THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1954

NEW morerows="" features in this issue of the Year-Book include a Section covering the results of the 1953 Census of Distribution and a short article on Gas Generation and Supply. Several Sections have been extensively rewritten—namely, Building and Construction, Imports, Roads and Road Transport, and Government Finance.

A short article on the Royal Tour is included as Appendix (d) to this volume.

My sincere thanks are due to all who assisted in the preparation and printing of the Year-Book.

G. E. WOOD,
Government Statistician.
Census and Statistics Department, 1 July 1954.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS DEPARTMENT (OBTAINABLE FROM THE GOVERNMENT PRINTER, WELLINGTON)

Title	Latest No.	Date of Issue	Price Per Copy		Postage (Extra)
			s.	d.	s.	d.
* Published by the Customs Department. † £2 2s. per annum (post free). ‡ Cyclostyled copies showing numbers with overseas War Service, enumerated in each county, borough, and town district at the 1951 Census, are available on application (no charge) from the Department. § Being prepared for printing. NOTE.—This list is subject to revision from time to time.
New Zealand Official Year-Book	1954	September 1954	15	0	1	2
Pocket Digest of New Zealand Statistics	1953	April 1954	3	6		2
Annual Statistical Reports:
Population and Buildings Statistics	1952–53	February 1954	6	6		3
Vital Statistics	1952	September 1953	5	6		2
Justice Statistics	1952	May 1954	10	6		4
External Trade (Part A, Exports)^*	1949 and 1952	December 1953	15	0		5
External Trade (Part B, Imports)^*	1949 and 1952	April 1954	17	6		8
Shipping and other Transport Statistics	1949 to 1952	August 1954	13	0		4
Report on, and Analysis of, External Trade Statistics	1949 to 1952	October 1954	9	6		4
Farm Production Statistics	1952–53	June 1954	5	0		3
Factory Production Statistics	1951–52	June 1954	22	6		10
Insurance Statistics	1952	May 1954	4	6		3
Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics	1951–52 and 1952–53	June 1954	8	6		4
Industrial Accidents	1951 and 1952	^§
Income and Income Tax Statistics for the Income Year	1950–51	May 1954	9	0		4
National Income and Sector Accounts	1938–39 to 1953–54	August 1954	6	0		3
Balance of Payments	1950–51 to 1953–54	In the Press
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand	1951–52	March 1954	15	0		7
Monthly Abstract of Statistics^†			4	0		2
Supplements:
Retail Trading Statistics (Sept. Abstract)	June Quarter	October 1954
Population Projections:
New Zealand (Incl. Maori) (December Abstract)		December 1953
Non-Maori (October Abstract)		November 1953
Factory Production Statistics (April Abstract)	1952–53	May 1954
Special Supplements:
New Zealand Life Tables (non-Maori) (July Abstract)	1950–52	August 1953	1	6		2
New Zealand Life Tables (Maori) (November Abstract)	1950–52	December 1953	1	6		2
Retail Prices in New Zealand (October–November) Abstract		December 1949	2	0		2
Census of Distribution, 1953	1953	April 1954	6	0		4
Maps of Urban Areas, 1951	1951	January 1953	20	0		3
Census of Public Libraries, 1949	1949	January 1952	2	6		2
Volumes of 1951 Census Results:
Vol. I. Increase and Location of Population	1951	April 1953	7	6		4
Vol. II. Ages and Marital Status	1951	January 1954	10	6		4
Vol. III. Religious Professions (Including Summaries for Dependent Children, Race, and War Service)	1951	November 1953	5	0		2
Vol. IV. Industries, Occupations and Incomes	1951	September 1954	12	6		5
Vol. V. Birthplace and Duration of Residence of Overseas-Born	1951	In the Press
Vol. VI. Maori Census	1951	^§
Vol. VII. Dwellings and Households	1951	August 1954	6	0		2
Appendix A. Census of Poultry	1951	February 1953	2	6		2
Appendix B. Life Tables 1950–52 and Values of Annuities	1951	^§
War Service^‡	1951	November 1953

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

FOR some of the statistical series included in this issue of the Year-Book later information is available than is included in the body of the book. This later information is given in the following paragraphs, with references to the appropriate portion of the Year-Book containing more detailed information for earlier periods.

POPULATION

Inter-censal Population (p. 25).—Recent population changes are given in the following table.

POPULATION AT END OF YEAR

Year Ended	Males	Females	Total	Mean Population for Year
Total Population (Including Maoris)
30 June 1953	1,029,459	1,017,932	2,047,391	2,022,684
30 September 1953	1,036,246	1,024,443	2,060,689	2,035,903
31 December 1953	1,043,143	1,031,638	2,074,781	2,048,826
31 March 1954	1,049,963	1,037,777	2,087,740	2,061,376
Maori Population
30 June 1953	63,476	60,617	124,093	122,143
30 September 1953	64,010	61,158	125,168	123,132
31 December 1953	64,507	61,639	126,146	124,146
31 March 1954	65,141	62,243	127,384	125,174

The above figures are exclusive of the population of the Cook Islands, 15,657; Niue Island, 4,708; and Tokelau Islands, 1,753 (all at 31 March 1954), and the population of Western Samoa, 91,988 (at 31 March 1954).

Natural Increase.—Owing to the uniformly high levels in births in the last few years and the relative stability in the number of deaths, population gains from natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—have been particularly marked in recent years, the excess of births over deaths in 1953 at 33,589 constituting a record.

Migration (pp. 26–29).—The total number of arrivals in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1954 was 125,096, while the total number of departures in the same year was 110,049. Excluding crews and through passengers, arrivals totalled 61,845 and departures 46,404, making the net excess of arrivals 15,441, as compared with 22,032 in 1952–53. A classification of total arrivals and departures gives the following results.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1953	1954
Migration: Arrivals
Immigrants intending permanent residence	29,005	24,896
New Zealand residents returning	18,570	17,443
Visitors—
Tourists	13,309	13,858
Others	5,356	5,648
Through passengers	5,645	7,448
Crews	55,231	55,803
Total arrivals	127,116	125,096

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1953	1954
Migration: Departures
New Zealand residents departing—
Permanently	6,271	7,048
Temporarily	18,315	18,277
Temporary residents departing	19,622	21,079
Through passengers	5,645	7,448
Crews	56,929	56,197
Total departures	106,782	110,049

Until 1953–54 recent statistics of the numbers of immigrants intending permanent residence had shown considerable increases, arrivals under this heading being 18,234 in 1950–51; 24,922 in 1951–52; and 29,005 in 1952–53. This upward trend was not only halted in 1953–54 but in fact a decrease of 4,109 was shown, or slightly more than the gain registered in 1952–53, arrivals in 1953–54 totalling 24,896.

The resumption of assisted passages for certain classes of immigrants is reflected in the statistics. The following were the numbers arriving under this heading over the past four years: 1950–51, 2,928; 1951–52, 4,949; 1952–53, 7,581; 1953–54, 6,299.

The numbers of assisted migrants, which had been steadily rising over the last few years, showed a substantial drop during 1953–54; unassisted migration fell 13–2 per cent, as against a decrease of 16–9 per cent in assisted migrants.

VITAL STATISTICS

Vital statistics for the calendar years 1952 and 1953 are shown, in summary form, in the following table. Statistics in more detail for 1953 and earlier years are given on pages 55–108.

—	1952		1953
—	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
* Infant mortality rates per 1,000 live births.
Births—
Europeans	46,469	24.77	46,414	24.12
Maoris	5,459	45.41	5,529	44.54
Total population	51,928	26.01	51,943	25.35
Deaths—
Europeans	17,413	9.28	17,009	8.84
Maoris	1,483	12.34	1,345	10.84
Total population	18,896	9.47	18,354	8.96
Marriages (total)	17,061	8.55	17,224	8.41
Infant deaths under one year—
Europeans	1,014	21.82^*	931	20.06^*
Maoris	461	84.45^*	404	73.07^*
Totals	1,475	28.40^*	1,335	25.70^*

Births.—The total number of births registered in 1953 (51,943) is the highest recorded in the history of New Zealand, exceeding the previous high total in 1952 by 15. The birth-rate, however, is still below the high figure of 27.70 recorded in 1947.

Population Projections by Age Groups.—A projection by age groups of the non-Maori population appears in Section 3 of this publication. The following tables present projections by age groups of the total population, also separate figures for the Maori population only. The same assumptions regarding immigration have been utilized for the total population projections, while no allowance for migration movement has been made in projecting the Maori population.

POPULATION PROJECTIONS BY AGE GROUPS (INCLUDING MAORIS)

Age Groups	December 1951			December 1962
Age Groups	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
(a) Assuming 10,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	129,350	122,600	251,950	136,050	128,950	265,000
5 and under 10 years	124,200	118,600	242,800	130,100	123,450	253,550
10 and under 15 years	105,850	101,300	207,150	125,700	119,950	245,650
15 and under 20 years	86,900	83,650	170,550	107,100	102,300	209,400
20 and under 25 years	71,900	68,100	140,000	89,700	85,000	174,700
25 and under 30 years	77,050	70,700	147,750	76,850	70,200	147,050
30 and under 35 years	81,150	75,000	156,150	81,050	72,850	153,900
35 and under 40 years	74,250	73,950	148,200	83,450	76,700	160,150
40 and under 45 years	70,300	70,950	141,250	75,400	74,700	150,100
45 and under 50 years	68,100	65,850	133,950	70,250	70,750	141,000
50 and under 55 years	59,200	56,600	115,800	66,500	64,700	131,200
55 and under 60 years	49,050	48,800	97,850	56,100	54,600	110,700
60 and under 65 years	37,050	41,700	78,750	44,700	45,950	90,650
65 years and over	90,460	107,370	197,830	91,210	114,260	205,470
Totals =	1,124,810	1,105,170	2,229,980	1,234,160	1,204,360	2,438,520
(b) Assuming 5,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	127,950	121,250	249,200	132,850	125,900	258,750
5 and under 10 years	123,150	117,750	240,900	127,700	121,250	248,950
10 and under 15 years	104,850	100,500	205,350	123,700	118,300	242,000
15 and under 20 years	86,000	83,000	169,000	105,200	100,800	206,000
20 and under 25 years	70,100	67,200	137,300	87,000	83,450	170,450
25 and under 30 years	74,250	69,450	143,700	72,250	68,050	140,300
30 and under 35 years	78,800	73,700	152,500	75,950	70,300	146,250
35 and under 40 years	72,650	72,800	145,450	79,500	74,250	153,750
40 and under 45 years	69,200	70,100	139,300	72,700	72,750	145,450
45 and under 50 years	67,350	65,300	132,650	68,400	69,350	137,750
50 and under 55 years	58,750	56,250	115,000	65,350	63,800	129,150
55 and under 60 years	48,800	48,600	97,400	55,400	54,050	109,450
60 and under 65 years	36,900	41,500	78,400	44,350	45,600	89,950
65 years and over	90,260	106,870	197,130	90,860	113,260	204,120
Totals	1,109,010	1,094,270	2,203,280	1,201,210	1,181,110	2,382,320
(c) Assuming no Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	126,550	119,900	246,450	129,650	122,850	252,500
5 and under 10 years	122,150	116,900	239,050	125,300	119,050	244,350
10 and under 15 years	103,850	99,700	203,550	121,750	116,600	238,350
15 and under 20 years	85,100	82,300	167,400	103,300	99,300	202,600
20 and under 25 years	68,300	66,350	134,650	84,300	81,900	166,200
25 and under 30 years	71,450	68,200	139,650	67,650	65,950	133,600
30 and under 35 years	76,450	72,350	148,800	70,800	67,700	138,500
35 and under 40 years	71,050	71,650	142,700	75,550	71,800	147,350
40 and under 45 years	68,050	69,250	137,300	69,950	70,800	140,750
45 and under 50 years	66,650	64,750	131,400	66,550	67,950	134,500
50 and under 55 years	53,300	55,900	114,200	64,200	62,900	127,100
55 and under 60 years	48,550	48,400	96,950	54,750	53,500	108,250
60 and under 65 years	36,800	41,300	78,100	44,000	45,200	89,200
65 years and over	90,060	106,420	196,480	90,410	112,360	202,770
Totals	1,093,310	1,083,370	2,176,680	1,168,160	1,157,860	2,326,020

POPULATION PROJECTIONS BY AGE GROUPS (MAORIS)

Age Groups	December 1957			December 1962
Age Groups	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Under 5 years	14,350	13,500	27,850	17,050	16,050	33,100
5 and under 10 years	11,350	10,800	22,150	13,950	13,200	27,150
10 and under 15 years	9,050	8,700	17,750	11,250	10,700	21,950
15 and under 20 years	8,150	7,800	15,950	8,950	8,550	17,500
20 and under 25 years	6,600	6,450	13,050	7,950	7,650	15,600
25 and under 30 years	5,250	5,350	10,600	6,450	6,300	12,750
30 and under 35 years	4,250	4,300	8,550	5,100	5,200	10,300
35 and under 40 years	3,300	3,350	6,650	4,100	4,200	8,300
40 and under 45 years	2,850	2,950	5,800	3,150	3,200	6,350
45 and under 50 years	2,700	2,350	5,050	2,700	2,750	5,450
50 and under 55 years	2,000	1,650	3,650	2,500	2,150	4,650
55 and under 60 years	1,500	1,300	2,800	1,750	1,450	3,200
60 and under 65 years	1,000	800	1,800	1,250	1,050	2,300
65 years and over	1,660	1,470	3,130	1,810	1,560	3,370
Totals	74,010	70,770	144,780	87,960	84,010	171,970

PRODUCTION

Farm Production

Estimated Areas of Principal Crops, 1954 Season.—Estimates of areas sown under wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes were collected in the spring of 1953 by inquiry from growers of these crops, and from these estimates, together with reports from Field Officers of the Department of Agriculture at the end of January 1954, total yields of wheat, oats, and barley are estimated. In framing these estimates of yields due allowance is made for areas not threshed (fed off, etc.). Following are the estimates for 1953–54, together with the final figures for the preceding season 1952–53.

—	1952–53 (Final Figures)		1953–54 (Estimated)
—	Area	Yield	Area	Yield
* Not available.
	(Acres)	(Bushels)	(Acres)	(Bushels)
Wheat	135,736	4,525,298	110,000	4,600,000
Oats	120,878	2,385,129	70,000	1,200,000
Barley	69,288	2,139,886	70,000	2,500,000
Peas for threshing	27,265	614,417 (Tons)	30,000	^* (Tons)
Potatoes	18,305	94,652	21,000	^*

These figures relate only to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. In addition, in the case of potatoes, a fairly considerable amount in the aggregate is grown on smaller holdings and on holdings within borough boundaries.

Farm Production Statistics, 1953–54 Season.—The most striking feature of the 1953–54 statistics is the sustained increase in all classes of livestock. Dairy cows in milk, increasing by nearly 2 per cent, just failed to reach the 2 million mark, which will be a significant peak in the history of the dairy industry following on the first million mark having been reached in 1922. Details for the previous year are shown for comparative purposes; all figures relate only to holdings of one acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

	1953	1954
Dairy cows in milk at 31 January	1,962,492	1,999,100
Total dairy stock at 31 January	2,967,661	3,110,400
Total beef stock at 31 January	2,478,302	2,634,400
Total pigs at 31 January	627,830	648,900
Total horses at 31 January	158,065	158,300
	1952–53	1953–54
Sheep shorn	34,794,489	35,541,600
Lambs shorn	7,111,900	8,355,900
Lambs tailed	22,162,270	23,594,800
Grasses and clovers cut for hay Acres	570,659	515,400
Grasses and clovers cut for ensilage Acres	212,911	165,200
Lucerne cut for hay or ensilage Acres	93,570	89,100
Grassland top dressed (year ended 31 January)—	1953	1954
With artificial fertilizers only Acres	4,941,697	5,377,400
With lime only Acres	626,372	531,400
With both artificial fertilizers and lime Acres	1,597,834	1,546,300
Agricultural tractors at 31 January No.	52,495	55,600
H.P.	1,270,890	1,349,900

Timber Production

Timber Production (pp. 512–514).—Provisional figures issued by the New Zealand Forest Service indicate a continued high level of timber production for the year ended 31 March 1954, the output of rough-sawn timber being given as 572,200,000 board feet, a fall of only 0.8 million board feet below the output of the previous year. The output of the principal species was as follows: rimu and miro, 219,200,000 board feet; matai, 36,500,000 board feet; kahikatea, 16,300,000 board feet; beech, 16,800,000 board feet; totara, 14,800,000 board feet; tawa, 16,400,000 board feet; and radiata pine, 235,200,000 board feet. Indigenous species totalled 326,100,000 board feet, and exotics 246,100,000 board feet.

Factory Production Statistics, 1952–53

The main features of the 1952–53 figures are the declines in the total number of persons engaged and in overtime hours worked compared with 1951–52. A number of groups recorded decreases in employment, the principal being: Footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., furniture and fittings, leather and leather products, and rubber products. Significant increases in employment are noted in only three groups: Wood and cork products, machinery, and transport equipment.

Three of the groups mentioned above showing decreased employment also recorded a fall in “added value” over the previous year: Footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., leather and leather products, and rubber products.

In fifteen of the twenty groups overtime hours showed a decline over the previous year, particularly noticeable in footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., wood and cork products, and rubber products. The only significant increase in overtime worked was recorded in transport equipment.

Capital expenditure during 1952–53 was approximately £18 million, compared with £14.8 and £12.4 in 1951–52 and 1950–51 respectively.

One final point of some note is the drop recorded in the manufacturers' surplus—from £33.3 million in 1951–52 to £31.3 million in the latest year, mainly as a result of the fall in production in the groups registering declines in employment and “added value “.

This series of factory production statistics compiled by the Census and Statistics Department covers 80 per cent of the Labour force engaged in manufacturing activity. Actually the proportion of factory production covered by the survey would be greater than 80 per cent, in that all establishments of any considerable size are included.

The year covered by these statistics is in general that ending 31 March 1953, although concerns are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial years most closely corresponding to that period. In the case of dairy factories and meat-freezing works the years correspond to the respective seasons ending June and September 1953.

Summary (p. 554).—Following are the principal statistics of factory production for 1952–53, with comparable figures for the two previous years.

General Summary		1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Number of establishments		8,113	8,547	8,512
Persons engaged	No.	138,435	144,370	143,180
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	65,005,458	75,038,793	78,490,492
Materials	£	266,884,566	290,682,891	318,945,336
Other expenses	£	28,867,078	32,027,622	35,359,704
Totals	£	360,757,102	397,749,306	432,795,532
Value of output	£	380,200,428	431,038,354	464,064,555
Value added in manufacture (added value)	£	113,315,862	140,355,463	145,119,219
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	16,005,138	16,549,553	15,489,705
Volume of production index: base 1949–50 (= 1000)	1046	1119	1110
Premises and plant—
Value at end of year—
Land and buildings	£	50,573,475	56,982,657	63,278,850
Plant and machinery	£	37,043,374	40,797,235	45,828,724
Capital expenditure during year—
Land and buildings	£	4,751,816	5,370,345	6,775,499
Plant and machinery	£	7,624,114	9,426,892	11,301,031
Coal consumption as fuel	Ton	823,776	860,536	855,796

Principal Statistics 1952–53 (p. 572).—The following table gives the number of persons engaged, production costs, value of output, and added value for the year 1952–53, classified according to industry groups.

Industry Groups	Number of Persons Engaged	Production Costs				Value of Output	Added Value
Industry Groups	Number of Persons Engaged	Salaries and Wages	Materials	Other Expenses	Total	Value of Output	Added Value
		£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Food	25,757	16,323	167,942	9,384	193,649	200,396	32,455
Beverages	2,273	1,374	4,210	1,073	6,657	7,702	3,492
Tobacco manufactures	1,323	593	4,199	378	5,170	6,120	1,921
Textiles	7,768	3,783	14,881	2,002	20,666	21,759	6,878
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	24,166	9,748	21,101	2,177	33,026	34,770	13,669
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	12,220	7,156	14,424	3,210	24,810	27,783	13,360
Furniture and fittings	4,955	2,575	3,797	557	6,929	7,686	3,889
Paper and paper products	2,771	1,466	6,278	1,020	8,764	10,057	3,780
Printing, publishing, etc.	8,468	4,787	5,641	1,910	12,338	14,691	9,050
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	1,578	859	2,774	282	3,915	4,186	1,412
Rubber products	2,066	1,321	3,674	954	949	6,435	2,761
Chemicals and chemical products	4,580	2,614	14,317	1,908	18,839	20.902	6,585
Petroleum and coal products	250	155	1,133	115	11,403	1,506	373
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	5,847	3,512	5,000	3,002	1,514	12,930	7,930
Basic metal manufactures	822	520	1,694	304	2,518	2,761	1,067
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	6,191	3,761	7,985	1,246	12,992	14,588	6,603
Machinery (except electrical)	8,325	4,887	11,555	1,575	18,017	19,916	8,360
Electrical machinery and appliances	3,955	2,130	4,637	786	7,553	8,152	3,515
Transport equipment	17,279	9,733	21,983	3,018	34,734	37,938	15,955
Miscellaneous products	2,586	1,194	1,720	438	3,352	3,785	2,065
Totals	143,180	78,490	318,945	35,360	432,796	464,065	145,119

A further table is shown below for 1952–53, giving by industry group the value of premises and plant at the end of the year and capital additions and alterations during the year.

Industry Group	Land and Buildings		Plant and Machinery
Industry Group	Capital Expenditure During Year	Value at End of Year^*	Capital Expenditure During Year	Value at End of Year^*
* Includes estimated value for rented premises and machinery.
	£	£	£	£
Food	2,232,144	15,317,913	3,649,539	11,900,601
Beverages	234,188	1,875,220	529,637	1,949,412
Tobacco manufacture	33,999	424,899	72,720	345,803
Textiles	163,807	3,108,091	589,367	2,703,545
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	245,189	6,309,961	352,480	2,289,452
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	524,426	4,557,451	1,119,515	5,102,064
Furniture and fittings	127,653	1,920,354	122,394	707,181
Paper and paper products	137,689	1,329,452	214,201	1,349,500
Printing, publishing, etc.	275,273	3,462,582	776,589	3,314,978
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	21,642	525,587	63,702	303,967
Rubber products	148,367	1,458,579	352,303	1,723,972
Chemicals and chemical products	367,880	2,946,100	503,885	2,297,160
Petroleum and coal products	56,360	183,612	15,001	122,169
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	614,048	3,283,974	1,314,614	4,006,672
Basic metal manufactures	63,541	541,692	37,507	317,884
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	217,294	2,505,362	283,041	1,563,192
Machinery (except electrical)	401,800	2,944,849	433,525	1,787,326
Electrical machinery and appliances	130,155	1,389,557	225,912	632,049
Transport equipment	722,463	8,025,806	531,072	2,787,202
Miscellaneous products	57,581	1,167,809	114,027	624,595
Totals	6,775,499	63,278,850	11,301,031	45,828,724

Electric Power

Electric-power Statistics (p. 621).—Principal data covering all stations for the year ended 31 March 1953 are summarized below:—

Number of stations	97
* Calculated on revenue from retail sales only.
Persons engaged	5,197
Salaries and wages paid	£3,213,243
Number of consumers	622,439
Prime movers (total b.h.p.)	1,149,752
Generator capacity (main and standby) (kW.)	785,782
Revenue—
Revenue (excluding rates)	£15,765,858
Rates	£647
Total revenue	£15,766,505
Expenditure—
Operating	£9,176,605
Management and general	£1,655,262
Capital charges	£4,936,823
Total expenditure	£15,768,690
Capital outlay—
Total expenditure to date	£124,706,812
Expenditure during year	£17,772,187
Units (kWh.)—
Generated (000)	3,568,749
Generated per head of mean population	1,781
Sold (retail) (000)	2,841,457
Sold retail per head of mean population	1,414
Revenue per unit of retail sales^*	0,894d.

BUILDING ACTIVITY (pp. 601–608)

Building Permits in Urban and Rural Districts Combined.—The following table gives a summary for New Zealand of building permits (including State building operations) for the years ended 31 March 1953 and 1954.

—	1952–53			1953–54
—	New Dwellings: Number	New Dwellings: Value	Total, All Buildings: Value	New Dwellings: Number	New Dwellings: Value	Total. All Buildings: Value
		£	£		£	£
Urban districts	11,700	28,045,241	47,179,870	12,596	31,524,239	53,972,845
Rural districts	4,517	9,232,993	13,948,124	4,861	10,212,042	15,527,020
Totals	16,217	37,278,234	61,127,994	17,457	41,736,281	69,499,865

Building Permits Issued: Urban Districts.—Urban districts include all cities, boroughs, town districts, and the road district of Panmure Township, together with the counties of Waitemata, Manukau, Makara, Hutt, Paparua, Waimairi, Heathcote, Peninsula, and Taieri.

Year Ended 31 March	New Dwellings		Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Value	Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
		£	£	£
1952	12,443	27,762,908	18,516,483	46,279,391
1953	11,700	28,045,241	19,134,629	47,179,870
1954	12,596	31,524,239	22,448,606	53,972,845

Building Permits Issued: Rural Districts.—Rural districts include the remaining counties of New Zealand and the two Road Boards of Waiheke Island.

Year Ended 31 March	New Dwellings		Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Value	Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
		£	£	£
1952	4,668	8,694,155	4,269,713	12,963,868
1953	4,517	9,232,993	4,715,131	13,948,124
1954	4,861	10,212,042	5,314,978	15,527,020

Dwelling Units Completed.—Local authorities supplying building permit figures were also requested to supply the number of dwelling units which were completed during the year. Estimates have been made in some cases where it was not possible to supply actual figures. While absolute accuracy for these statistics cannot be claimed, it is believed they will give reasonably approximate results, and also reasonably accurate comparisons of year to year changes.

The total figures on this basis for new dwelling units completed during 1953–54 were 16,600, compared with 16,100 in 1952–53 and 16,300 in 1951–52. Those completed in urban districts numbered 12,200 in 1953–54, and in the previous years quoted 11,900 in each year.

RECALCULATION OF GROSS FARMING INCOME, 1938–39 to 1952–53

All aggregative series compiled by the Census and Statistics Department are subjected to periodical review to ensure that they still serve a useful purpose in measuring changes in some part of the economy, and that they continue to measure those changes as accurately as possible. A series may be discontinued or superseded if its original purpose seems irrelevant to present conditions, or if the necessary information is no longer available. Changes in method may be adopted if there are changes in sources of information, or if new sources of greater reliability are discovered, or if inconsistencies in the old method are detected.

The underlying concept of Gross Farming Income was first examined, and it was decided that (within the assumptions and limitations set out on pages 429–431 of the present Year-Book) this series serves a clear and useful purpose.

A detailed examination of methods revealed some inconsistencies; it was also sometimes possible to find ways of simplifying calculations without reducing accuracy. Two changes in basic assumptions have been made: first, all prices have been taken “sacks in”, and the value of wool bales is now also included; second, in the case of “grasses and clovers cut for hay” and “grain crops cut for chaff”, production, with the exception of 20 per cent of oats and of grasses and clovers cut for chaff or hay, is now excluded from Gross Farming Income.

These changes have been incorporated in the recalculation of the value of Gross Farming Income, 1938–39 to 1952–53, the results of which are presented below. The total effect of the changes in method is not great, and it by no means invalidates comparison with figures given elsewhere in this Year-Book for earlier years. In addition to the changes already referred to, some further simplifications of method for 1951–52 and 1952–53 were introduced, but with little effect on the aggregates.

VALUE OF GROSS FARMING INCOME

Production Year	Agricultural Produce			Pastoral Produce			Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees			All Farm Produce
Production Year	Value £(m.)	Index of Value (Base: 1938–39 = 100)	Per Cent of Total	Value £(m.)	Index of Value (Base: 1938–39 = 100)	Per Cent of Total	Value £(m.)	Index of Value (Base: 1938–39 = 100)	Per Cent of Total	Value £(m.)	Index of Value (Base: 1938–39 = 100)	Per Cent of Total
* Provisional.
1938–39	8.3	100	12	31.4	100	44	31.0	100	44	70.6	100	100
1939–40	9.6	116	13	32.2	103	42	34.0	110	45	75.8	107	100
1940–41	10.3	124	12	38.6	123	45	36.8	119	43	85.7	121	100
1941–42	11.4	137	13	38.1	121	45	35.3	114	42	84.8	120	100
1942–43	13.3	160	15	38.3	122	45	34.2	110	40	85.8	122	100
1943–44	14.4	173	17	39.7	126	45	33.6	108	38	87.7	124	100
1944–45	16.4	198	16	47.0	150	45	40.3	130	39	103.7	147	100
1945–46	15.9	192	16	44.5	142	46	36.7	118	38	97.1	138	100
1946–47	15.9	192	14	51.6	164	46	44.6	144	40	112.1	159	100
1947–48	17.4	210	13	67.3	214	49	51.9	167	38	136.5	193	100
1948–49	18.6	236	13	69.8	222	47	58.2	188	40	147.5	209	100
1949–50	20.8	251	11	100.4	320	54	63.9	206	35	185.1	262	100
1950–51	20.8	251	7	199.2	634	68	71.5	231	25	291.6	413	100
1951–52	23.5	283	11	113.8	362	52	82.6	266	37	219.9	311	100
1952–53	24.4^*	294^*	9^*	144.5^*	460^*	55^*	93.3^*	301^*	36^*	262.2^*	371^*	100^*

EXTERNAL TRADE

Statistics of external trade in the calendar year 1953, in continuation of the statistics included in pages 261–315 of this Year-Book, are given below.

Total Commodity Trade.—Following are statistics of exports and imports in 1951, 1952, and 1953.

Calendar Year	Exports		Imports (c.d.v.)	Excess of Exports Over Imports
Calendar Year	New Zealand Produce	Total Exports	Imports (c.d.v.)	Excess of Exports Over Imports
* The corresponding c.i.f. values were £276,215,000 in 1952 and £192,143,000 in 1953.
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1951	246,394	248,127	187,758	60,369
1952	238,418	240,561	229,447^*	11,114
1953	233,210	235,596	163,503^*	72,093

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF TRADE

Calendar Year	Exports		Imports
Calendar Year	Value Index	Volume Index	Value Index	Volume Index
1936–38 (average)	100	100	100	100
1950	303	122	304	141
1951	409	109	398	157
1952	397	143	486	176
1953	389	129	346	133

The total trade per head of mean population in 1953 was £195 (exports £115 and imports £80)

Exports.—New Zealand's export commodity trade in 1953 was of a value a little below that of 1952, a decrease of 2 per cent in value being recorded between the two years. An indication of the movement in the value of exports in the main groups of commodities is afforded by the following table.

VALUE OF EXPORTS

Calendar Year	Butter	Cheese	Frozen Meat	Wool	Hides, Pelts, and Skins
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1951	41,362	16,650	25,394	128,176	12,862
1952	55,929	15,769	40,475	81,998	9,949
1953	51,385	18,373	39,881	84,370	10,692

Apart from the question of values, a special interest attaches to progress in the volume of our export trade in major export commodities. In the following table the fluctuations in the quantities of exports of butter, cheese, meat, and wool since 1943 are shown.

Calendar Year	Butter	Cheese	Frozen Meat	Wool
* Record. NOTE.—The figures do not include wartime supplies to Allied Forces under mutual-aid arrangements, a factor of particular importance in 1943 and 1944.
	Tons (000)	Tons (000)	Tons (000)	Tons (000)
1943	99.3	100.5	220.6	92.3
1944	115.3	77.7	207.8	84.2
1945	103.5	87.4	282.7	74.2
1946	101.8	75.7	337.7	163.1
1947	127.6	87.0	347.8	167.5
1948	135.6	75.6	343.5	188.0
1949	147.6	93.9	344.1	191.8
1950	137.5	99.9	338.1	175.9
1951	147.1	106.6	274.8	141.5
1952	183.5^*	91.3	385.5^*	195.6^*
1953	158.9	101.4	326.7	195.3

Direction of Export Trade.—The table below shows the destinations of New Zealand exports in 1953.

Country	Total Exports
United Kingdom	£(000) 157,894
Republic of India	960
Pakistan	46
Federation of Malaya	974
Hong Kong	104
British West Africa	140
Rhodesia, Northern	224
Rhodesia, Southern	327
Union of South Africa	597
Bermuda	84
British Guiana	107
British West Indies	1,425
Canada	2,934
Australia	4,655
Fiji	787
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	66
Tonga	216
Western Samoa	450
Other Commonwealth countries	203
Totals, Commonwealth countries	172,193
Belgium	3,465
Czechoslovakia	312
Denmark	420
France	15,670
West German Federal Republic	6,052
Greece	198
Republic of Ireland	978
Italy	4,946
Netherlands	2,412
Poland	3,626
Sweden	381
Spain	233
Switzerland	140
Philippine Islands	254
Japan	3,122
Belgian Congo	122
Egypt	149
Mexico	185
Netherlands Antilles	244
Panama Republic	295
United States of America	18,372
Society Islands	158
Tutuila	135
Other countries	829
Totals, all other countries	62,698
Ships' stores	706
Totals, all countries	235,596

Exports to Commonwealth countries in 1953 accounted for 73 per cent of the total experts, excluding ships' stores.

Imports.—The table following classifies imports by broad divisions.

IMPORTS VALUED AT CURRENT DOMESTIC VALUE IN COUNTRY OF EXPORT

Calendar Year	Food, Drink, and Tobacco	Apparel, Textiles, Fibres, and Yarns	Oils, Fats, and Waxes	Metals, Metal Manufactures, and Machines	Paper and Stationery	Drugs, Chemicals, and Manures	Vehicles (Including Parts and Tires)	Total^*
* Including classes not listed.
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1951	21,775	44,242	11,665	49,754	10,078	7,455	18,550	187,758
1952	24,114	35,854	16,040	74,937	14,741	9,901	27,589	229,447
1953	20,028	24,108	13,633	53,717	8,189	7,163	15,245	163,503

Direction of Import Trade.—The next table shows the source (origin) of New Zealand's imports in 1953.

Country	Total Imports^*
* Provisional figures.
	£(000)
United Kingdom	92,334
Bahrein Island	2,881
British Borneo	511
Ceylon	1,938
Hong Kong	217
India	1,779
Pakistan	41
Malaya and Singapore	3,054
British West Africa	450
Kenya and Uganda	89
Tanganyika	45
Union of South Africa	1,090
British West Indies	442
Canada	2,289
Australia	23,659
Fiji	1,376
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	67
Nauru Island	413
New Zealand (re-imports)	45
Western Samoa	246
Tonga	43
Other Commonwealth countries	43
Totals, Commonwealth countries	133,052
Austria	585
Belgium	1,476
Czechoslovakia	171
Denmark	289
Finland	73
France	1,967
West German Federal Republic	1,967
Germany—Eastern Zone	262
Italy	877
Netherlands	1,143
Norway	420
Portugal	116
Spain	71
Sweden	1,975
Switzerland	1,372
Saudi Arabia	602
China	201
Indonesia	2,741
Formosa	260
Iraq	76
Japan	388
Siam	31
Tunisia	121
Brazil	66
Chile	65
Netherlands Antilles	141
United States of America	12,120
Venezuela	636
Other countries	239
Totals, all other countries	30,451
Totals, all countries	163,503

Imports from Commonwealth countries in 1953 comprised 81 per cent of the total.

DISTRIBUTION STATISTICS: MARCH 1954 QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADING (pp. 639–646)

The Census and Statistics Department's first quarterly sample survey of retail trade shows that retail stocks have been reduced since the end of 1953, though they are still above their 1952 value. On a quantity basis the reduction in stocks over the past year is quite substantial.

Sales during the first quarter of 1954 were at about a quarter of the value of sales in the year 1953. On a quantity basis the indications are that sales are somewhat less than a quarter of sales in the year 1953. However, there are considerable seasonal movements in retail sales, and until further quarterly surveys have been completed it will be difficult to draw firm conclusions from quarterly changes in turnover.

Following the Census of Distribution in 1953 a continuing quarterly retail sample inquiry has been inaugurated. The results of the census formed the framework from which a random sample of firms, stratified by broad geographical divisions and size of turnover, was drawn.

The results of the first of the quarterly inquiries are now available and relate to retail trading during the quarter ended 31 March 1954.

Hotel, motor vehicle and motor accessory trading are excluded from the sample inquiry, and also from the census figures quoted by way of comparison.

The actual sample inquiry is confined to 9 per cent of establishments, but these, on the basis of the census, represent approximately 29 per cent of total turnover. To provide the estimates presented in the following tables the figures have been expanded by suitable techniques to represent the activity of all retail stores.

The figures as published are of a provisional nature and final figures for the March quarter will be given later when provisional figures for the June quarter are released.

Turnover by Store-types.—The estimated turnover figures for the March quarter of 1954 represent in the case of most types of stores approximately one-quarter of the totals for the complete census year 1952–53. The turnover in furniture stores appears to have been at a lower level than that experienced in other types of stores, but grocers' stores on the other hand record increased turnovers.

The table which follows gives figures for both the census year 1952–53 and the March quarter of 1954.

TOTAL SALES OR TURNOVER £(000)

Store Type	North Island				South Island				Totals, New Zealand
Store Type	Auckland Urban Area	Wellington and Hutt Urban Areas	Remainder of North Island	Totals, North Island	Christchurch Urban Area	Dunedin Urban Area	Remainder of South Island	Totals, South Island	Totals, New Zealand
* The sample response in this case was inadequate, and the figures, while based on the returns received, should be accepted with reservation.
Year Ended 31 March 1953
Butcher, etc.	3,685	2,556	7,845	14,086	2,012	1,328	3,300	6,640	20,726
Grocer	7,474	6,126	15,872	29,472	4,628	2,314	7,517	14,459	43,931
Other food and drink	8,888	4,568	11,958	25,414	3,243	2,001	4,564	9,808	35,222
Boot and shoe	1,361	995	2,428	4,784	711	430	1,021	2,162	6,946
Other apparel	9,539	5,637	16,776	31,952	4,408	2,402	6,965	13,775	45,727
Furniture and soft furnishings	4,323	2,279	4,929	11,531	1,537	960	2,084	4,581	16,112
Household appliances, radios, etc.	1,441	1,090	2,865	5,396	695	511	1,090	2,296	7,692
Hardware, builders', etc.	2,363	3,565	5,546	11,474	839	,447	1,796	3,082	14,556
Chemist	1,649	917	2,565	5,131	695	439	1,012	2,146	7,277
General, departmental, and variety	11,964	4,520	30,085	46,569	6,862	2,915	12,379	22,156	68,725
Other	11,368	8,573	20,685	40,626	9,949	3,073	8,164	21,186	61,812
Totals	64,055	40,826	121,554	226,435	35,579	16,820	49,892	102,291	328,726
Quarter Ended 31 March 1954
Butcher, etc.	885	609	2,048	3,542	487	342^*	909	1,738	5,280
Grocer	1,903	1,516	4,232	7,651	1,206	599	2,022	3,827	11,478
Other food and drink	2,278	1,291^*	3,130^*	6,699	850^*	537	1,234	2,621	9,320
Boot and shoe	334	243	571	1,148	141	111	262	514	1,662
Other apparel	2,312	1,384	3,978	7,674	1,016	551	1,634	3,201	10,875
Furniture and soft furnishings	984	470	1,150	2,604	343	194	485	1,022	3,626
Household appliances, radios, etc.	359	314^*	751	1,424	164^*	120^*	264	548	1,972
Hardware, builders', etc.	612^*	802	1,343	2,757	193	104	418	715	3,472
Chemist	422	228	646	1,296	174	108	255	537	1,833
General, departmental, and variety	2,275	1,058	7,682	11,015	1,655	722	3,087	5,464	16,479
Other	2,690	2,083	5,452	10,225	2,828	746	2,001	5,575	15,800
Totals	15,054	9,998	30,983	56,035	9,057	4,134	12,571	25,762	81,797

The following table covering retail trading throughout the whole of New Zealand reflects to a certain extent both the seasonal pattern of trading (e.g., milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.) and changes due to other circumstances.

COMMODITY SALES OR TURNOVER OF RETAIL STORES

Commodity Group	Year Ended 31 March 1953	Quarter Ended 31 March 1954
* Information obtained in the quarterly survey indicates that “Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods” are divided in the following proportions: Men's and boys' wear, 28 per cent; women's, girls', and infants' wear, 59 per cent; household drapery, 13 per cent.
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)	£(000) 59,704	£(000) 15,867
Butchers' meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables	31,008	7,895
Other foods (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)	12,061	2,994
Milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.	10,151	3,042
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries	8,990	2,096
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)	8,765	2,177
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods^*	57,348	13,501
Footwear	8,862	2,099
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles	21,765	4,590
Musical instruments, including radios	4,681	1,062
Household appliances and electrical goods	9,501	2,525
Hardware—
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware	10,557	2,447
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)	13,105	3,254
Books, stationery, etc.	9,171	2,387

Stocks.—The Census of Distribution, together with the recent sample inquiry, provides stock figures as at 31 March of the last three years, and these are presented in the form of actual values and index numbers of actual value in the table which follows. The 1953 figures have been used as the base for the index numbers in order to highlight the stock changes between 1953 and 1954.

The figures show for 1954 a fall in stocks as compared with 1953, but an overall increase in value of stocks of 6 per cent as compared with 1952. The increased unit value of retail goods over this same period must be considered in comparing figures of values. An adjustment taking into account such retail price changes would possibly show a reduction in the physical volume of stocks as at March 1954 as compared with both 1953 and 1952.

Hardware stores recorded a substantial increase in the value of stocks held in 1953, but the 1954 figure was lower. The retail stores showing overall increases in the value of stocks in 1954 as compared with 1953 were mainly “Boot and shoe”, “Grocer”, “Other apparel”, and “Chemist”. Lower stocks were held in particular by “Household appliances, radios, etc.”, and “General, departmental, and variety”.

On a location basis Wellington is the only main centre to record an increase in the value of retail stocks over the last year. Christchurch showed the largest decrease.

