THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1954

NEW morerows="" features in this issue of the Year-Book include a Section covering the results of the 1953 Census of Distribution and a short article on Gas Generation and Supply. Several Sections have been extensively rewritten—namely, Building and Construction, Imports, Roads and Road Transport, and Government Finance.

A short article on the Royal Tour is included as Appendix (d) to this volume.

My sincere thanks are due to all who assisted in the preparation and printing of the Year-Book.

G. E. WOOD,
Government Statistician.
Census and Statistics Department, 1 July 1954.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND CENSUS AND STATISTICS DEPARTMENT (OBTAINABLE FROM THE GOVERNMENT PRINTER, WELLINGTON)

Title	Latest No.	Date of Issue	Price Per Copy		Postage (Extra)
			s.	d.	s.	d.
* Published by the Customs Department. † £2 2s. per annum (post free). ‡ Cyclostyled copies showing numbers with overseas War Service, enumerated in each county, borough, and town district at the 1951 Census, are available on application (no charge) from the Department. § Being prepared for printing. NOTE.—This list is subject to revision from time to time.
New Zealand Official Year-Book	1954	September 1954	15	0	1	2
Pocket Digest of New Zealand Statistics	1953	April 1954	3	6		2
Annual Statistical Reports:
Population and Buildings Statistics	1952–53	February 1954	6	6		3
Vital Statistics	1952	September 1953	5	6		2
Justice Statistics	1952	May 1954	10	6		4
External Trade (Part A, Exports)^*	1949 and 1952	December 1953	15	0		5
External Trade (Part B, Imports)^*	1949 and 1952	April 1954	17	6		8
Shipping and other Transport Statistics	1949 to 1952	August 1954	13	0		4
Report on, and Analysis of, External Trade Statistics	1949 to 1952	October 1954	9	6		4
Farm Production Statistics	1952–53	June 1954	5	0		3
Factory Production Statistics	1951–52	June 1954	22	6		10
Insurance Statistics	1952	May 1954	4	6		3
Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics	1951–52 and 1952–53	June 1954	8	6		4
Industrial Accidents	1951 and 1952	^§
Income and Income Tax Statistics for the Income Year	1950–51	May 1954	9	0		4
National Income and Sector Accounts	1938–39 to 1953–54	August 1954	6	0		3
Balance of Payments	1950–51 to 1953–54	In the Press
Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand	1951–52	March 1954	15	0		7
Monthly Abstract of Statistics^†			4	0		2
Supplements:
Retail Trading Statistics (Sept. Abstract)	June Quarter	October 1954
Population Projections:
New Zealand (Incl. Maori) (December Abstract)		December 1953
Non-Maori (October Abstract)		November 1953
Factory Production Statistics (April Abstract)	1952–53	May 1954
Special Supplements:
New Zealand Life Tables (non-Maori) (July Abstract)	1950–52	August 1953	1	6		2
New Zealand Life Tables (Maori) (November Abstract)	1950–52	December 1953	1	6		2
Retail Prices in New Zealand (October–November) Abstract		December 1949	2	0		2
Census of Distribution, 1953	1953	April 1954	6	0		4
Maps of Urban Areas, 1951	1951	January 1953	20	0		3
Census of Public Libraries, 1949	1949	January 1952	2	6		2
Volumes of 1951 Census Results:
Vol. I. Increase and Location of Population	1951	April 1953	7	6		4
Vol. II. Ages and Marital Status	1951	January 1954	10	6		4
Vol. III. Religious Professions (Including Summaries for Dependent Children, Race, and War Service)	1951	November 1953	5	0		2
Vol. IV. Industries, Occupations and Incomes	1951	September 1954	12	6		5
Vol. V. Birthplace and Duration of Residence of Overseas-Born	1951	In the Press
Vol. VI. Maori Census	1951	^§
Vol. VII. Dwellings and Households	1951	August 1954	6	0		2
Appendix A. Census of Poultry	1951	February 1953	2	6		2
Appendix B. Life Tables 1950–52 and Values of Annuities	1951	^§
War Service^‡	1951	November 1953

LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

FOR some of the statistical series included in this issue of the Year-Book later information is available than is included in the body of the book. This later information is given in the following paragraphs, with references to the appropriate portion of the Year-Book containing more detailed information for earlier periods.

POPULATION

Inter-censal Population (p. 25).—Recent population changes are given in the following table.

POPULATION AT END OF YEAR

Year Ended	Males	Females	Total	Mean Population for Year
Total Population (Including Maoris)
30 June 1953	1,029,459	1,017,932	2,047,391	2,022,684
30 September 1953	1,036,246	1,024,443	2,060,689	2,035,903
31 December 1953	1,043,143	1,031,638	2,074,781	2,048,826
31 March 1954	1,049,963	1,037,777	2,087,740	2,061,376
Maori Population
30 June 1953	63,476	60,617	124,093	122,143
30 September 1953	64,010	61,158	125,168	123,132
31 December 1953	64,507	61,639	126,146	124,146
31 March 1954	65,141	62,243	127,384	125,174

The above figures are exclusive of the population of the Cook Islands, 15,657; Niue Island, 4,708; and Tokelau Islands, 1,753 (all at 31 March 1954), and the population of Western Samoa, 91,988 (at 31 March 1954).

Natural Increase.—Owing to the uniformly high levels in births in the last few years and the relative stability in the number of deaths, population gains from natural increase—i.e., excess of births over deaths—have been particularly marked in recent years, the excess of births over deaths in 1953 at 33,589 constituting a record.

Migration (pp. 26–29).—The total number of arrivals in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1954 was 125,096, while the total number of departures in the same year was 110,049. Excluding crews and through passengers, arrivals totalled 61,845 and departures 46,404, making the net excess of arrivals 15,441, as compared with 22,032 in 1952–53. A classification of total arrivals and departures gives the following results.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1953	1954
Migration: Arrivals
Immigrants intending permanent residence	29,005	24,896
New Zealand residents returning	18,570	17,443
Visitors—
Tourists	13,309	13,858
Others	5,356	5,648
Through passengers	5,645	7,448
Crews	55,231	55,803
Total arrivals	127,116	125,096

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1953	1954
Migration: Departures
New Zealand residents departing—
Permanently	6,271	7,048
Temporarily	18,315	18,277
Temporary residents departing	19,622	21,079
Through passengers	5,645	7,448
Crews	56,929	56,197
Total departures	106,782	110,049

Until 1953–54 recent statistics of the numbers of immigrants intending permanent residence had shown considerable increases, arrivals under this heading being 18,234 in 1950–51; 24,922 in 1951–52; and 29,005 in 1952–53. This upward trend was not only halted in 1953–54 but in fact a decrease of 4,109 was shown, or slightly more than the gain registered in 1952–53, arrivals in 1953–54 totalling 24,896.

The resumption of assisted passages for certain classes of immigrants is reflected in the statistics. The following were the numbers arriving under this heading over the past four years: 1950–51, 2,928; 1951–52, 4,949; 1952–53, 7,581; 1953–54, 6,299.

The numbers of assisted migrants, which had been steadily rising over the last few years, showed a substantial drop during 1953–54; unassisted migration fell 13–2 per cent, as against a decrease of 16–9 per cent in assisted migrants.

VITAL STATISTICS

Vital statistics for the calendar years 1952 and 1953 are shown, in summary form, in the following table. Statistics in more detail for 1953 and earlier years are given on pages 55–108.

—	1952		1953
—	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
* Infant mortality rates per 1,000 live births.
Births—
Europeans	46,469	24.77	46,414	24.12
Maoris	5,459	45.41	5,529	44.54
Total population	51,928	26.01	51,943	25.35
Deaths—
Europeans	17,413	9.28	17,009	8.84
Maoris	1,483	12.34	1,345	10.84
Total population	18,896	9.47	18,354	8.96
Marriages (total)	17,061	8.55	17,224	8.41
Infant deaths under one year—
Europeans	1,014	21.82^*	931	20.06^*
Maoris	461	84.45^*	404	73.07^*
Totals	1,475	28.40^*	1,335	25.70^*

Births.—The total number of births registered in 1953 (51,943) is the highest recorded in the history of New Zealand, exceeding the previous high total in 1952 by 15. The birth-rate, however, is still below the high figure of 27.70 recorded in 1947.

Population Projections by Age Groups.—A projection by age groups of the non-Maori population appears in Section 3 of this publication. The following tables present projections by age groups of the total population, also separate figures for the Maori population only. The same assumptions regarding immigration have been utilized for the total population projections, while no allowance for migration movement has been made in projecting the Maori population.

POPULATION PROJECTIONS BY AGE GROUPS (INCLUDING MAORIS)

Age Groups	December 1951			December 1962
Age Groups	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
(a) Assuming 10,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	129,350	122,600	251,950	136,050	128,950	265,000
5 and under 10 years	124,200	118,600	242,800	130,100	123,450	253,550
10 and under 15 years	105,850	101,300	207,150	125,700	119,950	245,650
15 and under 20 years	86,900	83,650	170,550	107,100	102,300	209,400
20 and under 25 years	71,900	68,100	140,000	89,700	85,000	174,700
25 and under 30 years	77,050	70,700	147,750	76,850	70,200	147,050
30 and under 35 years	81,150	75,000	156,150	81,050	72,850	153,900
35 and under 40 years	74,250	73,950	148,200	83,450	76,700	160,150
40 and under 45 years	70,300	70,950	141,250	75,400	74,700	150,100
45 and under 50 years	68,100	65,850	133,950	70,250	70,750	141,000
50 and under 55 years	59,200	56,600	115,800	66,500	64,700	131,200
55 and under 60 years	49,050	48,800	97,850	56,100	54,600	110,700
60 and under 65 years	37,050	41,700	78,750	44,700	45,950	90,650
65 years and over	90,460	107,370	197,830	91,210	114,260	205,470
Totals =	1,124,810	1,105,170	2,229,980	1,234,160	1,204,360	2,438,520
(b) Assuming 5,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	127,950	121,250	249,200	132,850	125,900	258,750
5 and under 10 years	123,150	117,750	240,900	127,700	121,250	248,950
10 and under 15 years	104,850	100,500	205,350	123,700	118,300	242,000
15 and under 20 years	86,000	83,000	169,000	105,200	100,800	206,000
20 and under 25 years	70,100	67,200	137,300	87,000	83,450	170,450
25 and under 30 years	74,250	69,450	143,700	72,250	68,050	140,300
30 and under 35 years	78,800	73,700	152,500	75,950	70,300	146,250
35 and under 40 years	72,650	72,800	145,450	79,500	74,250	153,750
40 and under 45 years	69,200	70,100	139,300	72,700	72,750	145,450
45 and under 50 years	67,350	65,300	132,650	68,400	69,350	137,750
50 and under 55 years	58,750	56,250	115,000	65,350	63,800	129,150
55 and under 60 years	48,800	48,600	97,400	55,400	54,050	109,450
60 and under 65 years	36,900	41,500	78,400	44,350	45,600	89,950
65 years and over	90,260	106,870	197,130	90,860	113,260	204,120
Totals	1,109,010	1,094,270	2,203,280	1,201,210	1,181,110	2,382,320
(c) Assuming no Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	126,550	119,900	246,450	129,650	122,850	252,500
5 and under 10 years	122,150	116,900	239,050	125,300	119,050	244,350
10 and under 15 years	103,850	99,700	203,550	121,750	116,600	238,350
15 and under 20 years	85,100	82,300	167,400	103,300	99,300	202,600
20 and under 25 years	68,300	66,350	134,650	84,300	81,900	166,200
25 and under 30 years	71,450	68,200	139,650	67,650	65,950	133,600
30 and under 35 years	76,450	72,350	148,800	70,800	67,700	138,500
35 and under 40 years	71,050	71,650	142,700	75,550	71,800	147,350
40 and under 45 years	68,050	69,250	137,300	69,950	70,800	140,750
45 and under 50 years	66,650	64,750	131,400	66,550	67,950	134,500
50 and under 55 years	53,300	55,900	114,200	64,200	62,900	127,100
55 and under 60 years	48,550	48,400	96,950	54,750	53,500	108,250
60 and under 65 years	36,800	41,300	78,100	44,000	45,200	89,200
65 years and over	90,060	106,420	196,480	90,410	112,360	202,770
Totals	1,093,310	1,083,370	2,176,680	1,168,160	1,157,860	2,326,020

POPULATION PROJECTIONS BY AGE GROUPS (MAORIS)

Age Groups	December 1957			December 1962
Age Groups	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Under 5 years	14,350	13,500	27,850	17,050	16,050	33,100
5 and under 10 years	11,350	10,800	22,150	13,950	13,200	27,150
10 and under 15 years	9,050	8,700	17,750	11,250	10,700	21,950
15 and under 20 years	8,150	7,800	15,950	8,950	8,550	17,500
20 and under 25 years	6,600	6,450	13,050	7,950	7,650	15,600
25 and under 30 years	5,250	5,350	10,600	6,450	6,300	12,750
30 and under 35 years	4,250	4,300	8,550	5,100	5,200	10,300
35 and under 40 years	3,300	3,350	6,650	4,100	4,200	8,300
40 and under 45 years	2,850	2,950	5,800	3,150	3,200	6,350
45 and under 50 years	2,700	2,350	5,050	2,700	2,750	5,450
50 and under 55 years	2,000	1,650	3,650	2,500	2,150	4,650
55 and under 60 years	1,500	1,300	2,800	1,750	1,450	3,200
60 and under 65 years	1,000	800	1,800	1,250	1,050	2,300
65 years and over	1,660	1,470	3,130	1,810	1,560	3,370
Totals	74,010	70,770	144,780	87,960	84,010	171,970

PRODUCTION

Farm Production

Estimated Areas of Principal Crops, 1954 Season.—Estimates of areas sown under wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes were collected in the spring of 1953 by inquiry from growers of these crops, and from these estimates, together with reports from Field Officers of the Department of Agriculture at the end of January 1954, total yields of wheat, oats, and barley are estimated. In framing these estimates of yields due allowance is made for areas not threshed (fed off, etc.). Following are the estimates for 1953–54, together with the final figures for the preceding season 1952–53.

—	1952–53 (Final Figures)		1953–54 (Estimated)
—	Area	Yield	Area	Yield
* Not available.
	(Acres)	(Bushels)	(Acres)	(Bushels)
Wheat	135,736	4,525,298	110,000	4,600,000
Oats	120,878	2,385,129	70,000	1,200,000
Barley	69,288	2,139,886	70,000	2,500,000
Peas for threshing	27,265	614,417 (Tons)	30,000	^* (Tons)
Potatoes	18,305	94,652	21,000	^*

These figures relate only to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries. In addition, in the case of potatoes, a fairly considerable amount in the aggregate is grown on smaller holdings and on holdings within borough boundaries.

Farm Production Statistics, 1953–54 Season.—The most striking feature of the 1953–54 statistics is the sustained increase in all classes of livestock. Dairy cows in milk, increasing by nearly 2 per cent, just failed to reach the 2 million mark, which will be a significant peak in the history of the dairy industry following on the first million mark having been reached in 1922. Details for the previous year are shown for comparative purposes; all figures relate only to holdings of one acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

	1953	1954
Dairy cows in milk at 31 January	1,962,492	1,999,100
Total dairy stock at 31 January	2,967,661	3,110,400
Total beef stock at 31 January	2,478,302	2,634,400
Total pigs at 31 January	627,830	648,900
Total horses at 31 January	158,065	158,300
	1952–53	1953–54
Sheep shorn	34,794,489	35,541,600
Lambs shorn	7,111,900	8,355,900
Lambs tailed	22,162,270	23,594,800
Grasses and clovers cut for hay Acres	570,659	515,400
Grasses and clovers cut for ensilage Acres	212,911	165,200
Lucerne cut for hay or ensilage Acres	93,570	89,100
Grassland top dressed (year ended 31 January)—	1953	1954
With artificial fertilizers only Acres	4,941,697	5,377,400
With lime only Acres	626,372	531,400
With both artificial fertilizers and lime Acres	1,597,834	1,546,300
Agricultural tractors at 31 January No.	52,495	55,600
H.P.	1,270,890	1,349,900

Timber Production

Timber Production (pp. 512–514).—Provisional figures issued by the New Zealand Forest Service indicate a continued high level of timber production for the year ended 31 March 1954, the output of rough-sawn timber being given as 572,200,000 board feet, a fall of only 0.8 million board feet below the output of the previous year. The output of the principal species was as follows: rimu and miro, 219,200,000 board feet; matai, 36,500,000 board feet; kahikatea, 16,300,000 board feet; beech, 16,800,000 board feet; totara, 14,800,000 board feet; tawa, 16,400,000 board feet; and radiata pine, 235,200,000 board feet. Indigenous species totalled 326,100,000 board feet, and exotics 246,100,000 board feet.

