decline of the birth rate in New Zealand has been accompanied until recent years by a decrease in the death rate. Nevertheless, the nominal rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 29.32 per 1,000 of mean population in 1880 to 15.28 in 1953. Acceptance of this figure without consideration of the effect of the changing age constitution will give an erroneous view of the present margin of increase and of the probable trend of population growth in the future.

The last eleven years have seen considerable movement in the rate of natural increase, the exceptionally low figure in 1943 being the result of a low birth rate due to war conditions. The increase in births coupled with a decrease in deaths resulted in increases each year to 1947 when the natural increase rate rose to 1708. Since then the rate declined each year to 1951 on account of decreases in the birth rate, and for the three years 1949–51 owing to increases in the death rate. An increase in the birth-rate in 1952 together with a decrease in the death rate has resulted in the highest natural increase since 1949. A further decrease in the death rate was recorded in 1953, but it was insufficient to counterbalance the decrease in the birth rate, with the result that natural increase for the year was lower than in 1952. The average annual rate of natural increase for the quinquennium 1946–50 was 1606, and it is necessary to go back to 1911–15 to find a higher average annual rate, the figure for that period being 16.76.

Year	Numbers			Rate Per 1,000 Mean Population
Year	Births	Deaths	Natural Increase	Births	Deaths	Natural Increase
1943	30,311	15,447	14,864	19.70	10.04	9.66
1944	33,599	15,363	18,236	21.59	9.87	11.72
1945	37,007	16,051	20,956	23.22	10.07	13.15
1946	41,871	16,093	25,778	25.26	9.71	15.55
1947	44,816	15,904	28,912	26.47	9.39	17.08
1948	44,193	15,812	28,381	25.59	9.16	16.43
1949	43,988	16,012	27,976	24.98	9.09	15.89
1950	44,309	16,715	27,594	24.67	9.31	15.36
1951	44,651	17,512	27,139	24.39	9.56	14.83
1952	46,469	17,413	29,056	24.77	9.28	15.49
1953	46,414	17,009	29,405	24.12	8.84	15.28

The natural increase rate provides a useful guide to population increase and a further method is that of the net reproduction index, which is based on female children born and probably surviving. Details of gross and net reproduction rates for recent years will be found in Section 3 of this issue.

The movements that have taken place since 1880 are well illustrated in the accompanying diagram, which shows the rates at annual intervals, although only every tenth year is labelled.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates is made in the following table. New Zealand's position is higher on the basis of natural increase than it is on that of the birth rate. The rates, which are the average of the five years 1949–53, are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

Country	Rates Per 1,000 of Population
Country	Births	Natural Increase
Costa Rica	49.2	37.2
Mexico	44.7	28.4
Ceylon	39.9	27.7
Puerto Rico	37.3	27.7
Chile	33.5	18.2
Israel	31.5	24.9
Yugoslavia	29.1	16.1
Canada	27.5	18.6
Japan	26.3	16.2
India	25.9	10.9
Union of South Africa	25.6	16.8
New Zealand	24.6	15.4
Portugal	24.5	12.2
United States of America	24.2	14.6
Finland	23.7	13.6
Australia	23.1	13.6
Netherlands	22.6	150
Republic of Ireland	21.6	8.9
Spain	20.7	10.0
France	19.7	6.8
Norway	18.9	10.2
Italy	18.7	8.8
Denmark	18.2	9.2
Switzerland	17.6	7.2
Sweden	16.1	6.3
United Kingdom	16.1	4.3
Germany (Western)	16.0	5.5
Austria	15.2	2.8

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.—With the exception of one year (1860), there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860), but little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. It is a popular idea that the proportion of male births tends to increase considerably in war years, but the experience in this country does little to bear out this theory, the average over the six years 1940–45 being 1,057, as against that of 1,050 for the preceding ten years. Figures taken out some years ago prove that the masculinity rate for first births is distinctly higher than for subsequent births. As the first-birth rate tends to rise during war years, and actually reached a very high peak during the early part of Second World War, the total masculinity rate would also be affected and would give rise to the popular idea that wars result in an increase in the proportion of male children born. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923. Rates for the last five years are given below.

Year	Number of Births of		Male Births Per 1,000 Female Births
Year	Males	Females	Male Births Per 1,000 Female Births
1949	22,733	21,255	1,070
1950	22,677	21,632	1,048
1951	23,068	21,583	1,069
1952	23,814	22,655	1,051
1953	23,822	22,592	1,054

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (living births only) during the last five years are shown in the following table.

Year	Total Births	Total Cases	Cases of Twins	Cases of Triplets	Multiple Cases Per 1,000 of Total Cases
* Includes one case where triplets would have been recorded had not one child been still-born. † Includes one case of quadruplets.
1949	43,988	43,450	533^*	3	12.34
1950	44,309	43,756	540	6^†	12.48
1951	44,651	44,125	510^*	8	11.74
1952	46,469	45,893	570^*	3	12.49
1953	46,414	45,840	563^*	5^†	12.39

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 562 cases of twin births registered in 1953. There were also one case of quadruplets, four cases of triplets, and one case where one of triplets was still-born.

The total number of confinements resulting in living births was 45,840, and on the average one mother in every 81 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

When still-births are taken into account, the total number of confinements for the year 1953 is increased to 46,675, and the number of cases of multiple births to 619. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 75.

The incidence of multiple births has not varied greatly in recent years, as may be seen from the following summary.

Year	Cases of Twins				Cases of Triplets					Total Multiple Cases	Rate Per 1,000 Confinements
Year	Both Born Alive	One Born Alive, One Still-born	Both Still-born	Total	All Born Alive	One Born Alive, Two Still-born	Two Born Alive, One Still-born	All Still-born	Total	Total Multiple Cases	Rate Per 1,000 Confinements
* Includes one case of quadruplets.
1949	532	43	9	584	3	..	1	..	4	588	13.3
1950	540	46	12	598	6^*	..	..	1	7	605	13.6
1951	509	40	10	559	8	..	1	..	9	568	12.7
1952	569	47	8	624	3	..	1	..	4	628	13.7
1953	562	43	8	613	5^*	..	1	..	6	619	13.3
Average of five years	542	44	9	595	5	..	1	..	6	601	13.3

The proportion of multiple births has been consistently high during recent years, while the rate of 14.2 experienced in 1944 was a record figure. The number of cases of triplets recorded in 1951 was exceptional.

The likelihood of still-births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still-born.

Year	Still-birth Cases Per 100 of Total Cases (Including Still-births)
Year	Single Cases	Multiple Cases
1949	1.68	8.86
1950	1.81	9.75
1951	1.68	8.98
1952	1.70	8.92
1953	1.80	8.40
Average of five years	1.73	8.98

During the five years 1949–53 there were 2,712 cases of live twin births (including ex-nuptial), and of these in 889 instances, or 32.8 per cent, both children were males; in 852, or 31.4 per cent, both were females; and in the remaining 971, or 35.8 per cent, the children were of opposite sexes.

The four cases of triplets in 1953 comprised two of three females, one of one male and two females, and one of two males and one female. The one case of quadruplets comprised all females.

AGES OF PARENTS.—Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1953 is shown in the following tables.

Age of Mother, in Years	Age of Father, in Years
Age of Mother, in Years	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Under 50	50 and Under 55	55 and Under 65	65 and Over	Total Cases
* Including 43 legitimate cases where twins would have been registered had not one child been still-born. † Including 1 case of quadruplets, 4 cases of triplets, and 1 case where one of triplets was still-born.
Single Births
Under 21	288	1,336	879	148	42	10	4	1	2	..	2,710
21 and under 25	93	3,045	5,495	1,546	342	94	14	9	2	1	10,641
25 and under 30	8	667	6,441	5,143	1,601	409	79	29	9	3	14,389
30 and under 35	1	55	1,044	4,036	2,962	1,034	274	67	29	4	9,506
35 and under 40	..	9	100	587	1,938	1,371	453	158	55	10	4,681
40 and under 45	..	..	8	24	221	509	361	127	51	7	1,308
45 and over	..	..	..	2	6	10	36	19	9	..	82
Totals	390	5,112	13,967	11,486	7,112	3,437	1,221	410	157	25	^*43,317
Multiple Births
Under 21	1	9	9	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	19
21 and under 25	5	45	63	16	3	1	..	..	..	..	133
25 and under 30	..	3	76	57	18	5	2	..	1	..	162
30 and under 35	..	1	13	67	40	12	10	3	..	..	146
35 and under 40	..	..	3	7	35	16	9	2	1	..	73
40 and under 45	..	..	..	..	3	8	1	2	..	..	14
45 and over	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Totals	6	58	164	147	99	42	22	7	2		547
Grand totals	396	5,170	14,131	11,633	7,211	3,479	1,243	417	159	25	^†43,864

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.—Information as to the previous issue of the existing marriage, required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the annual Report on Vital Statistics containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in conjunction with (1) age of mother and (2) duration of marriage. The table under the first heading for the year 1953 is here summarized.

Age of Mother, La Years	Number of Previous Issue									Total Legitimate Cases
Age of Mother, La Years	0	1	2	3	4	5	6 and Under 10	10 and Under 15	15 and Over	Total Legitimate Cases
* This number represents 43,317 single cases and 547 multiple cases.
Under 21	2,084	541	93	11	..	..	..	..	..	2,729
21 and under 25	5,666	3,401	1,249	362	83	12	1	..	..	10,774
25 and under 30	3,724	5,019	3,514	1,528	503	197	66	..	..	14,551
30 and under 35	1,421	2,366	2,690	1,710	753	373	328	11	..	9,652
35 and under 40	553	823	1,114	943	556	343	378	44	..	4,754
40 and under 45	145	163	234	208	167	119	231	54	1	1,322
45 and over	4	6	14	11	11	9	20	5	2	82
Totals	13,597	12,319	8,908	4,773	2,073	1,053	1,024	114	3	^*43,864

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue, but also for children covered by the 1953 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

Age of Mother, in Years	Total Mothers	Total Issue	Average Issue
Under 21	2,729	3,489	1.28
21–24	10,774	18,157	1.69
25–29	14,551	34,600	2.38
30–34	9,652	29,720	3.08
35–39	4,754	17,649	3.71
40–44	1,322	6,115	4.63
45 and over	82	482	5.88
Totals	43,864	110,212	2.51

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1953) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years were as follows: 1949,242; 1950, 2.45; 1951, 2.46; and 1952, 2.49. In 1915, the earliest year for which reliable comparative figures are available, the average issue was 3.11. This fall in the average issue of women giving birth to children is some indication of the tendency towards smaller families. The 1943 average, for the first time since these figures were compiled, reversed the trend, and a further increase was recorded in 1944, but with the increase in the proportion of first births in the three following years the average declined. A slight improvement has been noted for each year since 1948, this being accounted for by decreases in the proportion of first births.

OCCUPATIONS OF FATHERS AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF CHILDREN.—The following table shows the average issue, in conjunction with the occupations of fathers who had children born to them during the year 1953. A similar analysis was made for the year 1938 and a summary of the results obtained for the two years are given in comparison below.

Occupation Group	Average Number of Children^*
Occupation Group	1933	1953
* Relates to fathers who had children born to them during the years specified.
Fishermen and trappers	2.83	2.93
Agricultural and pastoral occupations	2.61	2.44
Forest occupations	2.77	3.11
Miners and quarrymen	2.61	2.78
Workers in stone, clay, earthenware, lime, and cement	2.03	2.87
Workers in chemical, animal, and vegetable products	2.28	1.88
Workers in non-precious metals, electric fittings, etc.	2.08	2.23
Workers in precious metals, jewellery, scientific instruments, etc.	1.85	2.12
Workers on ships, boats, and conveyances	2.07	2.35
Workers in fibrous materials and textiles, other than clothing or dress	2.31	2.28
Workers in clothing and dress	2.01	2.17
Workers in harness, saddlery, and leatherware	2.92	2.67
Workers in food, drink, and tobacco	2.25	2.77
Workers in wood	2.13	2.51
Workers in paper, printing, and photography	1.94	2.17
Workers in other materials	1 .70	2.29
Workers in building, construction, and maintenance of roads, etc.	2.53	2.57
Workers in production or supply of gas, water, electricity, or power	2.52	2.77
Workers in transport or communication	2.36	2.61
Financial and commercial occupations	2.03	2.42
Persons engaged in public administration	1.99	2.20
Clerical and professional occupations	1.94	2.25
Entertainment, sport, and recreation	2.08	2.64
Personal and domestic occupations	2.24	2.44
Other or ill-defined occupations	2.85	2.66
Persons not actively engaged in gainful occupations	4.62	3.77
Totals	2.41	2.51

The figures of average issue quoted above should not be regarded as a criterion of the average number of children in a New Zealand family, representing, as they do, only the average family to date of those parents who had children born to them during the years specified. Nevertheless, they may serve as an index for a comparison of the relative reproductivity of different occupational groups.

An analysis of the 1953 figures by individual occupations reveals some interesting variations, although the differences are somewhat small. The general average number of issue for all fathers in 1953 was 2.51, but amongst the individual occupations are found the following instances with figures higher than the general average; surfaceman, 3.60; bushman, 3.25; fisherman, 3.03; freezing worker, 3.01; engine-driver, 2.95; coal-miner, 2.71; watersider, 2.70; shopkeeper, 263; and civil servant, 2.63.

Among the low averages, on the other hand, may be found the following: manager-director, 2.49; policeman, 2.39; cabinetmaker, 2.37; solicitor, 2.22; hairdresser, 2.21; teacher, 2.15; fitter, 2.12; printer, 203; and marine engineer, 1.99. These figures, when considered in conjunction with wage-rates and other economic factors, make interesting reading. Apart from the selection of only those occupations represented by 100 cases or over, no allowance has been made for any anomalies such as variations in age-constitution of fathers as between the various occupational groups.

FIRST BIRTHS.—Of a total of 255,694 confinements resulting in legitimate births during the six years 1948–53, the issue of no fewer than 83,647, or 33 per cent, were first-born children. In 34,007, or 41 per cent, of these cases the birth occurred within twelve months, and in 61,372, or 73 per cent, within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 27 per cent of cases where there was any issue to the marriage two years or more had elapsed before the birth of the first child.

The annual number of first births registered naturally follows closely the movement in the marriage rate. With the return of men from service overseas there came a heavy increase in the number of marriages, and correspondingly the proportion of first births rose steeply to 4003 per cent in 1947, a rate very little below the record figure of 41.69 per cent established in 1940. Since 1947, however, a downward tendency has been evident. An interesting feature of the birth statistics for 1947 and 1948 was the high proportion of first births occurring within two years after marriage—75.62 per cent of all legitimate first cases recorded in 1947 and 75.44 per cent in 1948 falling in this class. These are the highest figures recorded since 1929. The steady decline in the marriage rate since the post-war peak figure of 1946 has been accompanied by a marked downward movement in the actual proportion of first births to total births.