VALUE OF STOCKS HELD BY RETAIL STORES AT END OF MARCH

—	Actual Value of Stocks			Index Numbers of Value of Stocks
—	1952	1953	1954	1952	1953	1954
Store type—		£(000)		Base 1953 (= 1000)
Butcher, etc.	378	441	342	857	1000	776
Grocer	4,520	4,585	4,721	986	1000	1030
Other food and drink	1,617	1,881	1,753	860	1000	932
Boot and shoe	2,321	2,468	2,665	940	1000	1080
Other apparel	14,640	15,119	15,563	968	1000	1029
Furniture and soft furnishings	4,328	4,391	4,400	986	1000	1002
Household appliances, radios, etc.	1,278	1,414	1,278	904	1000	904
Hardware, builders', etc.	2,778	3,743	3,457	742	1000	924
Chemist	1,403	1,541	1,568	910	1000	1018
General, departmental, and variety	12,851	14,256	12,986	901	1000	911
Other	11,974	14,527	12,837	824	1000	884
Locality—
Auckland urban area	10,427	11,197	10,567	931	1000	944
Wellington and Hutt urban areas	6,937	7,756	8,667	894	1000	1117
Remainder North Island	21,723	24,156	23,161	899	1000	959
Christchurch urban area	6,567	7,592	6,329	843	1000	812
Dunedin urban area	3,124	3,561	3,220	877	1000	904
Remainder South Island	9,310	10,104	9,626	921	1000	953
Totals, all retail stores	58,088	64,366	61,570	902	1000	957

FINANCE

Banking and Currency

Reserve Bank (p. 763).—Data showing the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand at the last balance day in May 1954 are shown below, together with the corresponding figures for the last balance day in March 1954.

—	As at Last Balance Day in
—	March 1954	May 1954
* Expressed in New Zealand currency.
Liabilities—	£	£
Total liabilities (including other)	183,860,452	176,282,890
Bank notes	68,003,566	68,143,405
Demand liabilities—
State	32,592,838	4,945,455
Banks	68,325,691	89,175,098
Other	5,261,207	4,018,151
Assets—
Total assets (including other)	183,860,452	176,282,890
Investments—
Sterling^*	23,715,975	23,715,975
Other	10,186,011	208,266
Sterling exchange reserve^*	78,210,556	89,512,207
Advances—
To the State or State undertaking	52,733,492	40,986,185
Other	10,635,467	13,936,943

Trading Banks (pp. 764–771).—The principal statistics of trading banks for the months of March and May are given below. Debits and clearings cover the monthly periods ended on the last Wednesday of the respective months, while the remaining figures are as at those dates.

—	As at Last Balance Day in
—	March 1954	May 1954
Bank debits—	£	£
Government	16,752,943	9,324,236
Other	114,816,862	95,556,801
Bank clearings	63,789,624	55,527,145
Advances, including notes and bills discounted	149,537,443	148,081,384
Unexercised overdrafts	103,506,801	111,854,060
Deposits—
Total	282,307,938	295,316,501
Government	2,948,606	3,067,256
Not bearing interest	238,597,622	251,235,723
Bearing interest	40,761,710	41,013,522
Reserve Bank notes—
Notes held by trading banks	10,655,293	10,948,318
Net note circulation	57,348,273	57,195,087
Ratio of advances to deposits	52.97	50.14

An analysis of advances of the trading banks at quarterly intervals is published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the classification as at the last Wednesday in March of 1953 and 1954 is contained in the following table. Figures for earlier years will be found on page 768.

Advances to	As at Last Wednesday in March
Advances to	1953	1954
	£(000)	£(000)
Farmers	20,621	24,609
Industries allied to primary production	20,316	20,840
Other manufacturing and productive industries	26,599	22,924
Merchants—
Wholesalers	16,846	14,848
Retailers	13,961	14,851
Transport	3,700	3,924
Other	36,358	44,409
Total advances	138,401	146,405

Overseas Assets of Banks (p. 774).—In the following table the revised series of overseas assets of banks (on account of New Zealand business only) are shown.

—	Overseas Assets at End of
—	March 1953	March 1954
	£(000)	£(000)
Trading banks' overseas assets—
In London	26,495	27,553
Elsewhere	4,074	4,597
Reserve Bank's overseas assets—
Sterling exchange	53,283	78,211
Other overseas assets	22,961	24,741
Total gross overseas assets	106,813	135,102
Overseas liabilities of trading banks	4,827	6,041
Overseas liabilities of Reserve Bank	52	51
Net overseas assets	101,934	129,010

Savings Banks (pp. 777–782).—A summary of statistics of savings banks at 31 March 1954 is given below.

—	Post Office Savings Bank	Trustee Savings Banks	National Savings Accounts
* On deposits held during year ended 30 June 1953.
Number of depositors	1,520,988	376,427
	£	£	£
Total amount of deposits during year	109,340,239	24,320,574	10,328,837
Total amount of withdrawals during year	99,134,784	22,958,139	9,629,595
Excess of deposits over withdrawals	10,205,455	1,362,435	699,242
Interest credited to depositors	4,442,620	915,421	1,839,437^*
Total amount to credit of depositors at end of March 1954	205,921,812	41,131,521	65,469,117

Post Office Savings-bank Accounts Classified by Amount Groups.—The following is a classification of the balances in Post Office Savings-bank Accounts at 31 March 1940, 1953, and 1954, shown by amount groups and percentage of accounts within each group.

—	At 31 March 1940	Percentage of Total	At 31 March 1953	Percentage of Total	At 31 March 1954	Percentage of Total
£ £
Under 1	769,312	80.09	352,323	23.71	354,389	23.30
1 and under 10	769,312	80.09	357,796	24.08	361,868	24.11
10 and under 50			281,505	18.95	286,944	18.87
50 and under 100	60,822	6.33	120,728	8.13	122,106	8.03
100 and under 200	50,286	5.24	119,387	8.03	124,204	8.17
200 and under 300	25,948	2.70	66,367	4.47	70,782	4.65
300 and under 400	15,552	1.62	43,889	2.95	46,286	3.04
400 and under 500	10,185	1.06	33,651	2.26	35,840	2.36
500 and under 600	8,163	0.85	26,583	1.79	28,151	1.85
600 and under 700	4,495	0.47	15,379	1.04	15,801	1.04
700 and under 800	3,214	0.33	11,488	0.77	12,241	0.80
800 and under 900	2,337	0.24	9,079	0.61	9,329	0.61
900 and under 1,000	1,788	0.19	7,250	0.49	7,826	0.51
1,000 and under 1,500	6,431	0.67	21,686	1.46	23,572	1.55
1,500 and under 2,000	6,431	0.67	10,004	0.67	10,702	0.70
2,000 and under 3,000	1,973	0.21	7,391	0.50	8,604	0.57
3,000 and under 4,000	46		834	0.60	1,433	0.09
4,000 and under 5,000	7		331	0.02	575	0.04
5,000 and over	6		181	0.01	335	0.02
Total number of Accounts	960,565	100.00	1,485,852	100.00	1,520,988	100.00

It will be noted that the actual number of accounts with balances of under £50 have increased from 769,312 in March 1940 to 1,003,201 in March 1954, but expressed as a percentage of the total accounts within this group showed a decline from 80.1 per cent in 1940 to 66.3 per cent in 1954. For the £50 and under £200 groups there were both absolute and relative increases over the period—i.e., from 111,108 or 11.6 per cent to 246,310 or 16.2 per cent. In the next groups £200 and under £500, the increases were more marked still, the numbers being almost trebled, and the percentage nearly twice as high, the figures being 51,685 or 5.4 per cent in the earlier year and 152,908 or 10.1 per cent for the later year.

The groups comprising balances within the range £501 to under £2,000 however exhibited the greatest percentage increase, from 3.0 to 7.1 per cent of the total, the numbers also showing a substantial increase from 28,401 to 107,622 during the period. Accounts consisting of £2,000 and over increased from 2,032 to 10,947, although prior to September 1952 interest was not paid on sums between £2,000 and £5,000.

Overseas Receipts and Payments.—The following statement gives statistics of exchange-control transactions for the years ended 31 March 1953 and 1954. Comparable items for the calendar years 1952 and 1953 are, however, given on pages 775–776. All figures quoted are taken from Reserve Bank sources.

—	Year Ended 31 March 1953		Year Ended 31 March 1954
—	Receipts	Payments	Receipts	Payments
Exports—	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)
Butter	48,424		50,412
Cheese	17,406		20,475
Meat	48,272		48,924
Wool	73,914		87,206
Total (including other)	227,078		239,872
Imports—
Licensed		48,007		38,404
Decontrolled		119,804		133,915
Government		29,153		25,141
Total (including other)		201,085		200,449
Transport: Freights, fares, ships' charters	1,851	3,000	1,520	1,216
Travel: Private and business (exclusive of fares)	1,686	4,862	1,605	4,783
Insurance—
Insurance	530	793	713	1,170
Reinsurance		614		598
Totals, insurance	530	1,407	713	1,768
International investment income—
Interest, dividends, and other private investment income	6,393	6,132	6,637	5,167
Interest on Government and local authority loans		2,719		2,866
Totals, international investment income	6,393	8,851	6,637	8,033
Government transactions—
Current expenditure by New Zealand Government overseas		7,845		9,890
Current receipts by New Zealand Government and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand	1,543		2,124
Totals, Government transactions	1,543	7,845	2,124	9,890
Miscellaneous current transactions—
Commissions, royalties, rebates, etc.	845	1,719	536	1,340
Films and entertainments		768		817
Unilateral transfers (immigrants' transfers, personal remittances, charitable, legacies, &c.)	6,865	5,038	5,571	5,689
Expenses of business firms	735	2,334	442	3,153
Other current transactions	1,341	408	705	694
Totals, miscellaneous current transactions	9,787	10,267	7,254	11,693
Capital transfers—
Private	4,211	3,858	2,799	2,899
Government		759	8,802	1,788
Local authority		76		154
Totals, capital transfers	4,211	4,692	11,601	4,841
Cook Islands exports or imports	209	105	101	89
Unidentified	−72		101
Grand totals	253,216	242,114	271,527	242,763

PUBLIC FINANCE

Summary of the Public Account for the Financial Years 1952–53 and 1953–54 (p. 697).—The source of the following table is parliamentary paper B-6, 1954.

Receipts	Year Ended 31 March
Receipts	1953	1954
* Expenditure from Public Works Account. † Transfer from National Development Loans Account. ‡ Sale or purchase of investments by Public Account. § A number of transfer entries, such as the annual transfer from Consolidated Fund to Social Security Fund and the transfers of the surplus for previous years which do not affect the overall cash surplus or deficit, have been excluded from both sides of the above statement. \|\| Excludes £12 million borrowed from trading banks.
	£(m.)	£(m.)
Taxation—
Income tax	78.7	80.8
Social security charge	45.5	49.7
Customs	27.3	26.3
Sales tax	22.0	21.1
Stamp and death duties	14.5	15.0
Other taxation	11.8	13.0
Totals, taxation	199.8	205.9
Interest	6.9	7.7
Profits from trading	1.5	1.8
Departmental receipts	15.3	16.7
Total Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund receipts	223.5	232.1
Receipts from borrowing (less repayments)—
Borrowing in New Zealand—
National Savings	3.2	2.9
Post Office Saving Bank^‡	4.5	11.5
Other borrowing^\|\|	10.8	21.4
	18.5	35.8
Overseas borrowing—
London and Australia		12.4
Totals, borrowing	18.5	48.2
Other capital receipts—
Transfer from Consolidated Fund for debt repayment	6.6	6.9
Sinking Fund contributions	3.3	3.7
Transfers from Consolidated Fund to—War Emergency Fund and Defence Funds	0.1	3.5
Public Works Account	6.0
Miscellaneous capital receipts	4.6	7.0
	20.6	21.1
Totals	262.6	301.4
Excess receipts of trading accounts, etc., within the Public Account	−1.9	7.5
Grand totals	260.7^§	308.9^§
Social services	98.0	105.7
Defence	26.5	29.0
Administration, etc.	22.5	21.9
Stabilization	14.7	14.5
Maintenance of works, etc.	14.6	15.1
Development of industry	12.9	13.2
Interest and management of the public debt	17.6	19.1
Transfer for repayment of the public debt	6.6	6.9
Transfer to Defence Fund		3.5
Transfer to Public Works Fund		6.0
Totals—Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund Expenditure	219.4	228.9
Works and other capital expenditure—
Housing construction^*	9.8	10.6
School buildings^*	4.8	5.9
Highways construction^*	3.3	3.3
Forest development^*	1.8	1.8
Electric supply^†	13.5	13.2
Land settlement^†		1.7
Railways^†^*	6.8	6.3
State coal^†	0.5	1.1
Post Office^†	2.9	3.6
Murupara Pulp and Paper Scheme^*^†	0.2	4.3
State Advances Corporation^‡	13.8	12.0
Other^*	3.6	3.4
	61.0	67.2
Purchase of miscellaneous investments not included above^‡	6.4	6.0
Totals	286.8	302.1
Overall cash surplus or deficit—
Sale of S.A.C. securities to trading banks^‡		−12.0
Withdrawn from Reserve Bank^‡		−10.0
Increase in cash (and imprest) balance		18.8
Decrease in cash (and imprest) balance	−16.1
	−26.1	6.8
Grand totals	260.7^§	308.9^§

Summary of Budget Proposals.—The presentation of the Financial Statement was made on 22 July 1954, principal changes from the existing situation being briefly recorded below.

Taxation: Income Tax.—The personal exemption is raised from £230 to £375, and for persons over 65 years from £230 to £420, that for a wife increased from £100 to £125, and for a child or other dependent relative from £65 to £75. The surcharge of 2 ½ per cent on income tax and the limit of £26 on tax saving from wife and child exemptions are abolished. The commencing rate for income tax is to be at the rate of 3s. in the pound on taxable balance instead of 2s. 6d. as in earlier years. The rebate provisions of previous years have now been absorbed in the higher exemptions.

Aggregation of incomes of husband and wife will not now apply if either has an income of less than £500, or their combined incomes do not exceed £1,000. In cases where wives have a personal income exceeding £500 a year only that part in excess of £500 will be added to the income of their husbands for purposes of assessing taxation.

The “A + B” system of assessing liability for tax where dividends are involved is to be abolished, the average rate system in use before 1942 being substituted for it. The allowance for farm improvements is increased from £200 to £300.

Land Tax.—The exemption limit is raised from £1,000 to £3,000 reducible by £1 for each £2 above that figure until exemption ceases at £9,000 (in lieu of £2,500). It is also proposed to change from a graduated to a “step” system of taxation and to reduce the rates considerably. Tax will be at the rate of 1d. in the pound on taxable balance up to £10,000; 2d. on the next £5,000; 3d. on the second £5,000; and a maximum rate of 4d. in the pound on any balance in excess of £20,000 (present maximum is 6d. in the pound).

Sales Tax.—This tax was removed by resolution of the House of Representatives from a large number of items, including soap, tooth paste, toilet brushes and combs, much sporting and athletic equipment, aerated waters and cordials, torches, rope, lawn mowers, table ware and kitchen utensils and tradesmen's tools.

Social Security.—It is proposed to amend the Social Security Act to provide for an increase of 10s. a week in the mother's allowance for widows with two or more dependent children; a similar concession will be extended to war widows.

Overseas Loans.—A further loan of £10 million is to be floated on the London market, most likely before the end of the year.

Geothermal Steam Project.—Agreement has been reached with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority for launching a joint enterprise for the production of heavy water and electric power, utilizing the geothermal steam at Wairakei.

Exchange Allocation Scheme.—It was announced in the Statement that the exchange allocation scheme for imports, operated by the Reserve Bank, will be terminated as from the end of 1954.

Estimates of Receipts and Expenditure for 1954–55 (p. 698).—The following table is a composite account embracing Works and Loans Accounts, Consolidated Fund, and Social Security Fund, and shows the estimated receipts and payments for 1954–55.

Estimated Receipts, 1954-55	£(m)	Estimated Payments, 1954–55	£(m)
* Includes operating expenses.
Works and Loan Accounts
Receipts		Expenditure
Revenue, departmental trading receipts, transfers, etc.		Hydro-electric	17.450^*
	22.160	Land settlement	10.240^*
National Savings, Post Office Savings Bank	16.000	State housing	11.300
Overseas loans	15.500	Education buildings	6.500
Internal loans	22.500	Railway construction, etc.	9.535
		Telephone and telegraph extension	5.000
		Roads and highways construction	0.950
		Forest development	1.920
		Murupara development	4.157
		State Advances	6.000
		Other works	3.505
Total	76.160	Total	76.557
Consolidated Fund
Taxation—		Interest and debt repayment	28.374
Customs	23.500	Permanent appropriations	4.760
Beer duty	6.000	Annual appropriations—
Sales tax	20.300	Stabilization	13.008
Film hire	0.100	Defence	25.000
Stamp duty	14.800	Development of primary and secondary industries	14.317
Land tax	1.200
Income tax	80.800	Social services (excluding transfer to Social
		Security Fund)	46.625
	146.700	Other votes	27.261
Other receipts—		Supplementary estimates	1.000
Interest	8.500
Trading profits	3.100
Departmental	16.500
Total	174.800	Total	160.345
Social Security Fund
Social security charge	53.800	Administration expenses	1.074
Miscellaneous	0.100	Emergency benefits and Christmas bonus	0.610
			1.684
			Monetary benefits—
		Age	22.500
		Invalids	1.625
		Widows	2.575
		Sickness	1.200
		Family	18.400
		Universal superannuation	6.900
		Other	0.178
		Medical, hospital, etc., benefits	12.620
Total	53.900	Total	67.682
		Over-all surplus	0.276
Grand total	£304.860	Grand total	£304.860

Consolidated Fund (pp. 699–701).—The following table contains a summary of the receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund for the financial years ended 31 March 1953 and 1954.

—	1952–53	1953–54
Receipts	£	£
Taxation	154,262,345	156,195,535
Interest on capital liability—
Post and Telegraph	1,016,266	1,183,785
Electric supply	2,350,453	2,811,803
Housing and Housing Construction	1,051,927	1,162,394
Land settlement	1,535,737	1,578,210
Other accounts	193,053	140,086
Interest on other public moneys	746,157	869,604
Profits on trading undertakings	1,480,946	1,780,287
Departmental receipts	15,185,214	16,597,591
Totals, receipts	177,822,098	182,319,295
Payments
Permanent appropriations—
Civil list	159,125	143,739
Debt services—
Interest	17,320,982	18,128,182
Amortization	6,573,767	6,883,897
Administration and management	264,407	1,004,709
Superannuation (subsidy and contribution)	2,998,000	3,068,000
Miscellaneous	514,917	372,888
Totals, permanent appropriations	27,831,198	29,601,415
Annual appropriations—
Legislative	198,257	213,259
Prime Minister's Office	18,336	18,564
External Affairs	1,800,164	1,811,860
Finance—
Treasury	259,873	289,651
Stabilization	14,719,507	14,451,664
Customs	400,008	412,579
Inland Revenue	1,106,136	1,222,349
Audit	171,987	182,472
Totals, finance	16,657,511	16,558,715
General administration—
Public Service Commission	95,506	95,904
Internal Affairs	2,621,847	3,788,718
Island Territories	825,799	1,193,579
Printing and Stationery	1,789,180	772,365
Marine	465,401	516,491
Labour and Employment	3,101,213	2,168,884
Maori Affairs	838,867	805,108
Valuation	411,563	399,937
Census and Statistics	145,465	145,671
Rehabilitation	1,498,541	1,235,726
Totals, general administration	11,793,382	11,122,383
Law and order—
Justice	1,130,093	1,225,185
Crown Law	19,787	19,851
Police	1,520,914	1,758,820
Totals, law and order	2,670,794	3,003,856
Defence—
Navy	5,666,108	5,254,400
Army	11,005,104	11,840,860
Air	7,545,940	9,196,045
Defence construction and maintenance	2,263,954	2,721,184
Totals, defence	26,481,106	29,012,489
Maintenance—
Maintenance of public works and services	9,425,527	9,626,550
Highways maintenance	5,178,687	5,507,898
Totals, maintenance	14,604,214	15,134,448
Development of primary and secondary industries—
Lands and Survey	1,729,500	1,739,378
Forest Service	1,856,716	1,790,653
Agriculture	2,889,264	2,980,973
Milk Marketing	630,947	652,334
Industries and Commerce	388,923	378,070
Tourist and Publicity	1,253,834	1,337,037
Scientific and Industrial Research	1,009,572	1,089,808
Mines	146,423	122,110
Transport	714,647	789,985
Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services	2,263,271	2,323,174
Totals, development of primary and secondary industries	12,883,097	13,203,522
Social services—
Health	4,806,181	5,010,226
Subsidies to Hospital Boards	9,618,374	10,270,079
Education	18,123,697	20,782,208
War and other pensions	6,639,726	7,241,673
Payment to Social Security Fund	14,000,000	14,000,000
Totals, social services	53,187,978	57,304,186
Totals, annual appropriations	140,294,839	147,383,282
Unauthorized expenditure	389,018	31,618
Transfer to Public Works Account	6,000,000
Transfer to Defence Fund		3,500,000
Totals, payments	174,515,055	180,516,315
Surplus from current year's operations	3,307,043	1,802,980
Balance in Fund at end of year	10,447,745	8,943,682

The surplus for the year 1951–52 of £12,635,721 was expended during the 1952–53 year as follows: transfer to National Development Loans Account, £4,000,000; transfer to Public Works Account, £8,635,721. The corresponding surplus for the year 1952–53 of £3,307,043 was expended during the year 1953–54 by transfer to the Public Works Account.

Taxation (pp. 708–709).—Particulars of revenue from taxation for the financial years 1951–52, 1952–53, and 1953–54 are contained in the following table.

Item of Revenue	1951–52	1952–53	1953–54
* These totals do not include an amount of £889,406 (after rebate), being part of Customs duties at the rate of 3d. per gallon on motor spirits from 1 November 1953 to 31 March 1954, and paid into the Motor Taxation Account of the Deposits Account. This amount will appear in the 1954–55 figures of taxation, as it was transferred later to the National Roads Fund.
Consolidated Fund—	£	£	£
Customs	32,599,596	27,273,206	26,343,303
Beer duty	5,273,804	5,466,701	5,833,871
Sales tax	21,811,375	21,991,703	21,133,740
Film-hire tax	112,541	135,348	131,190
Highways	4,575,347	4,908,492	5,328,922
Stamp duties	5,207,577	5,702,526	6,327,042
Death (including gift) duties	8,117,259	8,767,857	8,682,376
Land tax	1,137,937	1,315,136	1,615,372
Income tax	78,101,503	78,701,376	80,799,719
Totals	156,936,939	154,262,345	156,195,535^*
Social security taxation—
Social security charge	43,612,868	45,507,938	49,717,376
Grand totals	200,549,807	199,770,283	205,912,911^*

A summary showing the amounts received from direct taxes on income and from all sources during the last eleven years is now given.

Year	Direct Taxes on Income (Including War and Social Security Charges on Income)					Total Taxation
	Amount	Per Head of Mean Population			Percentage of Total Taxation	Amount	Per Head of Mean Population
		£	£	s.	d.		£	£	s.	d.
1943–44	63,311,965	38	13	3	62.8	100,839,484	61	11	7
1944–45	68,438,477	41	2	3	63.0	108,681,814	65	5	10
1945–46	71,582,870	41	16	11	62.3	114,954,873	67	4	0
1946–47	63,873,162	36	1	7	56.5	113,119,046	63	18	0
1947–48	63,581,244	35	3	6	52.0	122,275,911	67	12	11
1948–49	78,386,057	42	10	3	60.1	130,440,249	70	14	11
1949–50	80,186,020	42	12	5	59.2	135,556,319	72	1	1
1950–51	95,208,075	49	12	10	60.3	157,946,975	82	7	1
1951–52	121,714,371	62	2	9	60.7	200,549,807	102	7	9
1952–53	124,209,314	61	16	3	62.2	199,770,283	99	8	3
1953–54	130,517,095	63	6	4	63.4	205,912,911	99	17	10

State Indebtedness (p. 728).—The public debt as at 31 March 1954 amounted to £706,461,822, an increase of £36,682.379 as compared with a year earlier. Of the 1954 debt figure, £89,880,637 was held in the United Kingdom, an increase of £9,999,544.

SOCIAL SECURITY AND WAR PENSIONS (pp. 174–205)

Revenue of the Social Security Fund for the year ended 31 March 1954, together with the 1952–53 figures in parentheses, was as follows: charge on salaries and wages, £28,714,790 (£26,650,922); charge on company and other income, £21,002,586 (£18,857,016); grant from Consolidated Fund, £14,000,000 (£14,000,000); interest on investments, £15,639 (£19,909); miscellaneous receipts, £105,956 (£100,389); total receipts, £63,838,971 (£59,628,236).

Payments from the Fund in 1953–54, with 1952–53 payments in parentheses, were: Monetary benefits, £48,626,205 (£46,306,272); emergency benefits and special assistance, £468,887 (£361,912); medical, etc., benefits, £10,607,046 (£10,428,597); Christmas bonus, £1,644,925 (£767,115); administration expenses, £1,017,140 (£957,558); other payments, £6,111 (£4,990). Total payments from the Fund were therefore £62,370,314 (£58,826,444). The balance in the Fund at the end of March 1954 was £12,428,167.

Particulars of the various social security benefits (monetary and health) and war pensions in force at the end of March 1954, together with total payments during the financial year 1953–54, are shown in the following table.

Class of Benefit or Pension	As at 31 March 1954		Payments During Year Ended 31 March 1954
Class of Benefit or Pension	Number in Force	Annual Value	Payments During Year Ended 31 March 1954
Social security benefits—
Monetary—	£	£	£
Superannuation	75,227	6,394,295	6,029,183
Age	122,205	21,901,580	19,922,234
Widows'	12,072	2,542,311	2,323,835
Orphans'	302	30,327	27,583
Family	290,480	17,446,229	17,618,581
Invalids'	8,194	1,643,634	1,488,425
Miners'	508	131,820	123,547
Sickness	4,395		1,086,241
Unemployment	17		6,575
Emergency	2,133		366,558
Totals	515,533		48,992,762
Medical—
Medical			3,085,749
Hospital			2,184,239
Maternity			924,616
Pharmaceutical			2,919,620
Supplementary			1,492,822
Totals			10,607,046
War pensions—
First World War	17,419	3,109,361	2,776,891
Second World War	24,766	2,349,674	2,107,575
War veteran's allowance	6,810	2,117,910	1,822,018
South African War	29	4,774	4,528
Mercantile Marine pensions	24	2,928	2,384
Emergency Reserve Corps	9	2,018	1,618
Kayforce	104	10,768	9,377
Totals	49,161	7,597,433	6,724,391
Sundry pensions and annuities	364	59,157	55,285
Grand totals	565,058		66,379,484

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 881–884).—Details of the consumers' price index for the calendar year 1953, and for each of the quarters ended 31 March 1954 and 30 June 1954, are given below.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, first quarter, 1949 (=1000)

—	Calendar Year 1953	Quarter Ended 31 March 1954	Quarter Ended 30 June 1954
Food—
Meat and fish	1755	1853	1871
Fruit, vegetables, and eggs	1588	1460	1537
Other foods	1366	1459	1502
All foods	1509	1553	1598
Housing—
Rent	1181	1237	1237
Other housing	1243	1322	1322
All housing	1219	1288	1288
Fuel and lighting	1366	1469	1480
Clothing and footwear—
Clothing	1296	1329	1360
Footwear	1424	1459	1488
Clothing and footwear	1316	1349	1380
Miscellaneous—
Household durable goods	1165	1177	1181
Other commodities	1147	1151	1160
Services	1224	1282	1288
All miscellaneous	1177	1202	1208
All groups	1333	1377	1400

Share Prices (pp. 891–894).—Index numbers of share prices in 1953, together with the average for the three months ended March 1954, are given below.

Group	Index Numbers Base Average for Each Group, 1938 (= 1000)
Group	Average for 1953	Average for 3 Months Ended March 1954
Frozen meat	1864	2010
Woollens	1634	1790
Gas	624	565
Timber	1387	1379
Minerals	1135	1238
Miscellaneous (including breweries)	1196	1261
All industrial groups	1216	1279
Banks	1039	1165
Insurance	2080	2291
Loan-agency companies	2091	2287
Miscellaneous	1971	2116
All finance, etc., groups	1747	1918
All groups combined	1482	1598

Monthly statistics for the first five months of 1954 are given below, together with figures for the corresponding months of 1953.

SHARE PRICES MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS, YEAR 1938 (=1000)

—	1953			1954
—	Industrial Groups	Finance Groups	All Groups	Industrial Groups	Finance Groups	All Groups
January	1178	1639	1408	1259	1895	1577
February	1162	1646	1404	1280	1917	1598
March	1162	1651	1407	1298	1942	1620
April	1165	1675	1420	1304	1953	1628
May	1185	1696	1441	1321	2023	1672

LABOUR STATISTICS

Wage-rates (pp. 899–902).—Index numbers of average nominal wage-rates of wage-earners in 1952 and 1953, and of adult male wage-earners as at 31 March 1954, are as follows.

Industrial Group	Base: All Groups 1926–30 (= 1000)
	Adult Males			Adult Females
	Average for Year		As at 31 March 1954	Average for Year
	1952	1953	As at 31 March 1954	1952	1953
Provision of—
Food, drink, etc.	2266	2416	2570	2235	2367
Clothing, footwear, and textiles	2143	2311	2460	2392	2581
Building and construction	2066	2227	2369
Power, heat, and light	2140	2298	2449
Transport by water	2367	2513	2680
Transport by land	2080	2238	2384
Accommodation, meals, and personal service	1917	2161	2319	2525	2783
Working in or on—
Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre	2177	2333	2487
Metal	2234	2424	2579
Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals	2010	2178	2326
Paper, printing, etc.	2283	2459	2627	2207	2388
Skins, leather, etc.	1975	2133	2275
Mines and quarries	2131	2285	2466
The land (farming pursuits)	2087	2150	2279
All groups combined	2143	2284	2432	2408	2611

Effective Weekly Wage Rates (p. 903).—The following table shows nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult workers for the years 1952 and 1953 and of males only for the first quarter of 1954. The base of the index numbers is in each case the average of the five years 1926–30 (= 1000).

Year	Retail Prices (All Groups)	Nominal Weekly Wage Rates		Effective Weekly Wage Rates
Year	Retail Prices (All Groups)	Males	Females	Males	Females
* Not available.
1952	1688	2143	2408	1270	1427
1953	1765	2284	2611	1294	1479
1954—
March quarter	1823	2432	^*	1334	^*

Average Rates of Wages (pp. 905–908).—The following table gives the prescribed minimum average weekly wage rates as at 31 March 1954, the series being confined to adult males.

Occupation	Average Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31 March 1954
NOTE.—The following perquisites (as assessed for statistical purposes), as at 31 March 1954, should be added to the listed occupations: General farm hands, ploughmen, shepherds, and dairy-farm hands, 35s. per week for board and lodging; shearers and wool pressers, 7s. per day for rations; assistant stewards (first and second grade), chief and second cooks, able and ordinary seamen, 44s. 5d. per week as value of board and lodging; and hotel chefs and waiters, 41s. 10d. per week as value of board and lodging.
Adult Males
Bakers—	s.	d.
Journeymen	225	10
Labourers	190	10
Butchers—
First shopmen	241	1
Second shopmen	224	5
Butter-factory employees—Churning and butter making: General hands	192	10
Flourmilling—
Kilnmen	215	5
Assistant smuttermen	205	4
Rollermen	231	11
Meat freezing—
Slaughtermen, per 100 sheep	98	3
General hands	231	0
Meat preserving—
Boners	274	0
General hands	231	0
Sausage-casing making: General hands	238	4
Aerated water and cordial making—
Cordial makers	201	5
Bottle washers	191	11
Brewing labourers	209	0
Tailors—
Journeymen	220	0
Factory hands	220	0
Boot operatives	220	0
Woollen mills—
Spinners	223	8
General hands	199	10
Building—
Bricklayers	233	5
Carpenters and joiners	226	8
Plasterers	230	3
Plumbers (competent)	231	5
Builders' labourers	207	9
General labourers	188	9
Sawmilling—
Engine drivers	231	0
Sawyers	236	1
Tailers-out	215	0
Yardmen, head	231	0
General hands	210	10
Boatbuilding: Shipwrights	233	1
Metal works, etc.—
Boilermakers, journeymen	224	7
Iron and brass moulders	226	6
Tinsmiths, journeymen	224	7
Engineering fitters, etc.	227	1
Electrical workers	229	2
Motor mechanics	232	11
Printing—
Linotype operators (day)	236	6
Letterpress machinist (day)	227	4
Skin and leather workers—
Curriers	213	7
General hands	188	10
Mineral and stone workers—
Brickmakers	214	6
General hands	194	4
Mining (coal)—
Surface—
Screen worker	217	9
Miners (on day wages, per shift)	50	7
Truckers	211	4
Quarrymen	195	1
Agricultural and pastoral workers—
General farm hands	152	0
Threshing-mill hands, per hour	5	3
Ploughmen	152	0
Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)	68	0
Shepherds	152	0
Wool pressers	245	8
Dairy-farm hands	185	0
Railways—
Engine drivers, average third and sixth years	244	4
Firemen, average second and ninth years	221	10
Guards, average first and third years	237	0
Tramways—
Motormen	211	9
Conductors	203	6
Shipping and cargo working—
Assistant stewards, first grade	204	3
Assistant stewards, second grade	200	7
Chief cooks	252	2
Second cooks	227	2
Able seamen	219	11
Ordinary seamen, first class	170	1
Waterside workers: Ordinary cargo	221	8
Hotel workers—
Chefs	216	10
Waiters	153	0
Miscellaneous—
Soft-goods assistants (male)	214	10
Grocers' assistants	205	10
Warehouse storemen	205	4

Aggregate Weekly Wage Payment in Industry (pp. 909–911).—The following data, showing the average weekly wage pay-out in industry, have largely been extracted from the half-yearly surveys conducted by the Department of Labour and Employment.

All Industrial Groups Combined	Pay-roll Strength, Males and Females Combined (Including Juveniles and Salaried Executives)	Weekly Wage Payout (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc.)
All Industrial Groups Combined		Aggregate	Average Per Person
* Does not include retrospective payments arising from the general order of the Court of Arbitration of 19 November 1953.
		£	£	s.	d.
1949 October	450,104	3,632,663	8	1	5
1950 April	459,698	3,780,634	8	4	6
October	457,028	4,016,485	8	15	9
1951 April	463,888	4,526,727	9	15	2
October	465,728	4,729,159	10	3	1
1952 April	475,975	4,945,724	10	7	10
October	474,316	5,050,689	10	13	0
1953 April	487,913	5,401,499	11	1	5
October	487,266	5,409,859	11	2	0^*
1954 April	502,442	6,145,327	12	4	7

Estimated Distribution of the Labour Force (p. 968).—The following table supplies an estimated distribution of the total labour force at 15 October 1953 and 15 April 1954.

Industrial Group	Males		Females		Totals
Industrial Group	October 1953	April 1954	October 1953	April 1954	October 1953	April 1954
Thousands
Primary industry	137.8	137.0	12.2	12.2	1500	149.2
Manufacturing industry	141.4	149.4	43.8	44.8	185.2	194.2
Power, water, and sanitary services	10.8	10.8	0.7	0.8	11.5	11.6
Building and construction	62.8	64.8	1.2	1.2	64.0	66.0
Transport and communication	68.5	69.0	8.1	8.4	76.6	77.4
Distribution and finance	84.9	86.8	39.0	40.1	123.9	126.9
Domestic and personal services	18.9	19.2	26.2	26.5	45.1	45.7
Administration and professional	54.3	54.6	49.1	50.2	103.4	104.8
Totals, in industry	579.4	591.6	180.3	184.2	759.7	775.8
Armed forces	10.6	10.9	10	0.9	11.6	11.8
Unemployed	0.1	0.1			0.1	0.1
Totals, labour force	590.1	602.6	181.3	185.1	771.4	787.7

Half-yearly Surveys of Employment (pp. 971–972). Following is a summary of the employment statistics as returned for 15 April 1954.

—	Primary Industry (Other than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)	Manufacturing Industry	Power, Water, and Sanitary Services	Building and Construction	Transport and Communication	Distribution and Finance	Domestic and Personal Services	Administration and Professional	Totals, all Industries Covered
Male employees	10,428	131,182	10,810	44,579	50,596	63,303	11,237	41,066	363,201
Male working proprietors	350	8,300	6	5,032	1,647	8,313	2,840	631	27,119
Female employees	205	41,151	774	1,048	7,810	34,211	13,546	40,496	139,241
Female working proprietors	1	1,192		4	39	2,429	1,719	182	5,566
Number of establishments	611	12,095	241	4,716	2,457	13,459	4,278	3,540	41,397

The figures shown in the manufacturing industry column are further subdivided as follows.

—	Food, Drink, and Tobacco	Textiles, Clothing, and Leather	Building Materials and Furnishings	Engineering and Metal Working	Miscellaneous Manufacturing
Male employees	29,748	12,446	24,249	48,021	16,718
Male working proprietors	1,101	981	1,716	3,661	841
Female employees	6,540	22,662	1,321	4,614	6,014
Female working proprietors	462	556	25	73	76
Number of establishments	1,909	1,949	2,553	4,347	1,337

Limitations in the coverage of the figures shown above are noted on page 970.

Summary of Vacancies, Placements, and Disengaged Persons.—This table gives additional figures to those presented on page 977.

—	Vacancies at End of Month			Placements During Month			Disengaged Persons at End of Month
—	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Monthly average over calendar year—
1952	11,733	5,914	17,647	1,470	535	2,005	33	14	47
1953	7,944	3,455	11,399	1,361	530	1,891	67	18	85
Monthly total—
1954—
January	7,894	3,681	11,575	1,035	645	1,680	56	8	64
February	8,406	3,900	12,306	1,726	1,291	3,017	32	11	43
March	8,268	3,989	12,257	1,103	556	1,659	42	19	61
April	8,157	4,136	12,293	867	315	1,182	50	15	65

TRANSPORT

Shipping and Cargo Handled (pp. 327–336).—Statistics of entrances and clearances of vessels in the foreign trade in 1952 and 1953, and the total calls made in the foreign and coastal trade for the same years, are shown in the following table. The tonnage of cargo handled is also given.

—	Calendar Year
—	1952	1953
Entrances—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	704	673
Net tonnage	3,028,030	2,767,557
Clearances—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	726	676
Net tonnage	3,140,296	2,804,020
Total calls made—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	1,820	1,841
Net tonnage	7,640,410	7,257,775
Coastal—
Number of vessels	13,622	13,696
Net tonnage	4,621,963	4,451,465
Total—
Number of vessels	15,442	15,537
Net tonnage	12,262,373	11,709,240
Tonnage of cargo handled—
Inwards	6,783,072	5,811,371
Outwards	3,174,834	3,111,992
Transhipped	207,218	174,294
Total manifest tonnage	10,372,342	9,271,951

Statistics of shipping movement and cargo handled at New Zealand ports in 1952 and 1953 are given below.

—	Total Shipping Movement		Total Cargo Handed
—	1952: Net Tonnage	1953: Net Tonnage	1952: Tons	1953: Tons
	(000)	(000)	(000)	(000)
Auckland	4,698	4,406	3,351	3,028
Wellington	7,586	7,153	2,647	2,280
Lyttelton	4,562	4,400	1,169	1,024
Dunedin	2,007	1,797	649	536
Other ports	5,714	5,687	2,556	2,404
Totals	24,567	23,443	10,372	9,272

Railway Transport (pp. 339–347).—Summarized statistics of railway transport in the years ended 31 March 1952, 1953, and 1954 follow.

—	Unit	Year Ended 31 March
—	Unit	1952	1953	1954
* Including road motor and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
Railways	(000)	21,293	21,455	23,272
Railway road motor services	(000)	24,664	24,120	22,627
Tonnage of goods carried—
Timber	Tons (000)	744	819	772
Livestock	Tons (000)	639	647	631
Coal	Tons (000))
Lime and manures	Tons (000)	8,446	8,560	8,231
Other goods	Tons (000) J
Totals	Tons (000)	9,829	10,026	9,635
Net ton-miles run	Millions	1,069	1,063	1,034
Revenue—
Railway operation	£(000)	20,097	22,589	23,682
Total^*	£(000)	23,993	26,608	27,895
Expenditure—
Railway operation	£(000)	21,515	22,755	23,621
Total^*	£(000)	25,196	26,525	27,491

Road Transport (p. 361).—Statistics of motor-vehicles licensed at 31 March 1953 and 1954 arc as follows.

Class	As at 31 March
Class	1953	1954
Cars	305,672	323,641
Trucks—
Light	56,582	56,707
Heavy	44,459	46,258
Contract vehicles	2,106	2,164
Omnibuses	1,762	1,822
Taxis	2,233	2,258
Rental cars	1,638	1,706
Private-hire cars	352	289
Service cars	727	723
Trailers	44,137	48,675
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees (other than exempted
Government-owned vehicles)	45,564	47,287
Government vehicles	13,900	14,632
Motor cycles	25,546	25,754
Power cycles	3,651	3,972
Totals	548,329	575,888
Dealers' cars	2,312	2,443
Dealers' motor cycles	121	128
Grand totals	550,762	578,459

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS (pp. 997–1009)

As explained on page 998, since December 1951 the definition of an accident has been amended to include those in which the worker is absent beyond the day or shift on which the accident occurred.