Factory Production Statistics, 1952–53

The main features of the 1952–53 figures are the declines in the total number of persons engaged and in overtime hours worked compared with 1951–52. A number of groups recorded decreases in employment, the principal being: Footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., furniture and fittings, leather and leather products, and rubber products. Significant increases in employment are noted in only three groups: Wood and cork products, machinery, and transport equipment.

Three of the groups mentioned above showing decreased employment also recorded a fall in “added value” over the previous year: Footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., leather and leather products, and rubber products.

In fifteen of the twenty groups overtime hours showed a decline over the previous year, particularly noticeable in footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., wood and cork products, and rubber products. The only significant increase in overtime worked was recorded in transport equipment.

Capital expenditure during 1952–53 was approximately £18 million, compared with £14.8 and £12.4 in 1951–52 and 1950–51 respectively.

One final point of some note is the drop recorded in the manufacturers' surplus—from £33.3 million in 1951–52 to £31.3 million in the latest year, mainly as a result of the fall in production in the groups registering declines in employment and “added value “.

This series of factory production statistics compiled by the Census and Statistics Department covers 80 per cent of the Labour force engaged in manufacturing activity. Actually the proportion of factory production covered by the survey would be greater than 80 per cent, in that all establishments of any considerable size are included.

The year covered by these statistics is in general that ending 31 March 1953, although concerns are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial years most closely corresponding to that period. In the case of dairy factories and meat-freezing works the years correspond to the respective seasons ending June and September 1953.

Summary (p. 554).—Following are the principal statistics of factory production for 1952–53, with comparable figures for the two previous years.

General Summary		1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Number of establishments		8,113	8,547	8,512
Persons engaged	No.	138,435	144,370	143,180
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	65,005,458	75,038,793	78,490,492
Materials	£	266,884,566	290,682,891	318,945,336
Other expenses	£	28,867,078	32,027,622	35,359,704
Totals	£	360,757,102	397,749,306	432,795,532
Value of output	£	380,200,428	431,038,354	464,064,555
Value added in manufacture (added value)	£	113,315,862	140,355,463	145,119,219
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	16,005,138	16,549,553	15,489,705
Volume of production index: base 1949–50 (= 1000)	1046	1119	1110
Premises and plant—
Value at end of year—
Land and buildings	£	50,573,475	56,982,657	63,278,850
Plant and machinery	£	37,043,374	40,797,235	45,828,724
Capital expenditure during year—
Land and buildings	£	4,751,816	5,370,345	6,775,499
Plant and machinery	£	7,624,114	9,426,892	11,301,031
Coal consumption as fuel	Ton	823,776	860,536	855,796

Principal Statistics 1952–53 (p. 572).—The following table gives the number of persons engaged, production costs, value of output, and added value for the year 1952–53, classified according to industry groups.

Industry Groups	Number of Persons Engaged	Production Costs				Value of Output	Added Value
Industry Groups	Number of Persons Engaged	Salaries and Wages	Materials	Other Expenses	Total	Value of Output	Added Value
		£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Food	25,757	16,323	167,942	9,384	193,649	200,396	32,455
Beverages	2,273	1,374	4,210	1,073	6,657	7,702	3,492
Tobacco manufactures	1,323	593	4,199	378	5,170	6,120	1,921
Textiles	7,768	3,783	14,881	2,002	20,666	21,759	6,878
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	24,166	9,748	21,101	2,177	33,026	34,770	13,669
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	12,220	7,156	14,424	3,210	24,810	27,783	13,360
Furniture and fittings	4,955	2,575	3,797	557	6,929	7,686	3,889
Paper and paper products	2,771	1,466	6,278	1,020	8,764	10,057	3,780
Printing, publishing, etc.	8,468	4,787	5,641	1,910	12,338	14,691	9,050
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	1,578	859	2,774	282	3,915	4,186	1,412
Rubber products	2,066	1,321	3,674	954	949	6,435	2,761
Chemicals and chemical products	4,580	2,614	14,317	1,908	18,839	20.902	6,585
Petroleum and coal products	250	155	1,133	115	11,403	1,506	373
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	5,847	3,512	5,000	3,002	1,514	12,930	7,930
Basic metal manufactures	822	520	1,694	304	2,518	2,761	1,067
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	6,191	3,761	7,985	1,246	12,992	14,588	6,603
Machinery (except electrical)	8,325	4,887	11,555	1,575	18,017	19,916	8,360
Electrical machinery and appliances	3,955	2,130	4,637	786	7,553	8,152	3,515
Transport equipment	17,279	9,733	21,983	3,018	34,734	37,938	15,955
Miscellaneous products	2,586	1,194	1,720	438	3,352	3,785	2,065
Totals	143,180	78,490	318,945	35,360	432,796	464,065	145,119

A further table is shown below for 1952–53, giving by industry group the value of premises and plant at the end of the year and capital additions and alterations during the year.

Industry Group	Land and Buildings		Plant and Machinery
Industry Group	Capital Expenditure During Year	Value at End of Year^*	Capital Expenditure During Year	Value at End of Year^*
* Includes estimated value for rented premises and machinery.
	£	£	£	£
Food	2,232,144	15,317,913	3,649,539	11,900,601
Beverages	234,188	1,875,220	529,637	1,949,412
Tobacco manufacture	33,999	424,899	72,720	345,803
Textiles	163,807	3,108,091	589,367	2,703,545
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	245,189	6,309,961	352,480	2,289,452
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	524,426	4,557,451	1,119,515	5,102,064
Furniture and fittings	127,653	1,920,354	122,394	707,181
Paper and paper products	137,689	1,329,452	214,201	1,349,500
Printing, publishing, etc.	275,273	3,462,582	776,589	3,314,978
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	21,642	525,587	63,702	303,967
Rubber products	148,367	1,458,579	352,303	1,723,972
Chemicals and chemical products	367,880	2,946,100	503,885	2,297,160
Petroleum and coal products	56,360	183,612	15,001	122,169
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	614,048	3,283,974	1,314,614	4,006,672
Basic metal manufactures	63,541	541,692	37,507	317,884
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	217,294	2,505,362	283,041	1,563,192
Machinery (except electrical)	401,800	2,944,849	433,525	1,787,326
Electrical machinery and appliances	130,155	1,389,557	225,912	632,049
Transport equipment	722,463	8,025,806	531,072	2,787,202
Miscellaneous products	57,581	1,167,809	114,027	624,595
Totals	6,775,499	63,278,850	11,301,031	45,828,724

Electric Power

Electric-power Statistics (p. 621).—Principal data covering all stations for the year ended 31 March 1953 are summarized below:—

Number of stations	97
* Calculated on revenue from retail sales only.
Persons engaged	5,197
Salaries and wages paid	£3,213,243
Number of consumers	622,439
Prime movers (total b.h.p.)	1,149,752
Generator capacity (main and standby) (kW.)	785,782
Revenue—
Revenue (excluding rates)	£15,765,858
Rates	£647
Total revenue	£15,766,505
Expenditure—
Operating	£9,176,605
Management and general	£1,655,262
Capital charges	£4,936,823
Total expenditure	£15,768,690
Capital outlay—
Total expenditure to date	£124,706,812
Expenditure during year	£17,772,187
Units (kWh.)—
Generated (000)	3,568,749
Generated per head of mean population	1,781
Sold (retail) (000)	2,841,457
Sold retail per head of mean population	1,414
Revenue per unit of retail sales^*	0,894d.

BUILDING ACTIVITY (pp. 601–608)

Building Permits in Urban and Rural Districts Combined.—The following table gives a summary for New Zealand of building permits (including State building operations) for the years ended 31 March 1953 and 1954.

—	1952–53			1953–54
—	New Dwellings: Number	New Dwellings: Value	Total, All Buildings: Value	New Dwellings: Number	New Dwellings: Value	Total. All Buildings: Value
		£	£		£	£
Urban districts	11,700	28,045,241	47,179,870	12,596	31,524,239	53,972,845
Rural districts	4,517	9,232,993	13,948,124	4,861	10,212,042	15,527,020
Totals	16,217	37,278,234	61,127,994	17,457	41,736,281	69,499,865

Building Permits Issued: Urban Districts.—Urban districts include all cities, boroughs, town districts, and the road district of Panmure Township, together with the counties of Waitemata, Manukau, Makara, Hutt, Paparua, Waimairi, Heathcote, Peninsula, and Taieri.

Year Ended 31 March	New Dwellings		Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Value	Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
		£	£	£
1952	12,443	27,762,908	18,516,483	46,279,391
1953	11,700	28,045,241	19,134,629	47,179,870
1954	12,596	31,524,239	22,448,606	53,972,845

Building Permits Issued: Rural Districts.—Rural districts include the remaining counties of New Zealand and the two Road Boards of Waiheke Island.

Year Ended 31 March	New Dwellings		Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Value	Value of Other Buildings and Alterations and Additions	Total Value of All Buildings
		£	£	£
1952	4,668	8,694,155	4,269,713	12,963,868
1953	4,517	9,232,993	4,715,131	13,948,124
1954	4,861	10,212,042	5,314,978	15,527,020

Dwelling Units Completed.—Local authorities supplying building permit figures were also requested to supply the number of dwelling units which were completed during the year. Estimates have been made in some cases where it was not possible to supply actual figures. While absolute accuracy for these statistics cannot be claimed, it is believed they will give reasonably approximate results, and also reasonably accurate comparisons of year to year changes.

The total figures on this basis for new dwelling units completed during 1953–54 were 16,600, compared with 16,100 in 1952–53 and 16,300 in 1951–52. Those completed in urban districts numbered 12,200 in 1953–54, and in the previous years quoted 11,900 in each year.

RECALCULATION OF GROSS FARMING INCOME, 1938–39 to 1952–53

All aggregative series compiled by the Census and Statistics Department are subjected to periodical review to ensure that they still serve a useful purpose in measuring changes in some part of the economy, and that they continue to measure those changes as accurately as possible. A series may be discontinued or superseded if its original purpose seems irrelevant to present conditions, or if the necessary information is no longer available. Changes in method may be adopted if there are changes in sources of information, or if new sources of greater reliability are discovered, or if inconsistencies in the old method are detected.

The underlying concept of Gross Farming Income was first examined, and it was decided that (within the assumptions and limitations set out on pages 429–431 of the present Year-Book) this series serves a clear and useful purpose.

A detailed examination of methods revealed some inconsistencies; it was also sometimes possible to find ways of simplifying calculations without reducing accuracy. Two changes in basic assumptions have been made: first, all prices have been taken “sacks in”, and the value of wool bales is now also included; second, in the case of “grasses and clovers cut for hay” and “grain crops cut for chaff”, production, with the exception of 20 per cent of oats and of grasses and clovers cut for chaff or hay, is now excluded from Gross Farming Income.

These changes have been incorporated in the recalculation of the value of Gross Farming Income, 1938–39 to 1952–53, the results of which are presented below. The total effect of the changes in method is not great, and it by no means invalidates comparison with figures given elsewhere in this Year-Book for earlier years. In addition to the changes already referred to, some further simplifications of method for 1951–52 and 1952–53 were introduced, but with little effect on the aggregates.

VALUE OF GROSS FARMING INCOME

Production Year	Agricultural Produce			Pastoral Produce			Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees			All Farm Produce
Production Year	Value £(m.)	Index of Value (Base: 1938–39 = 100)	Per Cent of Total	Value £(m.)	Index of Value (Base: 1938–39 = 100)	Per Cent of Total	Value £(m.)	Index of Value (Base: 1938–39 = 100)	Per Cent of Total	Value £(m.)	Index of Value (Base: 1938–39 = 100)	Per Cent of Total
* Provisional.
1938–39	8.3	100	12	31.4	100	44	31.0	100	44	70.6	100	100
1939–40	9.6	116	13	32.2	103	42	34.0	110	45	75.8	107	100
1940–41	10.3	124	12	38.6	123	45	36.8	119	43	85.7	121	100
1941–42	11.4	137	13	38.1	121	45	35.3	114	42	84.8	120	100
1942–43	13.3	160	15	38.3	122	45	34.2	110	40	85.8	122	100
1943–44	14.4	173	17	39.7	126	45	33.6	108	38	87.7	124	100
1944–45	16.4	198	16	47.0	150	45	40.3	130	39	103.7	147	100
1945–46	15.9	192	16	44.5	142	46	36.7	118	38	97.1	138	100
1946–47	15.9	192	14	51.6	164	46	44.6	144	40	112.1	159	100
1947–48	17.4	210	13	67.3	214	49	51.9	167	38	136.5	193	100
1948–49	18.6	236	13	69.8	222	47	58.2	188	40	147.5	209	100
1949–50	20.8	251	11	100.4	320	54	63.9	206	35	185.1	262	100
1950–51	20.8	251	7	199.2	634	68	71.5	231	25	291.6	413	100
1951–52	23.5	283	11	113.8	362	52	82.6	266	37	219.9	311	100
1952–53	24.4^*	294^*	9^*	144.5^*	460^*	55^*	93.3^*	301^*	36^*	262.2^*	371^*	100^*

EXTERNAL TRADE

Statistics of external trade in the calendar year 1953, in continuation of the statistics included in pages 261–315 of this Year-Book, are given below.

Total Commodity Trade.—Following are statistics of exports and imports in 1951, 1952, and 1953.

Calendar Year	Exports		Imports (c.d.v.)	Excess of Exports Over Imports
Calendar Year	New Zealand Produce	Total Exports	Imports (c.d.v.)	Excess of Exports Over Imports
* The corresponding c.i.f. values were £276,215,000 in 1952 and £192,143,000 in 1953.
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1951	246,394	248,127	187,758	60,369
1952	238,418	240,561	229,447^*	11,114
1953	233,210	235,596	163,503^*	72,093

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF TRADE

Calendar Year	Exports		Imports
Calendar Year	Value Index	Volume Index	Value Index	Volume Index
1936–38 (average)	100	100	100	100
1950	303	122	304	141
1951	409	109	398	157
1952	397	143	486	176
1953	389	129	346	133

The total trade per head of mean population in 1953 was £195 (exports £115 and imports £80)

Exports.—New Zealand's export commodity trade in 1953 was of a value a little below that of 1952, a decrease of 2 per cent in value being recorded between the two years. An indication of the movement in the value of exports in the main groups of commodities is afforded by the following table.

VALUE OF EXPORTS

Calendar Year	Butter	Cheese	Frozen Meat	Wool	Hides, Pelts, and Skins
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1951	41,362	16,650	25,394	128,176	12,862
1952	55,929	15,769	40,475	81,998	9,949
1953	51,385	18,373	39,881	84,370	10,692

Apart from the question of values, a special interest attaches to progress in the volume of our export trade in major export commodities. In the following table the fluctuations in the quantities of exports of butter, cheese, meat, and wool since 1943 are shown.

Calendar Year	Butter	Cheese	Frozen Meat	Wool
* Record. NOTE.—The figures do not include wartime supplies to Allied Forces under mutual-aid arrangements, a factor of particular importance in 1943 and 1944.
	Tons (000)	Tons (000)	Tons (000)	Tons (000)
1943	99.3	100.5	220.6	92.3
1944	115.3	77.7	207.8	84.2
1945	103.5	87.4	282.7	74.2
1946	101.8	75.7	337.7	163.1
1947	127.6	87.0	347.8	167.5
1948	135.6	75.6	343.5	188.0
1949	147.6	93.9	344.1	191.8
1950	137.5	99.9	338.1	175.9
1951	147.1	106.6	274.8	141.5
1952	183.5^*	91.3	385.5^*	195.6^*
1953	158.9	101.4	326.7	195.3

Direction of Export Trade.—The table below shows the destinations of New Zealand exports in 1953.