Year	Total Legitimate Cases	Total Legitimate First Cases	Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases	First Cases Within One Year After Marriage		First Cases Within Two Years After Marriage
Year	Total Legitimate Cases	Total Legitimate First Cases	Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases	Number	Proportion to Total First Cases	Number	Proportion to Total First Cases
			Per Cent		Per Cent		Per Cent
1948	42,005	15,164	36.10	6,244	41.18	11,440	75.44
1949	41,796	14,087	33.70	5,659	40.17	10,269	72.90
1950	42,006	13,629	32.45	5,419	39.76	9,964	73.12
1951	42,210	13,447	31.86	5,424	40.34	9,830	73.10
1952	43,813	13,723	31.32	5,547	40.42	9,881	72.00
1953	43,864	13,597	31.00	5,714	42.02	9,988	73.45
Totals for six years	255,694	83,647	32.71	34,007	40.66	61,372	73.37

The period of time elapsing before the birth of the first child has varied considerably during recent years mainly as a result of war and post-war influences. The following table compares the 1953 figures with those for earlier years, and illustrates the movement in the duration-of-marriage factor in first births.

Duration of Marriage, in Years	Proportion Per Cent of Total First Births
Duration of Marriage, in Years	1914	1924	1934	1944	1953
Under 1 year	52.95	50.06	46.25	38.47	42.02
1 and under 2 years	28.62	26.64	26.79	26.30	31.43
2 and under 3 years	9.02	10.43	10.24	11.28	11.83
3 and under 4 years	3.43	5.51	6.16	7.88	5.97
4 and under 5 years	1.88	3.03	3.96	7.18	2.98
5 and under 10 years	3.26	3.36	5.49	7.36	4.86
10 years and over	0.84	0.97	1.11	1.53	0.91
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

For the years covered by the foregoing table the average duration of marriage before the birth of the first child was—1914, 1.63 years; 1924, 1.76 years; 1934, 1.85 years; 1944, 2.22 years; and 1953, 1.76 years.

An item of interest extracted from the birth statistics is a table of first births occurring to mothers in different age groups, expressed as a proportion per cent of the total first births. A comparison has also been computed on this basis for the years 1914, 1924, 1934, 1944, and 1953.

FIRST BIRTHS, BY AGE OF MOTHER

Age of Mother, in Years	First Births, Proportion Per Cent at Each Age Group to Total First Births
Age of Mother, in Years	1914	1924	1934	1944	1953
Under 20	6.73	7.55	8.90	7.33	8.35
20 and under 25	35.89	38.16	40.39	41.79	48.65
25 and under 30	35.01	32.59	32.79	29.54	27.39
30 and under 35	15.61	14.68	13.10	14.61	10.45
35 and under 40	5.52	5.33	3.79	5.36	4.07
40 and under 45	1.16	1.59	0.99	1.34	1.06
45 and over	0.08	0.10	0.04	0.03	0.03
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

The figures of average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child are as follows for the above years: 1914, 26.55; 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; and 1953, 25.33.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS.—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the years 1943–53, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, were as follows.

Year	Number	Percentage of Total Births
1943	1,467	4.84
1944	2,020	6.01
1945	1,824	4.93
1946	1,824	4.36
1947	1,727	3.85
1948	1,686	3.82
1949	1,671	3.80
1950	1,768	3.99
1951	1,935	4.33
1952	2,104	4.53
1953	1,997	4.30

War influences, resulting in unusual movements of the population and the influx of servicemen to the more heavily populated centres, no doubt are responsible for the high percentages recorded during 1943–45.

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census year from 1911 to 1951 are as follows.

Census Year	Unmarried Women 15 and Under 45 Years of Age	Ex-nuptial Births	Ex-nuptial Birth Rate Per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911	120,778	1,078	8.93
1916	125,461	1,159	9.24
1921	136,539	1,258	9.21
1926	148,551	1,473	9.92
1936	167,781	1,126	6.71
1945	156,326	1,824	11.67
1951	130,343	1,935	14.85

Included in the total of 1,997 ex-nuptial births in 1953 were twenty-one cases of twins, the number of confinements being thus 1,976. From the following table it will be seen that of the 1,976 mothers 587, or 30 per cent, were under twenty-one years of age.

Age	Cases
13	2
14	6
15	20
16	36
17	95
18	128
19	151
20	149
21	148
22	150
23	116
24	115
25–29	408
30–34	271
35–39	138
40–44	43
Total	1,976

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1930 directed the omission of the word “illegitimate" from the register when the birth of an ex-nuptial child is registered. The word “illegitimate" appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

The Legitimation Act.—Important changes were made by the Legitimation Act of 1939, which repealed previous legislation on the subject. This Act stipulates that every ex-nuptial person whose parents have intermarried, whether before or after the passing of the Act, shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration was required to be made within six months after the date of the passing of the Act in cases where the marriage took place prior to that date. In cases where the marriage has taken place subsequent to the passing of the Act, application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

Where the Registrar-General has reason to believe that any person has been legitimated under the terms of the Act, and no application for registration has been made within the prescribed time, he may require the responsible parents or parent to make an application within a specified period of not less than seven days after receiving notice to do so. Any failure to comply with the notice requiring application for registration within the time specified renders the person or persons responsible liable on summary conviction to a fine of £5. If no application for registration is made within the appropriate time specified in the Act or in the notice received from the Registrar-General, application for registration of the particulars of the birth of any legitimated person may be made by that person, or by one of his parents, or by any other person.

The number of legitimations of Europeans registered in each of the last five years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are shown in the following table.

Year	Number of Children Legitimated
Year	Previously Registered	Not Previously Registered	Total
1949	411	2	413
1950	401		401
1951	394		394
1952	415		415
1953	449		449
Totals from 1894 to 1953	12,175	3,294	15,469

ADOPTIONS.—The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Registrar of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. An entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being given in lieu of those of the natural parents. If the child's birth has previously been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on the original entry. An amendment to the Infants Act in 1939 extended the age at which a child might be legally adopted from under fifteen years to under twenty-one years.

The adoption of a Maori child is required to be registered in the same manner as that of a European child unless the adoption order is made under the Maori Affairs Act 1953.

The following table shows the number of adoptions (exclusive of Maori children) which have been registered during the last five years.

Year	Number
Year	Males	Females	Total
1949	654	595	1,249
1950	629	626	1,255
1951	696	709	1,405
1952	690	740	1,430
1953	709	736	1,445

Of the 1,445 adoptions registered in 1953, 866 were children under the age of one year, 225 were between one and five years, 188 were between five and ten years, and 166 were aged ten years or over. In addition, 240 Maori children (128 males and 112 females) were adopted in 1953.

Statistics of adoptions registered have been available in New Zealand since 1919, and these indicate that the numbers are considerably influenced by the economic condition of the country, the lowest total, 329, being recorded in 1931. The highest total prior to 1940 occurred in 1921, when 584 adoptions were registered, this, no doubt, being the result of influences operating after the First World War. Possibly various factors arising out of the Second World War have had a bearing on the high totals for recent years, but the extension of age at which a child might legally be adopted is also of importance in this connection. It should also be noted that the unprecedented totals since 1944 are associated with the high number of ex-nuptial births occurring in these years.

STILL-BIRTHS.—The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from 1 March 1913. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Section 15 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1946, amending the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1924, stipulated, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still-birth. Particulars of causes of still-births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of European still-births during each of the years 1949–53 were as follows.

Year	Males	Females	Totals	Male Still-births Per 1,000 Female Still-births	Percentage of Still-births to—
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Male Still-births Per 1,000 Female Still-births	Living Births	All Births
1949	449	347	796	1,294	1.81	1.78
1950	489	376	865	1,301	1.95	1.92
1951	449	355	804	1,265	1.80	1.77
1952	442	404	846	1,094	1.82	1.79
1953	481	406	887	1,185	1.91	1.88

Masculinity is in general much higher among still-births than among living births, the rate for still-births in 1953 being 1,185 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,054 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptials among still-born infants was in 1953, 5.19, and among infants born alive, 2.30.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1953, 31 per cent were first births, while of legitimate still-births 34 per cent were first births. Statistics over many years indicate that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring to mothers having their first confinement than to those having subsequent confinements. In addition to the 887 European still-births in 1953, there were 122 Maori still-births registered, comprising 63 males and 59 females.

FOETAL DEATHS.—Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates that in the case of a foetal death where the child has issued from its mother after the twentieth week, and up to and including the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy, a medical practitioner or a midwife who was in attendance at the confinement shall sign and supply a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the foetal death, and such other particulars as may be required by the Registrar-General. This requirement came into force as from 1 April 1952. A foetal death is not required to be registered as in the case of a still-born child.

4 B—MARRIAGES

MARRIAGE may be celebrated in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister may be celebrated only between 8 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be celebrated. In the case of a person under twenty-one years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of Infants Act 1926 sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section 8 provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If in any particular case a declaration is made that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in New Zealand, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) fourteen days after the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has operated in New Zealand since 1855. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages celebrated, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether the marriage has taken place.

Marriage is forbidden between persons within certain degrees of relationship, any such marriage being declared void. The prohibition applies whether the relationship is by the whole blood or by the half-blood, and whether the relationship is nuptial or ex-nuptial. The present law on this matter is contained in the Marriage Amendment Act 1946.

An amendment to the Marriage Act in 1939, which repealed a similar provision passed in 1933, stipulates that a Registrar may not issue a certificate of marriage where either of the intending parties is under sixteen years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to have been unduly solemnized, however, by reason only of this provision. The 1933 amendment made provision enabling women to become officiating ministers for the purposes of the Marriage Act. The 1946 amending Act provides for the validity of Service—i.e., Armed Forces overseas—marriages.

The Maori Purposes Act 1951 stipulates that after 1 April 1952 every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be celebrated in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a European; and all the provisions of the Marriage Act 1908 shall apply accordingly.

As a result of this legislative change, marriage statistics for the year 1952 are inclusive of Maoris and Maori marriage figures as a separate feature have lapsed. Figures quoted in this subsection for years prior to 1952 are all exclusive of Maoris.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The movement of the marriage rate over a lengthy period of time may be observed from the statistical summary appearing towards the end of this Year-Book. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Population
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1934	11,256	7.64
1935	12,187	8.23
1936	13,808	9.25
1937	14,364	9.55
1938	15,328	10.09
1939	17,115	11.12
1940	17,448	11.28
1941	13,313	8.65
1942	12,219	7.91
1943	11,579	7.53
1944	13,125	8.43
1945	16,160	10.14
1946	20,535	12.39
1947	18,525	10.94
1948	17,192	9.96
1949	16,785	9.53
1950	16,504	9.19
1951	16,359	8.93
1952	17,061^*	8.55^*
1953	17,224^*	8.41^*

Both the marriage rate and the number of marriages in 1946 were the highest on record, The main reason for this was the return from overseas of many thousands of men in the most prolific marriage age groups. An appreciable decline, however, in both the number of marriages and in the marriage rate took place in 1947 and 1948 and continued until 1951. Separate figures for European marriages are not available after 1951, but the total of all marriages in 1953 showed a small increase on the 1952 figure.

Comparison with Other Countries.—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1953 are given below (these particulars have been taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, issued by the Statistical Office of the United Nations).

Country	Rates Per 1,000 Mean Population
United States of America	9.9
Yugoslavia	9.9
Israel	9.5
Canada	9.0
Chile	9.0
Puerto Rico	8.9
New Zealand	8.4
Netherlands	8.2
Australia	8.0
Norway	7.9
Austria	7.8
Portugal	7.8
United Kingdom	7.8
Denmark	7.7
Switzerland	7.7
Spain	7.6
Sweden	7.4
France	7.2
Italy	7.0
Ceylon	6.3
Mexico	6.1
Republic of Ireland	5.3

MARITAL STATUS.—The total number of persons married during the year 1953 was 34,448, of whom 30,433 were single, 1,593 widowed, and 2,422 divorced. The figures for the five years 1949 to 1953, showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following.

Year	Single		Widowed		Divorced		Total Persons Married
Year	Bridegroom	Bride	Bridegroom	Bride	Bridegroom	Bride	Total Persons Married
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1949	14,480	14,584	870	781	1,435	1,420	33,570
1950	14,280	14,452	894	776	1,330	1,276	33,008
1951	14,244	14,371	854	731	1,261	1,257	32,718
1952^*	14,927	14,940	911	839	1,223	1,282	34,122
1953^*	15,173	15,260	838	755	1,213	1,209	34,448

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table.

Year	Bridegrooms			Brides
Year	Single	Widowed	Divorced	Single	Widowed	Divorced
* Inclusive of Maoris.
	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent
1949	86.27	5.18	8.55	86.89	4.65	8.46
1950	86.52	5.42	8.06	87.57	4.70	7.73
1951	87.07	5.22	7.71	87.85	4.47	7.68
1952^*	87.49	5.34	7.17	87.57	4.92	7.51
1953^*	88.09	4.87	7.04	88.60	4.38	7.02

Reference to the divorce statistics at the end of this subsection will show that the number of divorces since and including the later war years has been at a high level, although there has been a steady decline since 1946. The number of decrees absolute in the period 1949–53 was 8,331, as compared with 4,907 in the five years 1936–40, an increase of 70 per cent. The large number of divorced people remarrying is therefore not surprising. The number of widowed persons remarrying, which was 39 per 1,000 in 1940, rose to 46 per 1,000 in 1953.

The relative marital status of bridegrooms and brides for each of the five years 1949 to 1953 is next given.

Year	Marriages Between Bachelors and			Marriages Between Widowers and			Marriages Between Divorced Men and
Year	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1949	13,336	327	817	385	302	183	863	152	420
1950	13,271	285	724	378	330	186	803	161	366
1951	13,260	288	696	364	306	184	747	137	377
1952^*	13,875	316	736	378	367	166	687	156	380
1953^*	14,211	290	672	329	339	170	720	126	367

The relative proportions of divorced men and divorced women remarrying during the last three years has changed but little compared with ten years earlier. During the three years 1938–40 the number of male divorcees remarrying was 2,066, as compared with 2,169 females, which gives a rate of 95 males for every 100 females. In 1951–53 the respective numbers were 3,697 males and 3,748 females, and the corresponding rate 99 males for every 100 females. In the case of widowed persons remarrying, however, there has been a marked change in the figures. In the three-year period 1938–40, 2,420 widowers remarried but only 1,619 widows, whereas in 1951–53 there were 2,603 widowers and 2,325 widows who remarried, the number of widowers per 100 widows being 149 in the former period and 112 in the latter period.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.—Of the 34,448 persons married in 1953, 5,318, or 15 per cent, were under twenty-one years of age; 12,719, or 37 per cent, were returned as twenty-one and under twenty-five; 8,471, or 25 per cent, as twenty-five and under thirty; 4,777, or 14 per cent, as thirty and under forty; and 3,163, or 9 per cent, as forty years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1953.