Detail	Calendar Year 1951	Calendar Year 1952
Total number of accidents	33,489	37,201
Number of accidents resulting in—
Fatality	71	54
Permanent total disability	7	2
Permanent partial disability	820	493
Temporary disability	32,591	36,652
Accidents resulting in temporary disability—
(a) Duration of incapacity of—
Under 3 days	7,743	1,408
3 days and up to 1 week	8,668
Over 1 week and up to 2 weeks	10,274	11,354
Over 2 weeks and up to 4 weeks	7,900	8,507
Over 4 weeks and up to 6 weeks	2,766	3,007
Over 6 weeks and up to 13 weeks	2,802	2,750
Over 13 weeks	1,106	958
(b) Amount of lime lost—
Number of cases	32,591	36,652
Time lost, in days	789,636	753,365
Calendar days lost by all accidents where—
(a) Constant allowance for age is made in case of fatality or permanent disability	3,202,168	2,006,950
Average per case	96	54
(b) Actual age of person is taken into account in case of fatality or permanent disability	2,719,472	1,783,560
Average per case	81	48
Amount of compensation or damages paid—
Totals £	1,494,651	1,144,219
Average per case £	44.6	30.8

FIRE LOSS STATISTICS, 1952 (pp. 828–836)

A classification of insured property losses through fire during the calendar year 1952 is given below. The figures are comparable with those covering the year 1951 shown in Section 34c.

Type of Fire District	Number of Separate Fires	Gross Amount of Insurance Cover on Risks A fleeted	Gross Amount of Loss Paid on Risks Affected	Percentage of Loss Paid to Amount at Risk
		£	£
United urban fire districts	4,089	17,530,358	919,828	5.25
Urban fire districts	6,050	14,195,477	402,685	2.84
Secondary urban fire districts	559	625,457	74,192	11.86
Remainder of New Zealand	1,702	3,858,349	309,119	8.01
Floating and travelling risks	202	824,297	10,626	1.29
Totals	12,602	37,033,938	1,716,450	4.63

The principal causes of outbreaks during 1952 are set out in the following table.

Causes of Fires	Number of Separate Fires	Insurance Cover on Risks Affected	Amount of Loss	Average Loss Per Fire
		£	£	£
Electricity	2,624	6,499,494	133,598	51
Gas	257	618,942	19,866	77
Naked lights	175	329,145	17.481	100
Defective chimneys, etc.	629	2,903,488	61,420	98
Smoking and careless use of matches	1,857	5,187,239	79,332	43
Sparks from fireplaces	4,503	4,141,317	71.906	16
Heating, boiling-down	296	1,045,979	18,560	63
Inflammable spirits and materials	292	4,338,034	164,481	563
Incendiarism and arson	36	298,328	11,557	321
Outside causes	271	674,577	17,668	65
Other causes	30	669,538	7,139	238
Floating and travelling risks	202	824,297	10,626	53
Unknown causes	1,430	9,503,560	1,102,816	771
Totals	12,602	37,033,938	1,716,450	136

REHABILITATION (pp. 251–260)

The following table gives particulars of rehabilitation-loan authorizations for the years ended 31 March 1953 and 1954, and the totals to 31 March 1954.

Class of Loan	Number			Amount
Class of Loan	1952-53	1953–54	Total to 31 March 1954	1952–53	1953–54^*	Total to 31 March 1954^*
* Excludes suspensory loans.
				£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Purchase of farm, etc.	853	685	10,134	6,426	6,417	52,779
Housing—
Erection	1,349	1,289	20,419	6,628	5,579	61,801
Purchase	2,511	1,747	25,905
Tools of trade	14	10	1,469	1	1	49
Furniture	3,298	2,454	59,557	331	258	5,573
Business	428	264	10,963	326	228	7,070
Miscellaneous	29	25	658	4	2	131
Totals	8,482	6,474	129,105	13,716	12,485	127,403

Included in the foregoing total figures are 22,166 supplementary housing loans for £2,887,063. These loans, which are not repayable so long as the ex-serviceman or his dependants continue in occupation of the property, are granted to assist in bridging the gap between present-day costs and normal values, and each case is considered on its merits.

The figures shown in the table are exclusive of 6,984 suspensory loans (5,166 residential and 1,818 farm), amounting to £2,802,873 (£872,425 residential, £1,930,448 farm), made up to 31 March 1954.

EDUCATION (p. 149)

The following table shows the number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of New Zealand during the years 1952 and 1953. Registered private schools are included.

—	1952	1953
* Exclusive of students taking part-time courses with the Correspondence School, 1,227 in 1952, and 1,179 in 1953. † Includes 614 students taking short courses at the agricultural colleges in 1952 and 636 in 1953.
Primary schools	341,156	359,537
Post-primary schools	61,529^*	67,478^*
Technical classes (part-time)	26,349	30,637
Universities	11.305^†	11,467^†
Teachers' training college	2,710	2,769
Totals	443,049	471,888
Kindergartens	5,271	5,616

MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS

Radio Licences (p. 394).—The number of radio licences for receiving stations in force on 31 March 1954 was 501,756, and for all classes of radio licences 506,323, compared with 491,856 and 496,355 respectively at 31 March 1953.

Horse Racing (p. 723).—The number of racing days in the calendar year 1953 was 354. Totalizator investments totalled £38,611,000 in 1953 (£33,739,000 in 1952), while Government taxation totalled £3,563,000 in 1953 (£3,128,000 in 1952).

Land Transfers (pp. 400–402).—Transactions under the Land Transfer Act have been on a very heavy scale during the last three financial years. The average amount per transaction (town and suburban properties) in 1953–54 was £2,175, as compared with £2,082 in 1952–53 and £1,586 in 1951–52.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1952	1953	1954
Town and suburban properties—
Number	46,145	39,325	43,427
Consideration £	73,165,000	65,461,000	75,503,000
Country properties—
Number	10,464	9,053	9,188
Area Acres	1,848,602	1,616,781	1,675,617
Consideration £	35,965,000	35,241,000	38,915,000
All properties—
Number	56,609	48,378	52,615
Consideration £	109,129,000	100,702,000	114,419,000

Mortgages (pp. 791–801).—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last three financial years are shown below. In sympathy with the movement in land transfer registrations, mortgage registrations have been heavy during recent years. The 1953–54 figure of £70,910,000 showed a slight decrease on the total of £74,732,000 for the previous year.

Year Ended 31 March	Registered^*		Discharged^*
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Amount	Number	Amount
* Inclusive of duplicate registrations and discharges.
		£		£
1952	49,886	73,179,000	37,935	37,595,000
1953	50,659	74,732,000	34,160	31,401,000
1954	52,833	70,910,000	36,731	36,082,000

Justice.—Prisoners in gaols at end of calendar year (pp. 226–232): 1952, 1,113, or 5.50 per 10,000 of population; 1953, 1,115, or 5.44 per 10,000 of population.

Registration of Aliens (pp. 33–34).—The number of aliens on the register at 1 April 1954 totalled 23,148 (15,304 males, 7,844 females), compared with 1 April 1953 figures of 21,726 (14,732 males, 6,994 females).

Naturalizations (p. 32).—The number of certificates of naturalization issued to former aliens during the year ended 31 March 1954 was 136, compared with a total of 118 in the previous year. Certificates of registration as a New Zealand citizen were granted to 250 citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or of former aliens (228 in 1952–53), and 65 certificates of registration (38 in 1952–53) to minor children (either citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or former aliens).

Chapter 1. SECTION 1—DESCRIPTIVE

Table of Contents

AREA AND BOUNDARIES.—The administrative responsibilities of New Zealand devolve over a large area, the land territories of which consist principally of a number of islands of varying size in the South Pacific Ocean, together with a large uninhabited tract in the Antarctic Ocean. While the two largest and most important islands, the North and South Islands of New Zealand, are separated only by a relatively narrow strait, the remaining islands or island groups are very much smaller and in general are widely dispersed over a considerable expanse of ocean.

The boundaries of New Zealand inclusive of its most outlying islands and dependencies range from the northern limit of the 8th degree of south latitude to south of the 60th degree of south latitude, the complementary extremes of longitude with origin Greenwich being from the 160th degree of east longitude to the 150th degree of west longitude.

The precise boundaries as they now exist were originally defined in the relevant proclamations, letters patent, and legislation mentioned in the pages immediately following; general statements are contained in the description next presented relating to those areas over which New Zealand exercises jurisdiction or administrative responsibility. In all instances the measurement of longitude refers to the number of meridians east or west of Greenwich.

In proceeding from north to south, the first area, including the Tokelau Islands some 300 miles north of Western Samoa or 2,300 miles approximately north by east of Wellington (the capital of New Zealand), extends from the 8th to the 10th degrees of south latitude and from the 171st to the 173rd degrees of west longitude. The second area encloses the Cook and associated islands distant from Wellington in a north-easterly direction approximately 2,100 miles Lower (Southern) Group to 2,800 miles (Northern Group and Niue). The Lower (Southern) and Northern Groups are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th degrees of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd degrees of south latitude. Niue Island is situated in latitude 19° 02′ south and longitude 169° 52′ west.

Then follows a third zone covering the trust territory of Western Samoa, which is some 2,000 miles distant to the north-north-east and contained within the 13th to the 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st to 173rd degrees of west longitude.

Farther south, and slightly north by east from New Zealand, a matter of roughly 1,000 miles from Wellington, is situated the Kermadec Islands group. These islands lie between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude.

New Zealand as defined after the extension or boundaries in 1863 constitutes the fifth and principal area. Its boundaries extend from the 33rd to the 53rd degrees of south latitude and from the 162nd degree of east longitude to the 173rd degree of west longitude.

The sixth area relates to the Ross Dependency which is administered by New Zealand and consists' of the coasts of the Ross Sea with adjacent islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude.

Jointly with the United Kingdom Government and the Government of Australia, New Zealand is responsible for the administration of the Trust Territory of the Island of Nauru. The administrative appointments for Nauru are made by the Australian Government, but New Zealand appoints a representative to the British Phosphates Commission, which controls the working of the phosphate deposits.

For statistical purposes, the following classification of the administrative area of New Zealand is the most convenient, the actual areas being also given. It should be noted also that statistics for “New Zealand” refer to the group of islands shown in (a) only, unless it is expressly stated that the other islands as a whole or in part are included.

New Zealand:—	Area in Square Miles
(a) Exclusive of Island Territories—
North Island	44,281
South Island	58,093
Stewart Island	670
Chatham Islands	372
Minor islands—
Inhabited—
Kermadec Islands	13
Campbell Island	44
Uninhabited (areas in parentheses)—	263
Three Kings (3). Snares (1).
Solander (½). Antipodes (24).
Bounty (½). Auckland (234).
Total New Zealand, exclusive of Island Territories	103,736
(b) Island Territories—
Tokelau Islands, comprised of	4
Fakaofo Island, Nukunono Island, Atafu Island
Cook and associated islands, comprised of—
Lower (Southern) Group	78
Rarotonga. Aitutaki.
Mangaia. Mauke.
Atiu. Takutea.
Mitiaro. Manuae and Te-au-o-tu.
Northern Group	12
Palmerston. Pukapuka.
Penrhyn. Suwarrow.
Manihiki. Nassau.
Rakahanga.
Niue Island	100
Total New Zealand, inclusive of Island Territories	103,930
Ross Dependency (Estimated)	175,000
Trust Territory of Western Samoa	1,133

The total area of the foregoing groups exclusive of the Ross Dependency and the Trust Territory of Western Samoa is 103,930 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue—viz., in the section on land tenure, settlement, etc.—the aggregate area of New Zealand appears as 66,390,700 acres—i.e., 103,736 square miles. The latter area does not include the Cook and associated islands or the Tokelau Islands.

The relevant Proclamations, defining from time to time the administrative area of New Zealand, are briefly referred to in the following paragraphs.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated 30 January 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34°30′ S.lat.; on the south, 47°10′ S.lat.; on the east, 179°0′ E. long.; on the west, 166°5′ E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island, and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In 1842, by Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. The minor islands mentioned earlier were thus brought within the extended boundaries of New Zealand, being assigned to the appropriate province on the occasion of the 1847 Proclamation dividing the country into two provinces. The number of provinces was increased in later years, though all were finally abolished in 1875. By Proclamation bearing date 21 July 1887 the Kermadec Islands were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of 10 June 1901 the Cook Islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary lines mentioned earlier, were included as from 11 June 1901.

The territory of Western Samoa was formerly administered pursuant to a mandate conferred upon His Britannic Majesty, to be administered on his behalf by the Government of New Zealand, and confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on 17 December 1920. Following the replacement of the League of Nations by the United Nations, a draft Trusteeship Agreement for Western Samoa was prepared by the New Zealand Government and submitted to the General Assembly of the United Nations late in 1946. This draft agreement replaced the original mandate and thus brought the Territory within the framework of the international trusteeship system established under the United Nations Charter. Under the new agreement the New Zealand Government assumed direct responsibility for the administration of Western Samoa. The agreement was approved by the General Assembly on 13 December 1946. Western Samoa is comprised of two large islands, Upolu and Savai'i, and the small islands of Manono, Apolima, Fanuatapu, Namu'a, Nu'utele, Nu'ulua, and Nu'usafe'e.

By Imperial Order in Council of 30 July 1923 the coasts of the Ross Sea (in the Antarctic regions), with the adjacent islands and territories between the limits specified earlier, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act 1887. This region was named the Ross Dependency, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. The dependency is uninhabited.

By Imperial Orders in Council of 4 November 1925 the Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofo, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them, a total area of only four square miles) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and power in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of 8 March 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948, which came into operation on 1 January 1949, the Tokelau Islands were declared to form part of New Zealand. This Act emerged as the result of an agreement between the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES.—Coast Line.—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 280 miles at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coast line in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand landmass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coast line is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are the only two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use can be made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but as the surrounding country is comparatively undeveloped they are of little economic consequence at present. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater construction, &c. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river mouths or by harbour-construction work.

Mountains.—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 650 ft. contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu was particularly active from March 1945 to the end of that year, being responsible for considerable deposits of volcanic ash over a very wide area, while spectacular activity was exhibited by Ngauruhoe in 1949 and again early in 1953. In both cases violent eruptions alternated with quieter periods. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Cape Turakirae, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group, In the east the Colville and Moehau ranges parallel the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only country above 4,000 ft. on the west coast of this island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.), while no fewer than seventeen peaks exceed 10,000 ft. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Raglan ranges, while to the north-east arc the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward

Kaikoura ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

As might be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a greater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps were an effective barrier to communication by land between the east and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaux determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor as extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Owing to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

In the 1931 issue of the Year-Book a list was given, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 9,000 ft. in the South Island. The list has been compiled from various sources, and does not purport to be free from omissions.

Mountain or Peak	Height (Feet)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu	9,175
Egmont	8,260
Ngauruhoe	7,515
Tongariro	6,458
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges—
Tapuaenuku	9,465
Alarm	9,400
Southern Alps—
Cook	12,349
Tasman	11,475
Dampier	11,287
Silberhorn	10,757
Lendenfeldt	10,450
David's Dome	10,443
Malte Brun	10,421
Torres	10,376
Teichelmann	10,370
Sefton	10,354
Haast	10,294
Elie de Beaumont	10,200
Douglas Peak	10,107
La Perouse	10,101
Haidinger	10,059
De la Beche	10,058
The Minarets	10,058
Aspiring	9,975
Hamilton	9,915
Glacier Peak	9,865
Arguilles Rouges	9,731
Nazomi	9,716
Darwin	9,715
Chudleigh	9,686
Annan	9,667
Lowe	9,653
Haeckel	9,649
Le Receveur	9,562
Goldsmith	9,532
Big Mac	9,511
Conway Peak	9,510
Bristol Top	9,508
Walter	9,507
Grey	9,490
Green	9,307
Hutton	9,297
D'Archiac	9,279
Bell	9,276
Hochstetter Dome	9,258
Earnslaw	9,250
Nathan	9,200
Barnicoat	9,183
Sibbald	9,181
Arrowsmith	9,171
Spencer	9,167
The Footstool	9,073
Rudolf	9,039
The Dwarf	9,025
Darran Range—
Tutoko	9,691
Madeline	9,042

Glaciers.—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 1 ½ miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley (8 miles), and the Hooker (7 ¼ miles), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 9 ¾ miles and 8 ½ miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft. and 690 ft.

As will be realized, these glaciers are an important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilized for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers.—Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes, and a further major development is now being undertaken on the Clutha. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago where the rivers are so utilized.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand, but space in this issue is, however, available only for a list of the more important ones. The lengths of rivers shown have been recently revised and differ in many instances from those previously given. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

NORTH ISLAND

Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—	Miles
Piako	65
Waihou (or Thames)	95
Rangitaiki	95
Whakatane	65
Waiapu (from source Mata River)	75
Waipaoa (from source Waipapa Stream)	70
Wairoa (from source Hangaroa River)	85
Mohaka (from source Taharua River)	95
Ngaruroro	90
Tukituki	70
Flowing into Cook Strait—
Ruamahanga	90
Hutt	35
Otaki	30
Manawatu	120
Rangitikei	130
Turakina	70
Wangaehu	100
Wanganui	180
Waitotara	55
Patea	75
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
Waitara	85
Mokau	85
Waikato (from source Upper Waikato River)	270
Wairoa (from source Waiotu Stream)	115
Hokianga (from source Waihou River)	45

SOUTH ISLAND

Flowing into Cook Strait—	Miles
Aorere (from source Spee River)	45
Takaka (from source Cobb River)	45
Motueka	70
Waimea (from source Wai-iti River)	30
Pelorus	40
Wairau	105
Awatere	70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—
Clarence	130
Conway	30
Waiau-uha (or Waiau)	105
Hurunui	90
Waipara	40
Ashley	60
Waimakariri	100
Selwyn	50
Rakaia	90
Ashburton	70
Rangitata (from source Clyde River)	75
Opihi	50
Pareora	35
Waihao	45
Waitaki (from source Hopkins River)	135
Kakanui	40
Shag	45
Taieri	175
Clutha (from source Makarora River)	210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait—
Mataura	140
Oreti	120
Aparima (Jacobs River)	70
Waiau (from source Clinton River)	135
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
Hollyford	50
Cascade	40
Arawhata	45
Haast	60
Karangarua	25
Cook	25
Waiho (from source Callery River)	20
Whataroa	35
Wanganui	35
Waitaha	25
Hokitika	40
Arahura	35
Taramakau	50
Grey	75
Buller (from source Travers River)	110
Mokihinui	35
Karamea	50
Heaphy	25

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatization of fresh-water fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes.—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Owing to the excellence of their fishing, the North Island lakes possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect.

An article on the lakes of New Zealand will be found in the 1932 Year-Book. Some particulars of the more important are given in the following table.

Lake	Length, in Miles	Greatest Breadth, in Miles	Area, in Square Miles	Drainage Area, in Square Miles	Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet Per Second	Height Above Sea Level, in Feet	Greatest Depth, in Feet
NORTH ISLAND
Taupo	25	17	238	1,250	5,000	1,211	534
Rotorua	7 ½	6	32	158	420	915	84
Rotoiti	10 ½	2 ½	14	26	500	913	230
Tarawera	6 ½	6 ½	15	75		1,032	285
Waikaremoana	12	6 ¼	21	128	772	2,015	846
Wairarapa	10	4	27	1,250			64
SOUTH ISLAND
Rotoiti	5	2	2 ¾	86		1,997	228
Rotoroa	7	2 ½	8	146		1,470
Brunner	5	4	16	145		280	357
Kaniere	5	1 ¾	8	11		422	646
Coleridge	11	3	18	70		1,667	680
Tekapo	12	4	32	580	5,000	2,323	620
Pukaki	10	5	31	515	6,000	1,588
Ohau	10	3	23	424	5,000	1,720
Hawea	20	5	48	518	5,700	1,062
Wanaka	30	4	75	960		922
Wakatipu	52	3	112	1,162	13,000	1,016	1,242
Te Anau	33	6	132	1,320	12,660	694	906
Manapouri	12	6	56	416		596	1,458
Monowai	12	1	12	51	700	600
Hauroko	20	3	25	195	1,800	611
Poteriteri	17	2	17	162		96
Waihola	4 ½	1 ⅛	3 ⅓	2,200		(Tidal)	52
Ellesmere	16	10	107 ½	745		(Tidal)	45

GEOLOGY.—An article on the geology of New Zealand prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.R.S.N.Z., former Director of the Geological Survey, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. For more detailed information the reader is referred to the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall, the bulletins of the Geological Survey, and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions of the New Zealand Institute” (now the Royal Society of New Zealand).

EARTHQUAKES.—An article on earthquakes in New Zealand appeared in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book. The information given below has been supplied by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Director of the Seismological Observatory.

Seismicity and Earthquake Distribution.—A comparison between the records of destructive earthquakes in New Zealand and those in other seismic countries shows that the seismicity of New Zealand, on the whole, is surprisingly high. However, this is due to the occurrence of a large number of earthquakes of the semi-destructive type (M.-M. 7) with comparatively few major destructive shocks (M.-M. 8–12).

During the period 1835–1953, 80 destructive earthquakes are known to have occurred in New Zealand, 60 of which were of the semi-destructive type (not exceeding intensity M.-M. 7). Of the remainder, 14 were of intensity M.-M. 8–9 and 6 of intensity M.-M. 10–12.

The total number of earthquakes of all intensities, and the maximum intensity, reported felt in New Zealand in each of the years 1922 to 1953 were as follows.

Year	Number of Earthquakes Reported Felt	Maximum Intensity of Heaviest Shock
Year	Number of Earthquakes Reported Felt	R.-F. Scale	M.-M.^* Scale
* Modified Mercalli Scale of 1931, which is now used for recording earthquake effects in New Zealand.
1922	1,187	8	7
1923	76	6	5–6
1924	70	7	6–7
1925	76	8	7
1926	173	8	7
1927	107	8	7
1928	80	8	7
1929	678	10	10
1930	748	8	7
1931	432	10	10
1932	313	9	8+
1933	108	7	6–7
1934	230	9	8+
1935	150	7	6–7
1936	123	6	5–6
1937	179	6–7	6
1938	132	8	7
1939	157	7	6–7
1940	120	7	6–7
1941	107	8	7
1942	198	9+	9
1943	176	8	7
1944	95	6	5+
1945	127	7	6+
1946	302	8	7
1947	233	8+	7+
1948	127	8+	8
1949	97	6–7	6
1950	188	7	6–7
1951	226	8	7–8
1952	83	6–7	6
1953	133	8	7

The abnormally large number of earthquakes reported in the year 1922 was due to the swarm of local shocks in the Taupo region in the latter half of that year. Abnormally large numbers of shocks also occurred in 1929–30, due to aftershocks of the Buller earthquake of 17 June 1929.

Summary of Seismic Activity in New Zealand in 1952.—During 1952 earthquake activity was comparatively low and still showed signs of decreasing at the end of the year. There were no outstanding seismic disturbances. Early in the year several shocks originated at considerable depth beneath the region north and north-west of Lake Taupo. Activity was more or less continuous in various parts of Hawke's Bay region. The largest shock, which occurred on 28 August, was centred near the coast of southern Hawke's Bay and reached instrumental magnitude near 6. It was felt over most of the southern part of the North Island with maximum intensity M.-M. 6 in the Havelock North area. Several other shocks during the year reached felt intensity M.-M. 5 in southern Hawke's Bay. Some earthquakes originated off the west coast of the South Island between Cape Foulwind and Milford Sound, a region which is generally almost inactive. The strongest shock of this series occurred on 3 November, and reached intensity M.-M. 5 in the Hokitika area. On 14 September a shock in Marlborough Sounds reached intensity near M.-M. 6 in the vicinity of Picton. During August a series of small very local shocks was recorded by the Wood-Anderson seismograph at Karapiro, the strongest ones being felt slightly in the surrounding region. It is thought that they probably originated in the Morrinsville-Matamata area, where there have been occasional outbreaks of earthquake swarms in the past.

During the year 83 shocks were reported felt in New Zealand; 64 in the North Island and 26 in the South Island. Seven were felt in some part of both Islands.

Summary of Seismic Activity in New Zealand in 1953.—Earthquake activity in 1953 was rather higher than in the previous year and there were several abnormal seismic disturbances. On 24 March an unusually deep focus earthquake occurred with epicentre in North Taranaki. The depth of the origin was near 570 km. (354 miles), as compared with 370 km. (230 miles), the greatest depth previously recorded for earthquake activity in the New Zealand region. This shock was not felt, mainly on account of its very deep origin. During the latter half of June an earthquake swarm was experienced at Great Barrier Island. These disturbances were of very shallow origin and appeared to be more marked in the northern part of the Island. A large number of shocks occurred, but none appear to have exceeded intensity M.-M. 4. Local earthquakes are very infrequent in the region of Great Barrier Island. On 29 September a strong shock originated in the Bay of Plenty at a depth of about 300 km. (186 miles). The instrumental magnitude (7–7 ¼) was abnormally high for shocks at that depth and in consequence it was felt over a very large area; from the Coromandel Peninsula to Westland and north Otago. The maximum felt intensity (M.-M. 7) occurred in the East Cape Peninsula, where considerable minor damage resulted. As is usual in deep-seated shocks, the distribution of felt intensity was irregular. A shock with shallow origin on 4 July also reached intensity M.-M. 7 in the Tokaanu region, causing some minor damage. The perceptible area of this shock was comparatively small, being confined to the central and western parts of the North Island. On 18 October an earthquake originating some distance north of Taranaki affected a considerable area of the North. Island from near Helensville to Wanganui. It was felt in most of the Auckland area, Waikato, King Country, and Taranaki, with maximum intensity M.-M. 5 in coastal regions from about Kawhia to New Plymouth. Strong shocks in this region are very infrequent, but a few have occurred during the past hundred years. Other shocks during the year reached intensity M.-M. 5 at Wairoa on 12 January, Te Teko on 14 January, Porangahau on 7 April, Otaki and Farewell Spit on 11 April, and Waipawa on 29 October. In all, 133 shocks were reported felt in New Zealand during the year; 114 in the North Island and 24 in the South Island. Five of these shocks were felt in some part of both Islands.

Regional Distribution.—New Zealand earthquake statistics over the past hundred years or so show that certain parts of the country are subject to almost continuous seismic activity with occasional destructive shocks, while other parts are more or less free from seismic disturbances. By combining early earthquake records with the more precise data of later years it is possible to divide the country roughly into four seismic regions. These regions are classified below, in order of seismicity.

All areas of the North Island east and south of an approximate line from the vicinity of Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty to the vicinity of Hawera in South Taranaki, and all areas of the South Island north of an approximate line from the vicinity of Hokitika on the West Coast, through the region of Lake Coleridge, to Banks Peninsula:
South Auckland, western Bay of Plenty, Waikato, and Taranaki (except the southern portion):
Areas of the South Island, south of the boundary of region I:
Areas north of Auckland.

The following table shows the average frequency of earthquakes in each of the four regions defined above.

Region	Average Number of Earthquakes Per Year (1921–1940)	Average Number of Destructive Shocks Per Decade (1835–1940)		Relative Seismicity Based on Destructive Shocks
Region	Average Number of Earthquakes Per Year (1921–1940)	Minor Shocks (R.-F. 8)	Major Shocks (R.-F. 9, 10)	Relative Seismicity Based on Destructive Shocks
I	97.8	4.1	1.7	11.5
II	23.0	1.1		1.1
III	12.1	0.1		0.1
IV	1.1			0.0

The boundaries between the seismic regions are not well defined, since one region generally merges more or less imperceptibly into another. Further, seismic frequency is not uniform. This leads to the number of shocks being considerably above the average in some years and below it in others. The normal irregularity is increased by the occasional occurrence of earthquake swarms in certain regions. Probably the most notable swarm in New Zealand was that which occurred in the Taupo region in the latter half of 1922. The number of minor local shocks in this swarm was so great that only the stronger ones, or those affecting the adjacent region, were used in determining the average frequency of region I. Major earthquakes occur chiefly in the eastern and southern parts of region I.

Deaths Due to Earthquakes.—During the period 1848–1953 the number of deaths recorded in New Zealand as due directly or indirectly to earthquakes was 284. Of these, 255 were due to the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931.

CLIMATE.—The collection of climatic data for the use of Government Departments and the general public is a function of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. It maintains approximately 130 stations within New Zealand and 35 on islands of the South West Pacific for the recording of full climatic data, supplemented by approximately 950 stations in New Zealand and 130 in the Pacific Islands recording rainfall. Most of these stations are operated by public bodies, Government Departments, or voluntary observers. Additional records are provided by over a hundred stations which report by telegraph or radio for forecasting purposes.

A general description of the climate of New Zealand is contained in an article supplied by Dr. M. A. F. Barnett, O.B.E., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., Director of the New Zealand Meteorological Service, which was included in the 1942 and earlier editions of the Year-Book.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually in the Meteorological Observations. Work on this publication ceased during the war years, and this has delayed the appearance of recent issues, the latest available being that for 1948. Current statistics appear monthly in a climatological table included in the New Zealand Gazette.

The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

CLIMATOLOGICAL AVERAGES (OVER A PERIOD OF YEARS)

Station	Altitude	Average Annual Rainfall^*	Average Number of Rain Days	Average Bright Sunshine	Temperature in Shade, Degrees Fahrenheit
					Mean Daily Maximum			Mean Daily Minimum
					Jan.	July	Year	Jan.	July	Year
* Rainfall averages refer to standard period 1921–1950. † Normals relate to present site.
	Ft.	In.		Hrs.
Te Paki, Te Hapua	200	56.71	169	2,169	72.8	59.2	65.9	57.0	45.9	52.0
Auckland	160	48.80	182	2,059	72.8	56.7	64.9	600	46.1	53.2
Tauranga	10	53.42	152	2,376	74.5	57.4	66.1	54.7	40.1	47.6
Hamilton East	131	45.95	161	2,056	74.6^†	55.9^†	65.5^†	51.7^†	37.I^†	44.7^†
Rotorua	969	54.44	145	2,061	74.3^†	53.6^†	63.6^†	51.3^†	36.9^†	44.5^†
Gisborne	12	39.75	147	2,284	76.2	56.3	66.4	54.3	40.0	47.6
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana	2,100	76.90	183		68.1	47.6	58.0	52.0	37.7	45.0
New Plymouth	160	61.16	186	2,211	69.1	54.8	62.2	55.2	42.9	49.3
Napier	5	31.20	114	2,406	73.9	55.1	64.8	57.0	39.4	48.7
Taihape	2,157	36.93	179		68.2	47.2	57.9	50.1	36.1	43.2
Wanganui	72	34.32	155	2,182	71.0	54.2	63.0	55.9	41.0	48.9
Plant Research Bureau, Palmerston North	110	39.05	170	1,839	70.5	53.1	62.2	54.3	39.1	46.9
Waingawa, Masterton	340	38.01	142	2,091	74.3	53.3	63.7	50.5	35.8	43.4
Wellington	415	47.47	166	2,045	67.6	51.2	59.8	54.4	41.5	48.3
Nelson	24	38.63	116	2,490	71.2	54.2	63.0	54.5	37.1	46.1
Blenheim	12	25.84	110	2,449	73.0^†	53.5^†	64.0^†	53.2^†	35.6^†	44.9^†
Hanmer	1,225	45.25	133	1,966	71.6	48.2	60.9	47.8	29.0	39.1
Hokitika	12	110.40	197	1,898	65.3^†	51.7^†	58.8^†	50.9^†	35.6^†	43.8^†
Lake Coleridge	1,195	31.54	114		70.7	48.6	61.1	49.1	30.3	40.7
Christchurch	22	26.28	125	1,988	70.2	50.0	60.9	52.7	34.7	44.0
Timaru	56	23.46	116	1,927	70.0	49.4	60.7	51.4	33.4	42.8
Milford Sound	20	253.50	194		64.4	48.3	57.0	50.0	34.2	42.5
Queenstown	1,100	32.03	104	2,003	69.8	45.6	58.8	49.0	30.9	40.9
Alexandra	520	13.22	99	2,143	72.6	44.6	60.9	50.8	28.0	40.2
Dunedin	5	29.74	161	1,715	65.2^†	49.3^†	59.0^†	51.2^†	36.2^†	44.3^†
Invercargill	32	43.30	201	1,640	66.3	48.8	58.3	48.4	33.8	41.7

Brief Review of 1952.—Year.—The annual rainfall was mainly above normal over the North Island except in the far north and in western Taranaki. The surplus was greatest in central areas about Lake Taupo, in southern Hawke's Bay, and near Gisborne. Marlborough and most of Canterbury again experienced a very wet year, but over the remainder of the South Island rainfall was mainly below normal.

There was more sunshine than usual in two small areas around Dunedin and Ashburton, but elsewhere the year was cloudier than average. The sunshine deficit exceeded 100 hours for inland districts of the South Island and almost the whole of the North Island; Auckland's sunshine was lower than for any year since 1910. Temperatures were close to, or slightly above, normal, and only in parts of inland Canterbury were conditions appreciably warmer than usual.

Seasonal Notes.—January, February, and March continued a succession of rather cloudy months which, for many districts, had commenced the previous September. Exceptionally heavy rainfall in Northland caused serious flooding on 15 and 19 February. In many places, however, especially east of the main ranges, conditions were relatively dry over these three months and favourable for harvesting. Pip and stone fruits yielded good crops, but tomatoes and grapes suffered from lack of sunshine. The North Island potato crop was also disappointing. Butterfat production set a new record for the season.

In April and May spells of fine weather lasting about a fortnight alternated with cooler unsettled weather in the later part of each month. Dry conditions persisted in eastern districts, several places in the Gisborne district and Hawke's Bay having record low rainfalls for May. Dull stormy weather predominated from the beginning of June until 9 July. Although there was little rain on the east coast, it was a very wet period for the remainder of the North Island. A long spell of fine settled weather followed and lasted until the end of the month.

As a result of several months of low rainfall east of the ranges winter feed became very scarce and there were many deaths among hoggets and early lambs, particularly in Hawke's Bay. This dry spell came to an end early in August, when easterly winds prevailed, bringing considerable rain during the next six weeks. This latter period, however, was a very dry one for Westland, Southland, and Central Otago. Between Cromwell and Wanaka there was no measurable rain at all in August.

In the middle of September there was a change to boisterous westerly conditions. On 23 September occurred the only appreciable snowfall since mid-June; afterwards severe frosts were recorded in most inland districts. For the greater part of the country September was a very sunny month. In October spells of sunny weather alternated with beneficial rains. It was a warm month and contributed very favourable conditions for the spring season. Crops and pastures made excellent growth, and dairy production was at a high level.

By contrast, dull wet weather prevailed in November and the first half of December. Such widespread excess rainfall and lack of sunshine had not been previously experienced in November for at least fifty years. Eastern districts north of Otago suffered the most; but for Westland and Southland both months were comparatively dry and sunny. Over large areas of farm land the ground became waterlogged. Shearing was seriously delayed and many farmers were unable to cut hay. Blight affected many vegetable crops, particularly North Island potatoes. Conditions were more favourable in the far south, and Central Otago fruit growers were expecting a good harvest.

Conditions improved greatly in the west and south from the middle of December, and in the final week the whole country enjoyed a spell of warm settled weather.

Brief Review of 1953.—Rainfall was near to or above normal over the greater part of the country. The excess was greatest in Northern Wairarapa, Marlborough, and North Canterbury; for quite a number of stations in these districts this was the wettest year in over thirty years of records. Rainfall was appreciably below normal in Gisborne, northern Hawke's Bay, and most of Otago and Southland. The percentage deficiency was greatest in a small area surrounding the town of Gisborne.

Annual temperatures were generally above normal throughout the North Island, and in Nelson and Westland. The departure was as much as 1° F. in parts of Northland. The remainder of the South Island was slightly cooler than the average.

Sunshine was below average over the whole country. The deficiency exceeded two hundred hours over most of the North Island, and also over Nelson and Buller. For the cities of New Plymouth, Wellington, and Nelson sunshine was the lowest in over thirty years of records.

Seasonal Notes.—January followed the general pattern of the two previous months with warm sunny weather in Westland, but high rainfall in eastern areas. In many districts from North Canterbury to Hawke's Bay it was the wettest January for more than fifty years. Towards the end of the month there were serious floods in the Ashley, Clarence, Porangahau, and Manawatu Rivers.

Rainfall decreased generally in February, but conditions were predominantly cloudy and cool. March was a month of comparatively settled weather with more plentiful sunshine until near the end, when heavy rains affected most of the South Island. On the whole it was not a favourable season for primary production.

For the next three months the weather was cloudier than usual, and rainfall was above average over the North Island. April was cool and stormy, with an exceptionally high frequency of strong winds from Cook Strait southward. May and June were both comparatively mild.

July was a sunny month and also rather dry. However, heavy rain over the Auckland Province during 3–5 July caused serious flooding in the lower Waikato on 7 July, and some areas of farmland were under water for several weeks. Snow fell to low levels in eastern districts of the South Island on 10 and 11 July. August was cloudy and milder, and provided favourable conditions for lambing in the North Island. Stock wintered reasonably well in most districts, but were adversely affected by the waterlogged ground in the Auckland and Taranaki provinces.

The next three months were all comparatively dry. Temperatures were mild, apart from three exceptionally cold southerly changes which affected eastern districts of the South Island between 25 September and 7 October. Many lambs were lost in Southland and West Otago, while late frosts ruined a considerable proportion of the Central Otago fruit crop. The dry weather proved rather welcome at first, but in November strong winds dried up the ground and retarded pasture growth. For the provinces of Auckland and Hawke's Bay, December, like the previous month, was warm, with deficient rainfall; in some areas farmers complained of very dry conditions.

SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1952 were taken at 0900 hours New Zealand Standard Time—i.e., 2100 hours Greenwich Mean Time.

Station	Temperatures in Shade—Degrees Fahrenheit							Hours of Bright Sunshine	Rainfall
	Mean Daily Maximum	Mean Daily Minimum	Approximate Mean Temp.	Extremes for 1952		Extremes^*			Rainfall
	Mean Daily Maximum	Mean Daily Minimum	Approximate Mean Temp.	Maximum and Month	Minimum and Month	Absolute Maximum	Absolute Minimum		Total Fall (Inches)	No. of Rain Days
* Highest and lowest temperatures for duration of records.
Te Paki, Te Hapua	66.1	52.1	59.1	76.9 Feb.	29.9 July	80.2	27.0	1,992.0	49.44	177
Auckland	66.1	53.2	59.6	81.8 Feb.	36.9 July	90.4	31.9	1,785.0	50.29	177
Tauranga	66.0	49.0	57.5	89.2 Jan.	27.9 July	91.9	22.5	2,245.5	54.90	167
Hamilton East	64.8	44.9	54.9	82.1 Feb.	24.8 July	94.4	14.2	1,811.4	45.76	172
Rotorua	63.8	45.6	54.7	92.5 Jan.	27.0 June	98.0	21.3	1,925.1	58.87	164
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana	58.2	44.9	51.6	88.1 Jan.	32.0 May & July	88.1	22.2		85.51	211
Gisborne	65.9	47.6	56.8	85.9 Jan.	26.6 July	95.8	260	2,122.2	42.34	176
New Plymouth	62.2	49.9	56.1	78.8 Feb.	33.2 July	860	29.1	1,992.1	56.40	170
Napier	65.7	49.6	57.6	96.0 Jan.	27.9 June	96.5	27.5	2,223.0	30.46	120
Wanganui	63.3	49.3	56.3	81.9 Feb.	29.3 Aug.	88.0	28.8	1,987.3	36.84	149
Plant Research Bureau, Palmerston North	63.4	47.5	55.4	81.8 Feb.	27.6 July	87.0	21.2	1,685.6	40.28	158
Waingawa, Masterton	63.7	44.5	54.1	88.0 Feb.	23.5 June	95.4	19.5	1,991.3	44.81	172
Kelburn, Wellington	60.0	48.9	54.4	79.6 Feb.	33.3 July	88.0	28.6	1,877.6	47.95	145
Nelson Airfield	62.1	44.3	53.2	78.0 Jan.	22.4 June	92.0	22.4	2,365.3	39.96	127
Blenheim	64.1	44.6	54.4	88.4 Jan.	24.3 June	94.6	16.1	2,386.8	29.95	111
Hanmer	60.7	39.1	49.9	87.0 Feb.	16.6 June	97.0	8.2	1,859.7	46.84	149
Hokitika	59.2	44.1	51.6	74.0 Dec.	27.4 June	84.5	25.0	1,837.9	92.50	189
Lake Coleridge	60.1	40.2	50.2	84.2 Dec.	17.5 June	92.0	10.0		28.97	128
Christchurch	61.4	44.2	52.8	85.7 Feb.	23.4 June	95.7	19.3	1,898.3	25.62	123
Timaru	61.7	40.7	51.2	94.1 Jan.	23.6 June	99.0	19.8	1,789.0	28.30	91
Milford Sound	57.9	42.5	50.2	75.6 Jan.	25.4 June	79.8	23.1		254.67	183
Alexandra	62.1	39.9	51.0	90.9 Dec.	15.9 June	94.4	11.0	1,970.7	14.54	99
Musselburgh, Dunedin	58.5	44.4	51.4	85.5 Feb.	28.6 June	94.0	23.0	1,766.2	26.50	146
Invercargill	58.4	42.3	50.4	81.2 Nov.	23.6 Aug.	90.0	19.0	1,634.3	43.13	201

For 1952 the mean sea-level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hrs. New Zealand Standard Time were: Auckland, 1015.1; Wellington, 1013.1; Nelson, 1013.4; Hokitika, 1013.6; Christ-church, 1011.5; and Dunedin, 1010.7.