Country	Total Exports
United Kingdom	£(000) 157,894
Republic of India	960
Pakistan	46
Federation of Malaya	974
Hong Kong	104
British West Africa	140
Rhodesia, Northern	224
Rhodesia, Southern	327
Union of South Africa	597
Bermuda	84
British Guiana	107
British West Indies	1,425
Canada	2,934
Australia	4,655
Fiji	787
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	66
Tonga	216
Western Samoa	450
Other Commonwealth countries	203
Totals, Commonwealth countries	172,193
Belgium	3,465
Czechoslovakia	312
Denmark	420
France	15,670
West German Federal Republic	6,052
Greece	198
Republic of Ireland	978
Italy	4,946
Netherlands	2,412
Poland	3,626
Sweden	381
Spain	233
Switzerland	140
Philippine Islands	254
Japan	3,122
Belgian Congo	122
Egypt	149
Mexico	185
Netherlands Antilles	244
Panama Republic	295
United States of America	18,372
Society Islands	158
Tutuila	135
Other countries	829
Totals, all other countries	62,698
Ships' stores	706
Totals, all countries	235,596

Exports to Commonwealth countries in 1953 accounted for 73 per cent of the total experts, excluding ships' stores.

Imports.—The table following classifies imports by broad divisions.

IMPORTS VALUED AT CURRENT DOMESTIC VALUE IN COUNTRY OF EXPORT

Calendar Year	Food, Drink, and Tobacco	Apparel, Textiles, Fibres, and Yarns	Oils, Fats, and Waxes	Metals, Metal Manufactures, and Machines	Paper and Stationery	Drugs, Chemicals, and Manures	Vehicles (Including Parts and Tires)	Total^*
* Including classes not listed.
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
1951	21,775	44,242	11,665	49,754	10,078	7,455	18,550	187,758
1952	24,114	35,854	16,040	74,937	14,741	9,901	27,589	229,447
1953	20,028	24,108	13,633	53,717	8,189	7,163	15,245	163,503

Direction of Import Trade.—The next table shows the source (origin) of New Zealand's imports in 1953.

Country	Total Imports^*
* Provisional figures.
	£(000)
United Kingdom	92,334
Bahrein Island	2,881
British Borneo	511
Ceylon	1,938
Hong Kong	217
India	1,779
Pakistan	41
Malaya and Singapore	3,054
British West Africa	450
Kenya and Uganda	89
Tanganyika	45
Union of South Africa	1,090
British West Indies	442
Canada	2,289
Australia	23,659
Fiji	1,376
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	67
Nauru Island	413
New Zealand (re-imports)	45
Western Samoa	246
Tonga	43
Other Commonwealth countries	43
Totals, Commonwealth countries	133,052
Austria	585
Belgium	1,476
Czechoslovakia	171
Denmark	289
Finland	73
France	1,967
West German Federal Republic	1,967
Germany—Eastern Zone	262
Italy	877
Netherlands	1,143
Norway	420
Portugal	116
Spain	71
Sweden	1,975
Switzerland	1,372
Saudi Arabia	602
China	201
Indonesia	2,741
Formosa	260
Iraq	76
Japan	388
Siam	31
Tunisia	121
Brazil	66
Chile	65
Netherlands Antilles	141
United States of America	12,120
Venezuela	636
Other countries	239
Totals, all other countries	30,451
Totals, all countries	163,503

Imports from Commonwealth countries in 1953 comprised 81 per cent of the total.

DISTRIBUTION STATISTICS: MARCH 1954 QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADING (pp. 639–646)

The Census and Statistics Department's first quarterly sample survey of retail trade shows that retail stocks have been reduced since the end of 1953, though they are still above their 1952 value. On a quantity basis the reduction in stocks over the past year is quite substantial.

Sales during the first quarter of 1954 were at about a quarter of the value of sales in the year 1953. On a quantity basis the indications are that sales are somewhat less than a quarter of sales in the year 1953. However, there are considerable seasonal movements in retail sales, and until further quarterly surveys have been completed it will be difficult to draw firm conclusions from quarterly changes in turnover.

Following the Census of Distribution in 1953 a continuing quarterly retail sample inquiry has been inaugurated. The results of the census formed the framework from which a random sample of firms, stratified by broad geographical divisions and size of turnover, was drawn.

The results of the first of the quarterly inquiries are now available and relate to retail trading during the quarter ended 31 March 1954.

Hotel, motor vehicle and motor accessory trading are excluded from the sample inquiry, and also from the census figures quoted by way of comparison.

The actual sample inquiry is confined to 9 per cent of establishments, but these, on the basis of the census, represent approximately 29 per cent of total turnover. To provide the estimates presented in the following tables the figures have been expanded by suitable techniques to represent the activity of all retail stores.

The figures as published are of a provisional nature and final figures for the March quarter will be given later when provisional figures for the June quarter are released.

Turnover by Store-types.—The estimated turnover figures for the March quarter of 1954 represent in the case of most types of stores approximately one-quarter of the totals for the complete census year 1952–53. The turnover in furniture stores appears to have been at a lower level than that experienced in other types of stores, but grocers' stores on the other hand record increased turnovers.

The table which follows gives figures for both the census year 1952–53 and the March quarter of 1954.

TOTAL SALES OR TURNOVER £(000)

Store Type	North Island				South Island				Totals, New Zealand
Store Type	Auckland Urban Area	Wellington and Hutt Urban Areas	Remainder of North Island	Totals, North Island	Christchurch Urban Area	Dunedin Urban Area	Remainder of South Island	Totals, South Island	Totals, New Zealand
* The sample response in this case was inadequate, and the figures, while based on the returns received, should be accepted with reservation.
Year Ended 31 March 1953
Butcher, etc.	3,685	2,556	7,845	14,086	2,012	1,328	3,300	6,640	20,726
Grocer	7,474	6,126	15,872	29,472	4,628	2,314	7,517	14,459	43,931
Other food and drink	8,888	4,568	11,958	25,414	3,243	2,001	4,564	9,808	35,222
Boot and shoe	1,361	995	2,428	4,784	711	430	1,021	2,162	6,946
Other apparel	9,539	5,637	16,776	31,952	4,408	2,402	6,965	13,775	45,727
Furniture and soft furnishings	4,323	2,279	4,929	11,531	1,537	960	2,084	4,581	16,112
Household appliances, radios, etc.	1,441	1,090	2,865	5,396	695	511	1,090	2,296	7,692
Hardware, builders', etc.	2,363	3,565	5,546	11,474	839	,447	1,796	3,082	14,556
Chemist	1,649	917	2,565	5,131	695	439	1,012	2,146	7,277
General, departmental, and variety	11,964	4,520	30,085	46,569	6,862	2,915	12,379	22,156	68,725
Other	11,368	8,573	20,685	40,626	9,949	3,073	8,164	21,186	61,812
Totals	64,055	40,826	121,554	226,435	35,579	16,820	49,892	102,291	328,726
Quarter Ended 31 March 1954
Butcher, etc.	885	609	2,048	3,542	487	342^*	909	1,738	5,280
Grocer	1,903	1,516	4,232	7,651	1,206	599	2,022	3,827	11,478
Other food and drink	2,278	1,291^*	3,130^*	6,699	850^*	537	1,234	2,621	9,320
Boot and shoe	334	243	571	1,148	141	111	262	514	1,662
Other apparel	2,312	1,384	3,978	7,674	1,016	551	1,634	3,201	10,875
Furniture and soft furnishings	984	470	1,150	2,604	343	194	485	1,022	3,626
Household appliances, radios, etc.	359	314^*	751	1,424	164^*	120^*	264	548	1,972
Hardware, builders', etc.	612^*	802	1,343	2,757	193	104	418	715	3,472
Chemist	422	228	646	1,296	174	108	255	537	1,833
General, departmental, and variety	2,275	1,058	7,682	11,015	1,655	722	3,087	5,464	16,479
Other	2,690	2,083	5,452	10,225	2,828	746	2,001	5,575	15,800
Totals	15,054	9,998	30,983	56,035	9,057	4,134	12,571	25,762	81,797

The following table covering retail trading throughout the whole of New Zealand reflects to a certain extent both the seasonal pattern of trading (e.g., milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.) and changes due to other circumstances.

COMMODITY SALES OR TURNOVER OF RETAIL STORES

Commodity Group	Year Ended 31 March 1953	Quarter Ended 31 March 1954
* Information obtained in the quarterly survey indicates that “Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods” are divided in the following proportions: Men's and boys' wear, 28 per cent; women's, girls', and infants' wear, 59 per cent; household drapery, 13 per cent.
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)	£(000) 59,704	£(000) 15,867
Butchers' meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables	31,008	7,895
Other foods (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)	12,061	2,994
Milk, ice-cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.	10,151	3,042
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries	8,990	2,096
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)	8,765	2,177
Clothing, drapery, dress piece goods^*	57,348	13,501
Footwear	8,862	2,099
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, and household textiles	21,765	4,590
Musical instruments, including radios	4,681	1,062
Household appliances and electrical goods	9,501	2,525
Hardware—
Domestic hardware, china, and glassware	10,557	2,447
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)	13,105	3,254
Books, stationery, etc.	9,171	2,387

Stocks.—The Census of Distribution, together with the recent sample inquiry, provides stock figures as at 31 March of the last three years, and these are presented in the form of actual values and index numbers of actual value in the table which follows. The 1953 figures have been used as the base for the index numbers in order to highlight the stock changes between 1953 and 1954.

The figures show for 1954 a fall in stocks as compared with 1953, but an overall increase in value of stocks of 6 per cent as compared with 1952. The increased unit value of retail goods over this same period must be considered in comparing figures of values. An adjustment taking into account such retail price changes would possibly show a reduction in the physical volume of stocks as at March 1954 as compared with both 1953 and 1952.

Hardware stores recorded a substantial increase in the value of stocks held in 1953, but the 1954 figure was lower. The retail stores showing overall increases in the value of stocks in 1954 as compared with 1953 were mainly “Boot and shoe”, “Grocer”, “Other apparel”, and “Chemist”. Lower stocks were held in particular by “Household appliances, radios, etc.”, and “General, departmental, and variety”.

On a location basis Wellington is the only main centre to record an increase in the value of retail stocks over the last year. Christchurch showed the largest decrease.

VALUE OF STOCKS HELD BY RETAIL STORES AT END OF MARCH

—	Actual Value of Stocks			Index Numbers of Value of Stocks
—	1952	1953	1954	1952	1953	1954
Store type—		£(000)		Base 1953 (= 1000)
Butcher, etc.	378	441	342	857	1000	776
Grocer	4,520	4,585	4,721	986	1000	1030
Other food and drink	1,617	1,881	1,753	860	1000	932
Boot and shoe	2,321	2,468	2,665	940	1000	1080
Other apparel	14,640	15,119	15,563	968	1000	1029
Furniture and soft furnishings	4,328	4,391	4,400	986	1000	1002
Household appliances, radios, etc.	1,278	1,414	1,278	904	1000	904
Hardware, builders', etc.	2,778	3,743	3,457	742	1000	924
Chemist	1,403	1,541	1,568	910	1000	1018
General, departmental, and variety	12,851	14,256	12,986	901	1000	911
Other	11,974	14,527	12,837	824	1000	884
Locality—
Auckland urban area	10,427	11,197	10,567	931	1000	944
Wellington and Hutt urban areas	6,937	7,756	8,667	894	1000	1117
Remainder North Island	21,723	24,156	23,161	899	1000	959
Christchurch urban area	6,567	7,592	6,329	843	1000	812
Dunedin urban area	3,124	3,561	3,220	877	1000	904
Remainder South Island	9,310	10,104	9,626	921	1000	953
Totals, all retail stores	58,088	64,366	61,570	902	1000	957

FINANCE

Banking and Currency

Reserve Bank (p. 763).—Data showing the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand at the last balance day in May 1954 are shown below, together with the corresponding figures for the last balance day in March 1954.

—	As at Last Balance Day in
—	March 1954	May 1954
* Expressed in New Zealand currency.
Liabilities—	£	£
Total liabilities (including other)	183,860,452	176,282,890
Bank notes	68,003,566	68,143,405
Demand liabilities—
State	32,592,838	4,945,455
Banks	68,325,691	89,175,098
Other	5,261,207	4,018,151
Assets—
Total assets (including other)	183,860,452	176,282,890
Investments—
Sterling^*	23,715,975	23,715,975
Other	10,186,011	208,266
Sterling exchange reserve^*	78,210,556	89,512,207
Advances—
To the State or State undertaking	52,733,492	40,986,185
Other	10,635,467	13,936,943

Trading Banks (pp. 764–771).—The principal statistics of trading banks for the months of March and May are given below. Debits and clearings cover the monthly periods ended on the last Wednesday of the respective months, while the remaining figures are as at those dates.

—	As at Last Balance Day in
—	March 1954	May 1954
Bank debits—	£	£
Government	16,752,943	9,324,236
Other	114,816,862	95,556,801
Bank clearings	63,789,624	55,527,145
Advances, including notes and bills discounted	149,537,443	148,081,384
Unexercised overdrafts	103,506,801	111,854,060
Deposits—
Total	282,307,938	295,316,501
Government	2,948,606	3,067,256
Not bearing interest	238,597,622	251,235,723
Bearing interest	40,761,710	41,013,522
Reserve Bank notes—
Notes held by trading banks	10,655,293	10,948,318
Net note circulation	57,348,273	57,195,087
Ratio of advances to deposits	52.97	50.14

An analysis of advances of the trading banks at quarterly intervals is published by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and the classification as at the last Wednesday in March of 1953 and 1954 is contained in the following table. Figures for earlier years will be found on page 768.

Advances to	As at Last Wednesday in March
Advances to	1953	1954
	£(000)	£(000)
Farmers	20,621	24,609
Industries allied to primary production	20,316	20,840
Other manufacturing and productive industries	26,599	22,924
Merchants—
Wholesalers	16,846	14,848
Retailers	13,961	14,851
Transport	3,700	3,924
Other	36,358	44,409
Total advances	138,401	146,405

Overseas Assets of Banks (p. 774).—In the following table the revised series of overseas assets of banks (on account of New Zealand business only) are shown.

—	Overseas Assets at End of
—	March 1953	March 1954
	£(000)	£(000)
Trading banks' overseas assets—
In London	26,495	27,553
Elsewhere	4,074	4,597
Reserve Bank's overseas assets—
Sterling exchange	53,283	78,211
Other overseas assets	22,961	24,741
Total gross overseas assets	106,813	135,102
Overseas liabilities of trading banks	4,827	6,041
Overseas liabilities of Reserve Bank	52	51
Net overseas assets	101,934	129,010

Savings Banks (pp. 777–782).—A summary of statistics of savings banks at 31 March 1954 is given below.

—	Post Office Savings Bank	Trustee Savings Banks	National Savings Accounts
* On deposits held during year ended 30 June 1953.
Number of depositors	1,520,988	376,427
	£	£	£
Total amount of deposits during year	109,340,239	24,320,574	10,328,837
Total amount of withdrawals during year	99,134,784	22,958,139	9,629,595
Excess of deposits over withdrawals	10,205,455	1,362,435	699,242
Interest credited to depositors	4,442,620	915,421	1,839,437^*
Total amount to credit of depositors at end of March 1954	205,921,812	41,131,521	65,469,117

Post Office Savings-bank Accounts Classified by Amount Groups.—The following is a classification of the balances in Post Office Savings-bank Accounts at 31 March 1940, 1953, and 1954, shown by amount groups and percentage of accounts within each group.