Age of Bride, in Years	Age of Bridegroom, in Years							Total Bridegrooms
Age of Bride, in Years	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Over	Total Bridegrooms
Under 21	666	170	16	3	..	..	..	855
21 and under 25	2,410	3,039	489	51	10	2	..	6,001
25 and under 30	1,147	2,707	1,355	295	53	13	6	5,576
30 and under 35	180	578	638	353	132	29	8	1,918
35 and under 40	45	153	255	237	193	58	25	966
40 and under 45	10	50	75	109	157	107	64	572
45 and over	5	21	67	121	179	200	743	1,336
Total brides	4,463	6,718	2,895	1,169	724	409	846	17,224

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of persons marrying at the various age periods. To illustrate the extent to which these figures have varied a table is given showing since 1920 the proportions of men and women married at each age group to every 100 marriages.

Period	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Over	Totals
Males
1920–24	3.13	24.66	32.21	17.73	10.24	5.43	6.60	100.00
1925–29	3.49	28.04	34.49	14.33	7.70	4.48	7.47	100.00
1930–34	3.46	27.28	37.02	15.14	6.10	3.61	7.39	100.00
1935–39	2.68	25.91	38.26	16.46	6.75	3.22	6.72	100.00
1949–53	4.60	34.68	31.27	11.44	6.31	3.72	7.98	100.00
Females
1920–24	15.99	35.47	26.21	10.66	5.53	2.98	3.16	100.00
1925–29	18.61	37.88	23.67	8.93	4.65	2.82	3.44	100.00
1930–34	18.67	38.51	24.79	8.22	3.85	2.40	3.56	100.00
1935–39	17.10	38.26	26.30	8.86	3.91	2.02	3.55	100.00
1949–53	24.43	39.04	17.48	7.11	4.35	2.61	4.98	100.00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are now being celebrated at the younger and, to a lesser extent, at the older age groups. This has become very marked in the 1949–53 period, and is mainly due to the fact that the outbreak of war induced a number of earlier marriages which has resulted in fewer unmarried people entering the middle age groups.

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, in recent years there has been very little change, the year to year fluctuations being within very narrow limits. The figures for each of the years 1946–53 are as follows.

Year	Bridegrooms	Brides
	(Years)	(Years)
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1946	29.73	26.18
1947	29.71	26.11
1948	29.96	26.32
1949	29.89	26.30
1950	29.67	26.14
1951	29.42	25.96
1952	29.52^*	26.19^*
1953	29.31^*	25.90^*

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the last five years according to marital status were as shown below.

Year	Bridegrooms			Brides
Year	Bachelors	Divorced	Widowers	Spinsters	Divorced	Widows
* Inclusive of Maoris.
	Years	Years	Years	Years	Years	Years
1949	27.42	39.89	52.82	24.31	35.42	45.46
1950	27.15	40.06	54.46	24.19	35.59	46.90
1951	26.95	40.77	53.93	23.97	36.19	47.05
1952^*	26.98	41.00	55.60	24.08	35.98	48.83
1953^*	26.96	40.77	55.61	23.97	36.51	47.83

The foregoing figures give the average ages at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides (21) has remained unchanged for very many years, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for recent years it has been 23 or 24.

Marriages of Minors.—Of every 1,000 men married in 1953, 50 were under twenty-one years of age, while 259 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 666 marriages in 1953 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 3,797 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 190 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last five years. In the latest year (1953) one bride in every four was under twenty-one years of age, the proportion for grooms being one in twenty.

Year	Age, in Years					Totals
Year	16	17	18	19	20	Number	Rate Per 100 Marriages
* Inclusive of Maoris.
Bridegrooms
1949	..	26	68	168	412	674	4.02
1950	2	9	74	195	421	701	4.25
1951	3	13	63	222	457	758	4.63
1952^*	2	26	103	254	489	874	5.18
1953^*	6	29	104	217	499	855	4.96
Brides
1949	111	303	744	1,141	1,456	3,755	22.37
1950	100	301	777	1,274	1,513	3,965	24.02
1951	115	316	727	1,236	1,646	4,040	24.70
1952^*	158	384	884	1,300	1,562	4,288	25.13
1953^*	162	443	833	1,371	1,654	4,463	25.91

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES.—Of the 17,224 marriages registered in 1953, Church of England clergymen officiated at 4,313, Presbyterians at 4,657, Roman Catholics at 2,501, and Methodists at 1,405, while 3,246 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the years 1947–53.

Church	Percentage of Marriages
Church	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952^*	1953^*
* Inclusive of Maoris.
Presbyterian	28.26	28.86	28.07	28.31	27.91	25.95	27.04
Church of England	26.53	26.55	25.80	25.95	25.83	25.40	25.04
Roman Catholic	12.25	11.81	12.17	11.93	12.67	13.23	14.52
Methodist	9.58	9.25	9.19	9.32	8.53	8.52	8.16
Others	5.18	5.50	5.78	5.65	5.51	7.06	6.39
Before Registrars	18.20	18.03	18.99	18.84	19.55	19.84	18.85
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population (inclusive of Maoris) at the general census of 1951, 37.8 per cent were recorded as adherents of the Church of England, 24.3 per cent Presbyterian, 13.6 per cent Roman Catholic, 8.1 per cent Methodist, and 16.2 per cent of other religions or of no religion, or who objected to state their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was (January 1954) 2,765, and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

Church	Number
Roman Catholic Church	602
Church of England	504
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand	460
Methodist Church of New Zealand	329
Ratana Church of New Zealand	150
Salvation Army	147
Baptist	117
Seventh Day Adventist	51
Ringatu Church	46
Brethren	44
Associated Churches of Christ	35
Latter Day Saints	33
Congregational Independent	30
Commonwealth Covenant Church	26
Assemblies of God	21
Jehovah's Witness	18
Apostolic Church	16
Liberal Catholic Church	14
United Maori Mission	11
Evangelistic Church of Christ	10
Churches of Christ	8
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand	8
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi	7
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference	7
Church of God	6
Hebrew Congregations	5
Others	60
Total	2,765

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organizations.

DIVORCE.—The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928 (which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject) and its later amendments.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation is given in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book; the present position is outlined in the following résumé.

Any married person domiciled in New Zealand (for two or more years in the case of restitution and separation, grounds (i), (j), (k), (l) below) at the time of filing the petition may obtain a divorce on one or more of the following grounds:

Adultery since the celebration of the marriage.
Wilful and continuous desertion for three years or more.
Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, or self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.
Since the celebration of the marriage the respondent has been convicted of attempting to commit the murder of the petitioner or any child (of any age) of the petitioner or respondent, or has been convicted of any offence under section one hundred and ninety-seven of the Crimes Act 1908 against the petitioner or any such child.
Respondent has since the celebration of the marriage been convicted of murder.
Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.
Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years immediately preceding the petition.
Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for the five years immediately preceding the petition.
Failure for three years or more to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights.
Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in full force for not less than three years.
Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years. (An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act—which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders—and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.)
Parties are living apart, are unlikely to be reconciled, and have been living apart for not less than seven years.
Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

In cases based on separation of the parties, whether by order or agreement or otherwise, the Court is bound to dismiss the petition if the respondent opposes it and the Court is satisfied that the separation was due to the wrongful act or conduct of the petitioner; and in all those cases, as well as in cases where the ground is failure to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights, the Court has in any event a discretion whether or not to grant a decree.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928, as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds (j), (k), and (l), her New Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the date of the agreement, decree, order, or commencement of separation.

The amending Act of 1953 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband if she has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

Until the passing of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act 1953 there were no statutory provisions as to nullity of marriage. This Act embodies the common law on the subject, with several additions to the grounds on which a marriage is voidable, and some changes.

The basis of the Court's jurisdiction in nullity is established as the domicile of either petitioner or respondent in New Zealand at the time of the filing of the petition, or the celebration of the marriage in New Zealand.

A petition for a nullity decree may be presented in respect of either a void or a voidable marriage, the former being those which are invalid and of no effect whether or not a decree is obtained, and the latter those which are valid unless and until a decree is obtained.

Marriages are void in the following cases:

Where at the time of the ceremony either party to the marriage was already married.
Where, whether by reason of duress or mistake or insanity or otherwise, there was at the time of the marriage an absence of consent by either party to marriage to the other party.
Where the parties are within the prohibited degrees of relationship as set out in the Marriage Amendment Act 1946.
Where the marriage was not solemnized in due form.

Marriages are voidable on the following grounds:

Incapacity or wilful refusal of the respondent to consummate the marriage.
Mental deficiency of either party within the meaning of the Mental Defectives Act 1911 although that party was capable of consenting to the marriage.
Venereal disease (of the respondent) in a communicable form.
Pregnancy of the respondent by some person other than the petitioner.

In cases (b), (c), and (d) the facts alleged must have existed at the time of the marriage and proceedings must be instituted within a year of the marriage. The Court must be satisfied—

That the petitioner was at the time of the marriage ignorant of the facts;
That marital intercourse with the petitioner's consent has not taken place since the discovery of the existence of the grounds for a decree.

The Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Act 1947 made special provisions in respect of war marriages (i.e., a marriage celebrated on or after 3 September 1939 but before 1 June 1950) where one of the parties was domiciled outside New Zealand by: (1) extension of jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to certain marriages irrespective of domicile; (2) recognition of decrees and orders (in relation to such marriages) made in the United Stales of America; and (3) shortening the period of desertion or separation as ground for divorce in such cases from three years to twelve months.

By authority of the Act, previous legislation on the subject embodied in the Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Emergency Regulations 1946 was revoked, accrued rights being protected.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during recent years are as follows. About 50 per cent of the decrees granted in any year relate to petitions filed in prior years.

Year	Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage			Judicial Separation		Restitution of Conjugal Rights
Year	Petitions Filed	Decrees Nisi	Decrees Absolute	Petitions Filed	Decrees for Separation	Petitions Filed	Decrees for Restitution
1943	1,641	1,398	1,100	4	1	302	227
1944	1,992	1,821	1,630	7	2	499	421
1945	2,211	1,915	1,725	11	2	550	461
1946	2,363	2,137	2,133	10	6	562	463
1947	2,191	2,05'	2,117	7	1	430	371
1948	2,160	1,974	1,853	20	7	355	300
1949	2,001	1,824	1,892	15	1	331	262
1950	1,912	1,707	1,633	11	4	304	217
1951	1,882	1,666	1,582	11	7	263	210
1952	1,960	1,727	1,684	15	8	296	204
1953	1,897	1,643	1,540	10	3	227	197

The later years of the war and the immediate post-war years witnessed a marked increase in divorce. The peak year occurred in 1946, when 2,133 decrees absolute were granted. The following two years, 1947 and 1948, saw a falling off in numbers, that of the latter year being much larger than the former. A small increase was shown in 1949, after which a substantial decrease was recorded in 1950, with a smaller one in 1951. In 1952, however, an increase of 102, or 6.4 per cent, was shown, followed by a decrease in 1953 of 144, or 8.6 per cent. This is the lowest number of decrees absolute recorded since 1943.

It is worth noting that there was one divorce for every ten marriages solemnized in 1952, while the ratio in 1953 was one divorce to every eleven marriages.

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petitions and decrees during 1952 and 1953.

Grounds	Petitions Filed				Decrees Absolute Granted
	Husbands' Petitions		Wives' Petitions		Husbands' Petitions		Wives' Petitions
	1952	1953	1952	1953	1952	1953	1952	1953
Adultery	277	269	153	185	183	197	102	128
Bigamy	3	1	2	5	2	..	3	2
Desertion	165	153	173	153	143	120	136	140
Drunkenness with cruelty, failure to maintain, etc.	2	1	5	8	..	2	1	6
Insanity	15	7	4	4	10	8	6	1
Consanguinity	..	..	1	..	..	..	..
Sodomy	..	..	..	1	..	..	..	1
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights	136	137	49	48	134	134	45	43
Separation for not less than three years	415	382	555	536	386	300	527	454
Non-consummation	2	2	3	4	1	4	5	..
Bestiality	..	..	..	1	..	..	..	..
Totals	1,015	952	945	945	859	765	825	775

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. It should be mentioned here that the number of decrees absolute granted can, and often do, number more than the petitions filed. The reason for this is that all decrees granted are not necessarily from petitions filed in a particular year. The petition may have been filed in one year but the case not heard until the succeeding year.

Mention should be made here of the fact that over a period of five years, 1949–53 inclusive, the average percentage of decrees absolute granted on wives' petitions was greater than those granted to husbands. The figures are—wives 88.9 per cent, husbands 84.2 per cent.

The principal grounds on which decrees absolute were granted during 1953 showed the following increases compared with 1938, a normal pre-war year: adultery, 168 (107 per cent); desertion, 57 (28.1 per cent); non-compliance with restitution order, 81 (84.4 per cent); and separation, 182 (31.8 per cent).

In 462 of the 1,540 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1953 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 430 cases, 2 in 324 cases, 3 in 163 cases, and 4 or more in 161 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which decrees absolute were granted in the five years 1949 to 1953.

Duration of Marriage, in Years	Husbands' Decrees Absolute Granted					Wives' Decrees Absolute Granted
Duration of Marriage, in Years	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
Under 5	202	165	165	156	126	140	132	140	110	111
5 and under 10	296	256	222	259	231	301	219	228	242	255
10 and under 15	194	170	171	177	173	196	185	161	206	178
15 and under 20	103	109	80	90	109	123	102	114	115	101
20 and under 30	132	105	109	124	91	124	109	118	113	102
30 and over	43	45	40	53	35	35	36	32	39	28
Not stated	2	..	2	..	..	1	..	..	..	..
Totals	972	850	789	859	765	920	783	793	825	775

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1949, 2,626; 1950, 2,385; 1951, 2,178; 1952, 2,497; and 1953, 2,348.

4 C—DEATHS

REGISTRATION.—The law as to registration of deaths is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. Particulars required in the registration of a death include date, place of residence and domicile, name, occupation, sex, age, cause of death, birthplace, duration of residence in New Zealand, whether cremated or not, marital status, living issue of married persons, race (European or Maori), medical attendant by whom certified, particulars as to burial, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the burial. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the funeral director in charge of the burial being solely responsible for registration. When an inquest is held the Coroner becomes responsible for registration, the time allowed being three days after the conclusion of the inquest. The Coroner may, in writing, authorize an agent to attend to registration on his behalf. Registrations must not be effected before the conclusion of the inquest.

Where the Coroner decides not to hold an inquest the funeral director is responsible for registration of the death.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The principal Act stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the stillbirth.

New provisions in the 1951 Act include prohibition of burial at sea of a person dying in New Zealand except upon the authority of a Coroner, and provide for the registration of the death of a person whose body is removed for anatomical examination under Part II of the Medical Act 1908, or is removed for burial outside New Zealand.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, or a Coroner's order to bury the body, renders himself liable to a fine of £50.

From 1 April 1952 (reverting to the system followed prior to 1937) it is incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the funeral director in charge of the burial). During the intervening period the medical practitioner was required to deliver the certificate direct to the Registrar. The practitioner is required to report forthwith to the Coroner any case where, in his opinion, the death has occurred in any circumstances of suspicion.

The Act provides for the correction of errors (clerical, of fact, of substance, or of omission) in the register in the manner authorized by the Registrar-General.