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND.—Those desiring information on the flora and plant covering of New Zealand are referred to the article by Dr. W. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc., F.R.S.N.Z., which appeared in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, while a brief reference to the geographical distribution of the forest trees is made in the section of this Year-Book dealing with Forestry (Section 21). For more detailed information the following works may also be consulted: “Plants of New Zealand,” by R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell, ed. 4, 1940; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora.” by T. F. Cheeseman, ed. 2, 1925; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips-Turner, 1950 (reprint); “The Forest Flora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889; “New Zealand Trees and Shrubs and How to Identify Them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbie, ed. 4, 1952; “New Zealand Plants and Their Story,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 3, 1927; “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 2, 1928; “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “The Flora of New Zealand,” by W. Martin, ed. 3, 1947; “The Botanical Names of the Flora of New Zealand,” by A. Wall and H. H. Allan, ed. 2, 1950; “Grasses of New Zealand,” by H. H. Allan, 1936; “A Handbook of the Naturalized Flora of New Zealand,” by H. H. Allan, 1940; “Poisonous Plants in New Zealand,” by H. E. Connor, 1951; and numerous articles published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

FAUNA.—A brief article on the fauna of New Zealand, originally prepared by the late Mr. James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S., and revised by him in 1935, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. Later publications dealing with this topic include “Native Animals of New Zealand,” by A. W. B. Powell, 1947, and “Introduced Mammals of New Zealand,” by Dr K. A. Wodzicki, 1950.

Chapter 2. SECTION 2—CONSTITUTION

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.—The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

At present (January 1954) the Executive Council consists of fifteen members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act 1950, which consolidated and amended the Civil List Act 1920 and its amendments, His Excellency the Governor-General receives an honorarium of £5,000 per annum, an allowance of £5,000 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his establishment (exclusive of the Official Secretary), plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travelling within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

In accordance with the recommendations contained in the report (issued in 1951) of the Royal Commission upon parliamentary salaries and allowances, the Prime Minister's salary as from 1 September 1951 was increased to £3,000 with a tax-free allowance of £1,000 for the expenses of his office and the Ministerial residence. In addition, while travelling on official business he receives £3 3s. per day to meet expenses, and by virtue of his office is entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. The salary of each Minister holding a portfolio is £2,000 with a tax-free expense allowance of £450, and that of each Minister without portfolio £1,650, with £400 tax-free expense allowance. Where the office of Minister of External Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister the expense allowance is increased to £600. Any Minister not occupying a Ministerial residence receives an allowance in lieu at the rate of £300 per annum. This allowance or the assessed value of the residence where one is provided is subject to income tax. Previously Ministers did not receive an expense allowance as such, but the Commissioner of Inland Revenue allowed a deduction from salary of £250 as an expense allowance. Ministers also receive an allowance of £3 3s. per day when travelling on official business.

The Civil List Amendment Act 1936 made provision for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, an innovation in executive control in New Zealand. The rate of salary attachable to such position is now £1,250, with the same house provision or allowances, and travel allowance while on official business, as for Ministers. An expense allowance of £350 is also payable. At the present time (January 1954) three such appointments are current.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—The General Assembly now consists of the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council (in existence 1854 to 31 December 1950) having been abolished by the Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950.

Duration of Parliaments.—Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act 1942 extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but with a proviso for a motion to be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. During the 1943 session a motion in favour of dissolution was carried, and Parliament was dissolved on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliaments has been of three years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved after the expiration of approximately twenty months.

Number of Representatives.—The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

Qualifications of Members.—Under the Electoral Act 1927 every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under “Franchise” post); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a contractor to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Though women's suffrage has been operative since 1893, women were not eligible as parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act 1919, the provisions of which are now embodied in the Electoral Act 1927. Under the Electoral Act public servants were prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition was removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1936, which provided that if elected they immediately cease to be public servants.

Salaries, &c.—The Civil List Act 1950 provided that, on a recommendation of a Royal Commission, the salaries and allowances of Ministers and Members of Parliament may be fixed by Order in Council, in which event the salaries and allowances so fixed will be payable instead of those specified in the Civil List Act 1950. In conformity with the recommendations of the Royal Commission issued in 1951 the honorarium paid to members of the House of Representatives has been increased to £900 per annum. They are also paid a basic allowance at the rate of £250 per annum for expenses incurred in connection with parliamentary duties and a sessional allowance of £150 per annum to all members except those representing the nine electorates in or around Wellington. To meet the higher travelling and other expenses for partly rural and predominantly rural electorates additional increments of £75 and £150 respectively are to be paid to members representing such electorates, subject to the classification of electorates by the Representation Commission into the four classes of (a) urban electorates in or near Wellington or Lower Hutt, (b) urban electorates other than Wellington electorates, (c) partly urban and partly rural electorates, and (d) predominantly rural electorates (refer Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1951). Payment to members is subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. In addition to the honorarium, members are entitled to certain privileges in respect of railway and other forms of travel, a stamp allowance of £4 a month, &c.

Part V of the Superannuation Act 1947 introduced a contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives, which provided a minimum retiring allowance of £250 per annum for a member with nine years' service, the allowance increasing by £25 per annum for every year's service in excess of that period until a maximum allowance of £400 per annum is reached after fifteen years' service.

A member must be fifty years of age before he qualifies, on ceasing to be a member, to receive the allowance. The annual contribution, which is compulsory, is £50 per annum, but a member may if he so desires receive a refund of his contributions upon ceasing to be a member.

In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of two-thirds of the retiring allowance to which her husband was entitled at the time of his death.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £1,600 per annum, in addition to which he receives an expense allowance of £500 and residential quarters in Parliament House. The honorarium of the Chairman of Committees is £1,300, and an allowance of £350 per annum to cover expenses incurred in connection with his parliamentary and official duties is also paid.

The Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary of £1,600 with an expense allowance of £400. In addition, a secretary and typist are provided by the State and an allowance of £150 is payable for travel outside his electorate. His official stamp allowance is £10 per month.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

ELECTORAL PROVISIONS. — Following each population census, which is normally taken every five years, New Zealand is divided anew into seventy-six European electorates. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time, by Proclamation, alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, but, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is the total population as disclosed by the census, with the following exceptions:

Maoris:
Persons detained in mental institutions:
Persons detained in prisons:
Persons on board ship:
Temporary guests in licensed hotels:
Persons residing temporarily in military, &c., camps:
Patients in public hospitals.

Provision exists for an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of 7½ per cent of the total population where districts containing the exact quota could not be formed consistently with consideration of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

These provisions, which differ considerably from those previously in force, are contained in the Electoral Amendment Act 1950. This Act also provided that all general elections and by-elections shall be held on a Saturday and for both European and Maori elections to be held on the same day. Previously the Maori elections were held on the day preceding the European elections. An amendment in 1951 provides for the polling hours in Maori electorates to be extended to 7 p.m., as in the case of European electorates.

The Electoral Amendment Act 1951 provided that, if at any time Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the general and supplementary rolls used in the previous general election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if in the opinion of the Chief Electoral Officer it is impracticable to print new general rolls. The same rolls, together with a further supplementary roll, are to be used for any by-election occurring before the next following general election.

The latter amending Act also provides for the voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen serving overseas who are or will be of, or over the age of, twenty-one years before the date of the election or poll, whether or not registered as electors of any electoral district. Each such serviceman shall be qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which is situated his usual place of residence before he last left New Zealand.

FRANCHISE.—Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893 every person twenty-one years of age or over has had the right to exercise a vote in the election of members for the House of Representatives. To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in New Zealand, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924, but for Maori electors a Proclamation was necessary before registration became operative. The Electoral Amendment Act 1948, however, provided for the preparation of rolls for Maori electoral districts, which, subject to and after notification in the Gazette that these rolls have been formed, shall be for all purposes the electoral rolls of the districts concerned.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the foregoing, for, if a person is classified as one of the following, he or she is not entitled to register as an elector or to vote:

An alien:
A mentally defective person:
A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of Her Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act 1927 as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

The Electoral Emergency Regulations 1943 prescribed the following additional classes of persons who were not entitled to be registered as electors or to vote:

A person who was committed to military defaulters' detention and had not been discharged therefrom:
A person who was taken into custody under the Aliens Emergency Regulations 1940 and had not been released therefrom.

Maoris are qualified to vote only at elections of the four members representing the Maori race. A Maori half-caste is entitled to be registered either as an elector of a Maori or a European electoral district, while special provisions govern any changeover of registration.

By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937, which made provision for a secret ballot in Maori elections, Maori electors were granted the same privileges, in the exercise of their vote, as European electors.

For the system of local-government administration a modified form of franchise exists, a ratepaying qualification being necessary for the exercising of votes on financial issues. Further reference to this aspect of franchise will be found in Section 31 of this Year-Book.

Chapter 3. SECTION 3—POPULATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL REVIEW.—A population census was taken as for the night of Tuesday, 17 April 1951, in New Zealand, while censuses of its island territories were conducted by the Department of Island Territories for the night of Tuesday, 25 September 1951.

The minor islands (see page 2), other than the Kermadec Islands and Campbell Island, were uninhabited at the date of the census, as was also the Ross Dependency, situated in Antarctic regions.

The 1951 census population of geographic New Zealand (i.e., excluding Island Territories) was 1,939,472, inclusive of 115,676 Maoris.

For the Island Territories 1951 census figures were: Cook Islands and Niue Island, 19,632; Tokelau Islands, 1,580; Trust Territory of Western Samoa, 83,096. The total census population of New Zealand and Island Territories was 2,043,780. Armed Forces personnel overseas at the time of the census and not included in the population numbered 1,894 (Europeans 1,830, Maoris 64).

The figures contained in the following summary are the latest available.

—	Date	Males	Females	Totals
* Includes population of the inhabited minor islands—i.e., Kermadec Islands, 14 (males); and Campbell Island, 5 (males).
New Zealand—
(a) Exclusive of Island Territories—
Europeans	30 September 1953	972,261	963,301	1,935,562
Maoris	30 September 1953	63,982	61,136	125,118
Totals, New Zealand (excluding Island territories)	30 September 1953	1,036,243	1,024,437	^*2,060,680
(b) Island Territories—
Tokelau Islands	31 March 1953	785	886	1,671
Cook Islands	31 March 1953	7,963	7,380	15,343
Niue Island	31 March 1953	2,224	2,389	4,613
Totals, New Zealand (including Island territories)		1,047,215	1,035,092	^*2,082,307
Trust Territory of Western Samoa	25 September 1951	43,790	41,119	84,909

INCREASE OF POPULATION.—Since the commencement of European settlement in New Zealand the European population has in every year shown an increase, though the rate of increase has fluctuated considerably. As will be seen later in this section, the movement of Maori population has followed a different course. Census records for the last half-century are quoted in the succeeding table and include Maoris.

Date of Census	Numbers	Intercensal Numerical Increase	Intercensal Percentage Increase	Average Annual Percentage Increase
* Excludes New Zealand Armed Forces personnel overseas. † Includes New Zealand Armed Forces personnel overseas.
March 1901^*	815,853	72,646	9.77	1.89
April 1906	936,304	120,451	14.76	2.75
April 1911	1,058,308	122,004	13.03	2.52
October 1916^*	1,149,225	90,917	8.59	1.50
April 1921	1,271,664	122,439	10.65	2.27
April 1926	1,408,139	136,475	10.73	2.06
March 1936	1,573,810	165,671	11.77	1.13
September 1945^*	1,702,298	128,488	816	0.83
September 1945^†	1,747,679	173,869	11.05	1.11
April 1951^*	1,939,472	237,174	13.93	2.37
April 1951^†	1,941,366	193,687	11.08	1.91

In no fewer than four of the nine censuses covered by the above table the figures are disturbed by the absence overseas of Armed Forces in time of war. Increase during the intercensal period preceding the census is thus diminished and in the period following is augmented by the return of such personnel or, more accurately and regrettably, the survivors. Numbers of Armed Forces personnel overseas at the respective dates were: 1901, 2,500 (approx.); 1916, 44,000 (approx.); 1945, 45,381; and 1951, 1,894.

It will be noted that the growth of population has been substantial in each period. The lowest rates are those of 1926–36, a result of the great economic depression, and of 1936–45, which included six years of war.

Omitting movements of army and air force personnel but including naval crews, post-war increases in population have been—

	Numbers	Per Cent
* 2.39 for a full year.
1946	34,932	2.02
1947	33,716	1.89
1948	33,710	1.85
1949	38,363	2.07
1950	36,678	1.94
1951	43,392	2.25
1952	53,913	2.74
1953 (9 months)	36,157	1.79^*
Total	310,861

If the numbers of the first three quarters of 1953 are maintained in the fourth quarter, the year's gain will be slightly less than the gain for 1952, which was the highest in the history of New Zealand.

Sources of population increase are threefold—viz., enlargement of territory, excess of arrivals over departures, and excess of births over deaths or natural increase. The first is inapplicable to New Zealand, the second is dealt with later in this section, and the third is discussed in the section relating to vital statistics. One aspect of the latter may, however, be given here. This is the reproduction index which, though not free from error, is a convenient indication of the growth or decline of a population. It is based on female children born (gross rate) and probably surviving to maturity (net rate). A net rate of 1.0 indicates a stationary population; above unity a rising population and below unity a falling population.

Reproduction rates during the last three years were as follows, the figures relating only to the European population.

Year	Gross Rate	Net Rate
1950	1.650	1.587
1951	1.640	1.578
1952	1.717	1.652

A cautionary observation may be appended here. Though the total increase of population is the sum of natural increase and migration increase, certain discrepancies may be noted. The reason is that, following the census, revisions have been made to statistics of total population, but it has not been possible to make corresponding adjustments to migration or natural increase figures.

POPULATION PROJECTION.—It is of interest to note that New Zealand reached its first million of population in December 1908 and the second million in August 1952, the population thus having doubled in approximately 43¾ years.

Interest in the future population of New Zealand was such that it was obvious there was a real need for up-to-date forecasts. However, to produce forecasts of real value, considerable work is involved in making careful studies of trends in fertility, mortality, immigration, etc. To meet the needs of those wishing to make estimates based on probable future changes in population, the following provisional projections have been made for the total population, inclusive of Maoris. These are based on two assumptions:

That the annual rate of natural increase will be 15 per thousand persons living.
That the net inflow due to migration will be 10,000 persons per annum.

MEAN POPULATION FOR TWELVE MONTHS ENDING 31 MARCH (INCLUDING MAORIS)

Year	Estimated Population	Year	Estimated Population	Year	Estimated Population	Year	Estimated Population
	(000)		(000)		(000)		(000)
1953	2,010	1965	2,533	1977	3,159	1989	3,907
1954	2,050	1966	2,581	1978	3,216	1990	3,976
1955	2,090	1967	2,630	1979	3,275	1991	4,046
1956	2,132	1968	2,679	1980	3,334	1992	4,116
1957	2,174	1969	2,729	1981	3,394	1993	4,188
1958	2,216	1970	2,780	1982	3,455	1994	4,261
1959	2,260	1971	2,832	1983	3,516	1995	4,335
1960	2,303	1972	2,884	1984	3,579	1996	4,410
1961	2,348	1973	2,938	1985	3,643	1997	4,486
1962	2,393	1974	2,992	1986	3,707	1998	4,563
1963	2,439	1975	3,047	1987	3,773	1999	4,642
1964	2,486	1976	3,102	1988	3,840	2000	4,721

It should be remembered that while these figures give a reliable indication of what will happen if the assumptions given above are realized, the sex and age groupings for the total population was not available at the time of writing. A compilation has however been made for the non-Maori population, and details are given under the next heading. Maori life tables are now being compiled and, when these are completed, it will be possible to prepare similar projections for the Maori section of the population. Meantime, it is not advisable to try to estimate future Maori population by deducting one projection from the other.

NOTE.—Projections by age-groups for the total and the Maori population have since become available; refer to latest statistical information.

European Population Projection by Age Groups.—In preparing the projection of the non-Maori population to December 1957 and December 1962, chances of survival for the existing population, for net immigration, and for births have been calculated from the 1950–52 life tables for non-Maori lives.

Three alternative assumptions are made with regard to immigration:

A net inflow of 10,000 per annum.
A net inflow of 5,000 per annum.
Emigration balances immigration.

In each case the age and sex distribution of the net inflow have been assumed to be the same as for the period 1934–53. During the last five years the net inflow has averaged 11,527 per annum, but over the last twenty years the average has been 4,005.

Expected births have been calculated with reference to the average number of women of child-bearing age, using average annual birth rates for the period 1949–52.

It should be stressed that population projections are not predictions of what the population will be at any given time. They merely show what would be the effect on the existing population of certain stated assumptions, without implying that those assumptions will necessarily be realized. Anyone who wishes to predict the population should therefore examine not only the figures given but also the validity of the assumptions, and the likelihood that they will continue to apply in the future.

NON-MAORI POPULATION PROJECTION

Age Groups	December 1957			December 1962
Age Groups	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
(a) Assuming 10,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	115,000	109,100	224,100	119,000	112,900	231,900
5 and under 10 years	112,850	107,800	220,650	116,150	110,250	226,400
10 and under 15 years	96,800	92,600	189,400	114,450	109,250	223,700
15 and under 20 years	78,750	75,850	154,600	98,150	93,750	191,900
20 and under 25 years	65,300	61,650	126,950	81,750	77,350	159,100
25 and under 30 years	71,800	65,350	137,150	70,400	63,900	134,300
30 and under 35 years	76,900	70,700	147,600	75,950	67,650	143,600
35 and under 40 years	70,950	70,600	141,550	79,350	72,500	151,850
40 and under 45 years	67,450	68,000	135,450	72,250	71,500	143,750
45 and under 50 years	65,400	63,500	128,900	67,550	68,000	135,550
50 and under 55 years	57,200	54,950	112,150	64,000	62,550	126,550
55 and under 60 years	47,550	47,500	95,050	54,350	53,150	107,500
60 and under 65 years	36,050	40,900	76,950	43,450	44,900	88,350
65 years and over	88,800	105,900	194,700	89,400	112,700	202,100
Totals	1,050,800	1,034,400	2,085,200	1,146,200	1,120,350	2,266,550
(b) Assuming 5,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	113,600	107,750	221,350	115,800	109,850	225,650
5 and under 10 years	111,800	106,950	218,750	113,750	108,050	221,800
10 and under 15 years	95,800	91,800	187,600	112,450	107,600	220,050
15 and under 20 years	77,850	75,200	153,050	96,250	92,250	188,500
20 and under 25 years	63,500	60,750	124,250	79,050	75,800	154,850
25 and under 30 years	69,000	64,100	133,100	65,800	61,750	127,550
30 and under 35 years	74,550	69,400	143,950	70,850	65,100	135,950
35 and under 40 years	69,350	69,450	138,800	75,400	70,050	145,450
40 and under 45 years	66,350	67,150	133,500	69,550	69,550	139,100
45 and under 50 years	64,650	62,950	127,600	65,700	66,600	132,300
50 and under 55 years	56,750	54,600	111,350	62,850	61,650	124,500
55 and under 60 years	47,300	47,300	94,600	53,650	52,600	106,250
60 and under 65 years	35,900	40,700	76,600	43,100	44,550	87,650
65 years and over	88,600	105,400	194,000	89,050	111,700	200,750
Totals	1,035,000	1,023,500	2,058,500	1,113,250	1,097,100	2,210,350
(c) Assuming no Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	112,200	106,400	218,600	112,600	106,800	219,400
5 and under 10 years	110,800	106,100	216,900	111,350	105,850	217,200
10 and under 15 years	94,800	91,000	185,800	110,500	105,900	216,400
15 and under 20 years	76,950	74,500	151,450	94,350	90,750	185,100
20 and under 25 years	61,700	59,900	121,600	76,350	74,250	150,600
25 and under 30 years	66,200	62,850	129,050	61,200	59,650	120,850
30 and under 35 years	72,200	68,050	140,250	65,700	62,500	128,200
35 and under 40 years	67,750	68,300	136,050	71,450	67,600	139,050
40 and under 45 years	65,200	66,300	131,500	66,800	67,600	134,400
45 and under 50 years	63,950	62,400	126,350	63,850	65,200	129,050
50 and under 55 years	56,300	54,250	110,550	61,700	60,750	122,450
55 and under 60 years	47,050	47,100	94,150	53,000	52,050	105,050
60 and under 65 years	35,800	40,500	76,300	42,750	44,150	86,900
65 years and over	88,400	104,950	193,350	88,600	110,800	199,400
Totals	1,019,300	1,012,600	2,031,900	1,080,200	1,073,850	2,154,050

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—In the following summary of certain selected countries the two most recent census years are quoted together with the annual average percentage increase of population during the respective intercensal periods.

Country	Census Period	Average Annual Percentage Increase
* Excluding Newfoundland. † European population. ‡ Including Hyderabad, but excluding Kashmir, Jammu, and the tribal areas of Assam. § Excluding full-blooded aborigines. NOTE.—Minus sign (−) denotes a decrease.
New Zealand	1945–51	2.37
England and Wales	1931–51	0.46
Scotland	1931–51	0.26
Northern Ireland	1937–51	0.48
Austria	1939–51	0.33
Denmark	1945–50	1.04
Finland	1940–50	0.82
France	1936–46	−0.34
Hungary	1941–49	−0.15
Republic of Ireland	1946–51	0.03
Netherlands	1930–47	1.18
Portugal	1940–50	0.95
Sweden	1945–50	1.09
Switzerland	1941–50	112
Canada^*	1941–51	1.72
Union of South Africa^†	1946–51	2.06
India^‡	1941–51	1.26
Pakistan	1941–51	0.75
Ceylon	1931–46	1.51
Australia^§	1933–47	0.96
United States of America	1940–50	1.36

The outstanding feature of the above table is the position occupied by New Zealand, with an annual rate of increase of 2.37 per cent. This would, however, be reduced to 1.91 per cent if members of the Armed Forces who were overseas in 1945 and 1951 were added to the New Zealand totals at the census dates and not regarded as population gains in the intercensal period.

The Commonwealth countries, Union of South Africa (206 percent), Canada (1.72 percent), and Ceylon (1.51 per cent), show the next highest rates of increase. On the other hand, European countries show the lowest rates of increase—France and Hungary actually show decreases—with the United Kingdom countries recording very low figures. The significance of the census dates, particularly in the case of Australia and of the Union of South Africa, must not be overlooked. In Australia, for instance, the great bulk of its huge post-war immigration took place after the 1947 census.

SEX PROPORTIONS.—Latest (September 1953) available figures show that males outnumber females by 8,960 in the European population, 2,846 in the Maori population, and 11,806 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males were: European, 991; Maori, 956; total population, 989. Net increase of population from migration adds to the male preponderance, but the major source of population increase is the excess of births over deaths, and this results in a female preponderance. In the relatively near future it seems probable that females will outnumber males. Females per 1,000 males at the last four censuses have been—

1926	957
1936	970
1945	1044
1945 (including Armed Forces abroad)	991
1951	991
1951 (including Armed Forces abroad)	989

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand. The following observations relate to the census of 1951 and give the number of females per 1,000 males.

In the aggregate of cities and boroughs the ratio was 1,071; in town districts, 1,010; and in counties, 885. For the provincial districts ratios were—

Canterbury	1028
Otago (Otago portion)	1016
Hawke's Bay	1003
Wellington	999
Auckland	982
Marlborough	960
Taranaki	958
Otago (Southland portion)	951
Nelson	948
Westland	937

Female preponderance in towns does not appear to have a direct relation to the size of the towns. Of the fifteen urban areas which comprise the largest centres of population eight had ratios higher than the average for all cities and boroughs, but seven were below the average, and of these Hutt, fifth largest urban area, even had an excess of males.

New Plymouth	1119
Dunedin	1100
Timaru	1098
Gisborne	1089
Christchurch	1087
Napier	1085
Hastings	1083
Whangarei	1075
Palmerston North	1070
Invercargill	1062
Hamilton	1059
Nelson	1058
Auckland	1057
Wellington	1052
Hutt	991

METHOD OF COMPILATION.—In common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country in normal times is taken quinquennially. The minutiae of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics compiled from census data, will be found in the official publications compiled after each census.

The basis adopted for the census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of the population present, which may be defined as the population present at the place of enumeration at the time of the enumeration.

Intercensal population statistics for New Zealand are statistics of record; those for lesser divisions such as provincial districts, counties, or boroughs are estimates.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand—i.e., Island Territories are omitted except in the first table where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Cook Islands, Niue Island, and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately.

Maoris are included in all population data unless the contrary is stated. Maori-Europeans who are in half or greater degree of Maori origin are included with Maoris. For some purposes the population dichotomy of European and Maori is necessary or desirable and “European” is used, conveniently if not altogether accurately, as referring to all population other than Maori, a usage long established in New Zealand.

INTERCENSAL RECORDS.—The intercensal statements of total population, prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration, have been by virtue of the favourable position of New Zealand in this respect relatively accurate. Moderate discrepancies, however, are inevitable and, in the tables following, revisions have been made for figures subsequent to the 1945 census to conform with the 1951 census figures.

The following population figures exclude members of New Zealand Armed Forces who were overseas, and also members of the Armed Forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

—	Population (Including Maoris) at End of Year			Increase During Year		Mean Population for Year
—	Males	Females	Totals	Numerical	Per Cent	Mean Population for Year
* Minus sign (−) signifies a decrease.
Years Ended 31 March
1943	789,400	844,694	1,634,094	−244^*	−0.01^*	1,640,191
1944	789,772	854,128	1,643,900	9,806	0.60	1,637,570
1945	814,470	865,502	1,679,972	36,072	2.19	1,664,585
1946	878,739	878,017	1,756,756	76,784	4.57	1,710,680
1947	894,810	894,666	1,789,476	32,720	1.86	1,770,291
1948	915,359	912,666	1,828,025	38,549	2.15	1,807,611
1949	935,019	929,541	1,864,560	36,535	2.00	1,843,767
1950	955,427	947,456	1,902,883	38,323	2.06	1,881,317
1951	973,082	964,950	1,938,032	35,149	1.85	1,917,934
1952	997,468	987,262	1,984,730	46,698	2.41	1,958,729
1953	1,024,463	1,013,090	2,037,553	52,823	2.66	2,009,506
Years Ended 31 December
1942	793,681	842,722	1,636,403	5,127	0.31	1,639,572
1943	790,842	851,199	1,642,041	5,638	0.34	1,635,635
1944	813,568	862,718	1,676,286	34,245	2.09	1,655,795
1945	855,494	872,323	1,727,817	51,531	3.07	1,694,641
1946	891,321	889,893	1,781,214	53,397	3.09	1,759,526
1947	910,055	907,398	1,817,453	36,239	2.03	1,798,262
1948	929,233	924,573	1,853,806	36,353	2.00	1,834,655
1949	949,443	942,599	1,892,042	38,236	2.06	1,871,748
1950	967,308	960,321	1,927,629	35,587	1.88	1,909,092
1951	989,513	981,009	1,970,522	42,893	2.23	1,947,529
1952	1,017,874	1,006,682	2,024,556	54,034	2.74	1,996,149

The figures given in the preceding table show the population inclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population exclusive of Maoris.

—	Population (Excluding Maoris) at End of Year			Increase During Year		Mean Population for Year
—	Males	Females	Totals	Numerical	Per Cent	Mean Population for Year
* Minus sign (−) signifies a decrease.
Years Ended 31 March
1943	740,369	797,268	1,537,637	−3,021^*	−0.20^*	1,545,052
1944	739,744	805,297	1,545,041	7,404	0.48	1,539,978
1945	763,155	815,236	1,578,391	33,350	2.16	1,564,436
1946	826,877	828,967	1,655,844	77,453	4.91	1,610,193
1947	841,070	843,870	1,684,940	29,096	1.76	1,667,631
1948	860,419	860,538	1,720,957	36,017	2.14	1,701,873
1949	878,487	876,111	1,754,598	33,641	1.95	1,735,223
1950	897,618	892,710	1,790,328	35,730	2.04	1,770,130
1951	913,852	908,674	1,822,526	32,198	1.80	1,803,944
1952	936,338	929,104	1,865,442	42,916	2.35	1,841,332
1953	961,389	952,965	1,914,354	48,912	2.62	1,888,334
Years Ended 31 December
1942	745,008	795,622	1,540,630	2,484	0.16	1,545,112
1943	741,045	802,741	1,543,786	3,156	0.20	1,538,651
1944	762,566	812,885	1,575,451	31,665	205	1,556,318
1945	804,809	823,548	1,628,357	52,906	3.36	1,593,898
1946	838,010	839,488	1,677,498	49,141	3.02	1,657,851
1947	855,480	855,640	1,711,120	33,622	2.00	1,693,168
1948	873,062	871,489	1,744,551	33,431	1.95	1,726,839
1949	891,991	888,237	1,780,228	35,677	2.05	1,761,204
1950	908,479	904,467	1,812,946	32,718	1.84	1,795,830
1951	928,879	923,337	1,852,216	39,270	2.17	1,831,058
1952	955,354	947,102	1,902,456	50,240	2.71	1,875,940

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.—Statistics of external migration have been recorded in New Zealand since 1860. Since 1 April 1921 they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving New Zealand.

Including crews of vessels, 121,471 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1953, which, compared with 1951–52, shows an increase of 9,412. During the same period 101,137 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1951–52, shows an increase of 4,557.

In addition to the figures just quoted there were also 5,645 “through” passengers who called at a port of New Zealand en route to their destination.

The excess of total arrivals over total departures for 1952–53 was 20,334, compared with a similar excess of 15,479 during 1951–52. This is the highest figure for net immigration since 1879.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last eleven years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, “through” passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and members of the Armed Forces, &c., have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 March	Arrivals			Departures			Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
Year Ended 31 March	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals	Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
1943	1,890	1,243	3,133	1,382	1,210	2,592	541
1944	2,122	1,625	3,747	1,848	1,792	3,640	107
1945	3,667	3,540	7,207	3,112	3,077	6,189	1,018
1946	6,416	6,893	13,309	5,657	5,309	10,966	2,343
1947	12,682	12,676	25,358	11,417	10,903	22,320	3,038
1948	17,004	16,140	33,144	13,945	13,443	27,388	5,756
1949	18,646	17,300	35,946	15,837	15,928	31,765	4,181
1950	26,190	24,690	50,880	21,471	21,529	43,000	7,880
1951	28,309	26,335	54,644	23,411	23,711	47,122	7,522
1952	33,162	29,336	62,498	24,009	22,825	46,834	15,664
1953	35,574	30,666	66,240	22,399	21,809	44,208	22,032

The number of arrivals in 1952–53 was the highest in the history of New Zealand migration statistics. In 1951–52 the number of departures showed a slight decrease on the previous year, and this was continued in 1952–53, when there was a further drop of 2,626.

During the war years normal civilian movements overseas were largely restricted, but in post-war years immigration on an enhanced scale has been experienced. Had it not been for shipping difficulties and for the serious housing shortage there is little doubt that larger numbers would have been recorded.

In the eight-year period ending 31 March 1953 the net gain from passenger migration was 68,416, while if movement of crews is taken into account this is increased to 71,549.

Classes of Arrivals and Departures.—The following table gives an analysis of all classes of arrivals during the last five years, including “through” passengers, and crews. In classifying arrivals or departures as “permanent” the commonly used international rule is applied—i.e., residence or absence of one year or more.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Immigrants intending permanent residence	11,387	17,701	18,234	24,922	29,005
New Zealand residents returning	12,840	18,463	19,976	20,426	18,570
Visitors—
Tourists	7,828	10,768	12,183	12,325	13,309
On business	1,769	1,936	2,406	2,846	2,502
Theatrical, entertaining, etc.	700	1,117	634	582	785
Educational purposes	975	97	111	133	199
Others, officials, etc.	975	313	469	613	1,035
In transit	447	485	631	651	835
Through passengers	3,073	2,489	2,923	2,744	5,645
Crews	36,695	47,499	47,263	49,561	55,231
Totals	75,714	100,868	104,830	114,803	127,116

The succeeding table gives a similar analysis of departures.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
New Zealand residents departing—
Permanently	6,679	6,886	7,788	7,300	6,271
Temporarily	13,566	20,106	21,371	21,090	18,315
Temporary residents departing	11,520	16,008	17,963	18,444	19,622
Through passengers	3,073	2,489	2,923	2,744	5,645
Crews	36,849	45,958	46,411	49,746	56,929
Totals	71,687	91,447	96,456	99,324	106,782

Ages.—The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the twelve months ended 31 March 1953.

Age, in Years	Permanent Arrivals			Permanent Departures			Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals	Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
0–14	2,572	2,347	4,919	540	477	1,017	3,902
15–24	4,520	2,792	7,312	667	742	1,409	5,903
25–34	5,182	3,591	8,773	824	989	1,813	6,960
35–44	2,134	1,835	3,969	371	440	811	3,158
45–59	1,266	1,428	2,694	260	387	647	2,047
60 and over	450	787	1,237	202	365	567	670
Unspecified	51	50	101	1	6	7	94
Totals	16,175	12,830	29,005	2,865	3,406	6,271	22,734

Of the permanent arrivals during the year 1952–53, 17 per cent were under fifteen years of age, 42 per cent under twenty-five years, 73 per cent under thirty-five years, and 86 per cent under forty-five years. Permanent departures represented a similar age distribution with percentages of 16, 39, 68, and 81 respectively.

Origin.—The great majority of immigrants to New Zealand have always come from the British. Isles. During the immigration boom of the “seventies” several shiploads of immigrants from Baltic countries arrived under Government auspices. With this exception, systems of Government-assisted passages to immigrants have been until recently confined to immigrants from the United Kingdom. Conditions arising out of the recent war have brought changes, and systems of Government aid have been devised for immigrants from other countries. These conditions have also stimulated independent migration, apart from that governmentally aided. It is therefore of some interest to survey briefly the net gain of population in the post-war years.

The next table gives the excess of overseas arrivals oven departures for the eight years 1945–46 to 1952–53. The basis of “permanent” arrivals and “permanent” departures has not been used; this is founded on intention, and intentions, particularly in existing times, are subject to change. Instead the table covers total arrivals and total departures less (a) persons of New Zealand birth and (6) New Zealand residents of overseas origin returning after an absence of less than a year or departing for a period of less than a year. Included, it will be noted, are crews of vessels. Annually the surplus of crew arrivals over crew departures provides a moderate increment to the population of New Zealand. For the eight years the net gain from this source was 3,133. Information as to the country of origin is not available in this case.

The total surplus of arrivals on this basis was 83,469. Of these, 57,492 came from Commonwealth countries (including 46,868 from the United Kingdom) and 22,617 from other countries. Of the remainder, 227 came from unspecified countries or were born at sea. The period under review ends at 31 March 1953.

Country of Birth	Excess of Arrivals
Country of Birth	Males	Females
* Including condominia, protected states, and trust territories.
Commonwealth^*
United Kingdom	23,711	23,157
Union of South Africa	153	199
India and Pakistan	1,235	1,183
Canada	166	353
Australia	923	1,867
Cook Islands and Niue	653	675
Western Samoa	926	699
Fiji	280	347
Tonga	138	80
Others (Pacific)	73	45
All others	327	302
Totals	28,585	28,907
Other Countries
Denmark	343	267
Russia	214	173
Estonia	85	135
Latvia	251	249
Lithuania	96	90
Poland	772	308
Germany	267	501
Netherlands	6,735	2,929
France	48	77
Republic of Ireland and Ireland, undefined	1,041	742
Switzerland	214	125
Austria	190	145
Czechoslovakia	295	166
Hungary	179	129
Rumania	420	300
Yugoslavia	173	264
Bulgaria	153	28
Italy	138	328
Greece	144	161
Others (Europe)	162	162
Turkey	93	58
Egypt	64	77
Burma	133	121
Indonesia	545	337
China	456	503
United States of America	427	289
Others (Pacific)	40	29
All others	146	100
Totals	13,824	8,793
Born at sea	2	4
Not specified	103	118
Crews of vessels	2,994	139
Grand totals	45,508	37,961

Assisted Immigration.—Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). The scheme that was operating prior to 1947 had been largely suspended since 1927, and only 50 immigrants received financial assistance during the ten years ended 31 March 1946.

To alleviate the shortage of staffs in mental hospitals the Government decided in 1946 to recruit labour in the United Kingdom, and the number of arrivals under this system totalled 240 (all females).

In July 1947 a comprehensive assisted passage scheme was introduced by the Government. Under this scheme financial aid was granted to certain categories of immigrants. Eligibility was confined to single residents of the United Kingdom (with no dependants) between the ages of twenty and thirty-five years who were suitable for, and willing to accept employment in, a wide variety of productive and servicing occupations. Free passages were provided for those successful applicants who served in the United Kingdom Armed Forces (including Merchant Navy) during the Second World War; all others selected were required to contribute £10 towards the cost of their fares. All assisted immigrants were required to enter into a contract with the New Zealand Government that they would engage in approved employment for two years after their arrival in New Zealand.

A scheme of child migration from the United Kingdom also came into operation during the same year, the first draft arriving in June 1949. This scheme was devised to bring to New Zealand, on a guardianship basis, British children between the ages of five and seventeen years whose parents were prepared to agree to their placement with foster-parents approved by the Superintendent of Child Welfare. Arrivals under this scheme totalled 169 in 1949–50, 107 in 1950–51, 99 in 1951–52, and 87 in 1952–53. This scheme was terminated on 31 May 1953.

In May 1950 a new immigration policy was announced by the Government, the main changes being as follows:—

The existing scheme in regard to unmarried British immigrants, including nominations, to continue, but with an extension of the age limit from thirty-five to forty-five years of age.
The contribution of £10 previously required to be paid by other than ex-service personnel towards the cost of their fares to New Zealand to be abolished. In future free passages to be provided for all British immigrants, both single and married (including wives and families), selected under the scheme.
Extension of the free passage scheme to certain categories of married British immigrants with up to two children.
The acceptance, after negotiation and conclusion of agreements with the countries concerned, of a number of single non-British men and women between the ages of twenty and thirty-five years. Such an agreement was later entered into with the Netherlands Government.

Arrivals of “assisted” Dutch immigrants were 55 males in 1950–51, 937 males and 163 females in 1951–52, and 2,108 males and 601 females in 1952–53.

The number of assisted immigrants (exclusive of displaced persons) arriving in New Zealand since the reintroduction of the scheme in 1947 was as follows:—

	Number
Year ending 31 March 1947	158
Year ending 31 March 1948	1,140
Year ending 31 March 1949	1,527
Year ending 31 March 1950	2,532
Year ending 31 March 1951	2,928
Year ending 31 March 1952	4,949
Year ending 31 March 1953	7,581

In the preceding migration tables assisted immigrants are included in the totals of “Immigrants intending permanent residence.”

Displaced Persons.—Commencing with the year 1949–50 the Government agreed to accept drafts of displaced persons from Europe, who were brought to New Zealand in shipping provided by the International Refugee Organization. These settlers were chosen by a New Zealand Selection Mission, and arrivals totalled 941 in 1949–50, 978 in 1950–51, and 2,663 in 1951–52, made up of young single men and women, widows with one child, family groups, orphans, and a number of elderly people. This scheme was brought to an end with the arrival in April 1952 of the final two displaced persons accepted by the Government.

PASSPORTS.—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington and Auckland. United Kingdom, Canadian, and Australian passports are issued by the respective High Commissioners for those countries. The representatives of New Zealand at London, Washington, New York, San Francisco, Ottawa, Canberra, Paris, The Hague, Bombay, and Tokyo are authorized to issue and renew New Zealand passports.

Entry into New Zealand.—Apart from British subjects arriving from Australia, no person sixteen years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a valid passport or other travel document satisfactorily establishing nationality and identity. Exemption (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs. With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, all aliens require a British visa.

For persons from the Cook Islands, Niue, or Western Samoa the only requirement is a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or Niue or the High Commissioner for Western Samoa, as the case may be.

The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject who is the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives.

Departure from New Zealand.—British subjects leaving New Zealand, with the exception of those travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.—The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act 1908 and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919. It is administered by the Labour and Employment Department.

Subject to certain exemptions; the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Labour and Employment Department. (Note.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage by reason that he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject or by reason that he is an aboriginal Native or the descendant of an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of Her Majesty.)
Idiots or insane persons.
Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.
Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.
Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the country.
Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath (or make an affirmation) of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

To obtain permits to enter New Zealand as permanent residents, application must be made by the intending immigrants themselves to the Director of Employment, Wellington. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin, in which country the applicant must have resided for at least twelve months prior to the date of application. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons covered by clause (1) above to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to some period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit may be required in respect of such temporary permit, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit have been complied with. A deed to be entered into by some approved person or persons resident in New Zealand guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom may also be required.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Restricted Immigrants.—When persons who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm arrive in New Zealand and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons came to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond of £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for his support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

Declaration by Persons Arriving in New Zealand.—Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Immigration, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name, age, marital status, occupation, birthplace, nationality, race, particulars of children under fifteen years of age arriving with him, residence, etc.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALIZATION.—The British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, which came into force on 1 January 1949, was enacted following a conference of nationality experts of Commonwealth countries in February 1947, to discuss the basis of fresh nationality legislation. The scheme of the new legislation recommended by the Conference and accepted by Commonwealth Governments, is the “common status” of all British subjects, namely, that in each Commonwealth country all persons are recognized as British subjects who possess citizenship under the citizenship laws of any of the members of the Commonwealth. (NOTE.—The Act states that “British subject” and “Commonwealth citizen” have the same meaning.)

Upon the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship was automatically conferred on the following classes of British subjects:—

Those born in New Zealand.
Those naturalized in New Zealand.
Those ordinarily resident in New Zealand throughout the whole of the year 1948.
Those whose fathers were British subjects born or naturalized in New Zealand.
Women (being British subjects) married before the commencement of the Act to men who become citizens under the various provisions of the Act.

After the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways:—

By birth in New Zealand.
By descent.
By registration.
By naturalization.

Citizens of other Commonwealth countries acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration. The requirement is twelve months' ordinary residence. A British woman married to a New Zealand citizen is entitled to registration without any residence qualification.

The principal conditions governing the grant of naturalization to aliens under the 1948 Act are that the applicant shall satisfy the Minister of Internal Affairs (a) that he has resided in New Zealand for a period of five years, (b) that he is of good character and has a sufficient knowledge of the English language, (c) that if his application is granted he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand, (d) that the applicant gives a year's notice of his intention to apply, and (e) that the applicant possesses a sufficient knowledge of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship. There is discretionary provision for the Minister to allow residence in other Commonwealth countries to be reckoned for the purposes of the first condition, but in such cases a minimum of two years' residence in New Zealand is essential.