—	At 31 March 1940	Percentage of Total	At 31 March 1953	Percentage of Total	At 31 March 1954	Percentage of Total
£ £
Under 1	769,312	80.09	352,323	23.71	354,389	23.30
1 and under 10	769,312	80.09	357,796	24.08	361,868	24.11
10 and under 50			281,505	18.95	286,944	18.87
50 and under 100	60,822	6.33	120,728	8.13	122,106	8.03
100 and under 200	50,286	5.24	119,387	8.03	124,204	8.17
200 and under 300	25,948	2.70	66,367	4.47	70,782	4.65
300 and under 400	15,552	1.62	43,889	2.95	46,286	3.04
400 and under 500	10,185	1.06	33,651	2.26	35,840	2.36
500 and under 600	8,163	0.85	26,583	1.79	28,151	1.85
600 and under 700	4,495	0.47	15,379	1.04	15,801	1.04
700 and under 800	3,214	0.33	11,488	0.77	12,241	0.80
800 and under 900	2,337	0.24	9,079	0.61	9,329	0.61
900 and under 1,000	1,788	0.19	7,250	0.49	7,826	0.51
1,000 and under 1,500	6,431	0.67	21,686	1.46	23,572	1.55
1,500 and under 2,000	6,431	0.67	10,004	0.67	10,702	0.70
2,000 and under 3,000	1,973	0.21	7,391	0.50	8,604	0.57
3,000 and under 4,000	46		834	0.60	1,433	0.09
4,000 and under 5,000	7		331	0.02	575	0.04
5,000 and over	6		181	0.01	335	0.02
Total number of Accounts	960,565	100.00	1,485,852	100.00	1,520,988	100.00

It will be noted that the actual number of accounts with balances of under £50 have increased from 769,312 in March 1940 to 1,003,201 in March 1954, but expressed as a percentage of the total accounts within this group showed a decline from 80.1 per cent in 1940 to 66.3 per cent in 1954. For the £50 and under £200 groups there were both absolute and relative increases over the period—i.e., from 111,108 or 11.6 per cent to 246,310 or 16.2 per cent. In the next groups £200 and under £500, the increases were more marked still, the numbers being almost trebled, and the percentage nearly twice as high, the figures being 51,685 or 5.4 per cent in the earlier year and 152,908 or 10.1 per cent for the later year.

The groups comprising balances within the range £501 to under £2,000 however exhibited the greatest percentage increase, from 3.0 to 7.1 per cent of the total, the numbers also showing a substantial increase from 28,401 to 107,622 during the period. Accounts consisting of £2,000 and over increased from 2,032 to 10,947, although prior to September 1952 interest was not paid on sums between £2,000 and £5,000.

Overseas Receipts and Payments.—The following statement gives statistics of exchange-control transactions for the years ended 31 March 1953 and 1954. Comparable items for the calendar years 1952 and 1953 are, however, given on pages 775–776. All figures quoted are taken from Reserve Bank sources.

—	Year Ended 31 March 1953		Year Ended 31 March 1954
—	Receipts	Payments	Receipts	Payments
Exports—	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)	£NZ(000)
Butter	48,424		50,412
Cheese	17,406		20,475
Meat	48,272		48,924
Wool	73,914		87,206
Total (including other)	227,078		239,872
Imports—
Licensed		48,007		38,404
Decontrolled		119,804		133,915
Government		29,153		25,141
Total (including other)		201,085		200,449
Transport: Freights, fares, ships' charters	1,851	3,000	1,520	1,216
Travel: Private and business (exclusive of fares)	1,686	4,862	1,605	4,783
Insurance—
Insurance	530	793	713	1,170
Reinsurance		614		598
Totals, insurance	530	1,407	713	1,768
International investment income—
Interest, dividends, and other private investment income	6,393	6,132	6,637	5,167
Interest on Government and local authority loans		2,719		2,866
Totals, international investment income	6,393	8,851	6,637	8,033
Government transactions—
Current expenditure by New Zealand Government overseas		7,845		9,890
Current receipts by New Zealand Government and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand	1,543		2,124
Totals, Government transactions	1,543	7,845	2,124	9,890
Miscellaneous current transactions—
Commissions, royalties, rebates, etc.	845	1,719	536	1,340
Films and entertainments		768		817
Unilateral transfers (immigrants' transfers, personal remittances, charitable, legacies, &c.)	6,865	5,038	5,571	5,689
Expenses of business firms	735	2,334	442	3,153
Other current transactions	1,341	408	705	694
Totals, miscellaneous current transactions	9,787	10,267	7,254	11,693
Capital transfers—
Private	4,211	3,858	2,799	2,899
Government		759	8,802	1,788
Local authority		76		154
Totals, capital transfers	4,211	4,692	11,601	4,841
Cook Islands exports or imports	209	105	101	89
Unidentified	−72		101
Grand totals	253,216	242,114	271,527	242,763

PUBLIC FINANCE

Summary of the Public Account for the Financial Years 1952–53 and 1953–54 (p. 697).—The source of the following table is parliamentary paper B-6, 1954.

Receipts	Year Ended 31 March
Receipts	1953	1954
* Expenditure from Public Works Account. † Transfer from National Development Loans Account. ‡ Sale or purchase of investments by Public Account. § A number of transfer entries, such as the annual transfer from Consolidated Fund to Social Security Fund and the transfers of the surplus for previous years which do not affect the overall cash surplus or deficit, have been excluded from both sides of the above statement. \|\| Excludes £12 million borrowed from trading banks.
	£(m.)	£(m.)
Taxation—
Income tax	78.7	80.8
Social security charge	45.5	49.7
Customs	27.3	26.3
Sales tax	22.0	21.1
Stamp and death duties	14.5	15.0
Other taxation	11.8	13.0
Totals, taxation	199.8	205.9
Interest	6.9	7.7
Profits from trading	1.5	1.8
Departmental receipts	15.3	16.7
Total Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund receipts	223.5	232.1
Receipts from borrowing (less repayments)—
Borrowing in New Zealand—
National Savings	3.2	2.9
Post Office Saving Bank^‡	4.5	11.5
Other borrowing^\|\|	10.8	21.4
	18.5	35.8
Overseas borrowing—
London and Australia		12.4
Totals, borrowing	18.5	48.2
Other capital receipts—
Transfer from Consolidated Fund for debt repayment	6.6	6.9
Sinking Fund contributions	3.3	3.7
Transfers from Consolidated Fund to—War Emergency Fund and Defence Funds	0.1	3.5
Public Works Account	6.0
Miscellaneous capital receipts	4.6	7.0
	20.6	21.1
Totals	262.6	301.4
Excess receipts of trading accounts, etc., within the Public Account	−1.9	7.5
Grand totals	260.7^§	308.9^§
Social services	98.0	105.7
Defence	26.5	29.0
Administration, etc.	22.5	21.9
Stabilization	14.7	14.5
Maintenance of works, etc.	14.6	15.1
Development of industry	12.9	13.2
Interest and management of the public debt	17.6	19.1
Transfer for repayment of the public debt	6.6	6.9
Transfer to Defence Fund		3.5
Transfer to Public Works Fund		6.0
Totals—Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund Expenditure	219.4	228.9
Works and other capital expenditure—
Housing construction^*	9.8	10.6
School buildings^*	4.8	5.9
Highways construction^*	3.3	3.3
Forest development^*	1.8	1.8
Electric supply^†	13.5	13.2
Land settlement^†		1.7
Railways^†^*	6.8	6.3
State coal^†	0.5	1.1
Post Office^†	2.9	3.6
Murupara Pulp and Paper Scheme^*^†	0.2	4.3
State Advances Corporation^‡	13.8	12.0
Other^*	3.6	3.4
	61.0	67.2
Purchase of miscellaneous investments not included above^‡	6.4	6.0
Totals	286.8	302.1
Overall cash surplus or deficit—
Sale of S.A.C. securities to trading banks^‡		−12.0
Withdrawn from Reserve Bank^‡		−10.0
Increase in cash (and imprest) balance		18.8
Decrease in cash (and imprest) balance	−16.1
	−26.1	6.8
Grand totals	260.7^§	308.9^§

Summary of Budget Proposals.—The presentation of the Financial Statement was made on 22 July 1954, principal changes from the existing situation being briefly recorded below.

Taxation: Income Tax.—The personal exemption is raised from £230 to £375, and for persons over 65 years from £230 to £420, that for a wife increased from £100 to £125, and for a child or other dependent relative from £65 to £75. The surcharge of 2 ½ per cent on income tax and the limit of £26 on tax saving from wife and child exemptions are abolished. The commencing rate for income tax is to be at the rate of 3s. in the pound on taxable balance instead of 2s. 6d. as in earlier years. The rebate provisions of previous years have now been absorbed in the higher exemptions.

Aggregation of incomes of husband and wife will not now apply if either has an income of less than £500, or their combined incomes do not exceed £1,000. In cases where wives have a personal income exceeding £500 a year only that part in excess of £500 will be added to the income of their husbands for purposes of assessing taxation.

The “A + B” system of assessing liability for tax where dividends are involved is to be abolished, the average rate system in use before 1942 being substituted for it. The allowance for farm improvements is increased from £200 to £300.

Land Tax.—The exemption limit is raised from £1,000 to £3,000 reducible by £1 for each £2 above that figure until exemption ceases at £9,000 (in lieu of £2,500). It is also proposed to change from a graduated to a “step” system of taxation and to reduce the rates considerably. Tax will be at the rate of 1d. in the pound on taxable balance up to £10,000; 2d. on the next £5,000; 3d. on the second £5,000; and a maximum rate of 4d. in the pound on any balance in excess of £20,000 (present maximum is 6d. in the pound).

Sales Tax.—This tax was removed by resolution of the House of Representatives from a large number of items, including soap, tooth paste, toilet brushes and combs, much sporting and athletic equipment, aerated waters and cordials, torches, rope, lawn mowers, table ware and kitchen utensils and tradesmen's tools.

Social Security.—It is proposed to amend the Social Security Act to provide for an increase of 10s. a week in the mother's allowance for widows with two or more dependent children; a similar concession will be extended to war widows.

Overseas Loans.—A further loan of £10 million is to be floated on the London market, most likely before the end of the year.

Geothermal Steam Project.—Agreement has been reached with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority for launching a joint enterprise for the production of heavy water and electric power, utilizing the geothermal steam at Wairakei.

Exchange Allocation Scheme.—It was announced in the Statement that the exchange allocation scheme for imports, operated by the Reserve Bank, will be terminated as from the end of 1954.

Estimates of Receipts and Expenditure for 1954–55 (p. 698).—The following table is a composite account embracing Works and Loans Accounts, Consolidated Fund, and Social Security Fund, and shows the estimated receipts and payments for 1954–55.

Estimated Receipts, 1954-55	£(m)	Estimated Payments, 1954–55	£(m)
* Includes operating expenses.
Works and Loan Accounts
Receipts		Expenditure
Revenue, departmental trading receipts, transfers, etc.		Hydro-electric	17.450^*
	22.160	Land settlement	10.240^*
National Savings, Post Office Savings Bank	16.000	State housing	11.300
Overseas loans	15.500	Education buildings	6.500
Internal loans	22.500	Railway construction, etc.	9.535
		Telephone and telegraph extension	5.000
		Roads and highways construction	0.950
		Forest development	1.920
		Murupara development	4.157
		State Advances	6.000
		Other works	3.505
Total	76.160	Total	76.557
Consolidated Fund
Taxation—		Interest and debt repayment	28.374
Customs	23.500	Permanent appropriations	4.760
Beer duty	6.000	Annual appropriations—
Sales tax	20.300	Stabilization	13.008
Film hire	0.100	Defence	25.000
Stamp duty	14.800	Development of primary and secondary industries	14.317
Land tax	1.200
Income tax	80.800	Social services (excluding transfer to Social
		Security Fund)	46.625
	146.700	Other votes	27.261
Other receipts—		Supplementary estimates	1.000
Interest	8.500
Trading profits	3.100
Departmental	16.500
Total	174.800	Total	160.345
Social Security Fund
Social security charge	53.800	Administration expenses	1.074
Miscellaneous	0.100	Emergency benefits and Christmas bonus	0.610
			1.684
			Monetary benefits—
		Age	22.500
		Invalids	1.625
		Widows	2.575
		Sickness	1.200
		Family	18.400
		Universal superannuation	6.900
		Other	0.178
		Medical, hospital, etc., benefits	12.620
Total	53.900	Total	67.682
		Over-all surplus	0.276
Grand total	£304.860	Grand total	£304.860

Consolidated Fund (pp. 699–701).—The following table contains a summary of the receipts and payments of the Consolidated Fund for the financial years ended 31 March 1953 and 1954.

—	1952–53	1953–54
Receipts	£	£
Taxation	154,262,345	156,195,535
Interest on capital liability—
Post and Telegraph	1,016,266	1,183,785
Electric supply	2,350,453	2,811,803
Housing and Housing Construction	1,051,927	1,162,394
Land settlement	1,535,737	1,578,210
Other accounts	193,053	140,086
Interest on other public moneys	746,157	869,604
Profits on trading undertakings	1,480,946	1,780,287
Departmental receipts	15,185,214	16,597,591
Totals, receipts	177,822,098	182,319,295
Payments
Permanent appropriations—
Civil list	159,125	143,739
Debt services—
Interest	17,320,982	18,128,182
Amortization	6,573,767	6,883,897
Administration and management	264,407	1,004,709
Superannuation (subsidy and contribution)	2,998,000	3,068,000
Miscellaneous	514,917	372,888
Totals, permanent appropriations	27,831,198	29,601,415
Annual appropriations—
Legislative	198,257	213,259
Prime Minister's Office	18,336	18,564
External Affairs	1,800,164	1,811,860
Finance—
Treasury	259,873	289,651
Stabilization	14,719,507	14,451,664
Customs	400,008	412,579
Inland Revenue	1,106,136	1,222,349
Audit	171,987	182,472
Totals, finance	16,657,511	16,558,715
General administration—
Public Service Commission	95,506	95,904
Internal Affairs	2,621,847	3,788,718
Island Territories	825,799	1,193,579
Printing and Stationery	1,789,180	772,365
Marine	465,401	516,491
Labour and Employment	3,101,213	2,168,884
Maori Affairs	838,867	805,108
Valuation	411,563	399,937
Census and Statistics	145,465	145,671
Rehabilitation	1,498,541	1,235,726
Totals, general administration	11,793,382	11,122,383
Law and order—
Justice	1,130,093	1,225,185
Crown Law	19,787	19,851
Police	1,520,914	1,758,820
Totals, law and order	2,670,794	3,003,856
Defence—
Navy	5,666,108	5,254,400
Army	11,005,104	11,840,860
Air	7,545,940	9,196,045
Defence construction and maintenance	2,263,954	2,721,184
Totals, defence	26,481,106	29,012,489
Maintenance—
Maintenance of public works and services	9,425,527	9,626,550
Highways maintenance	5,178,687	5,507,898
Totals, maintenance	14,604,214	15,134,448
Development of primary and secondary industries—
Lands and Survey	1,729,500	1,739,378
Forest Service	1,856,716	1,790,653
Agriculture	2,889,264	2,980,973
Milk Marketing	630,947	652,334
Industries and Commerce	388,923	378,070
Tourist and Publicity	1,253,834	1,337,037
Scientific and Industrial Research	1,009,572	1,089,808
Mines	146,423	122,110
Transport	714,647	789,985
Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services	2,263,271	2,323,174
Totals, development of primary and secondary industries	12,883,097	13,203,522
Social services—
Health	4,806,181	5,010,226
Subsidies to Hospital Boards	9,618,374	10,270,079
Education	18,123,697	20,782,208
War and other pensions	6,639,726	7,241,673
Payment to Social Security Fund	14,000,000	14,000,000
Totals, social services	53,187,978	57,304,186
Totals, annual appropriations	140,294,839	147,383,282
Unauthorized expenditure	389,018	31,618
Transfer to Public Works Account	6,000,000
Transfer to Defence Fund		3,500,000
Totals, payments	174,515,055	180,516,315
Surplus from current year's operations	3,307,043	1,802,980
Balance in Fund at end of year	10,447,745	8,943,682

The surplus for the year 1951–52 of £12,635,721 was expended during the 1952–53 year as follows: transfer to National Development Loans Account, £4,000,000; transfer to Public Works Account, £8,635,721. The corresponding surplus for the year 1952–53 of £3,307,043 was expended during the year 1953–54 by transfer to the Public Works Account.

Taxation (pp. 708–709).—Particulars of revenue from taxation for the financial years 1951–52, 1952–53, and 1953–54 are contained in the following table.