Deaths of Members of the Forces while Overseas.—The Registration of Deaths Emergency Regulations 1941, which superseded 1940 regulations of similar title, required the Registrar-General to compile a War Deaths Register of persons of New Zealand domicile who died while out of New Zealand on service in some capacity in connection with the Second World War. Members of the New Zealand Naval Forces were excluded from the regulations, special provision having previously been made in their case. These regulations were revoked by the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1947, which made statutory provision in this connection. The amendment required the Registrar-General to compile a register of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any of the Armed Forces of Her Majesty and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand. Deaths registered in the War Deaths Register were not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths in New Zealand, nor were deaths of visiting overseas servicemen or prisoners of war in New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand servicemen which occurred in New Zealand were, however, included. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 requires the Registrar-General to compile a register containing particulars of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any Commonwealth force within the meaning of the Army Act 1950 and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand.

Registration of Maori Deaths.—Registration of the deaths of Maoris are effected with the Maori Registrars in the various districts set up for this purpose. Statistics relating to the deaths of Maoris are not included in this subsection, but are fully covered in Section 4D.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The following table shows the number of deaths and the death rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1934	12,527	8.50
1935	12,217	8.25
1936	13,056	8.75
1937	13,658	9.08
1938	14,754	9.71
1939	14,158	9.20
1940	14,282	9.24
1941	15,146	9.84
1942	16,385	10.60
1943	15,447	10.04
1944	15,363	9.87
1945	16,051	10.07
1946	16,093	9.71
1947	15,904	9.39
1948	15,812	9.16
1949	16,012	9.09
1950	16,715	9.31
1951	17,512	9.56
1952	17,413	9.28
1953	17,009	8.84

New Zealand has been noted for many years for its favourable death rate. The fact that the death rate is still comparatively very low, despite the older age constitution of the population, is probably due, inter alia, to improvements in medical techniques, expansion of health services, etc. This progress has been reflected, for example, in a relatively low incidence of serious outbreaks of the more important epidemic diseases (which were much more prevalent in the early years of colonization) and in a remarkably low infant-mortality rate.

The general trend of the death rate in New Zealand was for many years downwards, reaching its lowest level during the depression years of the early “thirties”. Since then an upward trend was in evidence for some years, the figures recorded during the war years being the highest for a long time. It is possible that the absence overseas of considerable numbers of men of early adult age, at which mortality experience is the most favourable, would have some effect on the rates established. The strains of wartime would also have some effect on deaths in the older age groups; in fact, the high rate of 1942 disclosed a sharp rise in deaths resulting from diseases of the heart and nervous system. For four years following 1945 a downward trend was again in evidence and, although small increases were recorded in 1950 and 1951, the 1952 and 1953 rates again showed decreases; the figure of 8.84 for 1953 being the lowest recorded rate since 1936 (8.75).

The death rates of males and females for the last eleven years are shown separately in the next table.

Year	Deaths Per 1,000 of Mean Population			Male Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths	Male Rate Expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100)
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Male Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths	Male Rate Expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100)
1943	11.36	8.81	10.04	119	129
1944	11.32	8.53	9.87	123	133
1945	11.37	8.84	10.07	122	129
1946	10.55	8.86	9.71	118	119
1947	10.50	8.28	9.39	127	127
1948	10.17	8.14	9.16	125	125
1949	9.94	8.24	9.09	121	120
1950	10.23	8.38	9.31	123	122
1951	10.50	8.62	9.56	122	122
1952	10.12	8.44	9.28	121	120
1953	9.80	7.86	8.84	126	125

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—An international comparison of death rates is made in the following table. They are the average of the five years 1949–53 and are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

Country	Rates Per 1,000 of Population
* European population only.
Israel	6.6
Netherlands	7.6
Norway	8.7
Union of South Africa^*	8.8
Canada	8.9
Denmark	9.0
New Zealand	9.2
Australia	9.5
United States of America	9.6
Puerto Rico	9.6
Sweden	9.8
Italy	9.9
Finland	10.1
Japan	10.1
Switzerland	10.4
Germany (Western)	10.5
Spain	10.7
United Kingdom	11.8
Costa Rica	12.0
Ceylon	12.2
Portugal	12.3
Austria	12.4
Republic of Ireland	12.7
France	12.9
Yugoslavia	13.0
India	15.0
Chile	15.3
Mexico	16.3

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR.—An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the period 1943–53 gives the following averages: March quarter, 3,511; June quarter, 3,919; September quarter, 4,723; and December quarter, 4,078.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1953 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were August, July, and September, with totals of 1,675, 1,670, and 1,506 respectively. Excluding December, a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January, February had the least number of deaths, 1,126, followed by January and March, with 1,240 and 1,241 respectively.

The lowest number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 24, this number occurring on 16 February and 10 March. The greatest number (67) occurred on 21 and 31 July and 21 August.

AGE AT DEATH.—The deaths registered during the year 1953 are tabulated below according to age.

Age	Males	Females	Totals
Under 1 month	396	268	664
1–2 months	53	31	84
3–5 months	40	41	81
6–11	60	42	102
1 year	45	41	86
2 years	38	26	64
3 years	27	25	52
4 years	17	12	29
5–9 years	47	39	86
10–14 years	40	32	72
15–19 years	90	29	119
20–24 years	105	43	148
25–29 years	112	45	157
30–34 years	111	73	184
35–39 years	123	97	220
40–44 years	215	160	375
45–49 years	316	247	563
50–54 years	449	296	745
55–59 years	595	417	1,012
60–64 years	857	563	1,420
65–69 years	1,209	840	2,049
70–74 years	1,471	1,147	2,618
75–79 years	1,395	1,173	2,568
80–84 years	1,001	1,010	2,011
85–89 years	477	551	1,028
90–94 years	149	230	379
95–99 years	35	51	86
100 years	..	3	3
101 years	1	1	2
105 years	1	1	2
Totals	9,475	7,534	17,009

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred since 1930 in the age distribution of persons dying. The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age groups is very striking. The results of three main factors are illustrated—viz., health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; the fluctuations in the birth rate over the period; and the great increase in the proportion of old people in the community.

Age, in Years	Number of Deaths				Percentage of Total
Age, in Years	1930	1940	1950	1953	1930	1940	1950	1953
Under 1	924	990	1,008	931	7.57	6.93	6.03	5.47
1 and under 5	327	205	199	231	2.68	1.44	1.19	1.36
5 and under 10	167	98	87	86	1.37	0.69	0.52	0.51
10 and under 15	105	108	64	72	0.86	0.76	0.38	0.42
15 and under 20	222	151	120	119	1.82	1.06	0.72	0.70
20 and under 25	315	247	158	148	2.58	1.73	0.95	0.87
25 and under 30	337	270	142	157	2.76	1.89	0.85	0.92
30 and under 35	337	290	191	184	2.76	2.03	1.14	1.08
35 and under 40	374	320	275	220	3.07	2.24	1.65	1.29
40 and under 45	478	362	328	375	3.92	2.53	1.96	2.21
45 and under 50	640	472	522	563	5.25	3.30	3.12	3.31
50 and under 55	794	798	697	745	6.51	5.59	4.17	4.38
55 and under 60	881	1,145	1,021	1,012	7.22	8.02	6.11	5.95
60 and under 65	1,003	1,461	1,503	1,420	8.22	10.23	8.99	8.35
65 and under 70	1,077	1,697	2,170	2,049	8.83	11.88	12.98	12.05
70 and under 75	1,171	1,772	2,536	2,618	9.60	12.41	15.17	15.39
75 and under 80	1,242	1,556	2,316	2,568	10.18	10.89	13.86	15.10
80 and over	1,805	2,340	3,378	3,511	14.80	16.38	20.21	20.64
Totals	12,199	14,282	16,715	17,009	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In more recent years, however, there have been some fluctuations in the rates for the higher age groups, but the 1953 figures again reflect a declining tendency. Of special significance are the low rates recorded in the childhood and early adult life age groups in recent years and the high percentage reduction effected during the entire period. The female rate for the various age groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The increase in the death rate (per 1,000 of population) at successive age groups is well exemplified.

Year	Under 1^*	1 and Under 5	5 and Under 15	15 and Under 25	25 and Under 35	35 and Under 45	45 and Under 55	55 and Under 65	65 and Under 75	75 and Over
*Per 1,000 live births in this case.
Males
1901	78.60	6.81	1.89	3.52	3.97	6.16	11.94	23.12	50.59	141.67
1911	63.48	5.36	1.91	2.42	3.87	6.27	11.02	20.83	53.22	130.58
1921	53.10	4.78	1.85	2.44	3.56	5.55	9.61	19.96	46.17	128.60
1931	38.21	2.83	1.35	2.28	2.77	4.64	8.69	18.25	44.18	130.57
1941	32.55	2.14	0.99	1.98	2.62	3.76	8.79	20.67	46.31	137.85
1951	26.49	1.40	0.64	1.54	1.32	2.93	7.20	20.04	46.90	127.33
1953	23.05	1.43	0.49	1.51	1.56	2.56	6.96	19.06	45.04	114.14
Females
1901	63.87	5.50	1.64	3.58	4.72	6.70	10.62	19.44	43.32	127.98
1911	48.74	5.37	1.48	2.76	4.34	4.92	8.38	17.89	40.44	119.60
1921	42.31	4.49	1.31	2.34	3.38	4.46	8.00	14.88	36.81	120.23
1931	25.67	2.47	0.97	1.85	3.20	3.81	6.84	15.36	36.83	122.87
1941	26.85	2.04	0.71	1.35	2.05	3.14	6.58	14.55	38.06	116.57
1951	18.81	1.19	0.36	0.73	1.17	2.04	5.29	13.27	32.35	113.75
1953	16.91	1.22	0.42	0.58	0.85	1.95	5.12	11.74	30.34	95.06
Both Sexes
1901	71.40	6.17	1.77	3.55	4.33	6.40	11.37	21.63	47.87	135.71
1911	56.31	5.36	1.70	2.58	4.09	5.64	9.82	19.55	47.74	126.13
1921	47.82	4.64	1.58	2.39	3.47	5.10	8.85	17.59	41.90	124.84
1931	32.15	2.65	1.17	2.07	2.98	4.22	7.80	16.88	40.56	126.87
1941	29.77	2.09	0.85	1.65	2.32	3.44	7.65	17.68	42.20	126.76
1951	22.77	1.30	0.50	1.15	1.49	2.49	6.26	16.52	39.36	119.96
1953	20.06	1.33	0.45	1.05	1.21	2.26	6.06	15.23	37.34	103.79

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex at ten-yearly intervals since 1901 and during each of the last five years was as follows.

Year	Males (Years)	Females (Years)
1901	41.64	37.68
1911	46.17	42.37
1921	48.45	46.97
1931	54.14	55.48
1941	58.65	59.60
1949	60.43	62.94
1950	62.15	64.37
1951	61.58	65.25
1952	62.16	64.89
1953	62.31	65.34

There has been a striking upward movement in the average age at death since 1901. A noticeable feature is that in the earlier years the age for females was considerably lower than that for males, the margin gradually narrowing until virtual equality was reached in 1927–28, since when the female average age at death has been higher than the male.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.—Life tables for the European section of the population based on the mortality experience of New Zealand, ranging from 1880 to 1938, have been published at various times in previous issues of the Year-Book. The latest investigation was based on the 1951 census combined with the deaths for the three years 1950–52, and the (complete) expectation of life at various ages is given below.

Age	Males	Females	Age	Males	Females
0	68.29	72.43	20	51.15	54.64
1	69.03	72.90	30	41.89	45.06
2	68.17	72.05	40	32.65	35.64
3	67.27	71.12	50	23.83	26.68
4	66.33	70.18	60	16.19	18.53
5	65.39	69.23	70	10.05	11.46
10	60.60	64.37	80	5.55	6.16

The expectation of life at age 0 has risen by 13.00 years in the case of males and by 14.34 years in the case of females over the period since the first New Zealand life table of 1891–95. The effect of the lowered infant-mortality rate and the efficacy of the health services generally is clearly demonstrated, however, by the fact that at age 5 the expectation of life of males has increased by only 7.10 years and females by 9.20 years over the same period.

A brief comparison is quoted below.

Period	Males (Years)	Females (Years)
1891–1895	55.29	58.09
1896–1900	57.37	59.95
1901–1905	58.09	60.55
1906–1910	59.17	61.76
1911–1915	60.96	63.48
1921–1922	62.76	65.43
1925–1927	63.99	66.57
1931	65.04	67.88
1934–38	65.46	68.45
1950–52	68.29	72.43

The above tables are exclusive of Maoris. A table showing the expectation of life of the Maori population is given in Section 4D.

A comparison of the expectation of life at age 0 for various countries is now given. In selecting comparable tables from the experience of other countries due regard was had to securing the most recent figures available. The countries selected are for the most part those of similar racial stock.

Country	Males	Females
* Exclusive of Maoris. † White population.
New Zealand (1950–52)^*	68.29	72.43
Australia (1946–48)	65.07	70.63
Union of South Africa (1945–47)^†	63.78	68.31
England and Wales (1950–52)	66.47	71.48
United States of America (1951)^†	66.6	72.6
Norway (1945–48)	67.76	71.68
Netherlands (1947–49)	69.4	71.5
Denmark (1946–50).	67.8	70.1
Sweden (1941–45)	67.06	69.71
Finland (1941–45)	54.62	61.14
France (1946–49)	61.9	67.4
Switzerland (1939–44)	62.68	66.96
Canada (1947)	65.18	69.05

STANDARDIZED DEATH RATES.—Except where specifically stated, all death rates quoted throughout this Section are crude rates—i.e., those ascertained by applying the mean population for the year to the total deaths registered during the year.

In New Zealand the age and sex constitutions of the people have changed very materially over the years, so that death rates for recent years relate to a differently constituted population than do death rates for earlier years. This factor has had a marked influence on the risks—and causes—of dying. In order to eliminate the effect of a changing age constitution from other causes influencing the death rate, the device of standardization is resorted to. The principle of this method is to compute death rates on the assumption that the sex and age composition of the population has not varied. A “standard" population is selected, and the mortality experience of any particular year is weighted according to the age distribution of that standard population.

The standardized death rates thus calculated for each of a number of countries, or for a number of years for the same country, may then be regarded as indices of the relative mortalities free from the distortion which might arise through differences in their respective sex or age constitutions. A comparison of the relative proportions of population in various age groups between New Zealand and the United Kingdom, for instance, shows this country to have higher proportions in the age groups under 30, while the United Kingdom has higher proportions in the age groups over 30 years.

A system of standardization of death rates was introduced some years ago in New Zealand, the age and sex constitution of the population as disclosed at the census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The following table gives both recorded and standardized death rates per 1,000 of population (on the 1911 standard population) for each fifth year from 1920 to 1950 and for the year 1953.