Naturalization granted to a married man does not automatically confer New Zealand citizenship on his wife and children, if they are aliens. These dependants may apply to be registered as New Zealand citizens after the head of the family has been naturalized. An alien woman marrying a British subject does not acquire her husband's nationality on marriage, but may apply to be registered as a British subject and New Zealand citizen. Acquisition of citizenship by naturalization or registration automatically confers the status of a British subject, and the two methods of acquiring citizenship are differences in legal procedure only.

A British woman marrying an alien does not lose her nationality under the present Act.

The complete numbers of naturalizations, registrations, etc., during the year ended 31 March 1953 were as follows.

Country of Birth	Certificates of Naturalization (Aliens and British-protected Persons)		Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen (British Subjects, Irish Citizens, British-protected Persons, and Aliens)		Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen—Minor Children (British Subjects and Aliens)
Country of Birth	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females
United Kingdom			89	36	3	4
Union of South Africa			1	3
Republic of India			6	11	1	4
Canada				1
Australia			5	6	1	2
Western Samoa	2	1		2
Fiji			1	2
Tonga	2			1
Norway	1
Sweden	2
Denmark	4
Russia	1
Lithuania	2
Latvia				1
Poland	12		1	7	1	3
Germany	6	3		3	1	1
Netherlands	7			2	2	3
Belgium	1		1
France	1		1
Republic of Ireland			1
Switzerland	4			3
Italy	5	1		2
Czechoslovakia	2			3
Austria	3			4
Hungary	2
Yugoslavia	28			7		1
Rumania	1			1
Greece	6			4
Egypt				1
Jordan						2
Turkey	1
Lebanon	3	4
Burma			6	5	1	1
Indonesia	7			5	1	3
China	2	1	1
United States of America	2		2	1
Mexico				1
Society Islands	1			1
Born at Sea					1
Totals	108	10	115	113	14	24

Of the certificates of registration granted to adult males, 110 were to British subjects or Irish citizens who acquired New Zealand citizenship by virtue of one year's residence in the country immediately preceding the date of application, and 5 to British subjects generally resident outside New Zealand who were registered as New Zealand citizens by virtue of their close associations by way of descent, residence, or otherwise, with New Zealand.

The certificates of registration granted to adult females were 50 to British subjects who acquired New Zealand citizenship by virtue of one year's residence in the country immediately preceding the date of application, 10 to British wives of New Zealand citizens, 5 to British subjects generally resident outside New Zealand, and 48 to alien women married to New Zealand citizens by birth or naturalization.

Certificates of registration granted to minor children were 33 (13 males, 20 females) to children of New Zealand citizens, by naturalization or registration, and 5 (1 male, 4 females) to children who lodged applications independently.

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS.—The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, the administration being carried out by the Police Department. This Act repealed earlier enactments relating to aliens.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at 1 April 1953 was 21,726, comprising 14,732 males and 6,994 females. This does not purport to be the complete number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under sixteen years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, Consuls, or employees of Embassies, Legations, and Consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand; (d) Western Samoans, except in special circumstances. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The following table shows the numbers on the register at 1 April 1952 and 1 April 1953.

Country of Nationality	1 April 1952			1 April 1953
Country of Nationality	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
Norway	134	34	168	134	39	173
Sweden	83	27	110	84	33	117
Denmark	316	160	476	364	188	552
Finland	28	12	40	27	17	44
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	135	87	222	128	89	217
Estonia	69	102	171	74	103	177
Latvia	220	245	465	232	247	479
Lithuania	83	87	170	84	89	173
Poland	953	669	1,622	996	703	1,699
Germany	156	162	318	184	203	387
Netherlands	3,246	1,130	4,376	6,574	2,604	9,178
Belgium	26	9	35	35	9	44
France	66	63	129	73	74	147
Switzerland	221	94	315	282	124	406
Italy	189	172	361	225	168	393
Czechoslovakia	246	122	368	251	117	368
Austria	35	42	77	135	52	187
Hungary	165	113	278	178	111	289
Yugoslavia	751	303	1,054	744	327	1,071
Albania	32	1	33	31	1	32
Rumania	46	32	78	49	28	77
Bulgaria	141	11	152	140	12	152
Greece	591	407	998	601	423	1,024
Lebanon	13	13	26	18	13	31
China	2,317	696	3,013	2,373	842	3,215
United States of America	608	249	857	548	238	786
Tonga	15	7	22	11	5	16
Other countries	62	33	95	59	34	93
Stateless	103	97	200	98	101	199
Totals	11,050	5,179	16,229	14,732	6,994	21,726

The number of aliens on the register as at 1 April 1953 shows an increase of 5,497 as compared with twelve months earlier, the countries contributing the major portion of this increase being Netherlands (4,802), China (202), Austria (110), Switzerland (91), Poland (77), Denmark (76), and Germany (69).

The United States of America recorded a numerical decrease of 71, this being the only country to show a decrease in excess of 6 during the year.

The age distribution and occupations of aliens on the register at 1 April 1952 will be found on page 31 of the 1953 issue of the Year-Book.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and these are published in Vol. 1—Increase and Location of Population. In the 1951 issue will be found figures for provincial districts, land districts, urban areas, counties, cities, boroughs, town districts, extra-county islands, and shipping. In addition, county figures are subdivided further into (a) ridings, and (b) townships, localities, etc.

North and South Islands.—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census Year	Population (Excluding Maoris)			Proportions Per Cent
Census Year	North Island	South Island	Totals	North Island	South Island
* Includes Maori half-castes (total, 4,236) living as Europeans.
1901	388,626	381,678	770,304	50.45	49.55
1906	474,605	411,390	885,995	53.57	46.43
1911	561,281	444,304	1,005,585	55.82	44.18
1916	648,439	447,789	1,096,228	59.15	40.85
1921	741,255^*	477,658^*	1,218,913^*	60.81	39.19
1926	831,813	512,656	1,344,469	61.87	38.13
1936	938,939	552,545	1,491,484	62.95	37.05
1945	1,050,984	552,570	1,603,554	65.54	34.46
1951	1,202,357	621,439	1,823,796	65.93	34.07

The natural increase of European population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the North Island during the 1945–51 intercensal period was 103,954, and the total net increase 151,373. For the South Island the natural increase was 48,806, and the total net increase 68,869. It is clear that in the strict sense of the term there was no “northward drift” of population in this period. Inclusive of Maoris, the North Island increase was 167,577, or 14.62 per cent, and the South Island increase 69,597, or 12.52 per cent. In contrast to preceding periods the South Island rate of increase approaches fairly closely that of the North Island.

At the 1951 census the North Island population was 1,313,869, inclusive of 111,512 Maoris; and the South Island population 625,603, inclusive of 4,164 Maoris.

At 31 March 1953 the North Island population was estimated as 1,389,390, inclusive of 118,923 Maoris; and the South Island population as 648,163, inclusive of 4,276 Maoris.

Provincial Districts.—The approximate areas and the estimated populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are given in the next table.

For the guidance of overseas readers it is necessary to explain that there have been no provinces in New Zealand since 1875. Provincial districts are simply the former provinces, but they have no functions and are now merely historic divisions serving as useful units for a primary geographical break-down. There is no Southland Provincial District and the “Southland portion of Otago” has little resemblance in area to the former Southland Province.

Provincial District	Area (Square Miles)	Estimated Population 1 April 1953	Provincial District	Area (Square Miles)	Estimated Population 1 April 1953
Auckland	25,420	792,490	Canterbury	13,940	290,863
Hawke's Bay	4,260	95,600	Otago—
Taranaki	3,750	90,400	Otago portion	14,050	164,600
Wellington	10,870	410,900	Southland portion	11,480	79,700
Marlborough	4,220	24,100
Nelson	10,870	70,300	New Zealand	103,740	2,037,553
Westland	4,880	18,600

The foregoing table illustrates the wide disparities in the size of the provincial districts, whether measured by area or by population.

The area shown for New Zealand now includes certain islands which formerly were excluded. These are Kermadec Islands (13 square miles), Campbell Island (44 square miles), and the uninhabited islands—Three Kings, Solander, Bounty, Snares, Antipodes, and Auckland—with a total area of 263 square miles.

Urban and Rural Population.—On 17 April 1951 somewhat over two-fifths (43.7 per cent) of the population of New Zealand (excluding Maoris) were included in the five principal urban areas—Auckland, Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and over one-half (54.4 per cent) in these or in the ten secondary urban areas. In the following table urban population means the population in cities and boroughs, while rural population covers counties, all town districts, and extra-county islands. It will be observed that there was a marked slackening in the rate of the urban drift between 1926 and 1936, but the 1945 figures, due, no doubt, to wartime influences, disclosed a substantial increase in the urban population, whereas the rural population, for the first time, recorded a decrease. In the 1945–51 period a substantial gain was recorded in the rural population, but it was insufficient to prevent further deterioration of its ratio to total population.

Census	Population			Percentage of Total
Census	Rural	Urban	Migratory	Rural	Urban	Migratory
* Figures exclude military and internment camps. † Figures include Armed Services in New Zealand at census date and internment camps, but exclude members of the United States Forces present in New Zealand and also enemy prisoners of war. ‡ Inclusive of Maori half-castes (3,221 in 1916 and 4,236 in 1921) living as Europeans.
Excluding Maoris—
1901	416,701	349,842	3,761	54.09	45.42	0.49
1906	457,297	424,251	4,447	51.61	47.89	0.50
1911	495,577	505,003	5,005	49.28	50.22	0.50
1916^*^‡	501,956	585,306	3,463	46.02	53.66	0.32
1921^‡	531,694	681,988	5,231	43.62	55.95	0.43
1926	552,344	785,040	7,085	41.08	58.39	0.53
1936	602,519	884,293	4,672	40.40	59.29	0.31
1945^†	591,855	1,008,534	3,165	36.91	62.89	0.20
1951	654,921	1,163,090	5,785	35.91	63.77	0.32
Including Maoris—
1926	610,446	790,555	7,138	43.35	56.14	0.51
1936	677,087	892,024	4,699	43.02	56.68	0.30
1945^†	674,821	1,024,292	3,185	39.64	60.17	0.19
1951	748,922	1,184,672	5,878	38.62	61.08	0.30

Another conception of urban and rural population is presented in the next table. For this purpose urban population has been taken as that enumerated in cities, boroughs, or town districts with a minimum population of 1,000. Migratory population is excluded.

—	Including Maoris		Excluding Maoris
—	1926	1951	1926	1951
Numbers
Urban: towns of—
1,000–2,500	104,360	88,532	102,201	86,560
2,500–5,000	86,408	123,596	85,430	114,757
5,000–10,000	82,662	107,251	82,144	115,666
10,000–25,000	186,545	251,812	185,580	236,930
25,000 or over	338,213	625,666	337,221	617,921
Totals, urban	798,188	1,196,857	792,576	1,171,834
Rural	602,813	736,737	544,808	646,177
Totals, New Zealand	1,401,001	1,933,594	1,337,384	1,818,011
Percentages
Urban: towns of—
1,000–2,500	7.45	4.58	7.64	4.76
2,500–5,000	6.17	6.39	6.39	6.31
5,000–10,000	5.90	5.55	6.14	6.36
10,000–25,000	13.31	13.02	13.88	13.03
25,000 or over	24.14	32.36	25.21	33.99
Totals, urban	56.97	61.90	59.26	64.45
Rural	43.03	38.10	40.74	35.55
Totals, New Zealand	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

Some apparent anomalies where the numbers exclusive of Maoris exceed those inclusive of Maoris arise from the transfer of towns to other categories as a result of the different basis of population.

An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population, the more highly urbanized portion of the community is localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres (counting Wellington and Hutt as a single conurbation) have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country. An interesting feature is the wide gap which has long existed between the four major centres and the next largest towns.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island.

RECENT MOVEMENTS IN TOWNS AND COUNTIES: Urban Areas.—These are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. In addition to the central city or borough, they include neighbouring boroughs, town districts, and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population.

Urban areas were formed in 1917 and, except for two additions and one deletion, remained unaltered until 1951, when a revision of boundaries was made and the new areas used in the 1951 census. From census records and maps revised population figures were prepared on the basis of the new boundaries. In the case of European population the figures were revised for each census back to 1911, and on the basis of population including Maoris the revision was possible back to the 1926 census. The most significant change resulting from this revision was the division of the former Wellington Urban Area, plus additional areas to the north, into the two adjacent urban areas of Hutt and Wellington. The two areas in a sense form a single conurbation, and for some purposes it may still be convenient to use a combined figure. However, the extent and pattern of development in the Hutt Valley have been such as to establish it as a centre complementary to Wellington but no longer suburban to it. In Auckland the boundaries were extended considerably, but in most other cases it was found that little change was necessary.

Urban Area	Population (Including Maoris)				Population Increase 1945–51
Urban Area	1926	1936	1945	1951	Numerical	Percentage
Auckland	204,549	226,366	286,767	329,123	42,356	14.77
Hamilton	17,271	20,096	27,319	33,137	5,818	21.30
Gisborne	15,089	15,878	16,995	19,774	2,779	16.35
Napier	18,594	19,170	20,741	24,538	3,797	18.31
Hastings	14,612	17,920	20,306	23,797	3,491	17.19
New Plymouth	16,344	18,597	21,057	24,923	3,866	18.36
Wanganui	26,521	25,750	26,262	29,717	3,455	13.16
Palmerston North	20,107	24,372	27,820	32,908	5,088	18.29
Hutt.	25,327	37,295	55,786	74,878	19,092	34.22
Wellington	103,687	122,062	132,305	133,414	1,109	0.84
Nelson	11,746	13,493	16,523	20,497	3,974	24.05
Christchurch	118,708	133,515	151,068	174,221	23,153	15.33
Timaru	16,959	18,771	19,672	22,851	3,179	16.16
Dunedin	88,862	85,607	87,587	95,457	7,870	8.99
Invercargill	22,054	25,912	27,755	31,613	3,858	13.90
Totals	720,430	804,804	937,963	1,070,848	132,885	14.17

In the quarter-century covered by the table all urban areas, with two exceptions, have consistently recorded increases in population. Of these exceptions, one comprised a slight recession at Wanganui, 1926–36. The other was Dunedin, 1926–36, but there the recession arose from the inflation of the 1926 population by visitors to the exhibition then being held at Dunedin. In numbers, growth during the twenty-five years is led by Auckland; in rate, Hutt and Hamilton are outstanding.

The Wellington figure is partly explained by the substantial growth in the adjacent Hutt Urban Area. However, the increase for the two urban areas combined is 10.74 per cent, a rate exceeded by all urban areas except Dunedin.

Of particular interest is the marked increase in the Maori population in urban areas during the last twenty-five years. In Auckland the number of Maoris increased from 1,209 in 1926 to 7,621 in 1951. In the fifteen urban areas there were 3,457 Maoris in 1926, as compared with 16,010 in 1951.

The next table contains the population (Maoris included) of the fifteen urban areas as estimated for 1 April 1953. The component parts of the five largest centres of population are given in detail, while for the remaining ten areas totals only are quoted. In most of the ten cases the urban area comprises the central city or borough plus the urban portion of the adjoining county. At 1 April 1953 the five largest urban areas had a total population of 849,000, this being equivalent to 41.67 per cent of the New Zealand total. The total for urban areas at the same date was 1,128,100, or 55.37 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

Urban Area	Population (Including Maoris)	Urban Area	Population (Including Maoris)
Auckland		Wellington
Auckland City	131,400	Wellington City	126,500
Birkenhead Borough	5,070	Tawa Flat Town District	3,050
Northcote Borough	3,400	Remainder of urban area	8,050
Takapuna Borough	14,750
Devonport Borough	12,150	Total	137,600
Henderson Borough	2,270
Glen Eden Borough	3,020	Christchurch
New Lynn Borough	6,800	Christchurch City	126,600
Mt. Albert Borough	26,500	Riccarton Borough	8,380
Mt. Eden Borough	19,400	Lyttelton Borough	3,620
Mount Wellington Borough	8,370	Heathcote County	7,660
Newmarket Borough	2,630	Remainder of urban area	36,540
Ellerslie Borough	3,960
One Tree Hill Borough	12,900	Total	182,800
Mt. Roskill Borough	21,800
Howick Borough	2,630
Onehunga Borough	17,550	Dunedin
Otahuhu Borough	8,420	Dunedin City	71,100
Papatoetoe Borough	9,210	Port Chalmers Borough	3,110
Manurewa Borough	3,580	West Harbour Borough	2,020
Papakura Borough	3,870	St. Kilda Borough	7,430
Panmure Township Road District	660	Green Island Borough	3,710
Remainder of urban area	30,160	Mosgiel Borough	3,350
		Remainder of urban area	7,180
Total	350,500	Total	97,900
		Hamilton	35,500
		Gisborne	21,100
Hutt		Napier	26,100
Lower Hutt City	46,600	Hastings	25,300
Upper Hutt Borough	9,370	New Plymouth	26,600
Petone Borough	10,750	Wanganui	31,200
Eastbourne Borough	2,770	Palmerston North	35,000
Remainder of urban area	10,710	Nelson	21,600
		Timaru	24,000
Total	80,200	Invercargill	32,700

Counties.—The following table gives the estimated population (including Maoris) of individual counties at 1 April 1953, together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “Administrative Counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include town districts which form parts of counties.

North Island—
Mangonui	7,770	958
Whangaroa	2,460	240
Hokianga	7,900	613
Bay of Islands	12,290	824
Whangarei	14,250	1,044
Hobson	6,410	745
Otamatea	6,340	421
Rodney	5,890	477
Waitemata	31,500	607
Eden	1,720	1
Great Barrier Island	290	110
Manukau	17,200	239
Franklin	17,060	550
Raglan	11,350	930
Waikato	14,620	644
Waipa	15,180	445
Otorohanga	6,290	600
Kawhia	1,960	325
Waitomo	7,770	1,138
Taumarunui	3,760	878
Coromandel	2,700	444
Thames	3,090	414
Hauraki Plains	5,300	233
Ohinemuri	3,540	237
Piako	11,750	444
Matamata	15,000	994
Tauranga	15,900	721
Rotorua	10,600	1,040
Taupo	9,150	3,040
Whakatane	13,950	1,684
Opotiki	5,010	1,326
Matakaoa	1,970	295
Waiapu	6,220	793
Uawa	1,680	261
Waikohu	3,490	1,018
Cook	8,120	832
Wairoa	7,990	1,371
Hawke's Bay	17,600	1,671
Waipawa	3,710	524
Waipukurau	1,110	128
Patangata	3,130	651
Dannevirke	4,380	428
Woodville	1,830	156
Weber	330	118
Ohura	1,890	423
Whangamomona	780	447
Clifton	2,650	443
Taranaki	7,890	229
Inglewood	3,310	199
Egmont	4,970	239
Stratford	5,280	419
Eltham	3,680	207
Waimate West	2,840	83
Hawera	6,310	191
Patea	3,850	591
Kaitieke	3,640	550
Waimarino	2,500	829
Waitotara	3,640	468
Wanganui	3,850	460
Rangitikei	11,950	1,729
Kiwitea	2,350	359
Pohangina	1,340	259
Oroua	4,110	190
Manawatu	6,500	265
Kairanga	5,720	184
Horowhenua	9,060	544
Hutt	20,100	450
Makara	6,270	99
Pahiatua	2,740	286
Akitio	1,250	321
Castlepoint	610	230
Eketahuna	1,820	311
Mauriceville	550	115
Masterton	3,230	586
Wairarapa South	3,080	440
Featherston	4,130	952
Totals	491,450	43,710
South Island—
Sounds	940	507
Marlborough	8,020	1,896
Awatere	1,590	1,030
Kaikoura	3,190	906
Amuri	2,680	2,285
Cheviot	1,360	327
Waimea	16,050	1,537
Takaka	2,620	458
Collingwood	1,020	552
Buller	4,920	1,885
Murchison	1,410	1,372
Inangahua	3,470	942
Grey	5,230	1,579
Westland	4,580	4,410
Waipara	2,500	937
Kowai	1,960	157
Ashley	660	309
Rangiora	3,440	96
Eyre	1,750	175
Oxford	1,590	318
Tawera	740	941
Malvern	3,540	250
Paparua	9,860	136
Waimairi	29,200	48
Heathcote	7,660	19
Halswell	2,730	40
Mount Herbert	590	66
Akaroa	1,500	169
Chatham Islands	470	372
Wairewa	910	170
Springs	2,220	91
Ellesmere	2,870	230
Selwyn	1,610	954
Ashburton	10,500	2,459
Geraldine	5,150	691
Levels	4,410	262
Mackenzie	3,490	2,739
Waimate	6,040	1,383
Waitaki	10,500	2,392
Waihemo	1,160	338
Waikouaiti	3,610	316
Peninsula	4,040	40
Taieri	6,680	902
Bruce	3,860	520
Clutha	5,920	1,025
Tuapeka	7,600	1,388
Maniatoto	2,670	1,340
Vincent	4,240	2,922
Lake	1,700	3,872
Southland	25,610	3,724
Wallace	9,370	3,727
Fiord	20	3,035
Stewart Island	560	670
Totals	250,010	58,909
Grand totals	741,460	102,619

During the year ended 1 April 1953 twelve counties are estimated to have gained population to the extent of 500 or more persons. Of these Waitemata, Waimairi, and Hutt counties were estimated to have gained population to a greater extent than all other counties during the year.

The growth of population in such counties as Waitemata, Manukau, Hutt, Makara, and Waimairi is largely attributable to urban development in the areas bordering on the three largest centres of population—Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

Matamata County gained population as a result of development of the forest industry, particularly at Tokoroa, a township built to house the employees of the timber mills at Kinleith, 4½ miles away. Tauranga County population increased considerably during the year, especially in the area adjoining Tauranga Borough. In addition new timber mills have been commenced in this area. In Rotorua County also the forest industry was responsible for the substantial population gain.

Taupo and Tuapeka increased as a result of State hydro-electric development at Whakamaru and Roxburgh respectively.

In Whakatane County the development of the pulp and paper project has been largely responsible for the population increase. The gain in Rangitikei County population was mainly due to the increase in numbers at Waiouru. As a result of alterations to boundaries Waiouru military establishment (previously in Waimarino County) is now included in Rangitikei County.

Once again decreases in population were very few, in fact it was estimated that only two counties lost in excess of 100 persons during the period. In both cases reductions in numbers at military camps were responsible—Linton Camp in Kairanga County and Burnham camp in Malvern County were both extensively reduced in numbers.

Boroughs.—Similar information as in the case of counties is now given for boroughs.

Borough	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Acres
North Island—
Kaitaia	1,940	1,310
Kaikohe	1,740	1,342
Whangarei	12,800	3,507
Dargaville	2,950	2,800
Helensville	1,170	1,315
Birkenhead	5,070	3,084
Northcote	3,400	1,190
Takapuna	14,750	2,780
Devonport	12,150	1,100
Henderson	2,270	1,265
Glen Eden	3,020	1,244
New Lynn	6,800	1,393
Auckland (City)	131,400	18,253
Mount Albert	26,500	2,430
Mount Eden	19,400	1,476
Mount Wellington	8,370	3,770
Newmarket	2,630	182
Ellerslie	3,960	745
One Tree Hill	12,900	2,430
Mount Roskill	21,800	4,605
Howick	2,630	1,103
Onehunga	17,550	1,876
Otahuhu	8,420	1,345
Papatoetoe	9,210	1,587
Manurewa	3,580	1,960
Papakura	3,870	2,010
Pukekohe	4,060	3,470
Huntly	3,940	1,678
Ngaruawahia	2,290	1,112
Hamilton (City)	32,000	5,705
Cambridge	3,210	1,280
Te Awamutu	4,200	1,162
Te Kuiti	3,480	1,668
Taumarunui	3,320	1,925
Thames	4,760	2,712
Paeroa	2,680	1,419
Waihi	3,720	4,094
Te Aroha	2,760	2,783
Morrinsville	3,020	950
Matamata	2,480	934
Putaruru	2,160	975
Mount Maunganui	2,120	935
Tauranga	8,780	2,748
Te Puke	1,590	1,047
Rotorua	11,350	3,611
Whakatane	4,240	1,539
Opotiki	2,090	772
Gisborne	18,500	3,378
Wairoa	3,540	1,603
Napier (City)	20,800	2,477
Hastings	18,450	2,612
Havelock North	2,310	1,165
Waipawa	1,480	1,710
Waipukurau	2,630	971
Dannevirke	4,870	1,300
Woodville	1,300	1,054
Waitara	3,300	1,587
New Plymouth (City)	23,300	4,132
Inglewood	1,590	703
Opunake	1,150	676
Stratford	4,760	2,016
Eltham	2,030	1,599
Hawera	5,560	897
Patea	1,750	1,420
Ohakune	1,660	2,079
Raetihi	1,180	958
Wanganui (City)	28,700	5,726
Taihape	2,370	1,923
Marton	3,710	1,415
Feilding	6,260	2,031
Foxton	2,340	757
Palmerston N. (City)	32,900	6,943
Shannon	1,090	844
Levin	5,350	1,332
Otaki	2,790	1,390
Upper Hutt	9,370	2,165
Lower Hutt (City)	46,600	7,688
Petone	10,750	1,132
Eastbourne	2,770	1,546
Wellington (City)	126,500	17,798
Pahiatua	2,210	720
Eketahuna	730	948
Masterton	12,200	3,116
Carterton	2,320	1,265
Greytown	1,340	1,927
Featherston	1,140	759
Martinborough	980	1,070
Totals	871,110	203,453
South Island—
Picton	2,000	1,052
Blenheim	8,540	1,945
Nelson (City)	17,800	5,550
Richmond	2,220	2,600
Motueka	2,730	2,523
Westport	5,700	760
Runanga	1,830	1,186
Greymouth	9,090	2,594
Brunner	1,160	5,700
Kumara	480	842
Hokitika	3,060	674
Ross	470	3,800
Rangiora	2,920	877
Kaiapoi	2,450	786
Riccarton	8,380	728
Christchurch (City)	126,600	16,788
Lyttelton	3,620	2,560
Akaroa	580	233
Ashburton	8,580	1,860
Geraldine	1,590	745
Temuka	2,290	795
Timaru (City)	22,500	3,524
Waimate	3,060	771
Oamaru	8,450	1,385
Hampden	290	630
Palmerston	930	900
Waikouaiti	620	1,958
Port Chalmers	3,110	714
West Harbour	2,020	2,181
Dunedin (City)	71,100	13,536
St. Kilda	7,430	462
Green Island	3,710	878
Mosgiel	3,350	965
Milton	1,760	315
Kaitangata	1,240	1,280
Balclutha	2,680	1,000
Tapanui	450	129
Lawrence	650	615
Roxburgh	790	515
Naseby	200	112
Alexandra	1,530	815
Cromwell	860	806
Arrowtown	200	457
Queenstown	1,060	270
Gore	6,240	2,276
Mataura	1,750	1,272
Winton	1,160	505
Invercargill (City)	27,700	6,399
South Invercargill	1,330	2,257
Bluff	2,290	2,111
Riverton	1,060	718
Totals	391,610	104,354
Grand totals	1,262,720	307,807

During the year 1952–53 it was estimated that Auckland City, with a gain of 3,300 persons, had the highest numerical increase in population of all cities and boroughs. Mount Roskill with 1,700 increase was in second position, and Christchurch City third with an increase of 1,600. Five other cities and boroughs each gained in excess of 1,000. These were Lower Hutt City, Hamilton City, Wellington City, Palmerston North City, and Upper Hutt Borough.

Petone was estimated to have lost 200 persons, and was the only borough to suffer a population decrease. This was largely the result of the closing of Shandon Industrial Workers' Camp.

Town Districts.—As stated earlier, the population of independent town districts—i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts—section (b)—is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town District	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Acres	Town District	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Acres
* Parent county shown in parentheses
(a) Town Districts Not Forming Parts of Counties
North Island—
Hikurangi	930	960	Tawa Flat	3,050	797
Kamo	850	852
Warkworth	770	1,420	Totals	19,630	17,701
Waiuku	1,240	1,275	South Island—
Tuakau	1,140	1,265	Takaka	610	585
Leamington	990	1,330	Leeston	760	391
Otorohanga	1,650	560	Tinwald	890	1,525
Manunui	830	1,251	Pleasant Point	580	730
Taupo	1,800	2,290	Wyndham	590	680
Taradale	2,760	1,469	Lumsden	510	1,264
Ohura	520	815	Nightcaps	610	285
Manaia	680	510	Otautau	740	954
Waverley	800	484
Mangaweka	380	955	Totals	5,290	6,414
Hunterville	530	791
Bulls	710	677	Grand totals	24,920	24,115
(b) Town Districts Forming Parts of Counties^*
North Island—
Kohukohu (Hokianga)	230	1,020	Patutahi (Cook)	220	1,275
			Kaponga (Eltham)	450	558
Rawene (Hokianga)	480	280	Normanby (Hawera)	410	260
Russell (Bay of Islands)	620	1,066	Totals	6,540	10,995
Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)	670	280	South Island—Havelock (Marlborough)	290	210
Onerahi (Whangarei)	1,000	990
Mercer (Franklin)	310	1,000	Southbridge (Ellesmere)	390	531
Te Kauwhata (Waikato)	670	1,290
			Outram (Taieri)	360	886
Ohaupo (Waipa)	300	1,283	Edendale (Southland)	510	696
Kihikihi (Waipa)	480	523
Kawhia (Kawhia)	310	470	Totals	1,550	2,323
Te Karaka (Waikohu)	390	700
			Grand totals	8,090	13,318

Extra-county Islands and Migratory Population.—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include migratory population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 8,453 people at 1 April 1953.

Of the islands concerned, Waiheke, estimated at 2,000 for 1 April 1953, was the only one with a population of any size.

DENSITY OF POPULATION.—The relation of population to area, which is commonly referred to as “density of population,” is a subject of much interest and a source of serious misconceptions. Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon land-utilization or industrialization. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, while there are also large areas of water or of broken, swampy, or hilly country which is either incapable of effective use or which can be used profitably only for pastoral purposes, afforestation, or the like. No exact figures for the whole country are available, but it is known that only a moderate fraction of the total area of New Zealand is potentially arable.

There are no large areas of good land still to be brought into occupation and use, and most of the land remaining will require special methods or heavier capital expenditure to bring into use. Ultimately many such areas will be developed, and, in addition, improved methods and facilities will no doubt increase production from the land, but it seems unlikely that exceptional development may be expected in the near future.

While industrial development has made very marked growth in New Zealand over the years, and extensive further development appears certain, there are factors unfavourable to the growth of industry to a point where dense populations could be supported—not the least of which are weakness in mineral resources, relative smallness of the home market (even with an expanded population), and distance from export markets.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The North Island, with an area of 44,294 square miles, had a population density of 29.66 persons per square mile at the 1951 census date, and the South Island, with an area of 59,442 square miles, had a population density of 10.52 persons per square mile at the same date.

The following table provides comparative density figures on a provincial district basis.

Provincial District	Area, in Square Miles	Persons Per Square Mile
Provincial District	Area, in Square Miles	1901	1911	1921	1936	1951
Auckland	25,420	8.06	11.75	16.00	21.52	29.31
Hawke's Bay	4,260	9.30	12.46	14.94	18.07	21.41
Taranaki	3,750	10.79	14.44	17.40	20.71	23.17
Wellington	10,870	13.46	18.80	23.43	29.11	35.94
Marlborough	4,220	3.26	3.90	4.33	4.54	5.42
Nelson	10,870	3.50	4.48	4.39	5.47	6.23
Westland	4,880	2.98	3.24	2.92	3.83	3.72
Canterbury	13,940	10.34	12.52	14.34	16.81	20.09
Otago—
Otago portion	14,050	8.95	9.46	9.76	10.76	11.33
Southland portion	11,480	4.18	5.17	5.44	6.35	6.76
Totals	103,740	7.86	10.20	12.26	15.17	18.70

MAORI POPULATION.—The first official general census of Maoris was taken in 1857–58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy.

According to census records the Maori population suffered a period of almost unbroken decline from 1858 to 1896. The following causes no doubt contributed to this decline—internecine warfare of the tribes and the heavier casualties which resulted from the introduction of firearms; the susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and other diseases introduced with the white race; and the mental outlook of the Maori under the new conditions.

During the last fifty years, however, the Maori population has increased continuously, at first steadily and of later years at a fairly rapid rate. In fact, the vitality exhibited by the Maori race in recent years is a most outstanding feature. The rate of natural increase of the Maori population is now about double that of the European.

A statement of Maori population is now given for each census from 1901 to 1951.

Year	Maori Population	Intercensal Increase	Intercensal Increase	Average Annual Increase
* Includes members of Armed Forces overseas at census date.
		Number	Per Cent	Per Cent
1901	45,549	3,436	8.2	1.6
1906	50,309	4,760	10.5	2.0
1911	52,723	2,414	4.8	1.0
1916	52,997	274	0.5	0.1
1921	56,987	3,990	7.5	1.6
1926	63,670	6,683	11.7	2.2
1936	82,326	18,656	29.3	2.6
1945	98,744	16,418	19.9	1.9
1945^*	100,044	17,718	21.5	2.1
1951	115,676	16,932	17.1	2.9
1951^*	115,740	15,696	15.7	2.7

The average annual percentage increase from 1945 to 1951 was 2.89, which is considerably higher than the corresponding figure for the European population—viz., 2.34 per cent. Movements of troops have tended to invalidate this comparison; the natural increase ratios for the year 1952 shown below afford a better illustration.

	European	Maori
Birth rate	24.77	45.41
Death rate	9.28	12.34
Natural-increase rate	15.49	33.07

Of the 115,676 Maoris at the 1951 census, 111,512 were in the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk of the Maoris, particularly in the Auckland Peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. In the South Island Maoris do not attain any numerical significance. Maoris have always been residents in rural communities and this is still substantially true. A marked change is, however, taking place which probably acquired impetus during the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 census only 8,249 Maoris (10.02 per cent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1951 census the comparative figure was 22,726 (19.65 per cent). The largest concentration is in Auckland Urban Area, where 7,621 Maoris were enumerated.

The records of the 1945 and 1951 censuses permit of a statement of the total numbers wholly or partly of Maori blood.

Counted in the Maori population—

	1945	1951
Full Maori	61,440	76,918
Maori-Europeans—
Three-quarter caste	18,956	15,201
Half-caste	18,348	23,183
Maori-other Polynesian		374
Totals	98,744	115,676

Counted in the population other than Maori—

	1945	1951
Maori-European quarter-caste	16,902	18,421
Maori-Polynesian	263
Maori-Japanese	20	16
Maori-Chinese	198	369
Maori-Indian	134	220
Maori-Syrian	57	42
Maori-Lebanese		31
Maori-American Indian		28
Maori-Negro	19	11
Maori-Filipino	8	10
Maori-West Indian	11	13
Maori-Melanesian	10	33
Totals	17,650	19,166

In 1951 there were recorded in New Zealand some 134,842 persons wholly or partly of Maori origin, compared with 116,394 in 1945.

STATISTICS OF THE 1951 CENSUS.—The tabulation and analysis of the population census taken for the night of 17 April 1951 is still proceeding, and the following volumes of census results have been published:

Volume I—Increase and Location of Population.
Volume II—Ages and Marital Status.
Volume III—Religious Professions, etc.
Appendix A—Census of Poultry.
New Zealand Life Tables, 1950–52.
Interim Returns of Population and Dwellings.

Some of the data to be covered by further volumes of census results are available, and certain summaries are given in the following pages; others will be found in the appropriate sections of this volume—e.g., Building, Construction, and Housing; Incomes and Income Tax; Employment and Unemployment, etc. The figures are subject to revision, but it is improbable that any major changes will be necessary.

It should be noted that Maoris are included in all tables, except where otherwise stated. When making comparisons with the figures for the census of 25 September 1945 allowance should be made for the fact that both censuses exclude members of the New Zealand Forces who were overseas at the respective census dates. The number absent overseas in 1945 was 45,381 (44,715 males and 666 females), and in 1951, 1,894 (1,891 males and 3 females). The 1945 census figures also exclude 250 members of the United States of America Forces and 803 enemy prisoners of war in New Zealand. On the other hand, refugees and internees were included in the enumeration.

AGES.—The age distribution of the population as disclosed at the censuses of 1945 and 1951 is now given.

Age Group (Years)	1945 Census			1951 Census
Age Group (Years)	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Under 5	90,992	87,533	178,525	119,443	114,989	234,432
5–9	74,930	72,993	147,923	92,746	88,951	181,697
10–14	67,630	64,573	132,203	78,381	76,111	154,492
15–19	70,007	68,531	138,538	66,931	63,583	130,514
20–24	50,223	70,718	120,941	71,716	68,957	140,673
25–29	54,788	68,278	123,066	74,220	72,234	146,454
30–34	61,043	67,299	128,342	67,165	69,233	136,398
35–39	61,324	62,465	123,789	69,294	69,149	138,443
40–44	55,339	53,892	109,231	65,241	62,407	127,648
45–49	49,334	50,108	99,442	57,490	54,119	111,609
50–54	41,808	45,065	86,873	48,370	48,763	97,133
55–59	42,740	42,765	85,505	39,400	42,989	82,389
60–64	39,846	39,175	79,021	38,121	40,390	78,511
65–69	32,514	32,923	65,437	34,225	36,270	70,495
70–74	20,282	20,616	40,898	25,979	27,931	53,910
75–79	11,750	12,832	24,582	14,650	16,276	30,926
80–84	5,010	5,929	10,939	6,905	8,321	15,226
85–89	1,844	2,297	4,141	2,245	3,083	5,328
90–94	424	582	1,006	506	788	1,294
95–99	76	110	186	88	153	241
100 and over	7	23	30	15	24	39
Not specified—Adults	858	598	1,456	794	731	1,525
Minors	108	116	224	43	52	95
Totals	832,877	869,421	1,702,298	973,968	965,504	1,939,472

The percentage of age distribution for the last two censuses is now given.

Age Group (Years)	1945	1951	Age Group (Years)	1945	1951
	Per Cent	Per Cent		Per Cent	Per Cent
Under 5	10.50	12.10	50.54	5.11	5.01
5–9	8.70	9.38	55.59	5.03	4.25
10–14	7.77	7.97	60.64	4.65	4.05
15–19	8.15	6.73	65.69	3.85	3.64
20–24.	7.11	7.26	70.74	2.40	2.78
25–29	7.24	7.56	75.79	1.44	1.60
30–34	7.55	7.04	80.84	0.64	0.79
35–39	7.28	7.14	85.89	0.24	0.27
40–44	6.42	6.59	90 and over	007	0.08
45–49	5.85	5.76	Totals	100.00	100.00

The exclusion of members of the Armed Forces overseas affects the comparison in the above tables, particularly in regard to certain age groups. In the following summary, however, the absent members have been included in order to give a better picture of the changes in the age constitution of the population. All of these have been included in the age group 15 and under 65 years.

Age Group (Years)	1945 Census		1951 Census		Increase 1945–51
Age Group (Years)	Numbers	Per Cent	Numbers	Per Cent	Numbers	Per Cent
NOTE.—Minus sign (—) denotes a decrease.
Under 15	458,651	26.27	570,621	29.42	111,970	24.41
15 and under 65	1,140,129	65.30	1,191,666	61.43	51,537	4.52
65 and over	147,219	8.43	177,459	9.15	30,240	20.54
Not specified	1,680		1,620		−60
Totals	1,747,679	100.00	1,941,366	100.00	193,687	11.08

The outstanding points emerging from this table are the large increases in the numbers of children under 15 years, and of persons aged 65 or over, and the comparatively little change in the group 15 and under 65 years. The increase in children is mainly due to the high birth rate in the post-war years, while the gradual ageing of the population has been in evidence over a long period. The group 15 and under 65 years, which includes most of the working population, is, of course, affected by deaths in two World Wars.

MARITAL STATUS.—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the census of 1951 is summarized in the following tables. The status is that existing at the census date—i.e., a person who had been widowed or divorced, but had remarried before the census, is counted as married.

Age Group (Years)	Never Married	Married	Legally Separated	Widowed	Divorced	Not Specified	Total
Males
16–19	53,042	365	1	1	3	75	53,487
20	13,497	695	6	1	2	31	14,232
21–24.	42,830	14,358	130	28	46	92	57,484
25–29	27,288	45,774	617	134	326	81	74,220
30–34	12,638	52,901	705	271	592	58	67,165
35–39	9,472	57,681	775	428	879	59	69,294
40–44	7,129	55,550	820	731	966	45	65,241
45–49	5,994	48,628	802	1,049	974	43	57,490
50–54	5,080	40,150	613	1,590	869	68	48,370
55–59	4,107	32,072	508	1,997	666	50	39,400
60–64	4,003	29,819	462	3,144	629	64	38,121
65–69	3,679	25,032	534	4,426	496	58	34,225
70–74	3,014	17,267	386	4,927	338	47	25,979
75–79	1,734	8,300	190	4,226	156	44	14,650
80–84	800	3,242	85	2,695	64	19	6,905
85–89	224	838	19	1,132	24	8	2,245
90 and over	68	163	3	371		4	609
Not specified, adults	102	256	7	27	9	393	794
Totals 1951	194,701	433,091	6,663	27,178	7,039	1,239	669,911
Totals 1945	181,083	366,114	4,805	26,297	5,948	914	585,161
Females
16–19	47,547	3,134	32	7	3	49	50,772
20	10,169	3,690	47	9	10	10	13,935
21–24	23,772	30,555	459	69	117	50	55,022
25–29	13,653	56,720	903	336	577	45	72,234
30–34	8,564	58,035	914	807	877	36	69,233
35–39	7,561	58,104	1,024	1,373	1,049	38	69,149
40–44	7,066	51,269	897	2,042	1,104	29	62,407
45–49	6,380	42,805	780	3,089	1,018	47	54,119
50–54	5,764	36,531	682	4,873	881	32	48,763
55–59	5,317	29,479	577	6,854	729	33	42,989
60–64	5,039	24,129	548	9,971	646	57	40,390
65–69	4,636	18,490	486	12,136	472	50	36,270
70–74	3,677	11,288	280	12,381	257	48	27,931
75–79	2,389	4,587	111	9,042	112	35	16,276
80–84	1,089	1,507	42	5,646	22	15	8,321
85–89	396	337	7	2,330	10	3	3,083
90 and over	99	82	2	777	1	4	965
Not specified, adults	81	434	12	93	6	105	731
Totals 1951	153,199	431,176	7,803	71,835	7,891	686	672,590
Totals 1945	174,781	378,854	6,003	64,292	6,392	183	630,505

The proportional distribution of the adult population—i.e., those aged 21 years and over—is given in the following summary.