Item of Revenue	1951–52	1952–53	1953–54
* These totals do not include an amount of £889,406 (after rebate), being part of Customs duties at the rate of 3d. per gallon on motor spirits from 1 November 1953 to 31 March 1954, and paid into the Motor Taxation Account of the Deposits Account. This amount will appear in the 1954–55 figures of taxation, as it was transferred later to the National Roads Fund.
Consolidated Fund—	£	£	£
Customs	32,599,596	27,273,206	26,343,303
Beer duty	5,273,804	5,466,701	5,833,871
Sales tax	21,811,375	21,991,703	21,133,740
Film-hire tax	112,541	135,348	131,190
Highways	4,575,347	4,908,492	5,328,922
Stamp duties	5,207,577	5,702,526	6,327,042
Death (including gift) duties	8,117,259	8,767,857	8,682,376
Land tax	1,137,937	1,315,136	1,615,372
Income tax	78,101,503	78,701,376	80,799,719
Totals	156,936,939	154,262,345	156,195,535^*
Social security taxation—
Social security charge	43,612,868	45,507,938	49,717,376
Grand totals	200,549,807	199,770,283	205,912,911^*

A summary showing the amounts received from direct taxes on income and from all sources during the last eleven years is now given.

Year	Direct Taxes on Income (Including War and Social Security Charges on Income)					Total Taxation
	Amount	Per Head of Mean Population			Percentage of Total Taxation	Amount	Per Head of Mean Population
		£	£	s.	d.		£	£	s.	d.
1943–44	63,311,965	38	13	3	62.8	100,839,484	61	11	7
1944–45	68,438,477	41	2	3	63.0	108,681,814	65	5	10
1945–46	71,582,870	41	16	11	62.3	114,954,873	67	4	0
1946–47	63,873,162	36	1	7	56.5	113,119,046	63	18	0
1947–48	63,581,244	35	3	6	52.0	122,275,911	67	12	11
1948–49	78,386,057	42	10	3	60.1	130,440,249	70	14	11
1949–50	80,186,020	42	12	5	59.2	135,556,319	72	1	1
1950–51	95,208,075	49	12	10	60.3	157,946,975	82	7	1
1951–52	121,714,371	62	2	9	60.7	200,549,807	102	7	9
1952–53	124,209,314	61	16	3	62.2	199,770,283	99	8	3
1953–54	130,517,095	63	6	4	63.4	205,912,911	99	17	10

State Indebtedness (p. 728).—The public debt as at 31 March 1954 amounted to £706,461,822, an increase of £36,682.379 as compared with a year earlier. Of the 1954 debt figure, £89,880,637 was held in the United Kingdom, an increase of £9,999,544.

SOCIAL SECURITY AND WAR PENSIONS (pp. 174–205)

Revenue of the Social Security Fund for the year ended 31 March 1954, together with the 1952–53 figures in parentheses, was as follows: charge on salaries and wages, £28,714,790 (£26,650,922); charge on company and other income, £21,002,586 (£18,857,016); grant from Consolidated Fund, £14,000,000 (£14,000,000); interest on investments, £15,639 (£19,909); miscellaneous receipts, £105,956 (£100,389); total receipts, £63,838,971 (£59,628,236).

Payments from the Fund in 1953–54, with 1952–53 payments in parentheses, were: Monetary benefits, £48,626,205 (£46,306,272); emergency benefits and special assistance, £468,887 (£361,912); medical, etc., benefits, £10,607,046 (£10,428,597); Christmas bonus, £1,644,925 (£767,115); administration expenses, £1,017,140 (£957,558); other payments, £6,111 (£4,990). Total payments from the Fund were therefore £62,370,314 (£58,826,444). The balance in the Fund at the end of March 1954 was £12,428,167.

Particulars of the various social security benefits (monetary and health) and war pensions in force at the end of March 1954, together with total payments during the financial year 1953–54, are shown in the following table.

Class of Benefit or Pension	As at 31 March 1954		Payments During Year Ended 31 March 1954
Class of Benefit or Pension	Number in Force	Annual Value	Payments During Year Ended 31 March 1954
Social security benefits—
Monetary—	£	£	£
Superannuation	75,227	6,394,295	6,029,183
Age	122,205	21,901,580	19,922,234
Widows'	12,072	2,542,311	2,323,835
Orphans'	302	30,327	27,583
Family	290,480	17,446,229	17,618,581
Invalids'	8,194	1,643,634	1,488,425
Miners'	508	131,820	123,547
Sickness	4,395		1,086,241
Unemployment	17		6,575
Emergency	2,133		366,558
Totals	515,533		48,992,762
Medical—
Medical			3,085,749
Hospital			2,184,239
Maternity			924,616
Pharmaceutical			2,919,620
Supplementary			1,492,822
Totals			10,607,046
War pensions—
First World War	17,419	3,109,361	2,776,891
Second World War	24,766	2,349,674	2,107,575
War veteran's allowance	6,810	2,117,910	1,822,018
South African War	29	4,774	4,528
Mercantile Marine pensions	24	2,928	2,384
Emergency Reserve Corps	9	2,018	1,618
Kayforce	104	10,768	9,377
Totals	49,161	7,597,433	6,724,391
Sundry pensions and annuities	364	59,157	55,285
Grand totals	565,058		66,379,484

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 881–884).—Details of the consumers' price index for the calendar year 1953, and for each of the quarters ended 31 March 1954 and 30 June 1954, are given below.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX

Base: Weighted average twenty-one towns, first quarter, 1949 (=1000)

—	Calendar Year 1953	Quarter Ended 31 March 1954	Quarter Ended 30 June 1954
Food—
Meat and fish	1755	1853	1871
Fruit, vegetables, and eggs	1588	1460	1537
Other foods	1366	1459	1502
All foods	1509	1553	1598
Housing—
Rent	1181	1237	1237
Other housing	1243	1322	1322
All housing	1219	1288	1288
Fuel and lighting	1366	1469	1480
Clothing and footwear—
Clothing	1296	1329	1360
Footwear	1424	1459	1488
Clothing and footwear	1316	1349	1380
Miscellaneous—
Household durable goods	1165	1177	1181
Other commodities	1147	1151	1160
Services	1224	1282	1288
All miscellaneous	1177	1202	1208
All groups	1333	1377	1400

Share Prices (pp. 891–894).—Index numbers of share prices in 1953, together with the average for the three months ended March 1954, are given below.

Group	Index Numbers Base Average for Each Group, 1938 (= 1000)
Group	Average for 1953	Average for 3 Months Ended March 1954
Frozen meat	1864	2010
Woollens	1634	1790
Gas	624	565
Timber	1387	1379
Minerals	1135	1238
Miscellaneous (including breweries)	1196	1261
All industrial groups	1216	1279
Banks	1039	1165
Insurance	2080	2291
Loan-agency companies	2091	2287
Miscellaneous	1971	2116
All finance, etc., groups	1747	1918
All groups combined	1482	1598

Monthly statistics for the first five months of 1954 are given below, together with figures for the corresponding months of 1953.

SHARE PRICES MONTHLY INDEX NUMBERS, YEAR 1938 (=1000)

—	1953			1954
—	Industrial Groups	Finance Groups	All Groups	Industrial Groups	Finance Groups	All Groups
January	1178	1639	1408	1259	1895	1577
February	1162	1646	1404	1280	1917	1598
March	1162	1651	1407	1298	1942	1620
April	1165	1675	1420	1304	1953	1628
May	1185	1696	1441	1321	2023	1672

LABOUR STATISTICS

Wage-rates (pp. 899–902).—Index numbers of average nominal wage-rates of wage-earners in 1952 and 1953, and of adult male wage-earners as at 31 March 1954, are as follows.

Industrial Group	Base: All Groups 1926–30 (= 1000)
	Adult Males			Adult Females
	Average for Year		As at 31 March 1954	Average for Year
	1952	1953	As at 31 March 1954	1952	1953
Provision of—
Food, drink, etc.	2266	2416	2570	2235	2367
Clothing, footwear, and textiles	2143	2311	2460	2392	2581
Building and construction	2066	2227	2369
Power, heat, and light	2140	2298	2449
Transport by water	2367	2513	2680
Transport by land	2080	2238	2384
Accommodation, meals, and personal service	1917	2161	2319	2525	2783
Working in or on—
Wood, wicker, seagrass, and fibre	2177	2333	2487
Metal	2234	2424	2579
Stone, clay, glass, and chemicals	2010	2178	2326
Paper, printing, etc.	2283	2459	2627	2207	2388
Skins, leather, etc.	1975	2133	2275
Mines and quarries	2131	2285	2466
The land (farming pursuits)	2087	2150	2279
All groups combined	2143	2284	2432	2408	2611

Effective Weekly Wage Rates (p. 903).—The following table shows nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult workers for the years 1952 and 1953 and of males only for the first quarter of 1954. The base of the index numbers is in each case the average of the five years 1926–30 (= 1000).

Year	Retail Prices (All Groups)	Nominal Weekly Wage Rates		Effective Weekly Wage Rates
Year	Retail Prices (All Groups)	Males	Females	Males	Females
* Not available.
1952	1688	2143	2408	1270	1427
1953	1765	2284	2611	1294	1479
1954—
March quarter	1823	2432	^*	1334	^*

Average Rates of Wages (pp. 905–908).—The following table gives the prescribed minimum average weekly wage rates as at 31 March 1954, the series being confined to adult males.

Occupation	Average Wage (Four Principal Districts) at 31 March 1954
NOTE.—The following perquisites (as assessed for statistical purposes), as at 31 March 1954, should be added to the listed occupations: General farm hands, ploughmen, shepherds, and dairy-farm hands, 35s. per week for board and lodging; shearers and wool pressers, 7s. per day for rations; assistant stewards (first and second grade), chief and second cooks, able and ordinary seamen, 44s. 5d. per week as value of board and lodging; and hotel chefs and waiters, 41s. 10d. per week as value of board and lodging.
Adult Males
Bakers—	s.	d.
Journeymen	225	10
Labourers	190	10
Butchers—
First shopmen	241	1
Second shopmen	224	5
Butter-factory employees—Churning and butter making: General hands	192	10
Flourmilling—
Kilnmen	215	5
Assistant smuttermen	205	4
Rollermen	231	11
Meat freezing—
Slaughtermen, per 100 sheep	98	3
General hands	231	0
Meat preserving—
Boners	274	0
General hands	231	0
Sausage-casing making: General hands	238	4
Aerated water and cordial making—
Cordial makers	201	5
Bottle washers	191	11
Brewing labourers	209	0
Tailors—
Journeymen	220	0
Factory hands	220	0
Boot operatives	220	0
Woollen mills—
Spinners	223	8
General hands	199	10
Building—
Bricklayers	233	5
Carpenters and joiners	226	8
Plasterers	230	3
Plumbers (competent)	231	5
Builders' labourers	207	9
General labourers	188	9
Sawmilling—
Engine drivers	231	0
Sawyers	236	1
Tailers-out	215	0
Yardmen, head	231	0
General hands	210	10
Boatbuilding: Shipwrights	233	1
Metal works, etc.—
Boilermakers, journeymen	224	7
Iron and brass moulders	226	6
Tinsmiths, journeymen	224	7
Engineering fitters, etc.	227	1
Electrical workers	229	2
Motor mechanics	232	11
Printing—
Linotype operators (day)	236	6
Letterpress machinist (day)	227	4
Skin and leather workers—
Curriers	213	7
General hands	188	10
Mineral and stone workers—
Brickmakers	214	6
General hands	194	4
Mining (coal)—
Surface—
Screen worker	217	9
Miners (on day wages, per shift)	50	7
Truckers	211	4
Quarrymen	195	1
Agricultural and pastoral workers—
General farm hands	152	0
Threshing-mill hands, per hour	5	3
Ploughmen	152	0
Shearers (per 100 sheep shorn)	68	0
Shepherds	152	0
Wool pressers	245	8
Dairy-farm hands	185	0
Railways—
Engine drivers, average third and sixth years	244	4
Firemen, average second and ninth years	221	10
Guards, average first and third years	237	0
Tramways—
Motormen	211	9
Conductors	203	6
Shipping and cargo working—
Assistant stewards, first grade	204	3
Assistant stewards, second grade	200	7
Chief cooks	252	2
Second cooks	227	2
Able seamen	219	11
Ordinary seamen, first class	170	1
Waterside workers: Ordinary cargo	221	8
Hotel workers—
Chefs	216	10
Waiters	153	0
Miscellaneous—
Soft-goods assistants (male)	214	10
Grocers' assistants	205	10
Warehouse storemen	205	4

Aggregate Weekly Wage Payment in Industry (pp. 909–911).—The following data, showing the average weekly wage pay-out in industry, have largely been extracted from the half-yearly surveys conducted by the Department of Labour and Employment.

All Industrial Groups Combined	Pay-roll Strength, Males and Females Combined (Including Juveniles and Salaried Executives)	Weekly Wage Payout (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc.)
All Industrial Groups Combined		Aggregate	Average Per Person
* Does not include retrospective payments arising from the general order of the Court of Arbitration of 19 November 1953.
		£	£	s.	d.
1949 October	450,104	3,632,663	8	1	5
1950 April	459,698	3,780,634	8	4	6
October	457,028	4,016,485	8	15	9
1951 April	463,888	4,526,727	9	15	2
October	465,728	4,729,159	10	3	1
1952 April	475,975	4,945,724	10	7	10
October	474,316	5,050,689	10	13	0
1953 April	487,913	5,401,499	11	1	5
October	487,266	5,409,859	11	2	0^*
1954 April	502,442	6,145,327	12	4	7

Estimated Distribution of the Labour Force (p. 968).—The following table supplies an estimated distribution of the total labour force at 15 October 1953 and 15 April 1954.

Industrial Group	Males		Females		Totals
Industrial Group	October 1953	April 1954	October 1953	April 1954	October 1953	April 1954
Thousands
Primary industry	137.8	137.0	12.2	12.2	1500	149.2
Manufacturing industry	141.4	149.4	43.8	44.8	185.2	194.2
Power, water, and sanitary services	10.8	10.8	0.7	0.8	11.5	11.6
Building and construction	62.8	64.8	1.2	1.2	64.0	66.0
Transport and communication	68.5	69.0	8.1	8.4	76.6	77.4
Distribution and finance	84.9	86.8	39.0	40.1	123.9	126.9
Domestic and personal services	18.9	19.2	26.2	26.5	45.1	45.7
Administration and professional	54.3	54.6	49.1	50.2	103.4	104.8
Totals, in industry	579.4	591.6	180.3	184.2	759.7	775.8
Armed forces	10.6	10.9	10	0.9	11.6	11.8
Unemployed	0.1	0.1			0.1	0.1
Totals, labour force	590.1	602.6	181.3	185.1	771.4	787.7

Half-yearly Surveys of Employment (pp. 971–972). Following is a summary of the employment statistics as returned for 15 April 1954.

—	Primary Industry (Other than Farming, Fishing, and Hunting)	Manufacturing Industry	Power, Water, and Sanitary Services	Building and Construction	Transport and Communication	Distribution and Finance	Domestic and Personal Services	Administration and Professional	Totals, all Industries Covered
Male employees	10,428	131,182	10,810	44,579	50,596	63,303	11,237	41,066	363,201
Male working proprietors	350	8,300	6	5,032	1,647	8,313	2,840	631	27,119
Female employees	205	41,151	774	1,048	7,810	34,211	13,546	40,496	139,241
Female working proprietors	1	1,192		4	39	2,429	1,719	182	5,566
Number of establishments	611	12,095	241	4,716	2,457	13,459	4,278	3,540	41,397

The figures shown in the manufacturing industry column are further subdivided as follows.

—	Food, Drink, and Tobacco	Textiles, Clothing, and Leather	Building Materials and Furnishings	Engineering and Metal Working	Miscellaneous Manufacturing
Male employees	29,748	12,446	24,249	48,021	16,718
Male working proprietors	1,101	981	1,716	3,661	841
Female employees	6,540	22,662	1,321	4,614	6,014
Female working proprietors	462	556	25	73	76
Number of establishments	1,909	1,949	2,553	4,347	1,337

Limitations in the coverage of the figures shown above are noted on page 970.

Summary of Vacancies, Placements, and Disengaged Persons.—This table gives additional figures to those presented on page 977.