Year	Recorded Rates			Standardized Rates
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1920	11.11	9.15	10.15	10.83	8.84	9.89
1925	9.10	7.48	8.30	8.68	6.78	7.78
1930	9.42	7.69	8.57	8.66	6.48	7.63
1935	8.95	7.52	8.25	7.68	5.78	6.78
1940	10.18	8.28	9.24	7.95	5.67	6.87
1945	11.37	8.84	10.07	7.96	5.40	6.75
1950	10.23	8.38	9.31	6.94	4.55	5.81
1953	9.80	7.86	8.84	6.67	4.10	5.46

INFANT MORTALITY.—Over a long period of years New Zealand has been renowned for its low rate of infant mortality, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, etc., and partly to legislative and educative measures—the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organizations (one of the most important of these is the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children which was founded in 1907).

Particulars of deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the years 1943–53 are shown in the following table.

Year	Number			Rate Per 1,000 Live Births
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1943	551	400	951	35.0	27.4	31.4
1944	578	434	1,012	33.6	26.5	30.1
1945	607	429	1,036	32.0	23.8	28.0
1946	631	462	1,093	29.3	22.7	26.1
1947	624	498	1,122	27.3	22.7	25.0
1948	569	401	970	25.2	18.6	22.0
1949	600	446	1,046	26.4	21.0	23.8
1950	569	439	1,008	25.1	20.3	22.8
1951	611	406	1,017	26.5	18.8	22.8
1952	553	461	1,014	23.2	20.4	21.8
1953	549	382	931	23.0	16.9	20.1

In the following table New Zealand's infant-mortality rate is shown in comparison with that of other countries. The figures are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics. It is interesting to observe that the distinction of having the lowest infant-mortality rate in the world now belongs to Sweden, which achieved the phenomenally low ratio of 19 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1953, as compared with New Zealand's 20 for the same year. In the case of the Union of South Africa and New Zealand the European population only has been taken into account.

Country	Quinquennium	Deaths Under 1 Year Per 1,000 Births
Sweden	1949–53	21
New Zealand	1949–53	22
Australia	1949–53	24
Netherlands	1949–53	24
Norway	1948–52	27
United States of America	1949–53	29
Denmark	1949–53	30
Switzerland	1949–53	31
United Kingdom	1949–53	32
Union of South Africa	1949–53	35
Canada	1949–53	39
Finland	1949–53	39
Israel	1949–53	42
Republic of Ireland	1949–53	45
France	1949–53	49
West German Federal Republic	1949–53	52
Belgium	1948–52	53
Japan	1949–53	55
Cyprus	1949–53	60
Austria	1949–53	61
Italy	1949–53	65
Spain	1949–53	67
Ceylon	1949–53	80
Venezuela	1949–53	80
Czechoslovakia	1947–51	81
Portugal	1949–53	98
Mexico	1947–51	100
Peru	1949–53	106
India	1948–52	124
Egypt	1947–51	132
Chile	1949–53	144

The male rate of infant mortality is considerably above the female rate, the average for New Zealand over the five-year period 1949–53 being 24.8 male deaths per 1,000 male births and 19.5 female deaths per 1,000 female births.

The rates per 1,000 births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last eleven years.

INFANT-MORTALITY RATES, 1943–53 (PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS)

Year	Under One Day	One Day and Under Two Days	Two Days and Under One Week	Total Under One Week	One Week and Under Two Weeks	Two Weeks and Under Three Weeks	Three Weeks and Under One Month	Total Under One Month	One Month and Under Twelve Months	Total Under One Year
1943	8.4	3.6	5.8	17.8	2.0	0.8	0.7	21.3	10.1	31.4
1944	8.6	2.5	5.5	16.6	2.3	1.3	0.4	20.6	9.5	30.1
1945	8.4	2.5	5.4	16.3	1.9	0.8	0.6	19.6	8.4	28.0
1946	8.2	3.0	4.9	16.1	1.8	0.7	0.5	19.1	7.0	26.1
1947	8.0	3.0	4.5	15.5	1.4	0.7	0.5	18.1	6.9	25.0
1948	6.7	2.9	4.1	13.7	1.1	0.6	0.4	15.8	6.2	22.0
1949	8.2	3.0	4.0	15.2	1.0	0.5	0.3	17.0	6.8	23.8
1950	7.3	3.1	4.2	14.6	1.2	0.6	0.2	16.6	6.2	22.8
1951	6.9	2.9	4.9	14.7	1.0	0.2	0.3	16.2	6.6	22.8
1952	6.3	2.4	4.3	13.0	1.2	0.4	0.5	15.1	6.7	21.8
1953	5.9	2.1	4.1	12.1	1.1	0.6	0.5	14.3	5.8	20.1

Infants who die in the first year of life may be grouped roughly into two main classes—viz., those dying within one month of birth and those surviving the first month of life but dying before the first anniversary of their birth. Deaths amongst the first class, called neo-natal deaths, are due principally to pre-natal and natal influences. The second group covers those infants who have succumbed in the main to causes arising from post-natal influences such as the various epidemic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system, faulty feeding, and other environmental factors.

The next table shows that, whereas in the quinquennium 1946–50 the death rate for children under one month of age was 42 per cent lower than in the quinquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who had survived the first month of life was only approximately one-ninth as high as in the “eighties.” In other words, whereas formerly over sixty children out of every 1,000 who survived the first month of life died before reaching one year of age, now only seven such deaths occur. While the decline in the under-one-month group has been progressive for some years, it was among infants who had survived the first month of life that the most marked reductions were achieved. In the “thirties,” however, the reduction of this rate was arrested, and in the quinquennium 1941–45 an increase was recorded for the first time. For some years it had been considered that any further substantial decrease in the total infant-mortality rate would have to be achieved in the under-one-month group. The figures for 1946–50, however, indicate that whereas this group recorded a decrease of 13 per cent from 1941–45, the one-month-and-over group declined by 31 per cent.

Period	Deaths Per 1,000 Births
Period	Under 1 Year	Under 1 Month	Between 1 and 12 Months
1881–1885	90.60	29.77	60.83
1886–1890	84.09	27.57	56.52
1891–1895	87.60	30.34	57.26
1896–1900	80.06	30.38	49.68
1901–1905	74.77	30.64	44.13
1906–1910	69.62	30.28	39.34
1911–1915	53.63	29.28	24.35
1916–1920	48.62	28.16	20.46
1921–1925	42.75	27.48	15.27
1926–1930	36.70	24.82	11.88
1931–1935	31.88	22.34	9.54
1936–1940	31.83	22.51	9.32
1941–1945	29.53	20.01	9.52
1946–1950	23.92	17.31	6.61
1953	20.06	14.26	5.80

The accompanying diagram further illustrates the reduction in the infant-mortality rate that has taken place over a long period.

Causes of Infant Mortality.—The principal causes of infant mortality over the last ten years, showing both numbers and rates per 1,000 live births, are shown in the following table. The classification is according to the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International List.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths
Causes of Death	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
Tuberculosis, all forms	6	8	5	6	3	5	..	1	4	2
Congenital syphilis	5	2	2	..	1	4	..	..	1	..
Enteric fever and other salmonella infections	..	..	..	..	..	..	3	..	..	..
Dysentery, all forms	..	..	1	..	..	1	..	..	..	..
Diphtheria	5	8	10	5	..	..	2	..	..	..
Whooping-cough	32	5	1	20	4	12	12	4	6	4
Meningococcal infections	5	8	9	2	4	..	2	5	10	7
Tetanus	..	2	4	..	..	1	..	1	..	..
Poliomyelitis	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Measles	..	3	1	1	..	3	1	..	2	2
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of life	73	61	72	80	74	85	53	96	79	73
Pneumonia of the newborn	19	32	27	25	31	26	22	30	22	24
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life	28	18	29	21	21	17	15	26	10	12
Diarrhoea of the newborn	6	5	6	5	2	3	3	..	1	5
Congenital malformations	165	182	181	190	159	163	198	151	205	163
Birth injury	103	115	130	154	167	158	142	146	118	127
Asphyxia and atelectasis	64	77	93	100	102	111	128	164	174	152
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	34	29	34	37	35	30	50	38	34	37
Immaturity unqualified	284	274	311	276	193	238	225	191	191	162
Accidents	33	33	35	38	44	52	30	33	26	24
Other and undefined causes	150	174	142	162	130	137	122	131	129	136
Totals	1,012	1,036	1,093	1,122	970	1,046	1,008	1,017	1,014	931

Causes of Death	Rates Per 1,000 Live Births
Causes of Death	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
*Less than 0.1.
Tuberculosis, all forms	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	..	^*	0.1	^*
Congenital syphilis	0.2	0.1	0.1	..	^*	0.1	..	..	^*	..
Enteric fever and other salmonella infections	..	..	..	..	..	..	0.1	..	..	..
Dysentery, all forms	..	..	^*	..	..	^*	..	..	..	..
Diphtheria	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.1	..	..	0.1	..	..	..
Whooping-cough	1.0	0.1	^*	0.5	0.1	0.3	0.3	0.1	0.1	0.1
Meningococcal infections	0.2	0.2	0.2	^*	0.1	..	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2
Tetanus	..	0.1	0.1	..	..	^*	..	^*	..	..
Poliomyelitis	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	0.1	^*
Measles	..	0.1	^*	^*	..	0.1	^*	..	0.1	^*
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of life	2.2	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.7	1.9	1.2	2.2	1.7	1.6
Pneumonia of the newborn	0.6	0.9	0.6	0.6	0.7	0.6	0.5	0.6	0.5	0.5
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life	0.8	0.5	0.7	0.5	0.5	0.4	0.3	0.6	0.2	0.3
Diarrhoea of the newborn	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	..	^*	0.1
Congenital malformations	4.9	4.9	4.3	4.2	3.6	3.7	4.5	3.4	4.4	3.5
Birth injury	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.4	3.8	3.6	3.2	3.3	2.5	2.7
Asphyxia and atelectasis	1.9	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.5	2.9	3.7	3.7	3.3
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	1.0	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.7	1.1	0.9	0.7	0.8
Immaturity unqualified	8.5	7.4	7.4	6.2	4.4	5.4	5.1	4.3	4.1	3.5
Accidents	1.0	0.9	0.8	0.9	1.0	1.2	0.7	0.7	0.6	0.5
Other and undefined causes	4.1	4.6	3.4	3.6	2.8	3.1	2.6	2.9	2.8	2.9
Totals	30.1	28.0	26.1	25.0	22.0	23.8	22.8	22.8	21.8	20.0

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant-mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial periods commencing with the years 1872–76 and for 1953. It would appear that diseases which can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases, and diseases due to faulty nourishment, etc. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last five-yearly periods given —i.e., 1872–76 and 1947–51—it is found that the general infant-mortality rate shows a decline of 74 per cent, while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (98 per cent), convulsions (99 per cent), gastric and intestinal diseases (95 per cent), epidemic diseases (92 per cent), and respiratory diseases (78 per cent). The rate for epidemic diseases still continues to decline, and it is interesting to note that over 40 per cent of the total under this heading in the years 1947–51 were due to whooping-cough, while an additional 27 per cent were assigned to influenza. During the five-year period 1949–53 there were only two deaths of infants from diphtheria and three deaths due to scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat.

The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The following table shows quinquennial average death rates of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births. To enable the comparison with past years to be maintained, the infant deaths for 1950 onwards have been re-assembled to conform to the former classifications for the purposes of this table—i.e., influenza deaths have been included under epidemic diseases, while both pneumonia and diarrhoea of the newborn have been included under respiratory and gastric and intestinal diseases respectively, and not as diseases of early infancy.

Period	Epidemic Diseases	Tuberculosis	Infantile Convulsions	Respiratory Diseases	Gastric and Intestinal Diseases	Malformations	Early Infancy	Other Causes	Totals
*Less than 0.1.
1872–1876	13.5	5.5	9.7	12.9	24.2	1.2	25.0	17.3	109.3
1877–1881	10.2	5.2	7.5	12.3	19.8	1.4	21.9	15.3	93.6
1882–1886	9.3	4.7	7.9	11.8	19.1	1.2	25.5	12.3	91.8
1887–1891	8.9	3.7	6.3	10.5	18.5	1.3	24.7	8.8	82.7
1892–1896	9.8	3.3	6.6	11.0	16.6	1.4	24.9	11.2	84.8
1897–1901	6.1	2.6	5.6	10.0	17.2	1.5	26.2	9.7	78.9
1902–1906	5.5	1.5	4.1	9.7	15.3	1.3	27.6	7.9	72.9
1907–1911	5.9	1.3	3.3	7.6	15.5	1.9	26.7	6.3	68.5
1912—1916	3.6	0.6	2.2	5.1	7.4	3.9	26.2	3.5	52.5
1917–1921	3.2	0.5	1.9	4.7	4.5	4.3	26.1	2.9	48.1
1922–1926	1.8	0.4	1.3	4.3	2.8	4.8	22.4	3.3	41.1
1927–1931	1.5	0.3	0.5	3.7	1.7	5.0	19.4	3.1	35.2
1932–1936	1.5	0.2	0.6	3.3	12	5.0	17.5	2.4	31.7
1937–1941	1.4	0.2	0.2	3.1	1.3	5.5	17.4	2.5	31.6
1942–1946	1.1	0.1	0	2.9	1.2	4.6	16.1	2.6	28.7
1947–1951	0.6	0.1	0.1	2.3	0.8	3.8	13.6	2.0	23.3
1953	0.3	^*	^*	2.2	0.5	3.5	11.3	2.2	20.0

It is convenient to consider still-births and neo-natal deaths together, as they are largely the result of common causes. The combined group may be termed perinatal mortality. The term is particularly appropriate when we consider how deaths in the newborn crowd closely towards the day of birth. This effect is clearly shown in the table on page 89. Still-births and neo-natal deaths are considered together in the next table and are computed as rates per 1,000 total births.

Year	Still-births		Neo-natal Deaths		Neo-natal Deaths Plus Still-births
Year	Number	Rate	Number	Rate	Number	Rate
1949	796	17.77	748	16.70	1,544	34.47
1950	865	19.15	734	16.25	1,599	35.40
1951	804	17.69	724	15.93	1,528	33.62
1952	846	17.88	704	14.88	1,550	32.76
1953	887	18.75	662	14.00	1,549	32.75

Recent years have shown a definite trend towards improvement in the combined rate.

CAUSES OF STILL-BIRTH.—A still-born child is defined in New Zealand as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.”

The registration of still-births has been effected in New Zealand since 1913, but no information regarding the causes of still-births was required for registration purposes until 1947. As from 1 July 1952 a certificate of the cause of death in cases of intermediate foetal deaths—i.e., deaths after the end of the twentieth but before the end of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy—was also required to be furnished. There were 43 such cases recorded during 1953. The certificates of causes of still-birth and foetal death provide for both maternal and foetal causes to be entered.

The following table shows the 887 still-births registered during 1953 classified (a) according to maternal causes and (b) according to foetal causes.