Marital Status	Males		Females
Marital Status	1945	1951	1945	1951
Per Cent
Never married	21.98	21.32	19.75	15.72
Married	70.84	71.88	66.61	69.88
Legally separated	0.93	1.11	1.06	1.27
Widowed	5.10	4.52	11.44	11.83
Divorced	1.15	1.17	1.14	1.30
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

The return of many single men who were overseas in 1945 would tend to obscure movement in the proportions of males as between the censuses. It is evident, however, that the high post-war marriage rates have increased the proportion of married men, but not to the same extent as is observed for females.

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS.—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the last census, with comparative figures for 1945 being given also.

Religious Profession	Adherents
Religious Profession	1945	1951
Church of England	634,364	726,626
Presbyterian	376,602	446,333
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)	230,819	264,555
Methodist	137,755	156,077
Baptist	27,533	31,518
Brethren	18,868	21,398
Ratana	17,945	17,414
Protestant (undefined)	12,122	14,432
Salvation Army	13,300	13,607
Church of Christ	11,406	11,937
Latter Day Saints	7,798	10,008
Congregational	6,416	6,824
Seventh Day Adventist	5,084	6,159
Ringatu	5,244	4,970
Christian (undefined)	3,780	4,853
Christian Scientist	4,827	4,586
Freethinker	3,109	3,774
Hebrew	3,470	3,661
Lutheran	2,145	3,309
Undenominational Christian	1,692	2,726
Rationalist.	2,887	2,088
Agnostic	1,547	2,083
Jehovah's Witness	650	1,756
Atheist	1,657	1,746
Missions	2,982	1,610
Christadelphian	1,367	1,484
Undenominational	1,530	1,382
Hindu	661	1,089
Eastern Orthodox Catholic	595	1,007
Apostolic	707	756
Spiritualist	763	717
Commonwealth Covenant Church	835	659
Society of Friends	546	593
Confucian	638	523
Pentecostal	443	477
Assemblies of God	362	475
Unitarian	417	456
Nonconformist	396	403
Theosophist	409	383
Liberal Catholic	334	328
Uncertain	341	322
Hau Hau	662	307
No religion (so returned)	11,313	11,475
All other religious professions	3,247	4,538
Object to state	133,431	137,597
Not specified	9,299	10,451
Totals	1,702,298	1,939,472

The category recorded as “Object to state” represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. It is very likely that the “not specified” group may also include a number of persons objecting to the question.

The proportional distribution according to number of adherents is as shown below.

Religious Profession	Percentage of Total Population
Religious Profession	1945	1951
Church of England	37.27	37.47
Presbyterian	22.12	23.01
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)	13.56	13.64
Methodist	8.09	8.05
Baptist	1.62	1.63
Brethren	1.11	1.10
Ratana	1.05	0.90
Protestant (undefined)	0.71	0.74
Salvation Army	0.78	0.70
Church of Christ	0.67	0.62
Latter Day Saints	0.46	0.52
No religion (so returned)	0.66	0.59
Object to state	7.84	7.09
All others (including “not specified”)	4.06	3.94
Totals	100.00	100.00

BIRTHPLACES.—The distribution of the population in 1951 according to place of birth is now presented, with the 1945 figures being incorporated for comparative purposes. The nomenclature used in regard to countries of birth refers to status and territories in the census year and not necessarily to the present position.

Birthplace	Census
Birthplace	1945	1951
Commonwealth of Nations with Protected States, Protectorates, Trust Territories, and Condominia—
New Zealand	1,456,067	1,672,962
England	114,508	125,957
Wales	3,911	4,433
Scotland	43,818	44,089
Northern Ireland	9,024	8,817
United Kingdom or Great Britain, n.o.d.	219	155
Isle of Man	362	331
Channel Islands	622	563
Union of South Africa	1,223	1,398
Republic of India	2,096	3,838
Canada (including Newfoundland)	1,760	2,091
Australia	36,789	35,828
Cook Islands	393	999
Niue Island	222	330
Western Samoa	592	1,336
Fiji	1,173	1,702
Tonga	433	608
Other Pacific Islands within Commonwealth	243	351
All other countries within Commonwealth	915	1,355
Total, Commonwealth Countries	1,674,370	1,907,143
Other Countries—
Republic of Ireland	7,249	6,423
Ireland undefined	2,342	1,932
Norway	508	516
Sweden	478	389
Denmark	1,039	1,191
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	348	506
Latvia	65	423
Poland	1,307	2,003
Germany	1,297	1,427
Netherlands	128	1,655
France	303	324
Switzerland	599	678
Italy	840	1,058
Czechoslovakia	166	357
Austria	342	454
Yugoslavia	3,090	2,901
Greece	260	369
China	3,150	3,264
United States of America	1,079	1,713
All other countries outside Commonwealth	1,720	3,068
Total other countries	26,310	30,651
Born at sea	570	410
Not specified	1,048	1,268
Grand totals	1,702,298	1,939,472

The heavy post-war immigration is reflected in a number of instances in the above table, particularly in regard to several foreign countries. The arrival of assisted immigrants from Netherlands is mainly responsible for the large increase shown for that country, while several thousand “displaced persons” arrived from other European countries.

DURATION OF RESIDENCE OF OVERSEAS-BORN.—Persons born elsewhere than in New Zealand are now classified by their duration of residence in this country.

Duration of Residence (Years)	Census
Duration of Residence (Years)	1945	1951
0–4	7,922	52,185
5–9	14,145	8,620
10–14	5,743	11,759
15–19	25,989	4,960
20–24	43,565	19,862
25–29	19,711	40,141
30–34	35,684	24,613
35–39	30,901	26,372
40–44	18,473	29,735
45–49	6,934	15,621
50–54	6,567	7,288
55–59	4,057	4,239
60–64	7,160	3,329
65–69	6,486	4,126
70–74	6,884	4,311
75–79	1,015	3,830
80–84	1,209	593
85–89	212	374
90 and over	45	86
Not specified	3,529	4,466
Totals	246,231	266,510

The curtailment of migration during the war years and the recovery following the cessation of hostilities is shown in the figures quoted above for persons with less than 5 years' residence in New Zealand.

In making comparisons between the two censuses it should be noted that the intercensal period was 5½ years, and in addition the figures are affected by troop movements. This appears to be the reason for the large increase from the 19,711 in the 25–29 group in 1945 to 24,613 in the 30–34 group in 1951.

RACIAL ORIGINS.—The racial origins of the population are shown in three main divisions together with comparative figures for the 1945 census. While it is not possible to complete an accurate ethnological survey from census data, the information obtained is of considerable value.

Race	Census
Race	1945	1951
* Included with Polynesian. NOTE.—F.B. signifies “full blood,” M.B. “mixed blood,” the second race being European.
European—
European	1,575,974	1,791,020
European-Maori quarter-caste	16,902	18,421
Totals, European	1,592,876	1,809,441
Maori—
Full Maori	61,440	76,918
Three-quarter caste	18,348	15,201
Half-caste	18,956	23,183
Maori-other Polynesian	^*	374
Totals, Maori	98,744	115,676
Race alien—
Negro—F.B.	17	19
M.B.	85	59
Lebanese—F.B.		828
M.B.	F.B. 901	383
Syrian—F.B.	M.B. 438	109
M.B.		197
Lebanese-Maori	57	31
Syrian-Maori		42
Arab—F.B.	1	44
Indian—F.B.	1,116	1,784
M.B.	299	407
Indian-Maori	134	220
Burmese—F.B.	1	7
M.B.	11	84
Chinese—F.B.	4,373	4,832
M.B.	361	420
Chinese-Polynesian	8	99
Chinese-Maori	198	369
West Indian—F.B.	11	24
M.B.	45	44
Melanesian—
Fijian—F.B.	20	40
M.B.	164	237
Other—F.B.	6	9
M.B.	18	39
Melanesian-Maori	10	33
Polynesian—
Cook Island Maori (including Niuean)—F.B.	387	934
M.B.	192	425
Other or undefined—F.B.	170	750
M.B.	1,410	1,515
Polynesian-Melanesian		46
Other race aliens—F.B.	72	107
M.B.	173	218
Totals, race aliens	10,678	14,355
Grand totals	1,702,298	1,939,472

The increase in Maoris of full-blood was at a substantially higher rate than that of Maori-Europeans; in fact, the three-quarter caste Maoris returned a decrease during the intercensal period. It does not seem likely that the decrease is a real one and it is possible that a change in enumeration technique may be partly responsible. Prior to 1951 a special Maori household schedule was used in the North Island and all persons in a Maori dwelling were enumerated on the one schedule. In 1951 Maoris were enumerated on the same schedules as Europeans and a separate personal schedule was used for each occupant in a dwelling on census night.

The relative rates of increase between 1945 and 1951 for the three groups were—Europeans, 13.6 per cent; Maoris, 17.1 per cent; and race aliens, 34.4 per cent. The substantial increases in Indians and Polynesians (other than Maori) result mainly from immigration.

DEPENDENT CHILDREN.—The term “dependent children” in these statistics covers all living children under the age of sixteen years irrespective of financial dependency between parent and child. In a few instances children under sixteen were not financially dependent on their parents, while in other cases children may be partly or wholly supported by their own efforts; generally, however, the great bulk of children under sixteen years are dependent on their parents.

Number of Dependent Children Under 16 Years	1945 (Excluding Maoris)			1951 (Including Maoris)
Number of Dependent Children Under 16 Years	Married Men	Widowers	Widows	Married Men	Widowers	Widows
Nil	164,563	21,764	55,228	186,712	24,417	65,541
1	71,082	1,425	3,616	83,217	1,301	3,182
2	58,223	622	1,704	79,155	705	1,526
3	32,303	343	744	45,222	315	707
4	14,543	151	286	21,118	220	369
5	6,085	79	106	9,130	98	197
6	2,628	37	52	4,080	52	80
7	1,083	14	32	1,974	19	74
8	484	9	9	1,076	10	18
9 or over	372	3	9	818	7	15
Not specified	425	36	101	589	34	126
Totals	351,791	24,483	61,887	433,091	27,178	71,835

In the following summary, showing the average number of dependent children, the figures quoted for 1951 are under two headings—viz., exclusive of Maoris and inclusive of Maoris—figures for Maoris were not available for 1945. The exclusion of Maoris results in decreases in all cases of the average numbers of children.

—	1945		1951
—	Excluding Maoris	Excluding Maoris	Including Maoris
Average Number of Dependent Children
Married men—
Per person	1.15	1.24	1.30
Per person with dependent children	2.16	2.22	2.29
Widowers—
Per person	0.21	0.16	0.21
Per person with dependent children	1.91	1.93	2.06
Widows—
Per person	0.19	0.14	0.17
Per person with dependent children	1.77	1.83	1.96

OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE.—The compilation of statistics regarding war service was restricted to service in uniform with the Armed Forces overseas from the place of enlistment. It included Navy, Army, and Air Force service, but not Merchant Navy, and only service with a Commonwealth Force in the First and Second World Wars and the South African War was counted. Of the 209,784 persons with overseas war service, 205,178 saw service in one war only, 4,535 had service in two wars, while 71 claimed service in the three wars.

OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE: NUMBERS

Wars	Males	Females	Total
Overseas service—
Only in World War II	134,323	4,110	138,433
Only in World War I	62,973	1,300	64,273
Only in South African War	2,447	25	2,472
In World War II and World War I	3,282	49	3,331
In World War I and South African War	1,130	8	1,138
In World War II and South African War	65	1	66
In World War II, World War I, and South African War	70	1	71
Totals with overseas war service, 1951 census	204,290	5,494	209,784
Totals with overseas war service, 1945 census	157,744	2,840	160,584

The figures quoted for both censuses are exclusive of the members of the New Zealand Armed Forces overseas at the respective dates.

OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE: WARS AND FORCES WITH WHICH SERVED

Forces with Which Served	World War II		World War I		South African War
Forces with Which Served	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females
NOTE.—In this table where persons served in more than one war, they are shown for each war in which they served.
New Zealand Forces	125,154	1,858	52,617	576	2,083	18
Australian Forces	1,075	120	1,224	39	226	1
United Kingdom Forces and Indian Forces	11,015	2,100	13,262	735	1,244	15
Canadian Forces	282	30	284	5	23
Other Commonwealth Forces	214	53	68	3	136	1
Totals	137,740	4,161	67,455	1,358	3,712	35

Chapter 4. SECTION 4—VITAL STATISTICS

Table of Contents

4 E—TOTAL POPULATION, INCLUDING MAORIS

4 F—MORBIDITY

4 A—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION.—The law as to registration of births is embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within two months without fee. After two months and within six months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration of the particulars required to be registered has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of the prescribed fee. A birth may be registered after six months only upon the direction of the Registrar-General, who may authorize registration in any case within two years after the date of birth. An information for neglect to register must be laid within two years of date of birth. In cases of neglect or refusal to give the Registrar information in respect of any birth the Registrar-General may at any time within two years after the birth of the child authorize some person to give the Registrar the information required to enable him to register the birth, and to sign as informant the entry in the register, upon which the Registrar shall register the birth.

Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, power is given by the Act for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed. Satisfactory evidence on oath, and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary, are required. This provision does not, however, relieve any person from liability to prosecution for failure to register in the proper manner.

Although two months are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval. The occupier of any premises in which a child is born is to give notice to the Registrar according to the best of the knowledge and belief of the occupier of the fact of the birth, the date on which it occurred, the name and address of the mother or father of the child, and of such other particulars as the Registrar-General may require. Any such notice is to be in writing, signed by the occupier and endorsed by some other person, if any, in attendance at the confinement, and is to be delivered or posted to the Registrar within forty-eight hours after the birth if in a borough, or seven days in any other case. Births are to be registered by the Registrar whose office is nearest to the place of birth.

Particulars required to be registered are: date and place of birth; name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage; and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The father of an ex-nuptial child is not required to give information, nor is his name entered in the register unless at the joint request of the mother and himself, or unless he subsequently marries the mother. A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of eighteen months may be registered within six months of arrival. The Registrar-General may authorize registration of such a child who is over eighteen months but under three years of age. Additional information required on notification of birth—but not registration—includes (a) weight of child at birth, and (b) period of gestation of mother. These particulars are required for statistical purposes.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year irrespective of the year of birth. The figures do not include still-births, except in the special classification on page 65 and in a table on page 60.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The general long-term history of the birth rate in New Zealand has been downward. A reference to the diagram on page 58 and to the table on page 56, showing quinquennial average birth rates, indicates this trend very clearly. After the pioneering days of the nineteenth century, when the population consisted very largely of young immigrants faced with the raising of a family, the birth rate began to decline appreciably. A further migration wave at the turn of the century reversed the trend temporarily, but in 1909 the downward movement was again resumed. With minor fluctuations in the earlier stages and in the years influenced by the First World War this decline continued until 1936. In that year a slight upward movement began, and by 1940 some of the deficit had been made up by the gradual rise. This was accelerated during the Second World War (with minor fluctuations) until successive record high totals (as regards the numbers of births) were established in 1945–47. In 1948 a decline in births was shown with a further recession in 1949. The decreases were not large, and in 1950–52 increases were again in evidence with the 46,469 births registered in 1952 as the highest recorded in the history of New Zealand. The numbers and rates of births (children born alive) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1933	24,334	16.63
1934	24,322	16.51
1935	23,965	16.17
1936	24,837	16.64
1937	26,014	17.29
1938	27,249	17.93
1939	28,833	18.73
1940	32,771	21.19
1941	35,100	22.81
1942	33,574	21.73
1943	30,311	19.70
1944	33,599	21.59
1945	37,007	23.22
1946	41,871	25.26
1947	44,816	26.47
1948	44,193	25.59
1949	43,988	24.98
1950	44,309	24.67
1951	44,651	24.39
1952	46,469	24.77

Much of the movement in the birth rate during recent years has been allied to movement in the marriage rate. As may be expected, the movement in the birth rate reflects the tendency for couples to marry and have children in prosperous years rather than in years of depression.

Comparisons of birth rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the “crude” rates—i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The “crude” rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of interest to supplement the table of “crude” rates with a computation of the legitimate birth rate per 1,000 married women of 15 and under 45 years of age, or the total birth rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand for each census from 1881 to 1951 together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Year	Birth Rate Per 1,000 Women 15 and Under 45 Years		Crude Birth Rate
Year	Legitimate^*	Total	Crude Birth Rate
* Per 1,000 married women.
1881	315.0	194.8	37.95
1886	298.2	163.7	33.15
1891	279.2	139.2	29.01
1896	254.6	117.6	26.33
1901	246.2	111.7	26.34
1906	235.3	114.1	27.08
1911	211.7	109.5	25.97
1916	193.6	106.7	25.94
1921	181.6	99.0	23.38
1926	166.9	90.9	21.06
1936	136.6	72.2	16.64
1945	166.5	99.8	23.22
1951	172.8	116.9	24.39

The legitimate rate per 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 fell steadily at each census date from 1881 to 1936, the figure registered in the latter year being equal to a decline of 57 per cent. Considerable improvement was, however, effected in 1945, with a further improvement in 1951, but the latter rate shows a fall of 43 per cent on the 1881 figure. The rate on the basis of all women between the ages of 15 and 45 exhibited a greater fall, the 1936 figure being 63 per cent lower, but again substantial improvement was shown in 1945 and 1951, the latter rate being equivalent to a decrease of 40 per cent. The greater fall in the rate for all women is due to the fact that the proportion of married women in the child-bearing ages is now smaller than in former years.

Although the “crude” birth rates have fluctuated more so than the refined rates, the decline has not been so great, the 1951 figure being equal to a fall of 36 per cent on the 1881 rate.

A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth rate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

NATURAL INCREASE.—The decline of the birth rate in New Zealand has been accompanied until recent years by a decrease in the death rate. Nevertheless, the nominal rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 29.32 per 1,000 of mean population in 1880 to 15.49 in 1952. Acceptance of this figure without consideration of the effect of the changing age constitution will give an erroneous view of the present margin of increase and of the probable trend of population growth in the future.

The last eleven years have seen considerable movement in the rate of natural increase, the exceptionally low figure in 1943 being the result of a low birth rate due to war conditions. The increase in births coupled with a decrease in deaths resulted in increases each year to 1947 when the natural increase rate rose to 1708. Since then the rate declined each year to 1951 on account of decreases in the birth rate, and for the three years 1949–51 owing to increases in the death rate. An increase in the birth-rate in 1952 together with a decrease in the death rate has resulted in the highest natural increase since 1949. The average annual rate of natural increase for the quinquennium 1946–50 was 1606, and it is necessary to go back to 1911–15 to find a higher average annual rate, the figure for that period being 16.76.

Year	Numbers			Rate Per 1,000 Mean Population
Year	Births	Deaths	Natural Increase	Births	Deaths	Natural Increase
1942	33,574	16,385	17,189	21.73	10.60	11.13
1943	30,311	15,447	14,864	19.70	10.04	9.66
1944	33,599	15,363	18,236	21.59	9.87	11.72
1945	37,007	16,051	20,956	23.22	10.07	13.15
1946	41,871	16,093	25,778	25.26	9.71	15.55
1947	44,816	15,904	28,912	26.47	9.39	17.08
1948	44,193	15,812	28,381	25.59	9.16	16.43
1949	43,988	16,012	27,976	24.98	9.09	15.89
1950	44,309	16,715	27,594	24.67	9.31	15.36
1951	44,651	17,512	27,139	24.39	9.56	14.83
1952	46,469	17,413	29,056	24.77	9.28	15.49

The natural increase rate provides a useful guide to population increase and a further method is that of the net reproduction index, which is based on female children born and probably surviving. Details of gross and net reproduction rates for recent years will be found in Section 3 of this issue.

The movements that have taken place since 1880 are well illustrated in the accompanying diagram, which shows the rates at annual intervals, although only every tenth year is labelled.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates is made in the following table. New Zealand's position is much higher on the basis of natural increase than it is on that of the birth rats. The rates, which are the average of the five years 1948–52, are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

Country	Rates Per 1,000 of Population
Country	Births	Natural Increase
Costa Rica	47.2	34.9
Mexico	44.7	28.1
Ceylon	39.5	27.1
Puerto Rico	38.4	28.0
Chile	33.7	17.6
Israel	30.7	24.1
Japan	29.3	18.6
Yugoslavia	29.1	15.9
Canada	27.3	18.3
Union of South Africa	25.8	17.0
India	25.2	9.8
Portugal	25.2	12.5
Argentina	25.1	16.1
New Zealand	24.9	15.6
Finland	24.8	14.4
United States of America	24.1	14.4
Netherlands	23.3	15.7
Australia	23.1	13.5
Republic of Ireland	21.6	8.8
Spain	21.2	10.2
France	20.2	7.3
Italy	19.6	9.4
Norway	19.3	10.6
Denmark	18.7	9.8
Switzerland	181	7.7
Sweden	16.7	6.8
United Kingdom	16.6	4.9
Austria	15.8	3.4

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.—With the exception of one year (1860), there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860), but little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. It is a popular idea that the proportion of male births tends to increase considerably in war years, but the experience in this country does little to bear out this theory, the average over the six years 1940–45 being 1,057, as against that of 1,050 for the preceding ten years. Figures taken out some years ago prove that the masculinity rate for first births is distinctly higher than for subsequent births. As the first-birth rate tends to rise during war years, and actually reached a very high peak during the early part of Second World War, the total masculinity rate would also be affected and would give rise to the popular idea that wars result in an increase in the proportion of male children born. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923. Rates for the last five years are given below.

Year	Number of Births of		Male Births Per 1,000 Female Births
Year	Males	Females	Male Births Per 1,000 Female Births
1948	22,617	21,576	1,048
1949	22,733	21,255	1,070
1950	22,677	21,632	1,048
1951	23,068	21,583	1,069
1952	23,814	22,655	1,051

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (living births only) during the last five years are shown in the following table.

Year	Total Births	Total Cases	Cases of Twins	Cases of Triplets	Multiple Cases Per 1,000 of Total Cases
* Includes one case where triplets would have been recorded had not one child been still-born. † Includes one case of quadruplets.
1948	44,193	43,667	522	2	12.00
1949	43,988	43,450	533^*	3	12.34
1950	44,309	43,756	540	6^†	12.48
1951	44,651	44,125	510^*	8	11.74
1952	46,469	45,893	570^*	3	12.49

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 569 cases of twin births registered in 1952. There were also three cases of triplets and one case where one of triplets was still-born.

The total number of confinements resulting in living births was 45,893, and on the average one mother in every 80 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

When still-births are taken into account, the total number of confinements for the year 1952 is increased to 46,683, and the number of cases of multiple births to 628. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 73.

The incidence of multiple births has not varied greatly in recent years, as may be seen from the following summary.

Year	Cases of Twins				Cases of Triplets					Total Multiple Cases	Rate Per 1,000 Confinements
Year	Both Born Alive	One Born Alive, One Still-born	Both Still-born	Total	All Born Alive	One Born Alive, Two Still-born	Two Born Alive, One Still-born	All Still-born	Total	Total Multiple Cases	Rate Per 1,000 Confinements
* Includes one case of quadruplets.
1948	522	30	7	559	2				2	561	12.6
1949	532	43	9	584	3		1		4	588	13.3
1950	540	46	12	598	6^*			1	7	605	13.6
1951	509	40	10	559	8		1		9	568	12.7
1952	569	47	8	624	3		1		4	628	13.7
Average of five years	534	41	9	585	4				5	590	13.2

The proportion of multiple births has been consistently high during recent years, while the rate of 14.2 experienced in 1944 was a record figure. The number of cases of triplets recorded in 1951 was exceptional.

The likelihood of still-births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still-born.

Year	Still-birth Cases Per 100 of Total Cases (Including Still-births)
Year	Single Cases	Multiple Cases
1948	1.80	6.60
1949	1.68	8.86
1950	1.81	9.75
1951	1.68	8.98
1952	1.70	8.92
Average of five years	1.75	8.62

During the five years 1948–52 there were 2,672 cases of live twin births (including ex-nuptial), and of these in 865 instances, or 32.4 per cent, both children were males; in 847, or 31.7 per cent, both were females; and in the remaining 960, or 35.9 per cent, the children were of opposite sexes.

The three cases of triplets in 1952 comprised one of three females, one of one male and two females, and one of two males and one female.

AGES OF PARENTS.—Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1952 is shown in the following tables.

Age of Mother, in Years	Age of Father, in Years
Age of Mother, in Years	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Under 50	50 and Under 55	55 and Under 65	65 and Over	Total Cases
* Including 45 legitimate cases where twins would have been registered had not one child been still-born. † Including 9 cases of triplets and 1 case where one of triplets was still-born.
Single Births
Under 21	259	1,352	856	142	32	13	8				2,662
21 and under 25	99	2,952	5,343	1,631	388	111	18	11	4	1	10,558
25 and under 30	6	681	6,333	5,108	1,705	406	94	30	11		14,374
30 and under 35	1	60	986	3,903	3,030	1,021	283	77	38	11	9,410
35 and under 40		4	89	582	2,011	1,445	460	140	64	11	4,806
40 and under 45		2	7	43	227	550	314	130	58	13	1,344
45 and over					9	21	42	26	12		110
Totals	365	5,051	13,614	11,4091	7,402	3,567	1,219	414	187	36	43,264^*
Multiple Births
Under 21	3	4	5	1							13
21 and under 25	1	20	49	22	5						97
25 and under 30		5	79	65	17	4	2				172
30 and under 35			22	62	51	15		1			151
35 and under 40				10	37	30	17	1	4		99
40 and under 45					4	6	1	2	3		16
45 and over						1					1
Totals	4	29	155	160	114	56	20	4	7		549
Grand totals	369	5,080	13,769	11,569	7,516	3,623	1,239	418	194	36	43,813^†

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.—Information as to the previous issue of the existing marriage, required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the annual Report on Vital Statistics containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in conjunction with (1) age of mother and (2) duration of marriage. The table under the first heading for the year 1952 is here summarized.

Age of Mother, in Years	Number of Previous Issue									Total Legitimate Cases
Age of Mother, in Years	0	1	2	3	4	5	6 and Under 10	10 and Under 15	15 and Over	Total Legitimate Cases
* This number represents 43,264 single cases and 549 multiple cases.
Under 21	1,998	578	88	11						2,675
21 and under 25	5,586	3,459	1,230	288	80	11	1			10,655
25 and under 30	3,903	5,090	3,483	1,372	466	144	88			14,546
30 and under 35	1,488	2,432	2,676	1,567	746	335	301	16		9,561
35 and under 40	598	864	1,104	904	627	344	405	58	1	4,905
40 and under 45	144	169	251	216	177	139	213	45	6	1,360
45 and over	6	11	17	18	15	12	24	8		111
Totals	13,723	12,603	8,849	4,376	2,111	985	1,032	127	7	43,813^*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue, but also for children covered by the 1952 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

Age of Mother, in Years	Total Mothers	Total Issue	Average Issue
Under 21	2,675	3,462	1.29
21–24	10,655	17,820	1.67
25–29	14,546	33,868	2.33
30–34	9,561	28,874	3.02
35–39	4,905	18,335	3.74
40–44	1,360	6,194	4.55
45 and over	111	589	5.31
Totals	43,813	109,142	2.49

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1952) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years were as follows: 1948, 2.40; 1949, 2.42; 1950, 2.45; and 1951, 2.46. In 1915, the earliest year for which reliable comparative figures are available, the average issue was 3.11. This fall in the average issue of women giving birth to children is some indication of the tendency towards smaller families. The 1943 average, for the first time since these figures were compiled, reversed the trend, and a further increase was recorded in 1944, but with the increase in the proportion of first births in the three following years the average declined. A slight improvement has been noted for the years 1948–52, this being accounted for by decreases in the proportion of first births.

FIRST BIRTHS.—Of a total of 254,396 confinements resulting in legitimate births during the six years 1947–52, the issue of no fewer than 87,089, or 34 per cent, were first-born children. In 35,586, or 41 per cent, of these cases the birth occurred within twelve months, and in 64,289, or 74 per cent, within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 26 per cent of cases where there was any issue to the marriage two years or more had elapsed before the birth of the first child.

The annual number of first births registered naturally follows closely the movement in the marriage rate. With the return of men from service overseas there came a heavy increase in the number of marriages, and correspondingly the proportion of first births rose steeply to 4003 per cent in 1947, a rate very little below the record figure of 41.69 per cent established in 1940. Since 1947, however, a downward tendency has been evident. An interesting feature of the birth statistics for 1947 and 1948 was the high proportion of first births occurring within two years after marriage—75.62 per cent of all legitimate first cases recorded in 1947 and 75.44 per cent in 1948 falling in this class. These are the highest figures recorded since 1929. The steady decline in the marriage rate since the post-war peak figure of 1946 has been accompanied by a marked downward movement in the actual proportion of first births to total births.

Year	Total Legitimate Cases	Total Legitimate First Cases	Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases	First Cases Within One Year After Marriage		First Cases Within Two Years After Marriage
Year	Total Legitimate Cases	Total Legitimate First Cases	Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases	Number	Proportion to Total First Cases	Number	Proportion to Total First Cases
			Per Cent		Per Cent		Per Cent
1947	42,566	17,039	40.03	7,293	42.80	12,885	75.62
1948	42,005	15,164	36.10	6.244	41.18	11,440	75.44
1949	41,796	14,087	33.70	5,659	40.17	10,269	72.90
1950	42,006	13,629	32.45	5,419	39.76	9,964	73.12
1951	42,210	13,447	31.86	5,424	40.34	9,830	73.10
1952	43,813	13,723	31.32	5,547	40.42	9,881	72.00
Totals for six years	254,396	87,089	34.23	35,586	40.86	64,269	73.82

The period of time elapsing before the birth of the first child has varied considerably during recent years mainly as a result of war and post-war influences. The following table compares the 1952 figures with those for earlier years, and illustrates the movement in the duration-of-marriage factor in first births.

Duration of Marriage, in Years	Proportion Per Cent of Total First Births
Duration of Marriage, in Years	1914	1924	1934	1944	1952
Under 1 year	52.95	50.06	46.25	38.47	40.42
1 and under 2 years	28.62	26.64	26.79	26.30	31.58
2 and under 3 years	9.02	10.43	10.24	11.28	12.85
3 and under 4 years	3.43	5.51	6.16	7.88	5.92
4 and under 5 years	1.88	3.03	3.96	7.18	3.54
5 and under 10 years	3.26	3.36	5.49	7.36	4.58
10 years and over	0.84	0.97	1.11	1.53	1.11
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

For the years covered by the foregoing table the average duration of marriage before the birth of the first child was—1914, 1.63 years; 1924, 1.76 years; 1934, 1.85 years; 1944, 2.22 years; and 1952, 1.81 years.

An item of interest extracted from the birth statistics is a table of first births occurring to mothers in different age groups, expressed as a proportion per cent of the total first births. A comparison has also been computed on this basis for the years 1914, 1924, 1934, 1944, and 1952.

FIRST BIRTHS, BY AGE OF MOTHER

Age of Mother, in Years	First Births, Proportion Per Cent at Each Age Group to Total First Births
Age of Mother, in Years	1914	1924	1934	1944	1952
Under 20	6.73	7.55	8.90	7.33	7.94
20 and under 25	35.89	38.16	40.39	41.79	47.32
25 and under 30	35.01	32.59	32.79	29.54	28.44
30 and under 35	15.61	14.68	13.10	14.61	10.84
35 and under 40	5.52	5.33	3.79	5.36	4.36
40 and under 45	1.16	1.59	0.99	1.34	1.05
45 and over	0.08	010	0.04	0.03	0.05
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

The figures of average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child are as follows for the above years: 1914, 26.55; 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; and 1952, 25.48.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS.—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the years 1942–52, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, were as follows.

Year	Number	Percentage of Total Births
1942	1,339	3.99
1943	1,467	4.84
1944	2,020	6.01
1945	1,824	4.93
1946	1,824	4.36
1947	1,727	3.85
1948	1,686	3.82
1949	1,671	3.80
1950	1,768	3.99
1951	1,935	4.33
1952	2,104	4.53

War influences, resulting in unusual movements of the population and the influx of servicemen to the more heavily populated centres, no doubt are responsible for the high percentages recorded during 1943–46.

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census year from 1911 to 1951 are as follows.

Census Year	Unmarried Women 15 and Under 45 Years of Age	Ex-nuptial Births	Ex-nuptial Birth Rate Per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911	120,778	1,078	8.93
1916	125,461	1,159	9.24
1921	136,539	1,258	9.21
1926	148,551	1,473	9.92
1936	167,781	1,126	6.71
1945	156,326	1,824	11.67
1951	130.343	1.935	14.85

Included in the total of 2,104 ex-nuptial births in 1952 were twenty-four cases of twins, and two cases where one of twins was still-born, the number of confinements being thus 2,080. From the following table it will be seen that of the 2,080 mothers 664, or 32 per cent, were under twenty-one years of age.

Age	Cases
14	5
15	22
16	48
17	97
18	146
19	164
20	182
21	162
22	152
23	133
24	115
25–29	450
30–34	234
35–39	131
40–44	38
45 and over	1
Total	2,080

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1930 directed the omission of the word “illegitimate” from the register when the birth of an ex-nuptial child is registered. The word “illegitimate” appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

The Legitimation Act.—Important changes were made by the Legitimation Act of 1939, which repealed previous legislation on the subject. This Act stipulates that every ex-nuptial person whose parents have intermarried, whether before or after the passing of the Act, shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration was required to be made within six months after the date of the passing of the Act in cases where the marriage took place prior to that date. In cases where the marriage has taken place subsequent to the passing of the Act, application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

Where the Registrar-General has reason to believe that any person has been legitimated under the terms of the Act, and no application for registration has been made within the prescribed time, he may require the responsible parents or parent to make an application within a specified period of not less than seven days after receiving notice to do so. Any failure to comply with the notice requiring application for registration within the time specified renders the person or persons responsible liable on summary conviction to a fine of £5. If no application for registration is made within the appropriate time specified in the Act or in the notice received from the Registrar-General, application for registration of the particulars of the birth of any legitimated person may be made by that person, or by one of his parents, or by any other person.

The number of legitimations registered in each of the last five years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are shown in the following table.

Year	Number of Children Legitimated
Year	Previously Registered	Not Previously Registered	Total
1948	518	3	521
1949	411	2	413
1950	401		401
1951	394		394
1952	415		415
Totals from 1894 to 1952	11,726	3,294	15,020

ADOPTIONS.—The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Registrar of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. An entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being given in lieu of those of the natural parents. If the child's birth has previously been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on the original entry. An amendment to the Infants Act in 1939 extended the age at which a child might be legally adopted from under fifteen years to under twenty-one years.

The adoption of a Maori child is required to be registered in the same manner as that of a European child unless the adoption order is made under the Maori Affairs-Act 1953.

The following table shows the number of adoptions (exclusive of Maori children) which have been registered during the last five years.

Year	Number
Year	Males	Females	Total
1948	698	664	1,362
1949	654	595	1,249
1950	629	626	1,255
1951	696	709	1,405
1952	690	740	1,430

Of the 1,430 adoptions registered in 1952, 797 were children under the age of one year, 247 were between one and five years, 189 were between five and ten years, and 197 were aged ten years or over. In addition, 186 Maori children (99 males and 87 females) were adopted in 1952.

Statistics of adoptions registered have been available in New Zealand since 1919, and these indicate that the numbers are considerably influenced by the economic condition of the country, the lowest total, 329, being recorded in 1931. The highest total prior to 1940 occurred in 1921, when 584 adoptions were registered, this, no doubt, being the result of influences operating after the First World War. Possibly various factors arising out of the Second World War have had a bearing on the high totals for recent years, but the extension of age at which a child might legally be adopted is also of importance in this connection. It should also be noted that the unprecedented totals since 1944 are associated with the high number of ex-nuptial births occurring in these years.

STILL-BIRTHS.—The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from 1 March 1913. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Section 15 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1946, amending the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1924, stipulated, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still-birth. Particulars of causes of still-births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of European still-births during each of the years 1948–52 were as follows.

Year	Females	Totals	Male Still-births Per 1,000 Female Still-births	Percentage of Still-births to—
Year	Females	Totals	Male Still-births Per 1,000 Female Still-births	Living Births	All Births
1948	483	351	834	1,376	1.89	1.85
1949	449	347	796	1,294	1.81	1.78
1950	489	376	865	1,301	1.95	1.92
1951	449	355	804	1,265	1.80	1.77
1952	442	404	846	1,094	1.82	1.79

Masculinity is in general much higher among still-births than among living births, the rate for still-births in 1952 being 1,094 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,051 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptials among still-born infants was in 1952, 6.41, and among infants born alive, 2.42.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1952, 31 per cent were first births, while of legitimate still-births 37 per cent were first births. Statistics over many years indicate that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring to mothers having their first confinement than to those having subsequent confinements. In addition to the 846 European still-births in 1952, there were 110 Maori still-births registered, comprising 57 males and 53 females.

FOETAL DEATHS.—Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates that in the case of a foetal death where the child has issued from its mother after the twentieth week, and up to and including the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy, a medical practitioner or a midwife who was in attendance at the confinement shall sign and supply a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the foetal death, and such other particulars as may be required by the Registrar-General. This requirement came into force as from 1 April 1952. A foetal death is not required to be registered as in the case of a still-born child.

4 B—MARRIAGES

MARRIAGE may be celebrated in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister may be celebrated only between 8 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the even; ??. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be celebrated. In the case of a person under twenty-one years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of Infants Act 1926 sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section 8 provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If in any particular case a declaration is made that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in New Zealand, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) fourteen days after the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has operated in New Zealand since 1855. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages celebrated, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether the marriage has taken place.

Marriage is forbidden between persons within certain degrees of relationship, any such marriage being declared void. The prohibition applies whether the relationship is by the whole blood or by the half-blood, and whether the relationship is nuptial or ex-nuptial. The present law on this matter is contained in the Marriage Amendment Act 1946.

An amendment to the Marriage Act in 1939, which repealed a similar provision passed in 1933, stipulates that a Registrar may not issue a certificate of marriage where either of the intending parties is under sixteen years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to have been unduly solemnized, however, by reason only of this provision. The 1933 amendment made provision enabling women to become officiating ministers for the purposes of the Marriage Act. The 1946 amending Act provides for the validity of Service—i.e., Armed Forces overseas—marriages.

The Maori Purposes Act 1951 stipulates that after 1 April 1952 every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be celebrated in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a European; and all the provisions of the Marriage Act 1908 shall apply accordingly.

As a result of this legislative change marriage statistics for the year 1952 are inclusive of Maoris and Maori marriage figures as a separate feature have lapsed. Figures quoted in this subsection for years prior to 1952 are all exclusive of Maoris.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The movement of the marriage rate over a lengthy period of time may be observed from the statistical summary appearing towards the end of this Year-Book. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Population	Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Population
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1933	10,510	7.18	1943	11,579	7.53
1934	11,256	7.64	1944	13,125	8.43
1935	12,187	8.23	1945	16,160	10.14
1936	13,808	9.25	1946	20,535	12.39
1937	14,364	9.55	1947	18,525	10.94
1938	15,328	10.09	1948	17,192	9.96
1939	17,115	11.12	1949	16,785	9.53
1940	17,448	11.28	1950	16,504	9.19
1941	13,313	8.65	1951	16,359	8.93
1942	12,219	7.91	1952	17,061^*	8.55^*

Both the marriage rate and the number of marriages in 1946 were the highest on record. The main reason for this was the return from overseas of many thousands of men in the most prolific marriage age groups. An appreciable decline, however, in both the number of marriages and in the marriage rate took place in 1947 and 1948 and continued until 1951. Although separate figures for European marriages are not available for 1952, the total of all marriages showed a small increase on the 1951 figure.

Comparison with Other Countries.—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1952 are given below (these particulars have been taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, issued by the Statistical Office of the United Nations).

Country	Rates Per 1,000 Mean Population	Country	Rates Per 1,000 Mean Population
Israel	11.1	Chile	8.1
Yugoslavia	10.5	Argentina	8.0
United States of America	10.0	Portugal	7.8
Canada	8.8	Switzerland	7.8
Australia	8.6	Spain	7.7
New Zealand	8.6	Sweden	7.4
Netherlands	8.4	France	7.3
Austria	8.3	Italy	7.0
Denmark	8.2	Ceylon	6.6
Norway	8.2	Mexico	6.2
Puerto Rico	8.2	Republic of Ireland	5.3

MARITAL STATUS.—The total number of persons married during the year 1952 was 34,122, of whom 29,867 were single, 1,750 widowed, and 2,505 divorced. The figures for the five years 1948 to 1952, showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following.

Year	Single		Widowed		Divorced		Total Persons Married
Year	Bridegroom	Bride	Bridegroom	Bride	Bridegroom	Bride	Total Persons Married
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1948	14,799	14,920	897	832	1,496	1,440	34,384
1949	14,480	14,584	870	781	1,435	1,420	33,570
1950	14,280	14,452	894	776	1,330	1,276	33,008
1951	14,244	14,371	854	731	1,261	1,257	32,718
1952^*	14,927	14,940	911	839	1,223	1,282	34,122

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table.