—	Vacancies at End of Month			Placements During Month			Disengaged Persons at End of Month
—	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Monthly average over calendar year—
1952	11,733	5,914	17,647	1,470	535	2,005	33	14	47
1953	7,944	3,455	11,399	1,361	530	1,891	67	18	85
Monthly total—
1954—
January	7,894	3,681	11,575	1,035	645	1,680	56	8	64
February	8,406	3,900	12,306	1,726	1,291	3,017	32	11	43
March	8,268	3,989	12,257	1,103	556	1,659	42	19	61
April	8,157	4,136	12,293	867	315	1,182	50	15	65

TRANSPORT

Shipping and Cargo Handled (pp. 327–336).—Statistics of entrances and clearances of vessels in the foreign trade in 1952 and 1953, and the total calls made in the foreign and coastal trade for the same years, are shown in the following table. The tonnage of cargo handled is also given.

—	Calendar Year
—	1952	1953
Entrances—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	704	673
Net tonnage	3,028,030	2,767,557
Clearances—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	726	676
Net tonnage	3,140,296	2,804,020
Total calls made—
Overseas—
Number of vessels	1,820	1,841
Net tonnage	7,640,410	7,257,775
Coastal—
Number of vessels	13,622	13,696
Net tonnage	4,621,963	4,451,465
Total—
Number of vessels	15,442	15,537
Net tonnage	12,262,373	11,709,240
Tonnage of cargo handled—
Inwards	6,783,072	5,811,371
Outwards	3,174,834	3,111,992
Transhipped	207,218	174,294
Total manifest tonnage	10,372,342	9,271,951

Statistics of shipping movement and cargo handled at New Zealand ports in 1952 and 1953 are given below.

—	Total Shipping Movement		Total Cargo Handed
—	1952: Net Tonnage	1953: Net Tonnage	1952: Tons	1953: Tons
	(000)	(000)	(000)	(000)
Auckland	4,698	4,406	3,351	3,028
Wellington	7,586	7,153	2,647	2,280
Lyttelton	4,562	4,400	1,169	1,024
Dunedin	2,007	1,797	649	536
Other ports	5,714	5,687	2,556	2,404
Totals	24,567	23,443	10,372	9,272

Railway Transport (pp. 339–347).—Summarized statistics of railway transport in the years ended 31 March 1952, 1953, and 1954 follow.

—	Unit	Year Ended 31 March
—	Unit	1952	1953	1954
* Including road motor and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
Railways	(000)	21,293	21,455	23,272
Railway road motor services	(000)	24,664	24,120	22,627
Tonnage of goods carried—
Timber	Tons (000)	744	819	772
Livestock	Tons (000)	639	647	631
Coal	Tons (000))
Lime and manures	Tons (000)	8,446	8,560	8,231
Other goods	Tons (000) J
Totals	Tons (000)	9,829	10,026	9,635
Net ton-miles run	Millions	1,069	1,063	1,034
Revenue—
Railway operation	£(000)	20,097	22,589	23,682
Total^*	£(000)	23,993	26,608	27,895
Expenditure—
Railway operation	£(000)	21,515	22,755	23,621
Total^*	£(000)	25,196	26,525	27,491

Road Transport (p. 361).—Statistics of motor-vehicles licensed at 31 March 1953 and 1954 arc as follows.

Class	As at 31 March
Class	1953	1954
Cars	305,672	323,641
Trucks—
Light	56,582	56,707
Heavy	44,459	46,258
Contract vehicles	2,106	2,164
Omnibuses	1,762	1,822
Taxis	2,233	2,258
Rental cars	1,638	1,706
Private-hire cars	352	289
Service cars	727	723
Trailers	44,137	48,675
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees (other than exempted
Government-owned vehicles)	45,564	47,287
Government vehicles	13,900	14,632
Motor cycles	25,546	25,754
Power cycles	3,651	3,972
Totals	548,329	575,888
Dealers' cars	2,312	2,443
Dealers' motor cycles	121	128
Grand totals	550,762	578,459

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS (pp. 997–1009)

As explained on page 998, since December 1951 the definition of an accident has been amended to include those in which the worker is absent beyond the day or shift on which the accident occurred.

Detail	Calendar Year 1951	Calendar Year 1952
Total number of accidents	33,489	37,201
Number of accidents resulting in—
Fatality	71	54
Permanent total disability	7	2
Permanent partial disability	820	493
Temporary disability	32,591	36,652
Accidents resulting in temporary disability—
(a) Duration of incapacity of—
Under 3 days	7,743	1,408
3 days and up to 1 week	8,668
Over 1 week and up to 2 weeks	10,274	11,354
Over 2 weeks and up to 4 weeks	7,900	8,507
Over 4 weeks and up to 6 weeks	2,766	3,007
Over 6 weeks and up to 13 weeks	2,802	2,750
Over 13 weeks	1,106	958
(b) Amount of lime lost—
Number of cases	32,591	36,652
Time lost, in days	789,636	753,365
Calendar days lost by all accidents where—
(a) Constant allowance for age is made in case of fatality or permanent disability	3,202,168	2,006,950
Average per case	96	54
(b) Actual age of person is taken into account in case of fatality or permanent disability	2,719,472	1,783,560
Average per case	81	48
Amount of compensation or damages paid—
Totals £	1,494,651	1,144,219
Average per case £	44.6	30.8

FIRE LOSS STATISTICS, 1952 (pp. 828–836)

A classification of insured property losses through fire during the calendar year 1952 is given below. The figures are comparable with those covering the year 1951 shown in Section 34c.

Type of Fire District	Number of Separate Fires	Gross Amount of Insurance Cover on Risks A fleeted	Gross Amount of Loss Paid on Risks Affected	Percentage of Loss Paid to Amount at Risk
		£	£
United urban fire districts	4,089	17,530,358	919,828	5.25
Urban fire districts	6,050	14,195,477	402,685	2.84
Secondary urban fire districts	559	625,457	74,192	11.86
Remainder of New Zealand	1,702	3,858,349	309,119	8.01
Floating and travelling risks	202	824,297	10,626	1.29
Totals	12,602	37,033,938	1,716,450	4.63

The principal causes of outbreaks during 1952 are set out in the following table.

Causes of Fires	Number of Separate Fires	Insurance Cover on Risks Affected	Amount of Loss	Average Loss Per Fire
		£	£	£
Electricity	2,624	6,499,494	133,598	51
Gas	257	618,942	19,866	77
Naked lights	175	329,145	17.481	100
Defective chimneys, etc.	629	2,903,488	61,420	98
Smoking and careless use of matches	1,857	5,187,239	79,332	43
Sparks from fireplaces	4,503	4,141,317	71.906	16
Heating, boiling-down	296	1,045,979	18,560	63
Inflammable spirits and materials	292	4,338,034	164,481	563
Incendiarism and arson	36	298,328	11,557	321
Outside causes	271	674,577	17,668	65
Other causes	30	669,538	7,139	238
Floating and travelling risks	202	824,297	10,626	53
Unknown causes	1,430	9,503,560	1,102,816	771
Totals	12,602	37,033,938	1,716,450	136

REHABILITATION (pp. 251–260)

The following table gives particulars of rehabilitation-loan authorizations for the years ended 31 March 1953 and 1954, and the totals to 31 March 1954.

Class of Loan	Number			Amount
Class of Loan	1952-53	1953–54	Total to 31 March 1954	1952–53	1953–54^*	Total to 31 March 1954^*
* Excludes suspensory loans.
				£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Purchase of farm, etc.	853	685	10,134	6,426	6,417	52,779
Housing—
Erection	1,349	1,289	20,419	6,628	5,579	61,801
Purchase	2,511	1,747	25,905
Tools of trade	14	10	1,469	1	1	49
Furniture	3,298	2,454	59,557	331	258	5,573
Business	428	264	10,963	326	228	7,070
Miscellaneous	29	25	658	4	2	131
Totals	8,482	6,474	129,105	13,716	12,485	127,403

Included in the foregoing total figures are 22,166 supplementary housing loans for £2,887,063. These loans, which are not repayable so long as the ex-serviceman or his dependants continue in occupation of the property, are granted to assist in bridging the gap between present-day costs and normal values, and each case is considered on its merits.

The figures shown in the table are exclusive of 6,984 suspensory loans (5,166 residential and 1,818 farm), amounting to £2,802,873 (£872,425 residential, £1,930,448 farm), made up to 31 March 1954.

EDUCATION (p. 149)

The following table shows the number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of New Zealand during the years 1952 and 1953. Registered private schools are included.

—	1952	1953
* Exclusive of students taking part-time courses with the Correspondence School, 1,227 in 1952, and 1,179 in 1953. † Includes 614 students taking short courses at the agricultural colleges in 1952 and 636 in 1953.
Primary schools	341,156	359,537
Post-primary schools	61,529^*	67,478^*
Technical classes (part-time)	26,349	30,637
Universities	11.305^†	11,467^†
Teachers' training college	2,710	2,769
Totals	443,049	471,888
Kindergartens	5,271	5,616

MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS

Radio Licences (p. 394).—The number of radio licences for receiving stations in force on 31 March 1954 was 501,756, and for all classes of radio licences 506,323, compared with 491,856 and 496,355 respectively at 31 March 1953.

Horse Racing (p. 723).—The number of racing days in the calendar year 1953 was 354. Totalizator investments totalled £38,611,000 in 1953 (£33,739,000 in 1952), while Government taxation totalled £3,563,000 in 1953 (£3,128,000 in 1952).

Land Transfers (pp. 400–402).—Transactions under the Land Transfer Act have been on a very heavy scale during the last three financial years. The average amount per transaction (town and suburban properties) in 1953–54 was £2,175, as compared with £2,082 in 1952–53 and £1,586 in 1951–52.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1952	1953	1954
Town and suburban properties—
Number	46,145	39,325	43,427
Consideration £	73,165,000	65,461,000	75,503,000
Country properties—
Number	10,464	9,053	9,188
Area Acres	1,848,602	1,616,781	1,675,617
Consideration £	35,965,000	35,241,000	38,915,000
All properties—
Number	56,609	48,378	52,615
Consideration £	109,129,000	100,702,000	114,419,000

Mortgages (pp. 791–801).—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last three financial years are shown below. In sympathy with the movement in land transfer registrations, mortgage registrations have been heavy during recent years. The 1953–54 figure of £70,910,000 showed a slight decrease on the total of £74,732,000 for the previous year.

Year Ended 31 March	Registered^*		Discharged^*
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Amount	Number	Amount
* Inclusive of duplicate registrations and discharges.
		£		£
1952	49,886	73,179,000	37,935	37,595,000
1953	50,659	74,732,000	34,160	31,401,000
1954	52,833	70,910,000	36,731	36,082,000

Justice.—Prisoners in gaols at end of calendar year (pp. 226–232): 1952, 1,113, or 5.50 per 10,000 of population; 1953, 1,115, or 5.44 per 10,000 of population.

Registration of Aliens (pp. 33–34).—The number of aliens on the register at 1 April 1954 totalled 23,148 (15,304 males, 7,844 females), compared with 1 April 1953 figures of 21,726 (14,732 males, 6,994 females).

Naturalizations (p. 32).—The number of certificates of naturalization issued to former aliens during the year ended 31 March 1954 was 136, compared with a total of 118 in the previous year. Certificates of registration as a New Zealand citizen were granted to 250 citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or of former aliens (228 in 1952–53), and 65 certificates of registration (38 in 1952–53) to minor children (either citizens of other countries of the Commonwealth or former aliens).

Chapter 1. SECTION 1—DESCRIPTIVE

Table of Contents

AREA AND BOUNDARIES.—The administrative responsibilities of New Zealand devolve over a large area, the land territories of which consist principally of a number of islands of varying size in the South Pacific Ocean, together with a large uninhabited tract in the Antarctic Ocean. While the two largest and most important islands, the North and South Islands of New Zealand, are separated only by a relatively narrow strait, the remaining islands or island groups are very much smaller and in general are widely dispersed over a considerable expanse of ocean.

The boundaries of New Zealand inclusive of its most outlying islands and dependencies range from the northern limit of the 8th degree of south latitude to south of the 60th degree of south latitude, the complementary extremes of longitude with origin Greenwich being from the 160th degree of east longitude to the 150th degree of west longitude.

The precise boundaries as they now exist were originally defined in the relevant proclamations, letters patent, and legislation mentioned in the pages immediately following; general statements are contained in the description next presented relating to those areas over which New Zealand exercises jurisdiction or administrative responsibility. In all instances the measurement of longitude refers to the number of meridians east or west of Greenwich.

In proceeding from north to south, the first area, including the Tokelau Islands some 300 miles north of Western Samoa or 2,300 miles approximately north by east of Wellington (the capital of New Zealand), extends from the 8th to the 10th degrees of south latitude and from the 171st to the 173rd degrees of west longitude. The second area encloses the Cook and associated islands distant from Wellington in a north-easterly direction approximately 2,100 miles Lower (Southern) Group to 2,800 miles (Northern Group and Niue). The Lower (Southern) and Northern Groups are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th degrees of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd degrees of south latitude. Niue Island is situated in latitude 19° 02′ south and longitude 169° 52′ west.

Then follows a third zone covering the trust territory of Western Samoa, which is some 2,000 miles distant to the north-north-east and contained within the 13th to the 15th degrees of south latitude and the 171st to 173rd degrees of west longitude.

Farther south, and slightly north by east from New Zealand, a matter of roughly 1,000 miles from Wellington, is situated the Kermadec Islands group. These islands lie between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude.

New Zealand as defined after the extension or boundaries in 1863 constitutes the fifth and principal area. Its boundaries extend from the 33rd to the 53rd degrees of south latitude and from the 162nd degree of east longitude to the 173rd degree of west longitude.

The sixth area relates to the Ross Dependency which is administered by New Zealand and consists' of the coasts of the Ross Sea with adjacent islands and territories between the 160th degree of east longitude and the 150th degree of west longitude, and south of the 60th degree of south latitude.

Jointly with the United Kingdom Government and the Government of Australia, New Zealand is responsible for the administration of the Trust Territory of the Island of Nauru. The administrative appointments for Nauru are made by the Australian Government, but New Zealand appoints a representative to the British Phosphates Commission, which controls the working of the phosphate deposits.

For statistical purposes, the following classification of the administrative area of New Zealand is the most convenient, the actual areas being also given. It should be noted also that statistics for “New Zealand” refer to the group of islands shown in (a) only, unless it is expressly stated that the other islands as a whole or in part are included.

New Zealand:—	Area in Square Miles
(a) Exclusive of Island Territories—
North Island	44,281
South Island	58,093
Stewart Island	670
Chatham Islands	372
Minor islands—
Inhabited—
Kermadec Islands	13
Campbell Island	44
Uninhabited (areas in parentheses)—	263
Three Kings (3). Snares (1).
Solander (½). Antipodes (24).
Bounty (½). Auckland (234).
Total New Zealand, exclusive of Island Territories	103,736
(b) Island Territories—
Tokelau Islands, comprised of	4
Fakaofo Island, Nukunono Island, Atafu Island
Cook and associated islands, comprised of—
Lower (Southern) Group	78
Rarotonga. Aitutaki.
Mangaia. Mauke.
Atiu. Takutea.
Mitiaro. Manuae and Te-au-o-tu.
Northern Group	12
Palmerston. Pukapuka.
Penrhyn. Suwarrow.
Manihiki. Nassau.
Rakahanga.
Niue Island	100
Total New Zealand, inclusive of Island Territories	103,930
Ross Dependency (Estimated)	175,000
Trust Territory of Western Samoa	1,133

The total area of the foregoing groups exclusive of the Ross Dependency and the Trust Territory of Western Samoa is 103,930 square miles. Elsewhere in this issue—viz., in the section on land tenure, settlement, etc.—the aggregate area of New Zealand appears as 66,390,700 acres—i.e., 103,736 square miles. The latter area does not include the Cook and associated islands or the Tokelau Islands.

The relevant Proclamations, defining from time to time the administrative area of New Zealand, are briefly referred to in the following paragraphs.