Causes of Still-birth	Number of Cases
Causes of Still-birth	Males	Females	Total
(a) Maternal Causes
Chronic disease in mother	15	16	31
Acute disease in mother	6	2	8
Diseases and conditions of pregnancy and childbirth	110	93	203
Difficulties in labour	60	49	109
Other causes in mother	4	7	11
Totals	195	167	362
(b) Foetal Causes
Placental and cord conditions	120	87	207
Birth injury	2	3	5
Congenital malformation of foetus	49	56	105
Diseases of foetus and ill-defined causes	115	93	208
Totals	286	239	525
Totals, all causes	481	406	887

PERINATAL MORTALITY AND PREMATURITY.—Approximately three out of every four infants who die in the first year of life do so in the first month, and of those dying in the first month 41 per cent die in the first day of life and 85 per cent in the first week.

A principal factor in the loss of this new life is prematurity. This is seen in the following table, where causes of neo-natal deaths for 1953 are set out in accordance with the International List of 1948.

Causes of Death	Under One Day	One Day and Under One Week	One Week and Under Two Weeks	Two Weeks and Under Three Weeks	Three Weeks and Under One Month	Total Under One Month
Congenital malformations	17	46	15	8	12	98
Injury at birth	35	35	8	..	1	79
Injury at birth with prematurity	20	23	1	..	..	44
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis	22	29	2	1	..	54
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis, with prematurity	43	31	3	..	..	77
Pneumonia of newborn	..	7	1	2	7	17
Pneumonia of newborn, with prematurity	1	3	1	1	..	6
Disorders arising from maternal toxaemia	4	3	..	..	..	7
Disorders arising from maternal toxaemia, with prematurity	12	7	1	..	..	20
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	16	14	1	1	..	32
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis), with prematurity	1	3	1	..	..	5
Haemorrhagic disease of newborn	2	5	..	..	..	7
Haemorrhagic disease of newborn, with prematurity	1	1	1	..	..	3
Diarrhoea of newborn	..	..	1	2	..	4
Diarrhoea of newborn with prematurity	..	..	1	..	..	1
Ill-defined diseases peculiar to early infancy	2	3	..	..	..	5
Ill-defined diseases peculiar to early infancy, with prematurity	5	5	..	1	..	11
Immaturity with mention of any other subsidiary condition	..	1	..	..	..	1
Immaturity, unqualified	89	64	7	2	..	162
Pemphigus neonatorum	..	..	1	..	..	1
Umbilical sepsis	..	..	..	..	..	1
Other sepsis of newborn	..	1	..	1	..	2
Other sepsis of newborn, with prematurity	..	1	1	..	..	2
External causes	..	1	..	..	..	1
Other causes	3	7	3	8	..	22
Totals	273	290	49	27	23	662

A total of 163, or 25 per cent, of all neo-natal deaths are directly attributed to prematurity (immaturity) and a further 169 deaths are given as associated with it. The principal conditions of early infancy with which prematurity was associated were (i) asphyxia in 77 cases (11.6 per cent of all neo-natal deaths), (ii) birth injury in 44 cases (6.6 per cent of all neo-natal deaths), and (iii) all other causes peculiar to early infancy, 48 cases (7.3 per cent of all neo-natal deaths).

In the case of still-births, out of 887 there were 471 cases, or 53 per cent, where gestation fell short of full term.

It is not possible to assess what the reduction in perinatal mortality would be if every pregnancy were to go to full term, but there is no doubt that it would be considerable.

As a first step in the campaign to reduce this grave loss of new life, details of the birth weight and gestation period of all infants born alive or dead after 1 July 1952 were required to be furnished to the Registrars of Births and Deaths. These will provide essential basic data for further studies on prematurity. It will give a measure of the extent of the problem in different localities according to the age and parity of the mother and the occupation of the father, and it will enable cohorts of infants to be followed through their first year of life so that their mortality and morbidity experience may be shown according to their degree of maturity at birth.

CAUSES OF DEATH.—Since 1908 the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon. Almost all countries are member States of the World Health Assembly, and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death has world-wide application.

The sixth (1948) revision of the classification was applied in New Zealand to the deaths for 1950. At the same time a departure was made from the previous arbitrary rules of selection, when more than one cause of death was entered on a certificate, to an assignment according to what is termed the underlying cause of death. This may be defined as (a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury. The responsibility for indicating the train of events is placed on the physician or surgeon signing the medical certificate of death.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths and death rates per million of mean population according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes (Sixth Revision, 1948). In order to provide a comparison with the years 1950 et seq the individual causes for 1949 were, wherever possible, reassembled under the headings of the 1948 revision of the classification. It should be observed that no allowance was possible for the alteration in method of primary cause selection.

The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violent causes, which are of special interest and significance, are discussed later on in this subsection. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria) are not listed in the table below, as there were no deaths occurring from these causes in the years shown.

Causes of Death	Numbers					Rates Per Million of Mean Population
Causes of Death	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
* Comparative figures not obtainable. † Less than one. ‡ These figures and rates are not comparable with those given for later years (see letterpress).
Tuberculosis of respiratory system	365	351	319	225	183	207	195	174	120	95
Tuberculosis, other forms	70	61	64	47	55	40	34	35	25	28
Syphilis and its sequelae	71	91	67	62	61	40	51	37	33	32
Typhoid fever	3	2	..	..	2	2	1	..	..	1
Dysentery, all forms	3	5	3	2	..	2	3	2	1	..
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat	..	1	1	1	2	..	^†	^†	1	1
Diphtheria	5	4	3	2	3	3	2	2	1	2
Whooping-cough	21	16	7	7	5	12	9	4	4	3
Meningococcal infections	7	9	14	19	20	4	5	8	10	10
Acute poliomyelitis	13	2	1	54	26	7	1	^†	29	13
Measles	24	3	2	30	7	14	2	1	16	4
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	55	85	75	66	67	31	47	41	35	35
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	2,588	2,652	2,836	2,799	2,786	1,469	1,477	1,549	1,492	1,448
Benign and unspecified neoplasms	46	55	36	42	36	26	31	20	22	19
Diabetes mellitus	355	228	244	221	242	202	127	133	118	126
Anaemias	29	57	80	75	61	16	32	44	40	32
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system	^*	1,824	2,063	2,165	2,252	^*	1,016	1,127	1,154	1,170
Non-meningococcal meningitis	15	18	15	23	41	9	10	8	12	21
Rheumatic fever	9	14	17	8	17	5	8	9	4	9
Chronic rheumatic heart-disease	258	233	204	220	219	146	130	111	117	114
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart-disease	}	4,775	4,960	4,657	4,849	}	2,659	2,709	2,482	2,519
Other diseases of the heart	}5,744	595	591	660	528	}3,261	331	323	352	274
Hypertension with heart-disease	}	653	676	632	559	}	364	369	337	290
Hypertension without mention of heart	^*	162	154	165	144	^*	90	84	88	75
Influenza	45	77	78	129	35	26	43	43	69	18
Pneumonia	554	414	406	416	370	315	231	222	222	192
Bronchitis	128	150	250	348	286	73	84	137	186	148
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum	147	146	150	140	158	83	81	82	75	82
Appendicitis	40	34	28	27	28	23	19	15	14	14
Intestinal obstruction and hernia	115	127	118	110	111	65	71	64	59	58
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of newborn	85	86	115	75	79	48	48	63	40	41
Cirrhosis of liver	56	54	64	57	46	32	30	35	30	24
Nephritis and nephrosis	^*	212	199	188	178	^*	118	109	100	92
Hyperplasia of prostate	106	149	154	140	117	60	83	84	75	61
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium	45	40	31	33	25	26	22	17	18	13
Congenital malformations	217	299	202	255	234	123	166	110	136	122
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis	}	270	310	292	260	}	150	169	156	135
Infections of the newborn	}640	25	30	25	36	}363	14	16	13	19
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified	}	318	296	274	258	}	177	162	146	134
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined and unknown causes	206	186	209	177	119	117	104	114	94	62
All other diseases	^‡3,014	1,334	1,426	1,535	1,465	^‡1,711	742	778	818	761
Motor-vehicle accidents	195	212	269	252	279	111	118	147	134	145
All other accidents	547	501	549	550	558	311	279	300	293	290
Suicide and self-inflicted injury	171	165	182	189	192	97	92	99	101	100
Homicide and operations of war	20	20	14	19	10	11	11	8	10	5
Totals	16,012	16,715	17,512	17,413	17,009	9,092	9,308	9,564	9,282	8,837

TUBERCULOSIS.—The death rate from tuberculosis of the respiratory system has shown a declining tendency for many years, but the reduction by over one-half in the space of the five years 1949–53 is a noteworthy achievement. The rate for 1953, 95 per million of population, is a record low rate for this country.

In addition to the 183 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1953, there were 55 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, comprising—

Tuberculosis of meninges and nervous system	17
Tuberculosis of intestines, peritoneum, and mesentery	3
Tuberculosis of bones and joints	5
Tuberculosis of skin	1
Tuberculosis of lymphatic system	2
Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system	8
Tuberculosis of adrenal glands	3
Disseminated tuberculosis	15
Tuberculosis of other organs	1

The following table shows the number of deaths from tuberculosis in 1953, classified according to sex and age groups. Of those dying from this cause in 1953, persons under the age of 45 years formed 34 per cent.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 5	8	6	14
5 and under 10	1	3	4
10 and under 15	1	1	2
15 and under 20		2	2
20 and under 25	1	2	3
25 and under 30	2	5	7
30 and under 35	5	9	14
35 and under 40	11	5	16
40 and under 45	13	8	21
45 and under 50	11	5	16
50 and under 55	12	8	20
55 and under 60	17	6	23
60 and under 65	22	7	29
65 and under 70	18	6	24
70 and under 75	18	3	21
75 and under 80	10	4	14
80 and over	3	5	8
Totals	153	85	238

CANCER.—A special report on cancer is issued annually by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. Besides a section dealing with cancer as a cause of death there are analyses of returns received from the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society. These returns, together with those of patients treated in the public hospitals of New Zealand, provide for reasonably wide coverage. A system of registration enables a follow-up of each patient to be maintained which will eventually enable survival rates by site and method of treatment to be compiled. Special articles and statistical tables on the subject of cancer are contained in the 1917 and 1926 issues of the Year-Book, while the 1949 report of the Department of Health contains data covering the twenty-six years from 1924 to 1949.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant diseases. This classification was introduced in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, it exacts a heavy toll throughout the life-span. With the inclusion of Hodgkin's disease and leukaemia under the cancer heading the disease assumes a very high position as a cause of death among children and adolescents. It is interesting to compare the decline in the death rate from tuberculosis with the rise in the cancer death rate. These rates are set out in the following table and diagram. The fall in the tuberculosis rate may be said to reflect the achievements of the public-health service, whilst the rise in the cancer rate portrays in general the increasing age of the population.

This is illustrated by the following figures.

Period	Average Death Rates Per 10,000 of Population
	Tuberculosis	Cancer
1880–89	12.35	3.42
1890–99	10.62	5.44
1900–09	9.10	6.79
1910–19	6.99	8.22
1920–29	5.69	9.30
1930–39	4.17	11.17
1940–49	3.46	13.56
1950–53	1.76	14.91

The relative movements in the death rates from cancer and tuberculosis are further illustrated in the following diagram, which shows the rates at five-yearly intervals since 1880.

In 1953 there were 2,786 deaths from cancer in New Zealand, a proportion of 14.48 per 10,000 of mean population. A summary for the last eleven years is given below.

Year	Number of Deaths From Cancer	Recorded Death Rate	Standardized Death Rate^*
* Standard population used for standardized rates—England and Wales 1901. † Includes Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., from 1950 onwards.
1943	2,131	13.85	8.67
1944	2,182	14.02	8.58
1945	2,213	13.88	8.42
1946	2,268	13.68	8.48
1947	2,315	13.67	8.30
1948	2,453	14.21	8.65
1949	2,472	14.04	8.59
1950^†	2,652	14.77	8.99
1951	2,836	15.49	9.49
1952	2,799	14.92	9.03
1953	2,786	14.48	8.89

A summary showing the location of the disease in deaths from cancer during 1953 is given in the following table.

Site of Disease	Numbers			Rates Per Million of Mean Population
Site of Disease	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
Buccal cavity and pharynx	39	16	55	40	17	29
Oesophagus	48	27	75	50	28	39
Stomach	281	165	446	291	172	232
Intestine, except rectum	140	187	327	145	195	170
Rectum	83	62	145	86	65	75
Larynx	22	3	25	23	3	13
Trachea, and of bronchus and lung not specified as secondary	236	35	271	244	37	141
Breast	4	248	252	4	259	131
Cervix uteri	..	77	77	..	80	40
Other and unspecified parts of uterus	..	47	47	..	49	24
Prostate	162	..	162	168	..	84
Skin	32	25	57	33	26	30
Bone and connective tissue	17	14	31	18	15	16
All other and unspecified sites	291	300	591	301	313	307
Leukaemia and aleukaemia	68	49	117	70	51	61
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic system	72	36	108	74	38	56
Totals	1,495	1,291	2,786	1,547	1,348	1,448

The standardized figures for recent years suggest that cancer, while undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence, is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. Improvement in diagnosis has been responsible for some of the numerical increase in the recorded deaths from cancer, though this factor has now become more stabilized. A classification according to sex and age groups for 1953 is now given.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 5	16	10	26
5 and under 10	5	7	12
10 and under 15	6	4	10
15 and under 20	6	2	8
20 and under 25	6	7	13
25 and under 30	11	11	22
30 and under 35	15	16	31
35 and under 40	13	25	38
40 and under 45	27	53	80
45 and under 50	68	92	160
50 and under 55	91	100	191
55 and under 60	133	124	257
60 and under 65	174	141	315
65 and under 70	250	153	403
70 and under 75	275	199	474
75 and under 80	227	168	395
80 and over	172	179	351
Totals	1,495	1,291	2,786

Ninety-one per cent of the deaths from cancer during 1953 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 58 per cent at ages 65 years and upwards. Approximately one death in every six of persons who die after the age of 50 years is due to cancer.

PUERPERAL CAUSES.—In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance. The rate per 1,000 live births in each of the last twenty years is shown in the following table.

Year	Proportion Per 1,000 Live Births
1934	4.85
1935	4.21
1936	3.70
1937	3.61
1938	4.07
1939	3.64
1940	2.93
1941	3.36
1942	2.53
1943	2.21
1944	2.71
1945	2.24
946	2.05
1947	1.07
1948	1.26
1949	1.02
1950	0.90
1951	0.69
1952	0.71
1953	0.54

A survey of the death rate from puerperal causes since 1872 shows that for a period in the early part of the twentieth century there was a tendency for the rate to decline. Then followed a definite upward movement, culminating in a rate of 6.48 per 1,000 live births in 1920, the third highest on record, this figure having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885. Comparatively high rates persisted until 1931, since when the decline has been more or less steady. The efficacy of new drugs and methods of treatment is reflected in the extremely low rates recorded in recent years, the figure for 1953 of 0.54 being a new record. This low rate has been achieved mainly by a reduction in the number of deaths from septic abortion and puerperal sepsis. Deaths from complications of childbirth have also been unusually few since 1949.