Year	Bridegrooms			Brides
Year	Single	Widowed	Divorced	Single	Widowed	Divorced
* Inclusive of Maoris.
	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent
1948	86.08	5.22	8.70	86.78	4.84	8.38
1949	86.27	5.18	8.55	86.89	4.65	8.46
1950	86.52	5.42	8.06	87.57	4.70	7.73
1951	87.07	5.22	7.71	87.85	4.47	7.68
1952^*	87.49	5.34	7.17	87.57	4.92	7.51

Reference to the divorce statistics at the end of this subsection will show that the number of divorces since and including the later war-years has been at a high level, although there has been a steady decline since 1946. The number of decrees absolute in the period 1948–52 was 8,644, as compared with 4,907 in the five years 1936–40, an increase of 76 per cent. The increase in the number of divorced people remarrying is therefore not surprising. The number of widowed persons remarrying, which was 39 per 1,000 in 1940, rose to 51 per 1,000 in 1952.

The relative marital status of bridegrooms and brides for each of the five years 1948 to 1952 is next given.

Year	Marriages Between Bachelors and			Marriages Between Widowers and			Marriages Between Divorced Men and
Year	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1948	13,582	390	827	434	279	184	904	163	429
1949	13,336	327	817	385	302	183	863	152	420
1950	13,271	285	724	378	330	186	803	161	366
1951	13,260	288	696	364	306	184	747	137	377
1952^*	13,875	316	736	378	367	166	687	156	380

The relative proportions of divorced men and divorced women remarrying during the last three years has changed but little compared with ten years earlier. During the three years 1938–40 the number of male divorcees remarrying was 2,066, as compared with 2,169 females, which gives a rate of 95 males for every 100 females. In 1950–52 the respective numbers were 3,814 males and 3,815 females, and the corresponding rate 100 males for every 100 females. In the case of widowed persons remarrying, however, there has been a marked change in the figures. In the three-year period 1938–40, 2,420 widowers remarried but only 1,619 widows, whereas in 1950–52, there were 2,659 widowers and 2,346 widows who remarried, the number of widowers per 100 widows being 149 in the former period and 113 in the latter period.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.—Of the 34,122 persons married in 1952, 5,162, or 15 per cent, were under twenty-one years of age; 12,591, or 37 per cent, were returned as twenty-one and under twenty-five; 8,194, or 24 per cent, as twenty-five and under thirty; 4,673, or 14 per cent, as thirty and under forty; and 3,502, or 10 per cent, as forty years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1952.

Age of Bridegroom, in Years	Age of Bride, in Years							Total Bridegrooms
Age of Bridegroom, in Years	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Over	Total Bridegrooms
Under 21	639	213	19	3				874
21 and under 25	2,379	3,081	481	60	8	1	1	6,011
25 and under 30	1,038	2,505	1,382	294	54	8	7	5,288
30 and under 35	171	553	605	345	137	37	12	1,860
35 and under 40	43	147	271	227	171	67	32	958
40 and under 45	12	55	104	140	131	112	61	615
45 and over	6	26	44	112	173	237	857	1,455
Total brides	4,288	6,580	2,906	1,181	674	462	970	17,061

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of persons marrying at the various age periods. To illustrate the extent to which these figures have varied a table is given showing since 1920 the proportions of men and women married at each age period to every 100 marriages.

Period	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Over	Totals
Males
1920–24	3.13	24.66	32.21	17.73	10.24	5.43	6.60	100.00
1925–29	3.49	28.04	34.49	14.33	7.70	4.48	7.47	100.00
1930–34	3.46	27.28	37.02	15.14	6.10	3.61	7.39	100.00
1935–39	2.68	25.91	38.26	16.46	6.75	3.22	6.72	100.00
1948–52	4.41	34.03	31.06	12.02	6.60	3.87	8.01	100.00
Females
1920–24	15.99	35.47	26.21	10.66	5.53	2.98	3.16	100.00
1925–29	18.61	37.88	23.67	8.93	4.65	2.82	3.44	100.00
1930–34	18.67	38.51	24.79	8.22	3.85	2.40	3.56	100.00
1935–39	17.10	38.26	26.30	8.86	3.91	2.02	3.55	100.00
1948–52	23.63	38.90	18.07	7.40	4.43	2.66	4.91	100.00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are now being celebrated at the younger and, to a lesser extent, at the older age groups. This has become very marked in the 1948–52 period, and is mainly due to the fact that the outbreak of war induced a number of earlier marriages which has resulted in fewer unmarried people entering the middle-age groups.

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, in recent years there has been very little change, the year to year fluctuations being within very narrow limits. The figures for each of the years 1945–52 are as follows.

Year	Bridegrooms	Brides
* Inclusive of Maoris.
	(Years)	(Years)
1945	30.52	26.75
1946	29.73	26.18
1947	29.71	26.11
1948	29.96	26.32
1949	29.89	26.30
1950	29.67	26.14
1951	29.42	25.96
1952	29.52^*	26.19^*

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the last five years according to marital status were as shown below.

Year	Bridegrooms			Brides
Year	Bachelors	Divorced	Widowers	Spinsters	Divorced	Widows
* Inclusive of Maoris.
	Years	Years	Years	Years	Years	Years
1948	27.55	39.60	53.63	24.42	35.41	44.63
1949	27.42	39.89	52.82	24.31	35.42	45.46
1950	27.15	40.06	54.46	24.19	35.59	46.90
1951	26.95	40.77	53.93	23.97	36.19	47.05
1952^*	26.98	41.00	55.60	24.08	35.98	48.83

The foregoing figures give the average ages at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides (21) has remained unchanged for very many years, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for recent years it has been 23 or 24.

Marriages of Minors.—Of every 1,000 men married in 1952, 52 were under twenty-one years of age, while 251 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 639 marriages in 1952 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 3,649 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 235 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last five years. In the latest year (1952) one bride in every four was under twenty-one years of age, the proportion for grooms being one in twenty.

Year	Age, in Years					Totals
Year	16	17	18	19	20	Number	Rate Per 100 Marriages
* Inclusive of Maoris.
Bridegrooms
1948	2	14	57	205	412	690	4.01
1949		26	68	168	412	674	4.02
1950	2	9	74	195	421	701	4.25
1951	3	13	63	222	457	758	4.63
1952^*	2	26	103	254	489	874	518
Brides
1948	102	326	699	1,163	1,485	3,775	21.95
1949	111	303	744	1,141	1,456	3,755	22.37
1950	100	301	777	1,274	1,513	3,965	24.02
1951	115	316	727	1,236	1,646	4,040	24.70
1952^*	158	384	884	1,300	1,562	4,288	25.13

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES.—Of the 17,061 marriages registered in 1952, Church of England clergymen officiated at 4,334, Presbyterians at 4,428, Roman Catholics at 2,257, and Methodists at 1,453, while 3,384 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the years 1946–52.

Church	Percentage of Marriages
Church	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952^*
* Inclusive of Maoris.
Presbyterian	28.35	28.26	28.86	28.07	28.31	27.91	25.95
Church of England	27.68	26.53	26.55	25.80	25.95	25.83	25.40
Roman Catholic	11.85	12.25	11.81	12.17	11.93	12.67	13.23
Methodist	9.78	9.58	9.25	9.19	9.32	8.53	8.52
Others	5.74	5.18	5.50	5.78	5.65	5.51	7.06
Before Registrars	16.60	18.20	18.03	18.99	18.84	19.55	19.84
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population (inclusive of Maoris) at the general census of 1951, 37.8 per cent were recorded as adherents of the Church of England, 24.3 percent Presbyterian, 13.6 percent Roman Catholic, 8.1 per cent Methodist, and 16.2 per cent of other religions or of no religion, or who objected to state their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was (January 1953) 2,731, and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

Church	Number
Roman Catholic Church	580
Church of England	506
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand	451
Methodist Church of New Zealand	327
Salvation Army	151
Ratana Church of New Zealand	149
Baptist	113
Seventh Day Adventist	52
Latter Day Saints	45
Ringatu Church.	44
Brethren	39
Associated Churches of Christ	34
Congregational Independent	30
Commonwealth Covenant Church	26
Assemblies of God	18
Jehovah's Witness	16
Apostolic Church	15
Liberal Catholic Church	14
Evangelistic Church of Christ	10
United Maori Mission	10
Churches of Christ	8
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference	8
Pentecostal Church of New Zealand	8
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi	7
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand	7
Absolute Maori Established Church	5
Hebrew Congregations	5
Others	53
Total	2,731

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the Absolute Maori Established Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organizations.

DIVORCE.—The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928 (which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject) and its later amendments.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation is given in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book; the present position is outlined in the following résumé.

Any married person domiciled in New Zealand (for two or more years in the case of restitution and separation, grounds (i), (j), (k), (l) below) at the time of filing the petition may obtain a divorce on one or more of the following grounds:

Adultery since the celebration of the marriage.
Wilful and continuous desertion for three years or more.
Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, or self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.
Since the celebration of the marriage the respondent has been convicted of attempting to commit the murder of the petitioner or any child (of any age) of the petitioner or respondent, or has been convicted of any offence under section one hundred and ninety-seven of the Crimes Act 1908 against the petitioner or any such child.
Respondent has since the celebration of the marriage been convicted of murder.
Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.
Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years immediately preceding the petition.
Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for the five years immediately preceding the petition.
Failure for three years or more to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights.
Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in full force for not less than three years.
Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years. (An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act—which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders—and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.)
Parties are living apart, are unlikely to be reconciled, and have been living apart for not less than seven years.
Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

In cases based on separation of the parties, whether by order or agreement or otherwise, the Court is bound to dismiss the petition if the respondent opposes it and the Court is satisfied that the separation was due to the wrongful act or conduct of the petitioner; and in all those cases, as well as in cases where the ground is failure to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights, the Court has in any event a discretion whether or not to grant a decree.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928, as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds (j), (k), and (l), her New Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the date of the agreement, decree, order, or commencement of separation.

The amending Act of 1953 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband if she has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

Until the passing of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act 1953 there were no statutory provisions as to nullity of marriage. This Act embodies the common law on the subject, with several additions to the grounds on which a marriage is voidable, and some changes.

The basis of the Court's jurisdiction in nullity is established as the domicile of either petitioner or respondent in New Zealand at the time of the filing of the petition, or the celebration of the marriage in New Zealand.

A petition for a nullity decree may be presented in respect of either a void, or a voidable marriage, the former being those which are invalid and of no effect whether or not a decree is obtained, and the latter those which are valid unless and until a decree is obtained.

Marriages are void in the following cases:

Where at the time of the ceremony either party to the marriage was already married.
Where, whether by reason of duress or mistake or insanity or otherwise, there was at the time of the marriage an absence of consent by either party to marriage to the other party.
Where the parties are within the prohibited degrees of relationship as set out in the Marriage Amendment Act 1946.
Where the marriage was not solemnized in due form.

Marriages are voidable on the following grounds:

Incapacity or wilful refusal of the respondent to consummate the marriage.
Mental deficiency of either party within the meaning of the Mental Defectives Act 1911 although that party was capable of consenting to the marriage.
Venereal disease (of the respondent) in a communicable form.
Pregnancy of the respondent by some person other than the petitioner.

In cases (b), (c), and (d) the facts alleged must have existed at the time of the marriage and proceedings must be instituted within a year of the marriage. The Court must be satisfied—

That the petitioner was at the time of the marriage ignorant of the facts;
That marital intercourse with the petitioner's consent has not taken place since the discovery of the existence of the grounds for a decree.

The Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Act 1947 made special provisions, in respect of war marriages (i.e., a marriage celebrated on or after 3 September 1939 but before 1 June 1950) where one of the parties was domiciled outside New Zealand by: (1) extension of jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to certain marriages irrespective of domicile; (2) recognition of decrees and orders (in relation to such marriages) made in the United States of America; and (3) shortening the period of desertion or separation as ground for divorce in such cases from three years to twelve months.

By authority of the Act, previous legislation on the subject embodied in the Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Emergency Regulations 1946 was revoked, accrued rights being protected.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during recent years are as follows. About 50 per cent of the decrees granted in any year relate to petitions filed in prior years.

Year	Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage			Judicial Separation		Restitution of Conjugal Rights
Year	Petitions Filed	Decrees Nisi	Decrees Absolute	Petitions Filed	Decrees for Separation	Petitions Filed	Decrees for Restitution
1942	1,177	988	962	5	3	142	94
1943	1,641	1,398	1,100	4	1	302	227
1944	1,992	1,821	1,630	7	2	499	421
1945	2,211	1,915	1,725	11	2	550	461
1946	2,363	2,137	2,133	10	6	562	463
1947	2,191	2,051	2.117	7	1	430	371
1948	2,160	1,974	1,853	20	7	355	300
1949	2,001	1,824	1,892	15	1	331	262
1950	1,912	1,707	1,633	11	4	304	217
1951	1,882	1,666	1,582	11	7	263	210
1952	1,960	1,727	1,684	15	8	296	204

The later years of the war witnessed a marked increase in divorce. The high level of decrees absolute granted in 1945 was exceeded by approximately 400 in each of the two succeeding years. However, a slight falling off, for the first time in six years, was recorded in 1947 and continued in 1948. A small increase was shown in 1949, after which the decrease continued in 1950 and 1951, being quite substantial in the former year. In 1952, however, there was an increase over 1951 of 102, or 6.4 per cent.

It is worth noting that there was one divorce for every ten marriages solemnized in 1952, while the ratio in 1951 was one divorce to every eleven marriages.

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petitions and decrees during 1951 and 1952.

Grounds	Petitions Filed				Decrees Absolute Granted
	Husbands' Petitions		Wives' Petitions		Husbands' Petitions		Wives' Petitions
	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952
Adultery	218	277	138	153	163	183	112	102
Bigamy	1	3	5	2		2	3	3
Desertion	153	165	166	173	125	143	131	136
Drunkenness with cruelty, failure to maintain, etc.	2	2	8	5	1		4	1
Insanity	9	15	4	4	6	10	6	6
Consanguinity				1			1
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights	158	136	51	49	147	134	59	45
Separation for not less than three years	411	415	548	555	344	386	472	527
Non-consummation	6	2	3	3	1	1	4	5
Murder of children			1				1
Totals	958	1,015	924	945	789	859	793	825

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. It should be mentioned here, and a glance at the line “non-compliance, etc.” in the table above will show, that the number of decrees absolute granted can, and often do, number more than the petitions filed. The reason for this is that all decrees granted are not necessarily from petitions filed in a particular year. The petition may have been filed in one year but the case not heard until the succeeding year.

Mention should be made here of the fact that over a period of five years, 1948–52 inclusive, the average percentage of decrees absolute granted on wives' petitions was greater than those granted to husbands. The figures are—wives 89.2 per cent, husbands 85.3 per cent.

The principal grounds on which petitions were filed during 1952 showed the following increases compared with 1938, a normal pre-war year: adultery, 227 (111.8 per cent); desertion, 126 (59.4 per cent); non-compliance with restitution order, 76 (69.7 per cent); and separation, 335 (52.8 per cent).

In 627 of the 1,960 cases where petitions for dissolution were filed during 1952 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 558 cases, 2 in 378 cases, 3 in 207 cases, 4 or more in 186 cases, while the number of issue was not stated in four cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions for dissolution were filed in the five years 1948 to 1952.

Duration of Marriage, in Years	Husbands' Petitions					Wives' Petitions
Duration of Marriage, in Years	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Under 5	197	204	191	192	168	169	137	141	147	139
5 and under 10	308	334	296	263	312	340	282	255	279	301
10 and under 15	243	198	212	203	222	243	217	202	203	196
15 and under 20	126	128	121	104	126	133	114	128	112	133
20 and under 30	162	148	139	142	128	141	127	121	134	134
30 and over	56	55	55	48	56	34	36	43	47	40
Not stated	7	11	3	6	3	1	10	5	2	2
Totals	1,099	1,078	1,017	958	1,015	1,061	923	895	924	945

The number of children affected by the divorce petitions of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1948, 3,108; 1949, 2,885; 1950, 2,682; 1951, 2,784; and 1952, 2,858.

4 C—DEATHS

REGISTRATION.—The law as to registration of deaths is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. Particulars required in the registration of a death include date, place of residence and domicile, name, occupation, sex, age, cause of death, birthplace, duration of residence in New Zealand, whether cremated or not, marital status, living issue of married persons, race (European or Maori), medical attendant by whom certified, particulars as to burial, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the burial. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the funeral director in charge of the burial being solely responsible for registration. When an inquest is held the Coroner becomes responsible for registration, the time allowed being three days after the conclusion of the inquest. The Coroner may, in writing, authorize an agent to attend to registration on his behalf. Registrations must not be effected before the conclusion of the inquest.

Where the Coroner decides not to hold an inquest the funeral director is responsible for registration of the death.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The principal Act stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the stillbirth.

New provisions in the 1951 Act include prohibition of burial at sea of a person dying in New Zealand except upon the authority of a Coroner, and provide for the registration of the death of a person whose body is removed for anatomical examination under Part II of the Medical Act 1908, or is removed for burial outside New Zealand.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, or a Coroner's order to bury the body, renders himself liable to a fine of £50.

From 1 April 1952 (reverting to the system followed prior to 1937) it is incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the funeral director in charge of the burial). During the intervening period the medical practitioner was required to deliver the certificate direct to the Registrar. The practitioner is required to report forthwith to the Coroner any case where, in his opinion, the death has occurred in any circumstances of suspicion.

The Act provides for the correction of errors (clerical, of fact, of substance, or of omission) in the register in the manner authorized by the Registrar-General.

Deaths of Members of the Forces while Overseas.—The Registration of Deaths Emergency Regulations 1941, which superseded 1940 regulations of similar title, required the Registrar-General to compile a War Deaths Register of persons of New Zealand domicile who died while out of New Zealand on service in some capacity in connection with the Second World War. Members of the New Zealand Naval Forces were excluded from the regulations, special provision having previously been made in their case. These regulations were revoked by the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1947, which made statutory provision in this connection. The amendment required the Registrar-General to compile a register of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any of the Armed Forces of Her Majesty and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand. Deaths registered in the War Deaths Register were not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths in New Zealand, nor were deaths of visiting overseas servicemen or prisoners of war in New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand servicemen which occurred in New Zealand were, however, included. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 requires the Registrar-General to compile a register containing particulars of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any Commonwealth force within the meaning of the Army Act 1950 and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand.

Registration of Maori Deaths.—Registration of the deaths of Maoris are effected with the Maori Registrars in the various districts set up for this purpose. Statistics relating to the deaths of Maoris are not included in this subsection, but are fully covered in Section 4D.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The following table shows the number of deaths and the death rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1933	11,701	7.99
1934	12,527	8.50
1935	12,217	8.25
1936	13,056	8.75
1937	13,658	9.08
1938	14,754	9.71
1939	14,158	9.20
1940	14,282	9.24
1941	15,146	9.84
1942	16,385	10.60
1943	15,447	10.04
1944	15,363	9.87
1945	16,051	10.07
1946	16,093	9.71
1947	15,904	9.39
1948	15,812	9.16
1949	16,012	9.09
1950	16,715	9.31
1951	17,512	9.56
1952	17,413	9.28

New Zealand has been noted for many years for its favourable death rate. The fact that the death rate is still comparatively very low, despite the older age constitution of the population, is probably due, inter alia, to improvements in medical techniques, expansion of health services, etc. This progress has been reflected, for example, in a relatively low incidence of serious outbreaks of the more important epidemic diseases (which were much more prevalent in the early years of colonization) and in a remarkably low infant-mortality rate.

The general trend of the death rate in New Zealand was for many years downwards, reaching its lowest level during the depression years of the early “thirties.” Since then an upward trend has been in evidence, and the figures recorded during the war years were the highest for a long time. It is possible that the absence overseas of considerable numbers of men of early adult age, at which 'mortality experience is the most favourable, would have some effect on the rates established. The strains of wartime would also have some effect on deaths in the older age groups; in fact, the high rate of 1942 disclosed a sharp rise in deaths resulting from diseases of the heart and nervous system. For four years following 1945 a downward trend was again in evidence—the 1949 figure being the lowest since 1937—but although small increases have been recorded in 1950 and 1951, the 1952 rate again shows a decrease.

The death rates of males and females for the last eleven years are shown separately in the next table.

Year	Deaths Per 1,000 of Mean Population			Male Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths	Male Rate Expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100)
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Male Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths	Male Rate Expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100)
1942	11.80	9.47	10.60	119	125
1943	11.36	8.81	10.04	119	129
1944	11.32	8.53	9.87	123	133
1945	11.37	8.84	10.07	122	129
1946	10.55	8.86	9.71	118	119
1947	10.50	8.28	9.39	127	127
1948	10.17	8.14	9.16	125	125
1949	9.94	8.24	9.09	121	120
1950	10.23	8.38	9.31	123	122
1951	10.50	8.62	9.56	122	121
1952	10.12	8.44	9.28	121	120

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—An international comparison of death rates is made in the following table. They are the average of the five years 1948–52 and are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

Country	Rates Per 1,000 of Population	Country	Rates Per 1,000 of Population
* European population only.
Israel	6.6	Switzerland	10.4
Netherlands	7.6	Japan	10.7
Norway	8.7	Spain	11.0
Union of South Africa^*	8.8	United Kingdom	11.7
Denmark	8.9	Costa Rica	12.3
Argentina	9.0	Austria	12.4
Canada	9.0	Ceylon	12.4
New Zealand	9.3	Portugal	12.7
Australia	9.6	Republic of Ireland	12.8
United States of America	9.7	France	12.9
Sweden	9.9	Yugoslavia	13.2
Italy	10.2	India	15.4
Finland	10.4	Chile	16.1
Puerto Rico	10.4	Mexico	16.6

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR.—An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the period 1942–52 gives the following averages: March quarter, 3,493; June quarter, 3,989; September quarter, 4,720; and December quarter, 4,044.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1952 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were August, July, and June, with totals of 1,980, 1,761, and 1,548 respectively. Excluding December, a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January, February had the least number of deaths, 1,159, followed by April and January, with 1,202 and 1,282 respectively.

The lowest number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 23, this number occurring on 21 January. The greatest number (84) occurred on 5 August.

AGE AT DEATH.—The deaths registered during the year 1952 are tabulated below according to age.

Age	Males	Females	Totals	Age	Males	Females	Totals
Under 1 month	366	338	704	45–49 years	294	223	517
1–2 months	57	39	96	50–54 years	451	334	785
3–5 months	63	46	109	55–59 years	566	410	976
6–11 months	67	38	105	60–64 years	828	629	1,457
1 year	43	40	83	65–69 years	1,286	875	2,161
2 years	37	27	64	70–74 years	1,475	1,186	2,661
3 months	19	19	38	75–79 years	1,351	1,263	2,614
4 months	19	15	34	80–84 years	996	986	1,982
5–9 months	58	46	104	85–89 years	527	638	1,165
10–14 months	52	23	75	90–94 years	148	196	344
15–19 months	79	33	112	95–99 years	24	55	79
20–24 months	113	34	147	100 years	2	3	5
25–29 months	116	61	177	101 years		1	1
30–34 months	127	63	190	102 years		1	1
35–39 months	160	115	275	105 years		1	1
40–44 months	202	148	350	115 years	1		1
				Totals	9,527	7,886	17,413

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred since 1930 in the age distribution of persons dying. The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age groups is very striking. The results of three main factors are illustrated—viz., health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; the fluctuations in the birth rate over the period; and the great increase in the proportion of old people in the community.

Age, in Years	Number of Deaths				Percentage of Total
Age, in Years	1930	1940	1950	1952	1930	1940	1950	1952
Under 1	924	990	1,008	1,014	7.57	6.93	6.03	5.82
1 and under 5	327	205	199	219	2.68	1.44	1.19	1.26
5 and under 10	167	98	87	104	1.37	0.69	0.52	0.60
10 and under 15	105	108	64	75	0.86	0.76	0.38	0.43
15 and under 20	222	151	120	112	1.82	1.06	0.72	0.64
20 and under 25	315	247	158	147	2.58	1.73	0.95	0.84
25 and under 30	337	270	142	177	2.76	1.89	0.85	1.01
30 and under 35	337	290	191	190	2.76	2.03	1.14	1.09
35 and under 40	374	320	275	275	3.07	2.24	1.65	1.58
40 and under 45	478	362	328	350	3.92	2.53	1.96	2.01
45 and under 50	640	472	522	517	5.25	3.30	3.12	2.97
50 and under 55	794	798	697	785	6.51	5.59	4.17	4.51
55 and under 60	881	1,145	1,021	976	7.22	8.02	6.11	5.62
60 and under 65	1,003	1,461	1,503	1,457	8.22	10.23	8.99	8.37
65 and under 70	1,077	1,697	2,170	2,161	8.83	11.88	12.98	12.41
70 and under 75	1,171	1,772	2,536	2,661	9.60	12.41	15.17	15.28
75 and under 80	1,242	1,556	2,316	2,614	10.18	10.89	13.86	15.01
80 and over	1,805	2,340	3,378	3,579	14.80	16.38	20.21	20.55
Totals	12,199	14,282	16,715	17,413	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In more recent years, however, there have been some fluctuations in the rates for the higher age groups, but the 1952 figures again reflect a declining tendency. Of special significance are the low rates recorded in the childhood and early adult life age groups in 1951 and 1952 and the high percentage reduction effected during the entire period. The female rate for the various age groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The rapid increase in the death rate (per 1,000 of population) at successive age groups is well exemplified.

Year	Under 1^*	1 and Under 5	5 and Under 15	15 and Under 25	25 and Under 35	35 and Under 45	45 and Under 55	55 and Under 65	65 and Under 75	75 and Over
* Per 1,000 live births in this case.
Males
1901	78.60	6.81	1.89	3.52	3.97	6.16	11.94	23.12	50.59	141.67
1911	63.48	5.36	1.91	2.42	3.87	6.27	11.02	20.83	53.22	130.58
1921	53.10	4.78	1.85	2.44	3.56	5.55	9.61	19.96	46.17	128.60
1931	38.21	2.83	1.35	2.28	2.77	4.64	8.69	18.25	44.18	130.57
1941	32.55	2.14	0.99	1.98	2.62	3.76	8.79	20.67	46.31	137.85
1951	26.49	1.40	0.64	1.54	1.82	2.93	7.20	20.04	46.90	127.33
1952	23.22	1.35	0.66	1.50	1.75	2.77	7.00	18.41	46.56	119.33
Females
1901	63.87	5.50	1.64	3.58	4.72	6.70	10.62	19.44	43.32	127.98
1911	48.74	5.37	1.48	2.76	4.34	4.92	8.38	17.89	40.44	119.60
1921	42.31	4.49	1.31	2.34	3.38	4.46	8.00	14.88	36.81	120.23
1931	25.67	2.47	0.97	1.85	3.20	3.81	6.84	15.36	36.83	122.87
1941	26.85	2.04	0.71	1.35	2.05	3.14	6.58	14.55	38.06	116.57
1951	18.81	1.19	0.36	0.73	1.17	2.04	5.29	13.27	32.35	113.75
1952	20.35	1.20	0.43	0.55	0.91	2.04	5.40	12.58	32.00	104.52
Both Sexes
1901	71.40	6.17	1.77	3.55	4.33	6.40	11.37	21.63	47.87	135.71
1911	56.31	5.36	1.70	2.58	4.09	5.64	9.82	19.55	47.74	126.13
1921	47.82	4.64	1.58	2.39	3.47	5.10	8.85	17.59	41.90	124.84
1931	32.15	2.65	1.17	2.07	2.98	4.22	7.80	16.88	40.56	126.87
1941	29.77	2.09	0.85	1.65	2.32	3.44	7.65	17.68	42.20	126.76
1951	22.77	1.30	0.50	1.15	1.49	2.49	6.26	16.52	39.36	119.96
1952	21.82	1.27	0.55	1.03	1.34	2.41	6.21	15.37	38.98	111.32

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex at ten-yearly intervals since 1901 and during each of the last five years was as follows.

Year	Males (Years)	Females (Years)
1901	41.64	37.68
1911	46.17	42.37
1921	48.45	46.97
1931	54.14	55.48
1941	58.65	59.60
1948	61.62	62.33
1949	60.43	62.94
1950	62.15	64.37
1951	61.58	65.25
1952	62.16	64.89

There has been a striking upward movement in the average age at death since 1901. A noticeable feature is that in the earlier years the age for females was considerably lower than that for males, the margin gradually narrowing until virtual equality was reached in 1927–28, since when the female average age at death has been higher than the male.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.—Life tables for the European section of the population based on the mortality experience of New Zealand, ranging from 1880 to 1938, have been published at various times in previous issues of the Year-Book. The latest investigation was based on the 1951 census combined with the deaths for the three years 1950–52, and the (complete) expectation of life at various ages is given below. Complete results, accompanied by a brief account of the methods employed in the construction of the table, will be found in the Special Supplement to the July 1953 issue of Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Age	Males	Females
0	68.29	72.43
1	69.03	72.90
2	68.17	72.05
3	67.27	71.12
4	66.33	70.18
5	65.39	69.23
10	60.60	64.37
20	51.15	54.64
30	41.89	45.06
40	32.65	35.64
50	23.83	26.68
60	16.19	18.53
70	10.05	11.46
80	5.55	6.16

The expectation of life at age 0 has risen by 13.00 years in the case of males and by 14.34 years in the case of females over the period since the first New Zealand life table of 1891–95. The effect of the lowered infant-mortality rate and the efficacy of the health services generally is clearly demonstrated, however, by the fact that at age 5 the expectation of life of males has increased by only 7–10 years and females by 9.20 years over the same period.

A brief comparison is quoted below.

Period	Males (Years)	Females (Years)
1891–1895	55.29	58.09
1896–1900	57.37	59.95
1901–1905	58.09	60.55
1906–1910	59.17	61.76
1911–1915	60.96	63.48
1921–1922	62.76	65.43
1925–1927	63.99	66.57
1931	65.04	67.88
1934–38	65.46	68.45
1950–52	68.29	72.43

The above tables are exclusive of Maoris. A table showing the expectation of life of the Maori population is given in Section 4D.

A comparison of the expectation of life at age 0 for various countries is now given. In selecting comparable tables from the experience of other countries due regard was had to securing the most recent figures available. The countries selected are for the most part those of similar racial stock.

Country	Males	Females
* Exclusive of Maoris. † White population.
New Zealand (1950–52)^*	68.29	72.43
Australia (1946–48)	66.07	70.63
Union of South Africa (1945–47)^†	63.78	68.31
England and Wales (1951)	65.84	70.88
United States of America (1950)^†	66.6	72.4
Norway (1945–48)	67.76	71.68
Netherlands (1947–49)	69.4	71.5
Denmark (1946–50)	67.8	70.1
Sweden (1941–45)	67.06	69.71
Finland (1941–45)	54.62	61.14
France (1946–49)	61.9	67.4
Switzerland (1939–44)	62.68	66.96
Canada (1947)	65.18	69.05

STANDARDIZED DEATH RATES.—Except where specifically stated, all death rates quoted throughout this section are crude rates—i.e., those ascertained by applying the mean population for the year to the total deaths registered during the year.

In New Zealand the age and sex constitutions of the people have changed very materially over the years, so that death rates for recent years relate to a differently constituted population than do death rates for earlier years. This factor has had a marked influence on the risks—and causes—of dying. In order to eliminate the effect of a changing age constitution from other causes influencing the death rate, the device of standardization is resorted to. The principle of this method is to compute death rates on the assumption that the sex and age composition of the population has not varied. A “standard” population is selected, and the mortality experience of any particular year is weighted according to the age distribution of that standard population.

The standardized death rates thus calculated for each of a number of countries, or for a number of years for the same country, may then be regarded as indices of the relative mortalities free from the distortion which might arise through differences in their respective sex or age constitutions. A comparison of the relative proportions of population in various age groups between New Zealand and the United Kingdom, for instance, shows this country to have higher proportions in the age groups under 30, while the United Kingdom has higher proportions in the age groups over 30 years.

A system of standardization of death rates was introduced some years ago in New Zealand, the age and sex constitution of the population as disclosed at the census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The following table gives both recorded and standardized death rates per 1,000 of population (on the 1911 standard population) for each fifth year from 1920 to 1950 and for the year 1952.

Year	Recorded Rates			Standardized Rates
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1920	11.11	9.15	10.15	10.83	8.84	9.89
1925	9.10	7.48	8.30	8.68	6.78	7.78
1930	9.42	7.69	8.57	8.66	6.48	7.63
1935	8.95	7.52	8.25	7.68	5.78	6.78
1940	10.18	8.28	9.24	7.95	5.67	6.87
1945	11.37	8.84	10.07	7.96	5.40	6.75
1950	10.23	8.38	9.31	6.94	4.55	5.81
1952	10.12	8.44	9.28	6.88	4.44	5.73

INFANT MORTALITY.—Over a long period of years New Zealand has been renowned for its low rate of infant mortality, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, etc., and partly to legislative and educative measures—the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organizations (one of the most important of these is the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children which was founded in 1907).

Particulars of deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the years 1942–52 are shown in the following table.

Year	Number			Rate Per 1,000 Live Births
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1942	587	377	964	34.0	23.1	28.7
1943	551	400	951	35.0	27.4	31.4
1944	578	434	1,012	33.6	26.5	30.1
1945	607	429	1,036	32.0	23.8	28.0
1946	631	462	1,093	29.3	22.7	26.1
1947	624	498	1,122	27.3	22.7	25.0
1948	569	401	970	25.2	18.6	22.0
1949	600	446	1,046	26.4	21.0	23.8
1950	569	439	1,008	25.1	20.3	22.8
1951	611	406	1,017	26.5	18.8	22.8
1952	553	461	1,014	23.2	20.4	21.8

In the following table New Zealand's infant-mortality rate is shown in comparison with that of other countries. The figures are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics. It is interesting to observe that the distinction of having the lowest infant-mortality rate in the world now belongs to Sweden, which achieved the phenomenally low ratio of 20 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1952, as compared with New Zealand's 22 for the same year. In the case of the Union of South Africa and New Zealand the European population only has been taken into account.

Country	Quinquennium	Deaths Under 1 Year Per 1,000 Births
Sweden	1948–52	21
New Zealand	1948–52	23
Australia	1947–51	26
Netherlands	1948–52	26
United States of America	1948–52	30
Norway	1949–50	31
United Kingdom	1948–52	32
Switzerland	1947–51	34
Denmark	1947–51	34
Union of South Africa	1948–52	36
Israel	1948–52	42
Canada	1947–51	42
Finland	1947–51	47
Republic of Ireland	1947–51	52
West German Federal Republic	1948–52	56
Belgium	1947–51	61
France	1946–50	62
Japan	1947–51	64
Cyprus	1947–51	66
Austria	1948–52	67
Italy	1948–52	68
Spain	1948–52	69
Czechoslovakia	1946–50	88
Ceylon	1947–51	90
Mexico	1947–51	100
Portugal	1947–51	101
India	1946–50	134
Eygpt	1945–49	139
Chile	1947–51	158
Rumania	1943–47	179

The male rate of infant mortality is considerably above the female rate, the average over the five-year period 1948–52 being 25.3 male deaths per 1,000 male births and 19.8 female deaths per 1,000 female births.

The rates per 1,000 births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last eleven years.

INFANT-MORTALITY RATES, 1942–52 (PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS)

Year	Under One Day	One Day and Under Two Days	Two Days and Under One Week	Total Under One Week	One Week and Under Two Weeks	Two Weeks and Under Three Weeks	Three Weeks and Under One Month	Total Under One Month	One Month and Under Twelve Months	Total Under One Year
1942	7.7		5.3	15.6	1.6	0.8	0.7	18.7	10.0	28.7
1943	8.4	3.6	5.8	17.8	2.0	0.8	0.7	21.3	10.1	31.4
1944	8.6	2.5	5.5	16.6	2.3	1.3	0.4	20.6	9.5	30.1
1945	8.4	2.5	5.4	16.3	1.9	0.8	0.6	19.6	8.4	28.0
1946	8.2	3.0	4.9	16.1	1.8	0.7	0.5	19.1	7.0	26.1
1947	8.0	3.0	4.5	15.5	1.4	0.7	0.5	18.1	6.9	25.0
1948	6.7	2.9	4.1	13.7	1.1	0.6	0.4	15.8	6.2	22.0
1949	8.2	3.0	4.0	15.2	1.0	0.5	0.3	17.0	6.8	23.8
1950	7.3	3.1	4.2	14.6	1.2	0.6	0.2	16.6	6.2	22.8
1951	6.9	2.8	4.9	14.6	1.0	0.2	0.3	16.2	6.6	22.8
1952	6.3	2.4	4.3	13.0	1.2	0.4	0.5	15.1	6.7	21.8

Infants who die in the first year of life may be grouped roughly into two main classes—viz., those dying within one month of birth and those surviving the first month of life but dying before the first anniversary of their birth. Deaths amongst the first class, called neo-natal deaths, are due principally to pre-natal and natal influences. The second group covers those infants who have succumbed in the main to causes arising from post-natal influences such as the various epidemic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system, faulty feeding, and other environmental factors.

The next table shows that, whereas in the quinquennium 1946–50 the death rate for children under one month of age was 42 per cent lower than in the quinquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who had survived the first month of life was only approximately one-ninth as high as in the “eighties.”

In other words, whereas formerly over sixty children out of every 1,000 who survived the first month of life died before reaching one year of age, now only seven such deaths occur. While the decline in the under-one-month group has been progressive for some years, it was among infants who had survived the first month of life that the most marked reductions were achieved. In the “thirties,” however, the reduction of this rate was arrested, and in the quinquennium 1941–45 an increase was recorded for the first time. For some years it had been considered that any further substantial decrease in the total infant-mortality rate would have to be achieved in the under-one-month group. The figures for 1946–50, however, indicate that whereas this group recorded a decrease of 13 per cent from 1941–45, the one-month-and-over group declined by 31 per cent.

Period	Deaths Per 1,000 Births
Period	Under I Year	Under 1 Month	Between 1 and 12 Months
1881–1885	90.60	29.77	60.83
1886–1890	84.09	27.57	56.52
1891–1895	87.60	30.34	57.26
1896–1900	80.06	30.38	49.68
1901–1905	74.77	30.64	44.13
1906–1910	69.62	30.28	39.34
1911–1915	53.63	29.28	24.35
1916–1920	48.62	28.16	20.46
1921–1925	42.75	27.48	15.27
1926–1930	36.70	24.82	11.88
1931–1935	31.88	22.34	9.54
1936–1940	31.83	22.51	9.32
1941–1945	29.53	20.01	9.52
1946–1950	23.92	17.31	6.61
1952	21.82	15.15	6.67

The accompanying diagram further illustrates the reduction in the infant-mortality rate that has taken place over a long period.

Causes of Infant Mortality.—The principal causes of infant mortality over the last ten years, showing both numbers and rates per 1,000 live births, are shown in the following table. The classification is according to the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International List.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths
Causes of Death	1943	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Tuberculosis, all forms	4	6	8	5	6	3	5		1	4
Congenital syphilis	7	5	2	2		1	4			1
Enteric fever and other Salmonella infections								3
Dysentery, all forms				1			1
Diphtheria	2	5	8	10	5			2
Whooping-cough	10	32	5	1	20	4	12	12	4	6
Meningococcal infections	10	5	8	9	2	4		2	5	10
Tetanus			2	4			1		1
Poliomyelitis	2									2
Measles			3	1	1		3	1		2
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of life	90	73	61	72	80	74	85	53	96	79
Pneumonia of the newborn	19	19	32	27	25	31	26	22	30	22
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life	26	28	18	29	21	21	17	15	26	10
Diarrhoea of the newborn	4	6	5	6	5	2	3	3		1
Congenital malformations	147	165	182	181	190	159	163	198	151	205
Birth injury	83	103	115	130	154	167	158	142	146	118
Asphyxia and atelectasis	61	64	77	93	100	102	111	128	164	174
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	29	34	29	34	37	35	30	50	38	34
Immaturity unqualified	249	284	274	311	276	193	238	223	191	191
Accidents	34	33	33	35	38	44	52	30	33	26
Other and undefined causes	174	150	174	142	162	130	137	122	131	129
Totals	951	1,012	1,036	1,093	1,122	970	1,046	1,008	1,017	1,014

Causes of Death	Rates Per 1,000 Live Births
Causes of Death	1943	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Less than 0.1.
Tuberculosis, all forms	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1		^*	0.1
Congenital syphilis	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.1		^*	0.1			^*
Enteric fever and other Salmonella infections								0.1
Dysentery, all forms				^*			^*
Diphtheria	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.1			0.1
Whooping-cough	0.3	1.0	0.1	^*	0.5	0.1	0.3	0.3	0.1	0.1
Meningococcal infections	0.3	0.2	0.2	0.2	^*	0.1		0.1	0.1	0.2
Tetanus			0.1	0.1			^*		^*
Poliomyelitis	0.1									0.1
Measles			0.1	^*	^*		0.1	^*		0.1
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of life	3.0	2.2	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.7	1.9	1.2	2.2	1.7
Pneumonia of the newborn	0.6	0.6	0.9	0.6	0.6	0.7	0.6	0.5	0.6	0.5
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life	0.9	0.8	0.5	0.7	0.5	0.5	0.4	0.3	0.6	0.2
Diarrhoea of the newborn	0.1	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1		^*
Congenital malformations	4.9	4.9	4.9	4.3	4.2	3.6	3.7	4.5	3.4	4.4
Birth injury	2.7	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.4	3.8	3.6	3.2	3.3	2.5
Asphyxia and atelectasis	2.0	1.9	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.5	2.9	3.7	3.7
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	10	1.0	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.7	1.1	0.9	0.7
Immaturity unqualified	8.2	8.5	7.4	7.4	6.2	4.4	5.4	5.1	4.3	4.1
Accidents	1.1	1.0	0.9	0.8	0.9	1.0	1.2	0.7	0.7	0.6
Other and undefined causes	5.7	4.5	4.7	3.4	3.6	2.9	3.1	2.8	2.9	2.8
Totals	31.4	30.1	28.0	26.1	25.0	22.0	23.8	22.8	22.8	21.8

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant-mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial periods commencing with the years 1872–76 and for 1952. It would appear that diseases which can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases, and diseases due to faulty nourishment, etc. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last five-yearly periods given—i.e., 1872–76 and 1947–51—it is found that the general infant-mortality rate shows a decline of 74 per cent, while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (98 per cent), convulsions (99 per cent), gastric and intestinal diseases (95 per cent), epidemic diseases (92 per cent), and respiratory diseases (78 per cent). The rate for epidemic diseases still continues to decline, and it is interesting to note that over 40 per cent of the total under this heading in the years 1947–51 were due to whooping-cough, while an additional 27 per cent were assigned to influenza. During the five-year period 1948–52 there were only two deaths of infants from diphtheria and three deaths due to scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat.