The Proclamation of British sovereignty over New Zealand, dated 30 January 1840, gave as the boundaries of what was then the colony the following degrees of latitude and longitude: On the north, 34°30′ S.lat.; on the south, 47°10′ S.lat.; on the east, 179°0′ E. long.; on the west, 166°5′ E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island, and of the extreme south of Stewart Island.

In 1842, by Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. The minor islands mentioned earlier were thus brought within the extended boundaries of New Zealand, being assigned to the appropriate province on the occasion of the 1847 Proclamation dividing the country into two provinces. The number of provinces was increased in later years, though all were finally abolished in 1875. By Proclamation bearing date 21 July 1887 the Kermadec Islands were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the then colony of New Zealand.

By Proclamation of 10 June 1901 the Cook Islands, and all the other islands and territories situate within the boundary lines mentioned earlier, were included as from 11 June 1901.

The territory of Western Samoa was formerly administered pursuant to a mandate conferred upon His Britannic Majesty, to be administered on his behalf by the Government of New Zealand, and confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations on 17 December 1920. Following the replacement of the League of Nations by the United Nations, a draft Trusteeship Agreement for Western Samoa was prepared by the New Zealand Government and submitted to the General Assembly of the United Nations late in 1946. This draft agreement replaced the original mandate and thus brought the Territory within the framework of the international trusteeship system established under the United Nations Charter. Under the new agreement the New Zealand Government assumed direct responsibility for the administration of Western Samoa. The agreement was approved by the General Assembly on 13 December 1946. Western Samoa is comprised of two large islands, Upolu and Savai'i, and the small islands of Manono, Apolima, Fanuatapu, Namu'a, Nu'utele, Nu'ulua, and Nu'usafe'e.

By Imperial Order in Council of 30 July 1923 the coasts of the Ross Sea (in the Antarctic regions), with the adjacent islands and territories between the limits specified earlier, were declared a British settlement within the meaning of the British Settlements Act 1887. This region was named the Ross Dependency, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. The dependency is uninhabited.

By Imperial Orders in Council of 4 November 1925 the Tokelau Islands (consisting of the islands of Fakaofo, Nukunono, and Atafu, and the small islands, islets, rocks, and reefs depending on them, a total area of only four square miles) were excluded from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and placed under the administration of the Governor-General of New Zealand. In accordance with a provision of the second of these Orders in Council, the Governor-General's authority and power in connection with the administration of the islands were, by New Zealand Order in Council of 8 March 1926, delegated to the Administrator of Western Samoa.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948, which came into operation on 1 January 1949, the Tokelau Islands were declared to form part of New Zealand. This Act emerged as the result of an agreement between the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES.—Coast Line.—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 280 miles at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coast line in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand landmass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

By reason of the latter fact the coast line is, on the whole, not greatly indented; and, as a consequence, New Zealand is not well endowed with natural harbours. In the North Island, Auckland and Wellington are the only two safe natural harbours of which the fullest commercial use can be made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several deep and sheltered harbours exist, but as the surrounding country is comparatively undeveloped they are of little economic consequence at present. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and to the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. Where vital localities have not been endowed with ideal harbours it has been necessary to improve existing facilities by dredging and by breakwater construction, &c. In this manner efficient ports, capable of accommodating overseas vessels, have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff harbours. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents. The mountainous nature of the country makes the haulage of goods to and from the better equipped natural harbours both costly and difficult, and the construction and maintenance of further ports at various points along the coasts of both Islands has been necessary, either by dredging river mouths or by harbour-construction work.

Mountains.—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 650 ft. contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (8,260 ft.), Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.), and Tongariro (6,458 ft.), they do not exceed an altitude of 6,000 ft. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu was particularly active from March 1945 to the end of that year, being responsible for considerable deposits of volcanic ash over a very wide area, while spectacular activity was exhibited by Ngauruhoe in 1949 and again early in 1953. In both cases violent eruptions alternated with quieter periods. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Cape Turakirae, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group, In the east the Colville and Moehau ranges parallel the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only country above 4,000 ft. on the west coast of this island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (12,349 ft.), while no fewer than seventeen peaks exceed 10,000 ft. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Raglan ranges, while to the north-east arc the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward

Kaikoura ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

As might be expected, the higher mountains of the South Island have exerted a greater influence on the economic development of the country than those of the North Island. For many years the Southern Alps were an effective barrier to communication by land between the east and west coasts, while their climatic effects on the Canterbury plains and Otago plateaux determined the types of cultivation undertaken. Moreover, the existence of much elevated open country led to the development of pastoral holdings on a large scale. While the mountains in the North Island are not as high nor as extensive as those of the South Island, in the early days they effectively isolated various portions of the coastal plains and valleys. Their effect on climatic conditions, however, is considerably less, the rainfall being more evenly distributed. Owing to this more even distribution of the rainfall, and to the existence of considerable areas of lower relief, the foothills of the mountain systems were heavily wooded, and so proved a hindrance to agrarian development.

In the 1931 issue of the Year-Book a list was given, not claimed as exhaustive, of 223 named peaks of 7,500 ft. or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 9,000 ft. in the South Island. The list has been compiled from various sources, and does not purport to be free from omissions.

Mountain or Peak	Height (Feet)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu	9,175
Egmont	8,260
Ngauruhoe	7,515
Tongariro	6,458
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges—
Tapuaenuku	9,465
Alarm	9,400
Southern Alps—
Cook	12,349
Tasman	11,475
Dampier	11,287
Silberhorn	10,757
Lendenfeldt	10,450
David's Dome	10,443
Malte Brun	10,421
Torres	10,376
Teichelmann	10,370
Sefton	10,354
Haast	10,294
Elie de Beaumont	10,200
Douglas Peak	10,107
La Perouse	10,101
Haidinger	10,059
De la Beche	10,058
The Minarets	10,058
Aspiring	9,975
Hamilton	9,915
Glacier Peak	9,865
Arguilles Rouges	9,731
Nazomi	9,716
Darwin	9,715
Chudleigh	9,686
Annan	9,667
Lowe	9,653
Haeckel	9,649
Le Receveur	9,562
Goldsmith	9,532
Big Mac	9,511
Conway Peak	9,510
Bristol Top	9,508
Walter	9,507
Grey	9,490
Green	9,307
Hutton	9,297
D'Archiac	9,279
Bell	9,276
Hochstetter Dome	9,258
Earnslaw	9,250
Nathan	9,200
Barnicoat	9,183
Sibbald	9,181
Arrowsmith	9,171
Spencer	9,167
The Footstool	9,073
Rudolf	9,039
The Dwarf	9,025
Darran Range—
Tutoko	9,691
Madeline	9,042

Glaciers.—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman glacier has a length of 18 miles and a width of 1 ½ miles. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (11 miles), the Mueller (8 miles), the Godley (8 miles), and the Hooker (7 ¼ miles), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 2,000 ft. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 9 ¾ miles and 8 ½ miles respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 670 ft. and 690 ft.

As will be realized, these glaciers are an important tourist attraction, and as such have definite economic significance. Moreover, those glaciers on the eastern slopes which feed rivers utilized for irrigation and hydro-electric purposes are valuable in that they help to ensure a steady volume of water throughout the year.

Rivers.—Of the numerous New Zealand rivers few are of sufficient length or volume to be navigable. Moreover, owing to the high relief of the country, they are mostly swift-flowing, while, as mentioned previously, nearly all are obstructed at their mouths by bars. For the purpose of internal communication, therefore, they are of little economic utility, and only in two or three isolated instances have they been thus consistently used. With improved roading conditions, however, their traffic has become negligible even in these cases.

As sources of hydro-electric power New Zealand rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of ice-free water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. At the present time the Waikato and the Mangahao in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes, and a further major development is now being undertaken on the Clutha. The characteristics just mentioned are also important for purposes of irrigation, but, owing to the country's reliable rainfall, there are few areas other than in Canterbury and Otago where the rivers are so utilized.

In the 1932 Year-Book appears an account of the rivers of New Zealand, but space in this issue is, however, available only for a list of the more important ones. The lengths of rivers shown have been recently revised and differ in many instances from those previously given. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

NORTH ISLAND

Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—	Miles
Piako	65
Waihou (or Thames)	95
Rangitaiki	95
Whakatane	65
Waiapu (from source Mata River)	75
Waipaoa (from source Waipapa Stream)	70
Wairoa (from source Hangaroa River)	85
Mohaka (from source Taharua River)	95
Ngaruroro	90
Tukituki	70
Flowing into Cook Strait—
Ruamahanga	90
Hutt	35
Otaki	30
Manawatu	120
Rangitikei	130
Turakina	70
Wangaehu	100
Wanganui	180
Waitotara	55
Patea	75
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
Waitara	85
Mokau	85
Waikato (from source Upper Waikato River)	270
Wairoa (from source Waiotu Stream)	115
Hokianga (from source Waihou River)	45

SOUTH ISLAND

Flowing into Cook Strait—	Miles
Aorere (from source Spee River)	45
Takaka (from source Cobb River)	45
Motueka	70
Waimea (from source Wai-iti River)	30
Pelorus	40
Wairau	105
Awatere	70
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean—
Clarence	130
Conway	30
Waiau-uha (or Waiau)	105
Hurunui	90
Waipara	40
Ashley	60
Waimakariri	100
Selwyn	50
Rakaia	90
Ashburton	70
Rangitata (from source Clyde River)	75
Opihi	50
Pareora	35
Waihao	45
Waitaki (from source Hopkins River)	135
Kakanui	40
Shag	45
Taieri	175
Clutha (from source Makarora River)	210
Flowing into Foveaux Strait—
Mataura	140
Oreti	120
Aparima (Jacobs River)	70
Waiau (from source Clinton River)	135
Flowing into the Tasman Sea—
Hollyford	50
Cascade	40
Arawhata	45
Haast	60
Karangarua	25
Cook	25
Waiho (from source Callery River)	20
Whataroa	35
Wanganui	35
Waitaha	25
Hokitika	40
Arahura	35
Taramakau	50
Grey	75
Buller (from source Travers River)	110
Mokihinui	35
Karamea	50
Heaphy	25

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of numerous rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the economic development of the country. Not only did it lead to an increase in population and in wealth, but, through the following of the numerous streams to their sources, it also led to the rapid exploration of large tracts of remote country. The exploitation of these deposits has been carried on with varying degrees of success up to the present time by both manual and mechanical means.

A further factor in connection with the rivers is that, owing to the very successful acclimatization of fresh-water fish, notably trout, many of them now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes.—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while those of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, are of interest by reason of the neighbouring thermal activity. Owing to the excellence of their fishing, the North Island lakes possess an added tourist attraction. In both Islands the larger lakes are situated at high altitudes, and their consequent remoteness renders them unsuitable as a means of communication. In their functions as reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect.

An article on the lakes of New Zealand will be found in the 1932 Year-Book. Some particulars of the more important are given in the following table.

Lake	Length, in Miles	Greatest Breadth, in Miles	Area, in Square Miles	Drainage Area, in Square Miles	Approximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Feet Per Second	Height Above Sea Level, in Feet	Greatest Depth, in Feet
NORTH ISLAND
Taupo	25	17	238	1,250	5,000	1,211	534
Rotorua	7 ½	6	32	158	420	915	84
Rotoiti	10 ½	2 ½	14	26	500	913	230
Tarawera	6 ½	6 ½	15	75		1,032	285
Waikaremoana	12	6 ¼	21	128	772	2,015	846
Wairarapa	10	4	27	1,250			64
SOUTH ISLAND
Rotoiti	5	2	2 ¾	86		1,997	228
Rotoroa	7	2 ½	8	146		1,470
Brunner	5	4	16	145		280	357
Kaniere	5	1 ¾	8	11		422	646
Coleridge	11	3	18	70		1,667	680
Tekapo	12	4	32	580	5,000	2,323	620
Pukaki	10	5	31	515	6,000	1,588
Ohau	10	3	23	424	5,000	1,720
Hawea	20	5	48	518	5,700	1,062
Wanaka	30	4	75	960		922
Wakatipu	52	3	112	1,162	13,000	1,016	1,242
Te Anau	33	6	132	1,320	12,660	694	906
Manapouri	12	6	56	416		596	1,458
Monowai	12	1	12	51	700	600
Hauroko	20	3	25	195	1,800	611
Poteriteri	17	2	17	162		96
Waihola	4 ½	1 ⅛	3 ⅓	2,200		(Tidal)	52
Ellesmere	16	10	107 ½	745		(Tidal)	45

GEOLOGY.—An article on the geology of New Zealand prepared by Dr. J. Henderson, M.A., F.R.S.N.Z., former Director of the Geological Survey, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. For more detailed information the reader is referred to the treatises of Professors Park and Marshall, the bulletins of the Geological Survey, and the many papers that have appeared in the “Transactions of the New Zealand Institute” (now the Royal Society of New Zealand).

EARTHQUAKES.—An article on earthquakes in New Zealand appeared in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book. The information given below has been supplied by Mr. R. C. Hayes, Director of the Seismological Observatory.

Seismicity and Earthquake Distribution.—A comparison between the records of destructive earthquakes in New Zealand and those in other seismic countries shows that the seismicity of New Zealand, on the whole, is surprisingly high. However, this is due to the occurrence of a large number of earthquakes of the semi-destructive type (M.-M. 7) with comparatively few major destructive shocks (M.-M. 8–12).

During the period 1835–1953, 80 destructive earthquakes are known to have occurred in New Zealand, 60 of which were of the semi-destructive type (not exceeding intensity M.-M. 7). Of the remainder, 14 were of intensity M.-M. 8–9 and 6 of intensity M.-M. 10–12.

The total number of earthquakes of all intensities, and the maximum intensity, reported felt in New Zealand in each of the years 1922 to 1953 were as follows.

Year	Number of Earthquakes Reported Felt	Maximum Intensity of Heaviest Shock
Year	Number of Earthquakes Reported Felt	R.-F. Scale	M.-M.^* Scale
* Modified Mercalli Scale of 1931, which is now used for recording earthquake effects in New Zealand.
1922	1,187	8	7
1923	76	6	5–6
1924	70	7	6–7
1925	76	8	7
1926	173	8	7
1927	107	8	7
1928	80	8	7
1929	678	10	10
1930	748	8	7
1931	432	10	10
1932	313	9	8+
1933	108	7	6–7
1934	230	9	8+
1935	150	7	6–7
1936	123	6	5–6
1937	179	6–7	6
1938	132	8	7
1939	157	7	6–7
1940	120	7	6–7
1941	107	8	7
1942	198	9+	9
1943	176	8	7
1944	95	6	5+
1945	127	7	6+
1946	302	8	7
1947	233	8+	7+
1948	127	8+	8
1949	97	6–7	6
1950	188	7	6–7
1951	226	8	7–8
1952	83	6–7	6
1953	133	8	7

The abnormally large number of earthquakes reported in the year 1922 was due to the swarm of local shocks in the Taupo region in the latter half of that year. Abnormally large numbers of shocks also occurred in 1929–30, due to aftershocks of the Buller earthquake of 17 June 1929.

Summary of Seismic Activity in New Zealand in 1952.—During 1952 earthquake activity was comparatively low and still showed signs of decreasing at the end of the year. There were no outstanding seismic disturbances. Early in the year several shocks originated at considerable depth beneath the region north and north-west of Lake Taupo. Activity was more or less continuous in various parts of Hawke's Bay region. The largest shock, which occurred on 28 August, was centred near the coast of southern Hawke's Bay and reached instrumental magnitude near 6. It was felt over most of the southern part of the North Island with maximum intensity M.-M. 6 in the Havelock North area. Several other shocks during the year reached felt intensity M.-M. 5 in southern Hawke's Bay. Some earthquakes originated off the west coast of the South Island between Cape Foulwind and Milford Sound, a region which is generally almost inactive. The strongest shock of this series occurred on 3 November, and reached intensity M.-M. 5 in the Hokitika area. On 14 September a shock in Marlborough Sounds reached intensity near M.-M. 6 in the vicinity of Picton. During August a series of small very local shocks was recorded by the Wood-Anderson seismograph at Karapiro, the strongest ones being felt slightly in the surrounding region. It is thought that they probably originated in the Morrinsville-Matamata area, where there have been occasional outbreaks of earthquake swarms in the past.