It is generally conceded that in years of high birth rates the maternal-mortality rate tends to rise, probably due to the abnormally high proportion of first births in the total of births, upon which the death rate for these causes is based. In common with most countries for which recent figures are available, the reverse has been the experience in New Zealand during recent years. Possibly a contributory factor in this reversal has been the rise in the proportion of births taking place in institutions, more particularly in special annexes attached to the larger hospitals, where every facility for the care of the patient is more readily available.

Details of deaths from deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puer-perium for the three years 1951 to 1953 are shown in the following summary. The disease headings conform to the 1948 Revision of the Classification introduced in 1950.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 Live Births
Causes of Death	1951	1952	1953	1951	1952	1953
Toxaemias of pregnancy	7	9	13	1.57	1.94	2.79
Placenta praevia	3	1	..	0.67	0.22	..
Other haemorrhage of pregnancy	1	1	..	0.22	0.22	..
Ectopic pregnancy	..	1	..		0.22	..
Other complications arising from pregnancy	1	..	..	0.22	..	..
Abortion without mention of sepsis or toxaemia	3	3	1	0.67	0.64	0.22
Abortion with sepsis	2	4	1	0.45	0.85	0.22
Delivery complicated by placenta praevia or antepartum haemorrhage	1	3	..	0.22	0.64	..
Delivery complicated by retained placenta	..	1	2	..	0.22	0.42
Delivery complicated by other post-partum haemorrhage	4	4	3	0.90	0.85	0.64
Delivery complicated by disproportion or malposition of foetus	..	..	1	..	..	0.22
Delivery with trauma	3	3	1	0.7	0.4	0.22
Delivery with other complications of childbirth	..	..	1	..	..	0.22
Sepsis of childbirth and the puerperium	1	1	1	0.22	0.22	0.22
Puerperal phlebitis and thrombosis	..	1	1	..	0.22	0.22
Puerperal pulmonary embolism	3	1	..	0.67	0.22	..
Puerperal eclampsia	1	..	..	0.22	..	..
Other and unspecified complications of the puerperium	1	..	..	0.22	..	..
Totals, including septic abortion	31	33	25	6.92	7.10	5.39
Totals, excluding septic abortion	29	29	24	6.47	6.25	5.17

A summary of maternal mortality from all puerperal causes, in triennial periods since 1927 is now given.

Causes of Death	1927–29	1930–32	1933–35	1936–38	1939–41	1942–44	1945–47	1948–50	1951–53
Number
Puerperal sepsis	128	58	39	44	46	30	12	6	3
Eclampsia and other toxaemias	101	97	93	94	80	58	62	42	30
Septic abortion	47	85	91	68	58	61	33	20	7
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality	124	124	104	91	135	94	110	73	49
Total maternal mortality	400	364	327	297	319	243	217	141	89
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion	353	279	236	229	261	182	184	121	82

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES.—Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 4 per cent of the total deaths. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the three years 1951, 1952, and 1953 according to the Intermediate List of the 1948 Revision of the International Classification. It is necessary to refer to the detailed list of circumstances of accident or means of injury if a comparison with years prior to 1949 is required, as the inclusions under the headings below differ considerably from past practice—e.g., drowning from boats and ships or from horseback whilst crossing rivers are included below as transport fatalities, as also are falls on board ship and from horseback.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per Million of Mean Population
Causes of Death	1951	1952	1953	1951	1952	1953
Motor-vehicle accidents	269	252	279	147	134	145
Other transport accidents	115	90	97	63	48	50
Accidental poisoning	29	30	27	16	16	14
Accidental falls	139	168	182	76	90	95
Accident caused by machinery	19	35	29	10	19	15
Accident caused by fire and explosion of combustible material	19	21	23	10	10	12
Accident caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation	17	11	8	9	6	4
Accident caused by firearm	22	17	14	12	9	7
Accidental drowning and submersion	90	81	78	49	43	41
All other accidental causes	99	97	102	54	52	53
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)	14	18	10	8	10	5
Totals	832	820	849	454	437	441

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1953 was 839, corresponding to a rate of 4.36 per 10,000 of population. By comparison with 1936, there was an increase of 141 in the number of deaths, but the death rate has decreased by 0.32 per 10,000 of population.

Transport Accidents.—In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway trains and electric tram cars with motor vehicles the death is assigned to the railway train or electric tram car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles, the death is assigned to the motor vehicle.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last eleven years are as follows.

Year	Deaths Due to Accident				Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Population
Year	Railway	Tramway	Motor Vehicle	Aircraft	Railway	Tramway	Motor Vehicle	Aircraft
1943	74	9	113	97	0.48	0.06	0.73	0.63
1944	36	11	129	41	0.23	0.07	0.83	0.26
1945	36	11	104	27	0.23	0.07	0.65	0.17
1946	40	22	157	3	0.24	0.13	0.95	0.02
1947	39	9	187	8	0.23	0.05	1.10	0.05
1948	34	7	175	24	0.20	0.04	1.01	0.14
1949	28	7	190	25	0.16	0.04	1.08	0.14
1950	30	7	198	6	0.17	0.04	1.10	0.03
1951	39	9	254	9	0.21	0.05	1.39	0.05
1952	32	2	240	14	0.17	0.01	1.28	0.07
1953	26	2	269	28	0.14	0.01	1.40	0.15

It should be noted that deaths occurring as a result of the Tangiwai railway disaster were not registered till 1954, and consequently were not included in the 1953 totals.

Deaths arising out of aircraft accidents fell off steeply after 1945. This was to be expected, since the figures include Air Force accidents in New Zealand as well as civilian casualties. In 1948 the crashing on Mount Ruapehu of a National Airways Corporation plane with the loss of 13 lives was the principal cause of the high figure for civil air transport accidents in that year. New Zealand's worst air disaster occurred in 1949, when fifteen lives were lost in a crash at Waikanae. The figure of 25 deaths is the highest total recorded in a non-war year. The sharp increase in 1943 in deaths due to railway accidents is accounted for by one serious accident near Hyde in Central Otago, which resulted in twenty-one deaths. In 1948 a derailment near Blenheim resulting in the loss of six lives was a substantial contribution to the total in that year.

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents recorded an appreciable increase up to 1930, but this trend was reversed during the depression years, largely owing to a great reduction in the number of motor vehicles on the roads during that period. With the advent of more prosperous times, the toll of the motor vehicle again mounted, although, fortunately, not in proportion to the tremendous increase in motor vehicular traffic on the highways. An appreciable drop, however, was experienced during the war years on account of there being less traffic on the roads owing to restrictions in the use of motor spirits and rubber tires. Since the war the number of fatalities from motor-vehicle accidents progressively increased up to 1953, with the exception of a small decline in 1952.

The figures given in the above table for deaths from motor-vehicle accidents (which do not include deaths of Maoris) are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor vehicles and trains or trams, these being assigned to the heavier vehicle. For 1953 there were 10 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor vehicle was involved up to 279. The corresponding figure for 1952 was 252.

Non-transport Accidents.—The 1948 Revision of the International List makes provision for non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for each of the three years 1951, 1952, and 1953 according to this classification.

Place of Occurrence	Number			Rate Per Million of Mean Population
Place of Occurrence	1951	1952	1953	1951	1952	1953
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)	222	195	244	121	104	127
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)	29	47	43	15	25	22
Mine and quarry	7	10	7	4	5	4
Industrial place and premises	19	18	9	10	10	5
Place for recreation and sport	7	8	9	4	4	5
Street and highway	10	12	17	5	6	9
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)	13	5	6	7	3	3
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)	23	32	19	13	17	10
Other specified places	83	94	89	45	50	46
Place not specified	16	32	8	10	17	4
Totals	429	453	451	234	241	235

One in every two fatal non-traffic accidents occurs in or about the home.

The chief killer in the home is falls, which exacts a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Second comes asphyxia from regurgitation of foodstuffs and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes: this is the principal hazard of the first six months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed underlying respiratory infection. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between one and two years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the immediate home vicinity.

There were 119 deaths from non-transport accidents on farms in the period covered, while fatal non-transport accidents in industrial plants, factories, and workplaces totalled 46.

Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later Section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

SUICIDES.—Suicidal deaths in 1953 numbered 190—males 135, females 55—the death rate per 10,000 of mean population being 0.99.

Year	Number of Suicidal Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1949	114	57	171	1.29	0.65	0.97
1950	121	44	165	1.34	0.49	0.92
1951	136	46	182	1.48	0.50	0.99
1952	141	48	189	1.50	0.51	1.01
1953	135	55	190	1.40	0.57	0.99

The following table presents, for annual averages of various quinquennia, the suicide rate per 10,000 of mean population.

Annual Average During	Males	Females	Both Sexes
1895–99	1.48	0.31	0.93
1900–04	1.66	0.31	1.02
1905–09	1.62	0.34	1.02
1910–14	1.83	0.41	1.16
1915–19	1.79	0.40	1.10
1920–24	1.92	0.46	1.20
1925–29	2.17	0.56	1.38
1930–34	2.29	0.55	1.44
1935–39	1.63	0.57	1.10
1940–44	1.44	0.56	0.99
1945–49	1.38	0.57	0.97
1950–53 (4 years)	1.43	0.52	0.98

4 D—MAORIS

Unless specially stated to the contrary, in each of the preceding subsections Maoris have been excluded from the statistical tables presented. The standard of registration of Maoris is still below that of the European section of the population of New Zealand. This is due partly to difficulties of language, educational status, etc., and partly to problems of access. This latter difficulty arises from the fact that the greater portion of the Maori population is resident in country districts not so well served with modern facilities as regards transport, medical, and nursing services, etc. Consequently registration of vital facts regarding the Maori race as a whole is not quite at the same high level of accuracy as obtains for the European population, but very considerable improvement has been effected in recent years.

MAORI BIRTHS.—In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1912 (now section 52 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951) empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from 1 March 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in New Zealand is over 250, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Maori settlement of any size is within reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, which does not, however, make provision for as many particulars as is the case with registrations of Europeans.

The number of births of Maoris registered during 1953 was 5,529 (2,884 males, 2,645 females). The Maori birth rate in 1953 was almost twice the European birth rate (24.12 per 1,000). Registrations of Maori births in each of the last eleven years were as follows.

Year	Number of Maori Births			Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1943	2,267	2,173	4,440	45.78
1944	2,328	2,180	4,508	45.32
1945	2,389	2,255	4,644	46.10
1946	3,007	2,769	5,776	56.81
1947	2,541	2,447	4,988	47.46
1948	2,589	2,367	4,956	45.97
1949	2,510	2,407	4,917	44.48
1950	2,606	2,499	5,105	45.07
1951	2,746	2,492	5,238	44.97
1952	2,856	2,603	5,459	45.41
1953	2,884	2,645	5,529	44.54

Prior to 1946 there was reason to believe that the number of Maori births was somewhat understated, and this view was confirmed by the registration figures for 1946, the year in which the provision of family benefits under the Social Security scheme was extended to cover all children under sixteen years of age irrespective of the income of the parents. Of the 5,776 Maori births registered during 1946, no fewer than 1,447, or 25 per cent, had actually occurred before 1945—i.e., over a year before registration.

For the purposes of the Maori Births and Deaths Registration Regulations 1935 a Maori is defined as “a person belonging to the aboriginal race of New Zealand, and includes a half-caste and a person intermediate in blood between half-castes and persons of pure descent from that race”.

Only registrations relating to persons possessing half or more Maori blood are made in the register of Maori births or Maori deaths. All registrations in respect of persons possessing less than half Maori blood must be made in the European register.

MAORI MARRIAGES.—In the 1953 and preceding issues of the Year-Book a brief statement of the legislative position relating to Maori marriages was given. The Maori Purposes Act 1951, however, brought about a complete change to that hitherto existing. The view was taken that the Maori race had reached a stage where such special dispensations were no longer justifiable. From 1 April 1952 all Maori marriages are subject to the ordinary laws affecting European marriages, and no marriage according to Maori custom subsequent to that date will be held valid. As a result it is not now possible to distinguish marriages of Maoris from those of Europeans, and Maori marriage statistics as a separate feature will lapse.

The Maori marriage figures for each of the ten years (1942–51) were as follows.

Year	Under Maori Land Act	Under Marriage Act	Totals
1942	463	93	556
1943	363	79	442
1944	428	93	521
1945	457	76	533
1946	511	50	561
1947	468	54	522
1948	518	40	558
1949	550	19	569
1950	569	26	595
1951	522	34	556

MAORI DEATHS.—Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last eleven years have been as follows.

Year	Number			Rate Per 1,000 of Maori Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1943	862	813	1,675	17.51	17.11	17.27
1944	861	825	1,686	17.12	16.77	16.95
1945	865	770	1,635	16.93	15.50	16.23
1946	837	790	1,627	16.03	15.97	16.00
1947	796	742	1,538	14.74	14.52	14.63
1948	789	684	1,473	14.25	13.04	13.66
1949	797	769	1,566	14.03	14.31	14.17
1950	734	635	1,369	12.62	11.52	12.09
1951	739	585	1,324	12.38	10.31	11.37
1952	803	680	1,483	13.04	11.60	12.34
1953	760	585	1,345	11.97	9.65	10.84

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in some years. The total Maori death rate has shown considerable improvement during recent years, and is fast approaching equality with the European rate. Further improvement in the infant mortality rate for Maoris could result in such equality in the near future.

Apart from mere numbers by sex, statistics of Maori deaths are not available prior to 1920, but annual tabulations are now made on the bases of age and cause of death. The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the year 1953 were as shown in the following table.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 1	243	161	404
1 and under 5	48	50	98
5 and under 10	17	21	38
10 and under 15	17	21	38
15 and under 20	17	10	27
20 and under 25	34	19	53
25 and under 30	16	15	31
30 and under 35	15	13	28
35 and under 40	21	14	35
40 and under 45	24	31	55
45 and under 50	42	21	63
50 and under 55	32	23	55
55 and under 60	37	32	69
60 and under 65	36	29	65
65 and under 70	51	30	81
70 and under 75	41	29	70
75 and under 80	35	14	49
80 and under 85	12	14	26
85 and under 90	10	18	28
90 and under 95	3	8	11
95 and under 100	6	3	9
100 and over	2	7	9
Not specified	1	2	3
Totals	760	585	1,345

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.—Official life tables dealing with the Maori population have been compiled for the first time. The investigation was based on the 1951 Census combined with the deaths for the three years 1950–52, and the (complete) expectation of life at various ages is given below.

Age	Males	Females
0	54.05	55.88
1	57.69	59.08
2	57.71	59.03
3	57.02	58.26
4	56.25	57.45
5	55.42	56.61
10	50.99	52.05
20	42.21	43.29
30	34.25	35.11
40	26.41	27.00
50	18.86	20.07
60	12.81	14.41
70	8.39	9.98
80	4.79	5.71

The expectation of life of Maoris is much shorter than that of the European population. A comparison at age 0 shows a longer expectation of 14.24 years for European males and 16.55 years for European females.

A similar table to the above for Europeans will be found in Section 4C.

Causes of Maori Deaths.—With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever, epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the European population, the most noteworthy examples being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system, and typhoid fever. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhoeal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality rate among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the European population. Principal among these are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis, the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral haemorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many Maori infants may be partly responsible, as the figures of deaths from malformations and the group “early infancy” taken in conjunction indicate a much higher rate for Maoris from these causes as a whole than for the European population.