The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The following table shows quinquennial average death rates of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births. To enable the comparison with past years to be maintained, the infant deaths for 1950 onwards have been re-assembled to conform to the former classifications for the purposes of this table—i.e., influenza deaths have been included under epidemic diseases, while both pneumonia and diarrhoea of the newborn have been included under respiratory and gastric and intestinal diseases respectively, and not as diseases of early infancy.

Period	Epidemic Diseases	Tuberculosis	Infantile Convulsions	Respiratory Diseases	Gastric and Intestinal Diseases	Malformations	Early Infancy	Other Causes	Totals
1872–1876	13.5	5.5	9.7	12.9	24.2	1.2	25.0	17.3	109.3
1877–1881	10.2	5.2	7.5	12.3	19.8	1.4	21.9	15.3	93.6
1882–1886	9.3	4.7	7.9	11.8	19.1	1.2	25.5	12.3	91.8.
1887–1891	8.9	3.7	6.3	10.5	18.5	1.3	24.7	8.8	82.7
1892–1896	9.8	3.3	6.6	11.0	16.6	1.4	24.9	11.2	84.8
1897–1901	6.1	2.6	5.6	10.0	17.2	1.5	26.2	9.7	78.9
1902–1906	5.5	1.5	4.1	9.7	15.3	1.3	27.6	7.9	72.9
1907–1911	5.9	1.3	3.3	7.6	15.5	1.9	26.7	6.3	68.5
1912–1916	3.6	0.6	2.2	5.1	7.4	3.9	26.2	3.5	52.5
1917–1921	3.2	0.5	1.9	4.7	4.5	4.3	26.1	2.9	48.1
1922–1926	1.8	0.4	1.3	4.3	2.8	4.8	22.4	3.3	41.1
1927–1931	1.5	0.3	0.5	3.7	1.7	5.0	19.4	3.1	35.2
1932–1936	1.5	0.2	0.6	3.3	1.2	5.0	17.5	2.4	31.7
1937–1941	1.4	0.2	0.2	3.1	1.3	5.5	17.4	2.5	31.6
1942–1946	1.1	0.1	0.1	2.9	1.2	4.6	16.1	2.6	28.7
1947–1951	0.6	0.1	0.1	2.3	0.8	3.8	13.6	2.0	23.3
1952	0.6	0.1	0.1	2.3	0.4	4.4	12.2	1.7	21.8

It is convenient to consider still-births and neo-natal deaths together, as they are largely the result of common causes. The combined group may be termed perinatal mortality. The term is particularly appropriate when we consider how deaths in the newborn crowd closely towards the day of birth. This effect is clearly shown in the table on page 87. Still-births and neo-natal deaths are considered together in the next table and are computed as rates per 1,000 total births.

Year	Still-births		Neo-natal Deaths		Neo-natal Deaths Plus Still-births
Year	Number	Rate	Number	Rate	Number	Rate
1948	834	18.52	698	15.50	1,532	34.02
1949	796	17.77	748	16.70	1,544	34.47
1950	865	19.15	734	16.25	1,599	35.40
1951	804	17.69	724	15.93	1,528	33.62
1952	846	17.88	704	14.88	1,550	32.76

Recent years have shown a definite trend towards improvement in the combined rate.

CAUSES OF STILL-BIRTH.—still-born child is defined in New Zealand as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.”

The registration of still-births has been effected in New Zealand since 1913, but no information regarding the causes of still-births was required for registration purposes until 1947. As from 1 July 1952 a certificate of the cause of death in cases of intermediate foetal deaths—i.e., deaths after the end of the twentieth but before the end of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy—was also required to be furnished. The certificates of causes of still-birth and foetal death provide for both maternal and foetal causes to be entered.

Of the 846 still-births registered during 1952, in 61 cases (7 per cent) the cause was not known or not stated. Foetal causes only were specified in 448 cases (53 per cent); maternal causes only in 202 (24 per cent); while for 135 still-births (16 per cent of the total) there were both foetal and maternal causes present.

The following table shows the 846 still-births registered during 1952 classified (a) according to maternal causes and (b) according to foetal causes.

Causes of Still-birth	Number of Cases
Causes of Still-birth	Males	Females	Total
(a) Maternal Causes
Chronic disease in mother	9	9	18
Acute disease in mother	11	2	13
Diseases and conditions of pregnancy and child-birth	71	83	154
Difficulties in labour	81	58	139
Other causes in mother	8	6	14
No maternal cause	262	246	508
Totals	442	404	846
(b) Foetal Causes
Placental and cord conditions	176	124	300
Birth injury	19	10	29
Congenital malformation of foetus	39	73	112
Diseases of foetus and ill-defined causes	105	98	203
No foetal cause	103	99	202
Totals	442	404	846

PERINATAL MORTALITY AND PREMATURITY.—Approximately three out of every four infants who die in the first year of life do so in the first month, and of those dying in the first month 41 per cent die in the first day of life and 86 per cent in the first week.

A principal factor in the loss of this new life is prematurity. This is seen in the following table, where causes of neo-natal deaths for 1952 are set out in accordance with the International List of 1948.

Causes of Death	Under One Day	One Day and Under One Weeks	One Week and Under Two Weeks	Two Weeks and Under Three Weeks	Three Weeks and Under One Month	Total Under One Month
Congenital malformations	29	54	20	12	11	126
Injury at birth	26	36	7	1	1	71
Injury at birth with prematurity	19	22	4			45
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis	49	30	4	1	2	86
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis, with prematurity	29	44	3	2		78
Pneumonia of newborn		6	5	1	4	16
Pneumonia of newborn, with prematurity	1	2		1	1	5
Disorders arising from maternal toxaemia		3				3
Disorders arising from maternal toxaemia, with prematurity	5	8	3			16
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	6	16	1			23
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis), with prematurity	2	5	3			10
Haemorrhagic disease of newborn	1	5				6
Haemorrhagic disease of newborn, with prematurity			1			1
Nutritional maladjustment	1	1				2
Nutritional maladjustment, with prematurity	3					3
Ill-defined diseases peculiar to early infancy		1				1
Ill-defined diseases peculiar to early infancy, with prematurity	4	4				8
Immaturity with mention of any other subsidiary condition
Immaturity, unqualified	111	73	3	2	1	190
Hernia, intestinal obstruction	1	1	1			3
External causes	1					1
Other causes	3	3	1		3	10
Totals	291	314	56	20	23	704

A total of 190, or 27 per cent, of all neo-natal deaths are directly attributed to prematurity (immaturity) and a further 166 deaths are given as associated with it. The principal conditions of early infancy with which prematurity was associated were (i) asphyxia in 78 cases (11.1 per cent of all neo-natal deaths), (ii) birth injury in 45 cases (6.4 per cent of all neo-natal deaths), and (iii) all other causes peculiar to early infancy, 43 cases (6.2 per cent of all neo-natal deaths).

In the case of still-births, out of 846 there were 378 cases, or 45 per cent, where gestation fell short of full term.

It is not possible to assess what the reduction in perinatal mortality would be if every pregnancy were to go to full term, but there is no doubt that it would be considerable.

As a first step in the campaign to reduce this grave loss of new life, details of the birth weight and gestation period of all infants born alive or dead after 1 July 1952 were required to be furnished to the Registrars of Births and Deaths. These will provide essential basic data for further studies on prematurity. It will give a measure of the extent of the problem in different localities according to the age and parity of the mother and the occupation of the father, and it will enable cohorts of infants to be followed through their first year of life so that their mortality and morbidity experience may be shown according to their degree of maturity at birth.

CAUSES OF DEATH.—Since 1908 the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon. Almost all countries are member States of the World Health Assembly, and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death has world-wide application.

The sixth (1948) revision of the classification was applied in New Zealand to the deaths for 1950. At the same time a departure was made from the previous arbitrary rules of selection, when more than one cause of death was entered on a certificate, to an assignment according to what is termed the underlying cause of death. This may be defined as (a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury. The responsibility for indicating the train of events is placed on the physician or surgeon signing the medical certificate of death.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths and death rates per million of mean population according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes (Sixth Revision, 1948). In order to provide a comparison with the years 1950 et seq the individual causes for each of the years 1948 and 1949 were, wherever possible, reassembled under the headings of the 1948 revision of the classification. It should be observed that no allowance was possible for the alteration in method of primary cause selection.

The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violent causes, which are of special interest and significance, are discussed later on in this subsection. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria) are not listed in the table below, as there were no deaths occurring from these causes in the years shown.

Causes of Death	Numbers					Rates Per Million of Mean Population
Causes of Death	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Comparative figures not obtainable. with those given for later years (see letterpress). † Less than one. ‡ These figures and rates are not comparable
Tuberculosis of respiratory system	408	365	351	319	225	236	207	195	174	120
Tuberculosis, other forms	61	70	61	64	47	35	40	34	35	25
Syphilis and its sequelae	82	71	91	67	62	47	40	51	37	33
Typhoid fever	3	3	2			2	2	1
Dysentery, all forms	3	3	5	3	2	2	2	3	2	1
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat	3		1	1	1	2		^†	^†	1
Diphtheria	3	5	4	3	2	2	3	2	2	1
Whooping-cough	6	21	16	7	7	3	12	9	4	4
Meningococcal infections	9	7	9	14	19	5	4	5	8	10
Acute poliomyelitis	52	13	2	1	54	30	7	1	^†	29
Measles	4	24	3	2	29	2	14	2	1	16
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	56	55	85	75	62	32	31	47	41	33
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	2,563	2,588	2,652	2,836	2,799	1,484	1,469	1,477	1,549	1,492
Benign and unspecified neoplasms	23	46	55	36	42	13	26	31	20	22
Diabetes mellitus	347	355	228	244	221	201	202	127	133	118
Anaemias	40	29	57	80	75	23	16	32	44	40
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system	^*	^*	1,824	2,063	2,165	^*	^*	1,016	1,127	1,154
Non-meningococcal meningitis	20	15	18	15	23	12	9	10	8	12
Rheumatic fever	6	9	14	17	8	3	5	8	9	4
Chronic rheumatic heart-disease	251	258	233	204	220	145	146	130	111	117
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart-disease
	4.775	4,960	4,657			2,659	2,709	2,483
	5,430	5,744				3,144	3,261
Other diseases of the heart			595	591	660			331	323	352
Hypertension with heart-disease			653	676	632			364	369	337
Hypertension without mention of heart	^*	^*	162	154	165	^*	^*	90	84	88
Influenza	51	45	77	78	130	30	26	43	43	69
Pneumonia	578	554	414	406	413	335	315	231	222	220
Bronchitis	131	128	150	250	348	76	73	84	137	185
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum	149	147	146	150	140	86	83	81	82	75
Appendicitis	37	40	34	28	27	21	23	19	15	14
Intestinal obstruction and hernia	123	115	127	118	110	71	65	71	64	58
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of newborn	65	85	86	115	75	38	48	48	63	40
Cirrhosis of liver	42	56	54	64	57	24	32	30	35	30
Nephritis and nephrosis	^*	^*	212	199	189	^*	^*	118	109	101
Hyperplasia of prostate	108	106	149	154	140	62	60	83	84	75
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium	56	45	40	31	33	32	26	22	17	18
Congenital malformations	206	217	299	202	255	119	123	166	110	136
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis			270	310	292			150	169	156
Infections of the newborn	585	640	25	30	25	339	363	14	16	13
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified			318	296	274			177	162	146
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined and unknown causes	212	206	186	209	182	123	117	104	114	97
All other diseases	^‡3,100	^‡3,014	1,334	1,426	1,536	^‡1,795	^‡1,711	743	779	819
Motor-vehicle accidents	181	195	212	269	252	105	111	118	147	134
All other accidents	618	547	501	549	550	358	311	279	300	293
Suicide and self-inflicted injury	181	171	165	182	189	105	97	92	99	101
Homicide and operations of war	19	20	20	14	19	11	11	11	8	10
Totals	15,812	16,012	16,715	17,512	17,413	9,157	9,092	9,308	9,564	9,282

TUBERCULOSIS.—The death rate from tuberculosis of the respiratory system has shown a declining tendency for many years, but the reduction by nearly one-half in the space of the five years 1948–52 is a noteworthy achievement. The rate for 1952, 120 per million of population, is a record low rate for this country.

In addition to the 225 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1952, there were 47 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, comprising—

Tuberculosis of meninges and nervous system	14
Tuberculosis of intestines, peritoneum, and mesentery	2
Tuberculosis of bones and joints	10
Tuberculosis of lymphatic system	1
Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system	13
Tuberculosis of adrenal glands	1
Disseminated tuberculosis	6

The following table shows the number of deaths from tuberculosis in 1952, classified according to sex and age groups. Of those dying from this cause in 1952, persons under the age of 45 years formed 49 per cent.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 5	6	8	14
5 and under 10	2	2	4
10 and under 15	1	1	2
15 and under 20		1	1
20 and under 25	5	7	12
25 and under 30	9	8	17
30 and under 35	12	7	19
35 and under 40	5	7	12
40 and under 45	14	4	18
45 and under 50	15	6	21
50 and under 55	18	8	26
55 and under 60	20	7	27
60 and under 65	14	6	20
65 and under 70	25	1	26
70 and under 75	20	5	25
75 and under 80	10	4	14
80 and over	9	5	14
Totals	185	87	272

CANCER.—A special report on cancer is issued annually by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. Besides a section dealing with cancer as a cause of death there are analyses of returns received from the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society. These returns, together with those of patients treated in the public hospitals of New Zealand, provide for reasonably wide coverage. A system of registration enables a follow-up of each patient to be maintained which will eventually enable survival rates by site and method of treatment to be compiled. Special articles and statistical tables on the subject of cancer are contained in the 1917 and 1926 issues of the Year-Book, while the 1949 report of the Department of Health contains data covering the twenty-six years from 1924 to 1949.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant diseases. This classification was introduced in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, it exacts a heavy toll throughout the life-span. With the inclusion of Hodgkin's disease and leukaemia under the cancer heading the disease assumes a very high position as a cause of death among children and adolescents. It is interesting to compare the decline in the death rate from tuberculosis with the rise in the cancer death rate. These rates are set out in the following table and diagram. The fall in the tuberculosis rate may be said to reflect the achievements of the public-health service, whilst the rise in the cancer rate portrays in general the increasing age of the population.

This is illustrated by the following figures.

Period	Average Death Rates Per 10,000 of Population
	Tuberculosis	Cancer
1880–89	12.35	3.42
1890–99	10.62	5.44
1900–09	9.10	6.79
1910–19	6.99	8.22
1920–29	5.69	9.30
1930–39	4.17	11.17
1940–49	3.46	13.56
1950–52	1.63	15.06

The relative movements in the death rates from cancer and tuberculosis are further illustrated in the following diagram, which shows the rates at five-yearly intervals since 1880.

In 1952 there were 2,799 deaths from cancer in New Zealand, a proportion of 14.92 per 10,000 of mean population. A summary for the last eleven years is given below.

Year	Number of Deaths From Cancer	Recorded Death Rate	Standardized Death Rate^*
* Standard population used for standardized rates—England and Wales 1901. † Includes Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., from 1950 onwards.
1942	2,029	13.13	8.31
1943	2,131	13.85	8.67
1944	2,182	14.02	8.58
1945	2,213	13.88	8.42
1946	2,268	13.68	8.48
1947	2,315	13.67	8.30
1948	2,453	14.21	8.65
1949	2,472	14.04	8.59
1950^†	2,652	14.77	8.99
1951	2,836	15.49	9.49
1952	2,799	14.92	9.03

A summary showing the location of the disease in deaths from cancer during 1952 is given in the following table.

Site of Disease	Numbers			Rates Per Million of Mean Population
Site of Disease	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
Buccal cavity and pharynx	40	17	57	43	18	30
Oesophagus	58	32	90	62	34	48
Stomach	235	155	390	250	166	208
Intestine, except rectum	135	200	335	143	214	179
Rectum	84	70	154	89	75	82
Larynx	23	3	26	24	3	14
Trachea, and of bronchus and lung not specified as secondary	234	40	274	248	43	146
Breast	3	275	278	3	294	148
Cervix uteri		76	76		81	41
Other and unspecified parts of uterus		62	62		66	33
Prostate	168		168	178		89
Skin	31	22	53	33	24	28
Bone and connective tissue	12	20	32	13	22	17
All other and unspecified sites	293	318	611	311	340	326
Leukaemia and aleukaemia	60	24	84	64	26	45
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic system	57	52	109	61	56	58
Totals	1,433	1,366	2,799	1,522	1,462	1,492

The standardized figures for recent years suggest that cancer, while undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence, is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. Improvement in diagnosis has been responsible for some of the numerical increase in the recorded deaths from cancer, though this factor has now become more stabilized. A classification according to sex and age groups for 1952 is now given.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 5	14	8	22
5 and under 10	6	6	12
10 and under 15	4	5	9
15 and under 20	3	3	6
20 and under 25	8	1	9
25 and under 30	12	5	17
30 and under 35	10	20	30
35 and under 40	27	32	59
40 and under 45	33	49	82
45 and under 50	44	78	122
50 and under 55	78	117	195
55 and under 60	122	136	258
60 and under 65	139	157	296
65 and under 70	243	177	420
70 and under 75	273	229	502
75 and under 80	226	176	402
80 and over	191	167	358
Totals	1,433	1,366	2,799

Ninety-one per cent of the deaths from cancer during 1952 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 60 per cent at ages 65 years and upwards. Approximately one death in every six of persons who die after the age of 50 years is due to cancer.

PUERPERAL CAUSES.—In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance. The rate per 1,000 live births in each of the last twenty years is shown in the following table.

Year	Proportion Per 1,000 Live Births
1933	4.44
1934	4.85
1935	4.21
1936	3.70
1937	3.61
1938	4.07
1939	3.64
1940	2.93
1941	3.36
1942	2.53
1943	2.21
1944	2.71
1945	2.24
1946	2.05
1947	1.07
1948	1.26
1949	1.02
1950	0.90
1951	0.69
1952	0.71

A survey of the death rate from puerperal causes since 1872 shows that for a period in the early part of the twentieth century there was a tendency for the rate to decline. Then followed a definite upward movement, culminating in a rate of 6.48 per 1,000 live births in 1920, the third highest on record, this figure having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885. Comparatively high rates persisted until 1931, since when the decline has been more or less steady. The efficacy of new drugs and methods of treatment is reflected in the extremely low rates recorded in recent years, the figure for 1951 of 0.69 being a new record. This low rate has been achieved mainly by a reduction in the number of deaths from septic abortion and puerperal toxaemia, the latter being a cause which had hitherto been particularly resistant to preventive measures. Deaths from complications of childbirth have also been unusually few since 1949.

It is generally conceded that in years of high birth rates the maternal-mortality rate tends to rise, probably due to the abnormally high proportion of first births in the total of births, upon which the death rate for these causes is based. In common with most countries for which recent figures are available, the reverse has been the experience in New Zealand during recent years;. Possibly a contributory factor in this reversal has been the rise in the proportion of births taking place in institutions, more particularly in special annexes attached to the larger hospitals, where every facility for the care of the patient is more readily available.

Details of deaths from deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium for the three years 1950 to 1952 are shown in the following summary. The disease headings conform to the 1948 Revision of the Classification introduced in 1950.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 Live Births
Causes of Death	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Toxaemias of pregnancy	13	7	9	2.93	1.57	1.94
Placenta praevia		3	1		0.67	0.22
Other haemorrhage of pregnancy	1	1	1	0.23	0.22	0.22
Ectopic pregnancy	1		1	0.23		0.22
Other complications arising from pregnancy		1			0.22
Abortion without mention of sepsis or toxaemia	1	3	3	0.23	0.67	0.64
Abortion with sepsis	8	2	4	1.81	0.45	0.85
Delivery complicated by placenta praevia or antepartum haemorrhage	1	1	3	0.23	0.22	0.64
Delivery complicated by retained placenta	2		1	0.45		0.22
Delivery complicated by other post-partum haemorrhage	5	4	4	1.13	0.90	0.85
Delivery with trauma	1	3	3	0.23	0.67	0.64
Sepsis of childbirth and the puerperium	2	1	1	0.46	0.22	0.22
Puerperal phlebitis and thrombosis	1		1	0.23		0.22
Puerperal pulmonary embolism	1	3	1	0.23	0.67	0.22
Puerperal eclampsia	3	1		0.63	0.22
Other and unspecified complications of the puerperium		1			0.22
Totals, including septic abortion	40	31	33	9.03	6.94	710
Totals, excluding septic abortion	32	29	29	7.22	6.49	6.25

A summary of maternal mortality from all puerperal causes, in triennial periods since 1927 and for the year 1952, is now given.

Causes of Death	1927–29	1930–32	1933–35	1936–38	1939–41	1942–44	1945–47	1948–50	1952
Number
Puerperal sepsis	128	58	39	44	46	30	12	6	1
Eclampsia and other toxaemias	101	97	93	94	80	58	62	42	9
Septic abortion	47	85	91	68	58	61	33	20	4
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality	124	124	104	91	135	94	110	73	19
Total maternal mortality	400	364	327	297	319	243	217	141	33
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion	353	279	236	229	261	182	184	121	29

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES.—Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 4 per cent of the total deaths. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the three years 1950, 1951, and 1952 according to the Intermediate List of the 1948 Revision of the International Classification. It is necessary to refer to the detailed list of circumstances of accident or means of injury if a comparison with years prior to 1949 is required, as the inclusions under the headings below differ considerably from past practice—e.g., drowning from boats and ships or from horseback whilst crossing rivers are included below as transport fatalities, as also are falls on board ship and from horseback.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per Million of Mean Population
Causes of Death	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Motor-vehicle accidents	212	269	252	118	147	134
Other transport accidents	85	115	90	47	63	48
Accidental poisoning	17	29	30	9	16	16
Accidental falls	149	139	168	83	76	90
Accident caused by machinery	31	19	35	17	10	19
Accident caused by fire and explosion of combustible material	11	19	21	6	10	10
Accident caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation	14	17	11	8	9	6
Accident caused by firearm	19	22	17	11	12	9
Accidental drowning and submersion	64	90	81	36	49	43
All other accidental causes	111	99	97	62	54	52
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)	17	14	18	9	8	10
Injury resulting from operations of war	3			2
Totals	733	832	820	408	454	437

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1952 was 802, corresponding to a rate of 4.28 per 10,000 of population. By comparison with 1936, there was an increase of 104 in the number of deaths, but the death rate has decreased by 0.40 per 10,000 of population.

Transport Accidents.—In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway trains and electric tram cars with motor vehicles the death is assigned to the railway train or electric tram car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles, the death is assigned to the motor vehicle.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last eleven years are as follows.

Year	Deaths Due to Accident				Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Population
Year	Railway	Tramway	Motor Vehicle	Aircraft	Railway	Tramway	Motor Vehicle	Aircraft
1942	51	16	125	58	0.33	0.10	0.81	0.38
1943	74	9	113	97	0.48	0.06	0.73	0.63
1944	36	11	129	41	0.23	0.07	0.83	0.26
1945	36	11	104	27	0.23	0.07	0.65	0.17
1946	40	22	157	3	0.24	0.13	0.95	0.02
1947	39	9	187	8	0.23	0.05	1.10	0.05
1948	34	7	175	24	0.20	0.04	1.01	0.14
1949	28	7	190	25	0.16	0.04	1.08	0.14
1950	30	7	198	6	0.17	0.04	1.10	0.03
1951	39	9	254	9	0.21	0.05	1.39	0.05
1952	32	2	240	14	0.17	0.01	1.28	0.07

Deaths arising out of aircraft accidents fell off steeply after 1945. This was to be expected, since the figures include Air Force accidents in New Zealand as well as civilian casualties. In 1948 the crashing on Mount Ruapehu of a National Airways Corporation plane with the loss of 13 lives was the principal cause of the high figure for civil air transport accidents in that year. New Zealand's worst air disaster occurred in 1949, when fifteen lives were lost in a crash at Waikanae. The figure of 25 deaths is the highest total recorded in a non-war year. The sharp increase in 1943 in deaths due to railway accidents is accounted for by one serious accident near Hyde in Central Otago, which resulted in twenty-one deaths. In 1948 a derailment near Blenheim resulting in the loss of six lives was a substantial contribution to the total in that year.

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents recorded an appreciable increase up to 1930, but this trend was reversed during the depression years, largely owing to a great reduction in the number of motor vehicles on the roads during that period. With the advent of more prosperous times, the toll of the motor vehicle again mounted, although, fortunately, not in proportion to the tremendous increase in motor vehicular traffic on the highways. An appreciable drop, however, was experienced during the war years on account of there being less traffic on the roads owing to restrictions in the use of motor spirits and rubber tires. Since the war the number of fatalities from motor-vehicle accidents progressively increased up to 1951. The 1952 total of 240 deaths was a decrease of 14 on the figure for 1951.

The figures given in the above table for deaths from motor-vehicle accidents (which do not include deaths of Maoris) are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor vehicles and trains or trams, these being assigned to the heavier vehicle. For 1952 there were 12 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor vehicle was involved up to 252. The corresponding figure for 1951 was 269.

Non-transport Accidents.—Over the three-year period 1950 to 1952, 44 per cent of deaths from accidental causes involved transport vehicles or devices, with the remaining 56 per cent spread over a wide range of circumstances.

The 1948 Revision of the International List makes provision for these non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for each of the three years 1950, 1951, and 1952 according to this classification.

Place of Occurrence	Number			Rate Per Million of Mean Population
Place of Occurrence	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)	203	222	195	113	121	104
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)	44	29	47	25	15	25
Mine and quarry	4	7	10	2	4	5
Industrial place and premises	27	19	18	15	10	10
Place for recreation and sport	7	7	8	4	4	4
Street and highway	12	10	12	7	5	6
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)	6	13	5	3	7	3
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.,)	13	23	32	7	13	17
Other specified places	72	83	94	40	45	50
Place not specified	14	16	32	8	9	17
Totals	402	429	453	224	234	241

One in every two fatal non-traffic accidents occurs in or about the home.

The chief killer in the home is falls, which exacts a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Second comes asphyxia from regurgitation of foodstuffs and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes: this is the principal hazard of the first six months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed underlying respiratory infection. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between one and two years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the immediate home vicinity.

There were 120 deaths from non-transport accidents on farms in the period covered, while fatal non-transport accidents in industrial plants, factories, and workplaces totalled 64.

OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENTS.—The majority of occupational accidents are included in accidents occurring in industrial places or premises, on railways, farms, and mines and quarries, but a certain number occur in such places as places of recreation and sport, streets and highways, and public buildings. For example, 8 occupational accidents causing the deaths of 7 jockeys and 1 trotting driver are included under “place for recreation and sport.”

The following table shows details of deaths from accidental causes arising out of and in the course of the deceased's employment. So far as transport accidents are concerned, where these occurred to farmers engaged in transporting produce and to persons whose occupation was driving, these were included as occupational. Details of occupational accidents are not available for 1952.

Description of Accident	1949	1950	1951	Totals, 1949–51
Railway accident involving railway employee	10	3	11	24
Railway accident involving other person	2	1	1	4
Motor-vehicle traffic accidents	5	11	11	27
Motor-vehicle non-traffic accidents	1	1		2
Other road-vehicle accidents	15	6	3	24
Submersion of occupant of small boat	1	1	3	5
Other water transport injury by submersion	5	4	1	10
Falls on ships	1	3	1	5
Crushing while loading or unloading ship	1	2	2	5
Aircraft accidents	7	3	5	15
Poisoning by liquid substance		1		1
Poisoning by gases and vapours	2	1		3
Falls	9	5	6	20
Blow from falling object	12	13	13	38
Accident caused by mine vehicle			1	1
Machinery accidents	17	30	18	65
Accident caused by cutting or piercing instrument		1		1
Accident caused by electric current	11	7	8	26
Accident caused by fire and explosion of combustible material	2	3		5
Accident caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, and steam	1	1	1	3
Accident caused by firearm			4	4
Mechanical suffocation	1		3	4
Sting of venomous insect	1			1
Accident caused by animals	3	3	1	7
Drowning and submersion		1	3	4
Excessive cold			1	1
Crushing			1	1
Totals	107	101	98	306

Farming and agricultural employment, which contributed an average of 31 occupational deaths in each year, were responsible for the highest total in any one occupational group. The annual average number of deaths in other occupational groups were (i) railway employees 8, (ii) transport drivers 5, (iii) fishermen and seamen 5, (iv) miners and quarrymen 5.

Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

SUICIDES.—Suicidal deaths in 1952 numbered 189—males 141, females 48—the death rate per 10,000 of mean population being 101.

Year	Number of Suicidal Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1948	131	50	181	1.52	0.58	1.05
1949	114	57	171	1.29	0.65	0.97
1950	121	44	165	1.34	0.49	0.92
1951	136	46	182	1.48	0.50	0.99
1952	141	48	189	1.50	0.51	1.01

The following table presents, for annual averages of various quinquennia, the suicide rate per 10,000 of mean population.

Annual Average During	Males	Females	Both Sexes
1895–99	1.48	0.31	0.93
1900–04	1.66	0.31	1.02
1905–09	1.62	0.34	1.02
1910–14	1.83	0.41	1.16
1915–19	1.79	0.40	1.10
1920–24	1.92	0.46	1.20
1925–29	2.17	0.56	1.38
1930–34	2.29	0.55	1.44
1935–39	1.63	0.57	1.10
1940–44	1.44	0.56	0.99
1945–49	1.38	0.57	0.97
1950–52 (3 years)	1.44	0.50	0.97

4 D—MAORIS

Unless specially stated to the contrary, in each of the preceding subsections Maoris have been excluded from the statistical tables presented. The standard of registration of Maoris is still below that of the European section of the population of New Zealand. This is due partly to difficulties of language, educational status, etc., and partly to problems of access. This latter difficulty arises from the fact that the greater portion of the Maori population is resident in country districts not so well served with modern facilities as regards transport, medical, and nursing services, etc. Consequently registration of vital facts regarding the Maori race as a whole is not quite at the same high level of accuracy as obtains for the European population, but very considerable improvement has been effected in recent years.

MAORI BIRTHS.—In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1912 (now section 52 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951) empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from 1 March 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in New Zealand is over 250, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Maori settlement of any size is within reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, which does not, however, make provision for as many particulars as is the case with registrations of Europeans.

The number of births of Maoris registered during 1952 was 5,459 (2,856 males, 2,603 females). The Maori birth rate in 1952 was almost twice the European birth rate (24.77 per 1,000). Registrations of Maori births in each of the last eleven years were as follows.

Year	Number of Maori Births			Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1942	2,222	2,108	4,330	45.84
1943	2,267	2,173	4,440	45.78
1944	2,328	2,180	4,508	45.32
1945	2,389	2,255	4,644	46.10
1946	3,007	2,769	5,776	56.81
1947	2,541	2,447	4,988	47.46
1948	2,589	2,367	4,956	45.97
1949	2,510	2,407	4,917	44.48
1950	2,606	2,499	5,105	45.07
1951	2,746	2,492	5,238	44.97
1952	2,856	2,603	5,459	45.41

Prior to 1946 there was reason to believe that the number of Maori births was somewhat understated, and this view was confirmed by the registration figures for 1946, the year in which the provision of family benefits under the Social Security scheme was extended to cover all children under sixteen years of age irrespective of the income of the parents. Of the 5,776 Maori births registered during 1946, no fewer than 1,447, or 25 per cent, had actually occurred before 1945—i.e., over a year before registration.

For the purposes of the Maori Births and Deaths Registration Regulations 1935 a Maori is defined as “a person belonging to the aboriginal race of New Zealand, and includes a half-caste and a person intermediate in blood between half-castes and persons of pure descent from that race”.

Only registrations relating to persons possessing half or more Maori blood are made in the register of Maori births or Maori deaths. All registrations in respect of persons possessing less than half Maori blood must be made in the European register.

MAORI MARRIAGES.—In the 1953 and preceding issues of the Year-Book a brief statement of the legislative position relating to Maori marriages was given. The Maori Purposes Act 1951, however, brought about a complete change to that hitherto existing. The view was taken that the Maori race had now reached a stage where such special dispensations were no longer justifiable. From 1 April 1952 all Maori marriages are subject to the ordinary laws affecting European marriages, and no marriage according to Maori custom subsequent to that date will be held valid. As a result it is not now possible to distinguish marriages of Maoris from those of Europeans, and Maori marriage statistics as a separate feature will lapse.

The Maori marriage figures for each of the eleven years (1941–51) were as follows.

Year	Under Maori Land Act	Under Marriage Act	Totals	Year	Under Maori Land Act	Under Marriage Act	Totals
1941	410	107	517	1947	468	54	522
1942	463	93	556	1948	518	40	558
1943	363	79	442	1949	550	19	569
1944	428	93	521	1950	569	26	595
1945	457	76	533	1951	522	34	556
1946	511	50	561

MAORI DEATHS.—Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last eleven years have been as follows.

Year	Number			Rate Per 1,000 of Maori Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1942	933	799	1,732	19.43	17.20	18.34
1943	862	813	1,675	17.51	17.11	17.27
1944	861	825	1,686	17.12	16.77	16.95
1945	865	770	1,635	16.93	15.50	16.23
1946	837	790	1,627	16.03	15.97	16.00
1947	796	742	1,538	14.74	14.52	14.63
1948	789	684	1,473	14.25	13.04	13.66
1949	797	769	1,566	14.03	14.31	14.17
1950	734	635	1,369	12.62	11.52	12.09
1951	739	585	1,324	12.38	10.31	11.37
1952	803	680	1,483	13.04	11.60	12.34

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in some years. The total Maori death rate has shown considerable improvement during recent years, with a decline from 18.34 in 1942 to 12.34 in 1952.

Apart from mere numbers by sex, statistics of Maori deaths are not available prior to 1920, but annual tabulations are now made on the bases of age and cause of death. The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the year 1952 were as shown in the following table.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 1	250	211	461
1 and under 5	79	67	146
5 and under 10	20	15	35
10 and under 15	13	18	31
15 and under 20	14	9	23
20 and under 25	29	18	47
25 and under 30	29	16	45
30 and under 35	16	14	30
35 and under 40	27	28	55
40 and under 45	25	24	49
45 and under 50	31	34	65
50 and under 55	34	30	64
55 and under 60	37	34	71
60 and under 65	53	34	87
65 and under 70	33	35	68
70 and under 75	28	20	48
75 and under 80	40	31	71
80 and under 85	20	17	37
85 and under 90	12	14	26
90 and under 95	7	3	10
95 and under 100	4	3	7
100 and over	2	5	7
Totals	803	680	1,483

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.—Official life tables dealing with the Maori population have been compiled for the first time. The investigation was based on the 1951 Census combined with the deaths for the three years 1950–52, and the (complete) expectation of life at various ages is given below.

Age	Males	Females
0	54.05	55.88
1	57.69	59.08
2	57.71	59.03
3	57.02	58.26
4	56.25	57.45
5	55.42	56.61
10	50.99	52.05
20	42.21	43.29
30	34.25	35.11
40	26.41	27.00
50	18.86	20.07
60	12.81	14.41
70	8.39	9.98
80	4.79	5.71

The expectation of life of Maoris is much shorter than that of the European population. A comparison at age 0 shows a longer expectation of 14.24 years for European males and 16–55 years for European females.

A similar table to the above for Europeans will be found in Section 4C.

Causes of Maori Deaths.—With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever, epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the European population, the most noteworthy examples being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system, and typhoid fever. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhoeal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality rate among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the European population. Principal among these are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis, the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral haemorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many Maori infants may be partly responsible, as the figures of deaths from malformations and the group “early infancy” taken in conjunction indicate a much higher rate for Maoris from these causes as a whole than for the European population.

The Introduction of the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death in 1950, together with the change to assignment according to the underlying cause of death, prevent accurate comparisons being made between the 1950 and subsequent mortality tabulations and those for earlier years. The following table shows the Maori deaths for 1950 to 1952 classified according to the Abbreviated List of the 1948 Revision.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Maori Population
Causes of Death	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Tuberculosis of respiratory system	194	129	111	17.13	11.08	9.23
Tuberculosis, other forms	60	39	38	5.30	3.35	3.16
Syphilis and its sequelae	9	4	4	0.79	0.34	0.33
Typhoid fever	5	2		0.44	0.17
Dysentery, all forms	7	2	3	0.62	0.17	0.25
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat	1		1	0.09		0.08
Whooping-cough	7	4	11	0.62	0.34	0.92
Meningococcal infections		8	2		0.69	0.17
Acute poliomyelitis		1	3		0.09	0.25
Measles			15			1.25
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	10	11	14	0.88	0.94	1.16
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	65	77	106	5.74	6.61	8.82
Benign and unspecified neoplasms	4	2	1	0.35	0.17	0.08
Diabetes mellitus	4	5	5	0.35	0.43	0.42
Anaemias	1	1	1	0.09	0.09	0.08
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system	31	51	44	2.74	4.38	3.66
Non-meningococcal meningitis	18	12	17	1.59	1.03	1.42
Rheumatic fever	9	6	14	0.79	0.52	1.16
Chronic rheumatic heart-disease	38	40	36	3.36	3.43	2.99
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart-disease	141	191	141	12.45	16.40	11.73
Other diseases of the heart	46	83	44	4.06	7.13	3.66
Hypertension with heart-disease	9	19	21	0.79	1.63	1.75
Hypertension without mention of heart	2	1	5	0.18	0.09	0.42
Influenza	20	14	22	1.77	1.20	1.83
Pneumonia	165	149	187	14.57	12.80	15.56
Bronchitis	27	30	65	2.38	2.58	5.41
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum	2	1	10	0.18	0.09	0.83
Appendicitis	5	4	3	0.44	0.34	0.25
Intestinal obstruction and hernia	10	13	9	0.88	1.12	0.75
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn	50	50	76	4.41	4.29	6.32
Cirrhosis of liver	5	1	1	0.44	0.09	0.08
Nephritis and nephrosis	19	9	23	1.68	0.77	1.91
Hyperplasia of prostate	1	2	5	0.09	0.17	0.42
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium	12	5	14	1.06	0.43	1.16
Congenital malformations	21	23	40	1.85	1.97	3.33
Birth injuries, postnatal asphyxia, and atelectasis	55	48	47	4.86	4.12	3.91
Infections of the newborn	8	12	14	0.71	1.03	1.16
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified	75	65	82	6.62	5.58	6.82
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined and unknown causes	27	32	21	2.38	2.75	1.75
All other diseases	96	73	104	8.48	6.27	8.65
Motor-vehicle accidents	26	29	44	2.30	2.49	3.66
All other accidents	74	61	68	6.53	5.24	5.66
Suicide and self-inflicted injury	7	6	9	0.62	0.52	0.75
Homicide and operations of war	3	9	2	0.26	0.77	0.17
Totals	1,369	1,324	1,483	120.87	113.68	123.37

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or a Coroner's inquest. As an indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925, out of a total of 867 deaths, 446, or 51 per cent, were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1952 the number so certified was 1,392 out of 1,483 registrations, equivalent to 94 per cent.

MAORI INFANT MORTALITY.—As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher and more variable than the European, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhoeal diseases. The infant-mortality rate for the first year of life was 77 per 1,000 births in the case of Maoris for the five years 1948–52, as compared with 23 per 1,000 among European infants. The decrease in the Maori infant-mortality rate during the years 1946 and 1947 is more apparent than real, as the birth figures on which they are based include a considerable number of late registrations of hitherto unregistered births (see p. 98).

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last eleven years are given in the next table.

Year	Maoris		Europeans
Year	Number of Deaths Under One Year	Rate Per 1,000 Live Births	Number of Deaths Under One Year	Rate Per 1,000 Live Births
1942	424	97.92	964	28.71
1943	399	89.86	951	31.37
1944	461	102.26	1,012	30.12
1945	413	88.93	1,036	27.99
1946	431	74.62	1,093	26.10
1947	365	73.18	1,122	25.04
1948	380	76.67	970	21.95
1949	422	85.82	1,046	23.78
1950	356	69.74	1,008	22.75
1951	357	68.16	1,017	22.78
1952	461	84.45	1,014	21.82

The next table shows for the year 1952 the principal causes of death of Maori infants in the various subdivisions of the first year of life. The classification is according to the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death.

Causes of Death	Under 1 Day	1 Day and Under 2 Days	2 Days and Under 1 Week	1 Week and Under 2 Weeks	2 Weeks and Under 3 Weeks	3 Weeks and Under 1 Month	1 Month and Under 2 Months	2 Months and Under 3 Months	3 Months and Under 6 Months	6 Months and Under 9 Months	9 Months and Under 12 Months	Totals
Tuberculosis									2	4	1	7
Syphilis	1											1
Dysentery, all forms								1		1		2
Whooping-cough								1	3	4	1	9
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic				1	1			1	2	3	1	9
Non-meningococcal meningitis								2	8	3	1	14
Influenza								2	5	3	1	11
Pneumonia, except of newborn							9	11	31	36	29	116
Bronchitis				1				1	8	7	5	22
Intestinal obstruction and hernia						1	1		1			3
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of newborn							3	2	22	24	13	64
Congenital malformations	5		2	2	4	1	1	2	5	3	3	28
Birth injuries	7	13	4	1							1	26
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis	14	2	4	1								21
Infections of the newborn	1		3	2		2	6					14
Immaturity unqualified	16	10	13	1				1				41
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy	9	4	8	2		1		2	5	2	3