The Introduction of the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death in 1950, together with the change to assignment according to the underlying cause of death, prevent accurate comparisons being made between the 1950 and subsequent mortality tabulations and those for earlier years. The following table shows the Maori deaths for 1951 to 1953 classified according to the Abbreviated List of the 1948 Revision.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Maori Population
Causes of Death	1951	1952	1953	1951	1952	1953
Tuberculosis of respiratory system	129	111	79	11.08	9.23	6.36
Tuberculosis, other forms	39	38	40	3.35	3.15	3.22
Syphilis and its sequelae	4	4	8	0.34	0.33	0.65
Typhoid fever	2	..	3	0.17	..	0.24
Dysentery, all forms	2	3	4	0.17	0.25	0.32
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat	..	1	..	..	0.08	..
Whooping-cough	4	11	10	0.34	0.92	0.81
Meningococcal infections	8	2	7	0.69	0.17	0.56
Acute poliomyelitis	1	3	1	0.09	0.25	0.08
Measles	..	15	6	..	1.25	0.48
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	11	14	19	0.94	1.16	1.53
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	77	106	103	6.61	8.82	8.30
Benign and unspecified neoplasms	2	1	5	0.17	0.08	0.40
Diabetes mellitus	5	5	11	0.43	0.42	0.89
Anaemias	1	1	5	0.09	0.08	0.40
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system	51	44	40	4.38	3.66	3.22
Non-meningococcal meningitis	12	17	15	1.03	1.42	1.21
Rheumatic fever	6	14	16	0.52	1.16	1.29
Chronic rheumatic heart-disease	40	36	40	3.43	2.99	3.22
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart-disease	191	141	149	16.40	11.73	12.00
Other diseases of the heart	83	44	45	7.13	3.66	3.63
Hypertension with heart-disease	19	21	20	1.63	1.75	1.61
Hypertension without mention of heart	1	5	7	0.09	0.42	0.56
Influenza	14	22	6	1.20	1.83	0.48
Pneumonia	149	187	147	12.80	15.56	11.84
Bronchitis	30	65	46	2.58	5.41	3.71
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum	1	10	3	0.09	0.83	0.24
Appendicitis	4	3	5	0.34	0.25	0.40
Intestinal obstruction and hernia	13	9	10	1.12	0.75	0.81
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn	50	76	58	4.29	6.32	4.67
Cirrhosis of liver	1	1	1	0.09	0.08	0.08
Nephritis and nephrosis	9	23	15	0.77	1.91	1.21
Hyperplasia of prostate	2	5	1	0.17	0.42	0.08
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium	5	14	7	0.43	1.16	0.56
Congenital malformations	23	40	28	1.97	3.33	2.26
Birth injuries, postnatal asphyxia, and atelectasis	48	47	57	4.12	3.91	4.59
Infections of the newborn	12	14	12	1.03	1.16	0.97
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified	65	82	64	5.58	6.82	5.16
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined and unknown causes	32	21	15	2.75	1.75	1.21
All other diseases	73	104	104	6.25	8.65	8.38
Motor-vehicle accidents	29	44	39	2.49	3.66	3.14
All other accidents	61	68	81	5.24	5.66	6.53
Suicide and self-inflicted injury	6	9	6	0.52	0.75	0.48
Homicide and operations of war	9	2	7	0.77	0.17	0.56
Totals	1,324	1,483	1,345	113.68	123.37	108.34

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or a Coroner's inquest. As an indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925, out of a total of 867 deaths, 446, or 51 per cent, were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1953 the number so certified was 1,295 out of 1,345 registrations, equivalent to 96 per cent.

MAORI INFANT MORTALITY.—As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher and more variable than the European, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhoeal diseases. The infant-mortality rate for the first year of life was 76 per 1,000 births in the case of Maoris for the five years 1949–53, as compared with 22 per 1,000 among European infants. The decrease in the Maori infant-mortality rate during the years 1946 and 1947 is more apparent than real, as the birth figures on which they are based include a considerable number of late registrations of hitherto unregistered births (see p. 99).

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last eleven years are given in the next table.

Year	Maoris		Europeans
Year	Number of Deaths Under One Year	Rate Per 1,000 Live Births	Number of Deaths Under One Year	Rate Per 1,000 Live Births
1943	399	89.86	951	31.37
1944	461	102.26	1,012	30.12
1945	413	88.93	1,036	27.99
1946	431	74.62	1,093	26.10
1947	365	73.18	1,122	25.04
1948	380	76.67	970	21.95
1949	422	85.82	1,046	23.78
1950	356	69.74	1,008	22.75
1951	357	68.16	1,017	22.78
1952	461	84.45	1,014	21.82
1953	404	73.07	931	20.06

The next table shows for the year 1953 the principal causes of death of Maori infants in the various subdivisions of the first year of life. The classification is according to the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death.

Causes of Death	Under 1 Day	1 Day and Under 2 Days	2 Days and Under 1 Week	1 Week and Under 2 Weeks	2 Weeks and Under 3 Weeks	3 Weeks and Under 1 Month	1 Month and Under 2 Months	2 Months and Under 3 Months	3 Months and Under 6 Months	6 Months and Under 9 Months	9 Months and Under 12 Months	Totals
Tuberculosis	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	2	3	4	9
Syphilis	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Dysentery, all forms	..	..	..	..	..	1	..	..	..	2	..	3
Whooping-cough	..	..	..	..	..	..	1	1	4	2	..	8
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	..	..	1	..	2	..	..	1	4	6	2	16
Non-meningococcal meningitis	..	..	..	1	..	..	..	..	5	1	2	9
Influenza	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	1	..	..	..	1
Pneumonia, except of newborn	..	..	..	1	..	2	6	5	41	22	23	100
Bronchitis	..	..	..	..	..	..	2	..	1	2	4	9
Intestinal obstruction and hernia	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	1	..	1	2
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of newborn	..	..	..	..	..	..	2	5	16	15	11	49
Congenital malformations	8	1	2	3	1	..	2	..	4	3	..	24
Birth injuries	13	8	10	1	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	32
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis	11	8	3	3	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	25
Infections of the newborn	2	1	3	1	5	2	2	1	..	..	..	17
Immaturity unqualified	23	6	9	1	..	..	1	..	..	..	..	40
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy	4	2	2	2	1	..	..	1	3	2	2	19
Accidents	1	..	1	..	1	1	..	2	10	1	1	18
Other diseases	..	..	..	..	1	..	4	..	7	7	4	23
Totals	62	26	31	13	11	6	20	17	98	66	54	404

Of the total of 17 deaths in the above table due to infections of the newborn, 4 were defined as diarrhoea and 8 as pneumonia. Immaturity unqualified accounted for 40 infant deaths, but in a further 35 deaths due to diseases peculiar to early infancy, prematurity was an associated condition.

The great achievement in reducing the infant-mortality rate for the European population has been accomplished during the period after the first month of life up to the end of the first year. Conversely, the causes of the extremely high Maori mortality rates are to be found in the same period of life. This is indicated in the next table, which contrasts the mortality rates per 1,000 live births for European and Maori infants respectively for the last twenty years.

Year	Europeans			Maoris
Year	Under One Month	One and Under Twelve Months	Total Under One Year	Under One Month	One and Under Twelve Months	Total Under One Year
1934	22.86	9.25	32.11	17.11	76.48	93.59
1935	22.03	10.23	32.26	24.30	84.90	109.20
1936	22.31	8.65	30.96	22.32	87.60	109.92
1937	22.21	9.00	31.21	21.66	70.51	92.17
1938	24.15	11.48	35.63	30.32	122.94	153.26
1939	21.85	9.29	31.14	32.07	82.85	114.92
1940	22.03	8.18	30.21	23.92	63.30	87.22
1941	20.00	9.77	29.77	26.85	98.21	125.06
1942	18.73	9.98	28.71	19.40	78.52	97.92
1943	21.27	10.10	31.37	18.92	70.94	89.86
1944	20.60	9.52	30.12	19.30	82.96	102.26
1945	19.59	8.40	27.99	26.05	62.88	88.93
1946	19.08	7.02	26.10	18.35	56.27	74.62
1947	18.08	6.96	25.04	25.46	47.72	73.18
1948	15.80	6.15	21.95	28.85	47.82	76.67
1949	17.01	6.77	23.78	22.78	63.04	85.82
1950	16.57	6.18	22.75	28.41	41.33	69.74
1951	16.22	6.56	22.78	25.01	43.15	68.16
1952	15.15	6.67	21.82	25.82	58.63	84.45
1953	14.26	5.80	20.06	26.95	46.12	73.07

The principal causes of death of Maori infants responsible for the high mortality rates after the first month of life are diarrhoea and enteritis, broncho-pneumonia, pneumonia, and other diseases of the respiratory system.

4 E—TOTAL POPULATION, INCLUDING MAORIS

IT is desirable that a complete coverage of the vital statistics of a country as a whole should be available, and the statistical data presented in this subsection cover the entire population of New Zealand.

For many years the standard of registration of vital events for Maoris was subject to elements of inaccuracy and incompleteness due to several factors. However, with the introduction of the medical and related benefits under the social security legislation, which covers Maori and European alike, certain information was essential for the claiming of benefits, and a gradual improvement in recent years has been in evidence. Since 1 April 1952 all Maori marriages have been celebrated in the same manner and registration effected in the same way as European marriages. As regards births and deaths, however, separate registers for Maoris and Europeans are used, and in the case of Maoris the information required is not as detailed as that for Europeans. It is probable that the standard of registration of Maori vital statistics is now very little inferior to that of Europeans.

TOTAL BIRTHS.—As mentioned previously, registration of Maori births are somewhat less accurate (although improvement has been manifest in recent years) than those of the European population. In the table following, which shows the numbers and rates of European, Maori, and total births for each of the last eleven years, allowance should be made for the element of inaccuracy and incompleteness affecting a proportion of the figures, particularly for the earlier years covered.

For instance, owing to the extensive time lag in the receipt by the Registrar-General of a considerable number of registrations, the statistics of Maori births relate to the number of registrations received during the year, whereas the European figures cover actual registrations effected during the year.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori	Total
1943	30,311	4,440	34,751	19.70	45.78	21.25
1944	33,599	4,508	38,107	21.59	45.32	23.01
1945	37,007	4,644	41,651	23.22	46.10	24.58
1946	41,871	5,776	47,647	25.26	56.81	27.08
1947	44,816	4,988	49,804	26.47	47.46	27.70
1948	44,193	4,956	49,149	25.59	45.97	26.79
1949	43,988	4,917	48,905	24.98	44.48	26.13
1950	44,309	5,105	49,414	24.67	45.07	25.88
1951	44,651	5,238	49,889	24.39	44.97	25.62
1952	46,469	5,459	51,928	24.77	45.41	26.01
1953	46,414	5,529	51,943	24.12	44.54	25.35

The abnormal increase in the number of Maori births shown for the year 1946 is mainly accounted for by the late registration of births which occurred prior to 1946 (see page 99).

The inclusion of Maoris raises the level of the birth rate all through the period covered, but in no case does it reverse the trend of the rate on the normal published basis—i.e., the birth rate of New Zealand, exclusive of Maoris. In an international comparison for the quinquennium 1949–53 the inclusion of Maoris raises New Zealand's position from twelfth to eleventh in a total of twenty-eight countries covered.

TOTAL NATURAL INCREASE.—The birth and death rates of the population are not subject to violent fluctuation, and consequently the natural-increase rate—i.e., excess of births over deaths—shows, in the period covered by the next table, a steady the to 1947, and then a regular decline each year until 1952, when a sharp increase was recorded. In 1953 a small decrease was again evident despite the fact that the numerical increase was greater than the previous year. The following table shows the numbers gained by natural increase, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for the last eleven years.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori	Total
1943	14,864	2,765	17,629	9.66	28.51	10.78
1944	18,236	2,822	21,058	11.72	28.37	12.71
1945	20,956	3,009	23,965	13.15	29.87	14.14
1946	25,778	4,149	29,927	15.55	40.81	17.01
1947	28,912	3,450	32,362	17.08	32.83	18.00
1948	28,381	3,483	31,864	16.43	32.31	17.37
1949	27,976	3,351	31,327	15.89	30.31	16.74
1950	27,594	3,736	31,330	15.36	32.98	16.41
1951	27,139	3,914	31,053	14.83	33.60	15.94
1952	29,056	3,976	33,032	15.49	33.07	16.54
1953	29,405	4,184	33,589	15.28	33.70	16.39

In the ten years 1944–53 New Zealand has gained by natural increase of the population a total of 299,507, comprising 263,433 Europeans and 36,074 Maoris.

TOTAL MARRIAGES.—The following table shows the numbers of European, Maori, and total marriages celebrated during each of the last eleven years.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori	Total
* Not available, see following paragraph.
1943	11,579	442	12,021	7.53	4.56	7.35
1944	13,125	521	13,646	8.43	5.24	8.24
1945	16,160	533	16,693	10.14	5.29	9.85
1946	20,535	561	21,096	12.39	5.52	11.99
1947	18,525	522	19,047	10.94	4.97	10.59
1948	17,192	558	17,750	9.96	5.18	9.67
1949	16,785	569	17,354	9.53	5.15	9.27
1950	16,504	595	17,099	9.19	5.25	8.96
1951	16,359	556	16,915	8.93	4.77	8.78
1952	^*	^*	17,061	^*	^*	8.55
1953	^*	^*	17,224	^*	^*	8.41

The fluctuations in the Maori marriage rate, and hence, to a lesser extent, in the total marriage rate, cannot be taken at their face value, as elements of Maori psychology played no small part on occasions in influencing the number of Maori marriages registered, as distinct from the number actually celebrated. Apart from these factors, the differences observed in the movements of the respective rates to 1951 are, of course, considerably affected by variations in the application of social and other legislation to the Maori race and the European population respectively. As a result of legislative changes it is not possible to distinguish marriages of Maoris from those of Europeans after 1 April 1952.

TOTAL DEATHS.—The effect of including Maoris is to increase slightly the total death rate for New Zealand, as is seen in the following table.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori	Total
1943	15,447	1,675	17,122	10.04	17.27	10.47
1944	15,363	1,686	17,049	9.87	16.95	10.30
1945	16,051	1,635	17,686	10.07	16.23	10.44
1946	16,093	1,627	17,720	9.71	16.00	10.07
1947	15,904	1,538	17,442	9.39	14.63	9.70
1948	15,812	1,473	17,285	9.16	13.66	9.42
1949	16,012	1,566	17,578	9.09	14.17	9.39
1950	1,715	1,369	18,084	9.31	12.09	9.47
1951	17,512	1,324	18,836	9.56	11.37	9.67
1952	17,413	1,483	18,896	9.28	12.34	9.47
1953	17,009	1,345	18,354	8.84	10.84	8.96

Although the Maori death rate is consistently higher than the European rate, the inclusion of Maoris does no