During the year 83 shocks were reported felt in New Zealand; 64 in the North Island and 26 in the South Island. Seven were felt in some part of both Islands.

Summary of Seismic Activity in New Zealand in 1953.—Earthquake activity in 1953 was rather higher than in the previous year and there were several abnormal seismic disturbances. On 24 March an unusually deep focus earthquake occurred with epicentre in North Taranaki. The depth of the origin was near 570 km. (354 miles), as compared with 370 km. (230 miles), the greatest depth previously recorded for earthquake activity in the New Zealand region. This shock was not felt, mainly on account of its very deep origin. During the latter half of June an earthquake swarm was experienced at Great Barrier Island. These disturbances were of very shallow origin and appeared to be more marked in the northern part of the Island. A large number of shocks occurred, but none appear to have exceeded intensity M.-M. 4. Local earthquakes are very infrequent in the region of Great Barrier Island. On 29 September a strong shock originated in the Bay of Plenty at a depth of about 300 km. (186 miles). The instrumental magnitude (7–7 ¼) was abnormally high for shocks at that depth and in consequence it was felt over a very large area; from the Coromandel Peninsula to Westland and north Otago. The maximum felt intensity (M.-M. 7) occurred in the East Cape Peninsula, where considerable minor damage resulted. As is usual in deep-seated shocks, the distribution of felt intensity was irregular. A shock with shallow origin on 4 July also reached intensity M.-M. 7 in the Tokaanu region, causing some minor damage. The perceptible area of this shock was comparatively small, being confined to the central and western parts of the North Island. On 18 October an earthquake originating some distance north of Taranaki affected a considerable area of the North. Island from near Helensville to Wanganui. It was felt in most of the Auckland area, Waikato, King Country, and Taranaki, with maximum intensity M.-M. 5 in coastal regions from about Kawhia to New Plymouth. Strong shocks in this region are very infrequent, but a few have occurred during the past hundred years. Other shocks during the year reached intensity M.-M. 5 at Wairoa on 12 January, Te Teko on 14 January, Porangahau on 7 April, Otaki and Farewell Spit on 11 April, and Waipawa on 29 October. In all, 133 shocks were reported felt in New Zealand during the year; 114 in the North Island and 24 in the South Island. Five of these shocks were felt in some part of both Islands.

Regional Distribution.—New Zealand earthquake statistics over the past hundred years or so show that certain parts of the country are subject to almost continuous seismic activity with occasional destructive shocks, while other parts are more or less free from seismic disturbances. By combining early earthquake records with the more precise data of later years it is possible to divide the country roughly into four seismic regions. These regions are classified below, in order of seismicity.

All areas of the North Island east and south of an approximate line from the vicinity of Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty to the vicinity of Hawera in South Taranaki, and all areas of the South Island north of an approximate line from the vicinity of Hokitika on the West Coast, through the region of Lake Coleridge, to Banks Peninsula:
South Auckland, western Bay of Plenty, Waikato, and Taranaki (except the southern portion):
Areas of the South Island, south of the boundary of region I:
Areas north of Auckland.

The following table shows the average frequency of earthquakes in each of the four regions defined above.

Region	Average Number of Earthquakes Per Year (1921–1940)	Average Number of Destructive Shocks Per Decade (1835–1940)		Relative Seismicity Based on Destructive Shocks
Region	Average Number of Earthquakes Per Year (1921–1940)	Minor Shocks (R.-F. 8)	Major Shocks (R.-F. 9, 10)	Relative Seismicity Based on Destructive Shocks
I	97.8	4.1	1.7	11.5
II	23.0	1.1		1.1
III	12.1	0.1		0.1
IV	1.1			0.0

The boundaries between the seismic regions are not well defined, since one region generally merges more or less imperceptibly into another. Further, seismic frequency is not uniform. This leads to the number of shocks being considerably above the average in some years and below it in others. The normal irregularity is increased by the occasional occurrence of earthquake swarms in certain regions. Probably the most notable swarm in New Zealand was that which occurred in the Taupo region in the latter half of 1922. The number of minor local shocks in this swarm was so great that only the stronger ones, or those affecting the adjacent region, were used in determining the average frequency of region I. Major earthquakes occur chiefly in the eastern and southern parts of region I.

Deaths Due to Earthquakes.—During the period 1848–1953 the number of deaths recorded in New Zealand as due directly or indirectly to earthquakes was 284. Of these, 255 were due to the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931.

CLIMATE.—The collection of climatic data for the use of Government Departments and the general public is a function of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. It maintains approximately 130 stations within New Zealand and 35 on islands of the South West Pacific for the recording of full climatic data, supplemented by approximately 950 stations in New Zealand and 130 in the Pacific Islands recording rainfall. Most of these stations are operated by public bodies, Government Departments, or voluntary observers. Additional records are provided by over a hundred stations which report by telegraph or radio for forecasting purposes.

A general description of the climate of New Zealand is contained in an article supplied by Dr. M. A. F. Barnett, O.B.E., M.Sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., Director of the New Zealand Meteorological Service, which was included in the 1942 and earlier editions of the Year-Book.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually in the Meteorological Observations. Work on this publication ceased during the war years, and this has delayed the appearance of recent issues, the latest available being that for 1948. Current statistics appear monthly in a climatological table included in the New Zealand Gazette.

The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

CLIMATOLOGICAL AVERAGES (OVER A PERIOD OF YEARS)

Station	Altitude	Average Annual Rainfall^*	Average Number of Rain Days	Average Bright Sunshine	Temperature in Shade, Degrees Fahrenheit
					Mean Daily Maximum			Mean Daily Minimum
					Jan.	July	Year	Jan.	July	Year
* Rainfall averages refer to standard period 1921–1950. † Normals relate to present site.
	Ft.	In.		Hrs.
Te Paki, Te Hapua	200	56.71	169	2,169	72.8	59.2	65.9	57.0	45.9	52.0
Auckland	160	48.80	182	2,059	72.8	56.7	64.9	600	46.1	53.2
Tauranga	10	53.42	152	2,376	74.5	57.4	66.1	54.7	40.1	47.6
Hamilton East	131	45.95	161	2,056	74.6^†	55.9^†	65.5^†	51.7^†	37.I^†	44.7^†
Rotorua	969	54.44	145	2,061	74.3^†	53.6^†	63.6^†	51.3^†	36.9^†	44.5^†
Gisborne	12	39.75	147	2,284	76.2	56.3	66.4	54.3	40.0	47.6
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana	2,100	76.90	183		68.1	47.6	58.0	52.0	37.7	45.0
New Plymouth	160	61.16	186	2,211	69.1	54.8	62.2	55.2	42.9	49.3
Napier	5	31.20	114	2,406	73.9	55.1	64.8	57.0	39.4	48.7
Taihape	2,157	36.93	179		68.2	47.2	57.9	50.1	36.1	43.2
Wanganui	72	34.32	155	2,182	71.0	54.2	63.0	55.9	41.0	48.9
Plant Research Bureau, Palmerston North	110	39.05	170	1,839	70.5	53.1	62.2	54.3	39.1	46.9
Waingawa, Masterton	340	38.01	142	2,091	74.3	53.3	63.7	50.5	35.8	43.4
Wellington	415	47.47	166	2,045	67.6	51.2	59.8	54.4	41.5	48.3
Nelson	24	38.63	116	2,490	71.2	54.2	63.0	54.5	37.1	46.1
Blenheim	12	25.84	110	2,449	73.0^†	53.5^†	64.0^†	53.2^†	35.6^†	44.9^†
Hanmer	1,225	45.25	133	1,966	71.6	48.2	60.9	47.8	29.0	39.1
Hokitika	12	110.40	197	1,898	65.3^†	51.7^†	58.8^†	50.9^†	35.6^†	43.8^†
Lake Coleridge	1,195	31.54	114		70.7	48.6	61.1	49.1	30.3	40.7
Christchurch	22	26.28	125	1,988	70.2	50.0	60.9	52.7	34.7	44.0
Timaru	56	23.46	116	1,927	70.0	49.4	60.7	51.4	33.4	42.8
Milford Sound	20	253.50	194		64.4	48.3	57.0	50.0	34.2	42.5
Queenstown	1,100	32.03	104	2,003	69.8	45.6	58.8	49.0	30.9	40.9
Alexandra	520	13.22	99	2,143	72.6	44.6	60.9	50.8	28.0	40.2
Dunedin	5	29.74	161	1,715	65.2^†	49.3^†	59.0^†	51.2^†	36.2^†	44.3^†
Invercargill	32	43.30	201	1,640	66.3	48.8	58.3	48.4	33.8	41.7

Brief Review of 1952.—Year.—The annual rainfall was mainly above normal over the North Island except in the far north and in western Taranaki. The surplus was greatest in central areas about Lake Taupo, in southern Hawke's Bay, and near Gisborne. Marlborough and most of Canterbury again experienced a very wet year, but over the remainder of the South Island rainfall was mainly below normal.

There was more sunshine than usual in two small areas around Dunedin and Ashburton, but elsewhere the year was cloudier than average. The sunshine deficit exceeded 100 hours for inland districts of the South Island and almost the whole of the North Island; Auckland's sunshine was lower than for any year since 1910. Temperatures were close to, or slightly above, normal, and only in parts of inland Canterbury were conditions appreciably warmer than usual.

Seasonal Notes.—January, February, and March continued a succession of rather cloudy months which, for many districts, had commenced the previous September. Exceptionally heavy rainfall in Northland caused serious flooding on 15 and 19 February. In many places, however, especially east of the main ranges, conditions were relatively dry over these three months and favourable for harvesting. Pip and stone fruits yielded good crops, but tomatoes and grapes suffered from lack of sunshine. The North Island potato crop was also disappointing. Butterfat production set a new record for the season.

In April and May spells of fine weather lasting about a fortnight alternated with cooler unsettled weather in the later part of each month. Dry conditions persisted in eastern districts, several places in the Gisborne district and Hawke's Bay having record low rainfalls for May. Dull stormy weather predominated from the beginning of June until 9 July. Although there was little rain on the east coast, it was a very wet period for the remainder of the North Island. A long spell of fine settled weather followed and lasted until the end of the month.

As a result of several months of low rainfall east of the ranges winter feed became very scarce and there were many deaths among hoggets and early lambs, particularly in Hawke's Bay. This dry spell came to an end early in August, when easterly winds prevailed, bringing considerable rain during the next six weeks. This latter period, however, was a very dry one for Westland, Southland, and Central Otago. Between Cromwell and Wanaka there was no measurable rain at all in August.

In the middle of September there was a change to boisterous westerly conditions. On 23 September occurred the only appreciable snowfall since mid-June; afterwards severe frosts were recorded in most inland districts. For the greater part of the country September was a very sunny month. In October spells of sunny weather alternated with beneficial rains. It was a warm month and contributed very favourable conditions for the spring season. Crops and pastures made excellent growth, and dairy production was at a high level.

By contrast, dull wet weather prevailed in November and the first half of December. Such widespread excess rainfall and lack of sunshine had not been previously experienced in November for at least fifty years. Eastern districts north of Otago suffered the most; but for Westland and Southland both months were comparatively dry and sunny. Over large areas of farm land the ground became waterlogged. Shearing was seriously delayed and many farmers were unable to cut hay. Blight affected many vegetable crops, particularly North Island potatoes. Conditions were more favourable in the far south, and Central Otago fruit growers were expecting a good harvest.

Conditions improved greatly in the west and south from the middle of December, and in the final week the whole country enjoyed a spell of warm settled weather.

Brief Review of 1953.—Rainfall was near to or above normal over the greater part of the country. The excess was greatest in Northern Wairarapa, Marlborough, and North Canterbury; for quite a number of stations in these districts this was the wettest year in over thirty years of records. Rainfall was appreciably below normal in Gisborne, northern Hawke's Bay, and most of Otago and Southland. The percentage deficiency was greatest in a small area surrounding the town of Gisborne.

Annual temperatures were generally above normal throughout the North Island, and in Nelson and Westland. The departure was as much as 1° F. in parts of Northland. The remainder of the South Island was slightly cooler than the average.

Sunshine was below average over the whole country. The deficiency exceeded two hundred hours over most of the North Island, and also over Nelson and Buller. For the cities of New Plymouth, Wellington, and Nelson sunshine was the lowest in over thirty years of records.

Seasonal Notes.—January followed the general pattern of the two previous months with warm sunny weather in Westland, but high rainfall in eastern areas. In many districts from North Canterbury to Hawke's Bay it was the wettest January for more than fifty years. Towards the end of the month there were serious floods in the Ashley, Clarence, Porangahau, and Manawatu Rivers.

Rainfall decreased generally in February, but conditions were predominantly cloudy and cool. March was a month of comparatively settled weather with more plentiful sunshine until near the end, when heavy rains affected most of the South Island. On the whole it was not a favourable season for primary production.

For the next three months the weather was cloudier than usual, and rainfall was above average over the North Island. April was cool and stormy, with an exceptionally high frequency of strong winds from Cook Strait southward. May and June were both comparatively mild.

July was a sunny month and also rather dry. However, heavy rain over the Auckland Province during 3–5 July caused serious flooding in the lower Waikato on 7 July, and some areas of farmland were under water for several weeks. Snow fell to low levels in eastern districts of the South Island on 10 and 11 July. August was cloudy and milder, and provided favourable conditions for lambing in the North Island. Stock wintered reasonably well in most districts, but were adversely affected by the waterlogged ground in the Auckland and Taranaki provinces.

The next three months were all comparatively dry. Temperatures were mild, apart from three exceptionally cold southerly changes which affected eastern districts of the South Island between 25 September and 7 October. Many lambs were lost in Southland and West Otago, while late frosts ruined a considerable proportion of the Central Otago fruit crop. The dry weather proved rather welcome at first, but in November strong winds dried up the ground and retarded pasture growth. For the provinces of Auckland and Hawke's Bay, December, like the previous month, was warm, with deficient rainfall; in some areas farmers complained of very dry conditions.

SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1952 were taken at 0900 hours New Zealand Standard Time—i.e., 2100 hours Greenwich Mean Time.

Station	Temperatures in Shade—Degrees Fahrenheit							Hours of Bright Sunshine	Rainfall
	Mean Daily Maximum	Mean Daily Minimum	Approximate Mean Temp.	Extremes for 1952		Extremes^*			Rainfall
	Mean Daily Maximum	Mean Daily Minimum	Approximate Mean Temp.	Maximum and Month	Minimum and Month	Absolute Maximum	Absolute Minimum		Total Fall (Inches)	No. of Rain Days
* Highest and lowest temperatures for duration of records.
Te Paki, Te Hapua	66.1	52.1	59.1	76.9 Feb.	29.9 July	80.2	27.0	1,992.0	49.44	177
Auckland	66.1	53.2	59.6	81.8 Feb.	36.9 July	90.4	31.9	1,785.0	50.29	177
Tauranga	66.0	49.0	57.5	89.2 Jan.	27.9 July	91.9	22.5	2,245.5	54.90	167
Hamilton East	64.8	44.9	54.9	82.1 Feb.	24.8 July	94.4	14.2	1,811.4	45.76	172
Rotorua	63.8	45.6	54.7	92.5 Jan.	27.0 June	98.0	21.3	1,925.1	58.87	164
Onepoto, Lake Waikaremoana	58.2	44.9	51.6	88.1 Jan.	32.0 May & July	88.1	22.2		85.51	211
Gisborne	65.9	47.6	56.8	85.9 Jan.	26.6 July	95.8	260	2,122.2	42.34	176
New Plymouth	62.2	49.9	56.1	78.8 Feb.	33.2 July	860	29.1	1,992.1	56.40	170
Napier	65.7	49.6	57.6	96.0 Jan.	27.9 June	96.5	27.5	2,223.0	30.46	120
Wanganui	63.3	49.3	56.3	81.9 Feb.	29.3 Aug.	88.0	28.8	1,987.3	36.84	149
Plant Research Bureau, Palmerston North	63.4	47.5	55.4	81.8 Feb.	27.6 July	87.0	21.2	1,685.6	40.28	158
Waingawa, Masterton	63.7	44.5	54.1	88.0 Feb.	23.5 June	95.4	19.5	1,991.3	44.81	172
Kelburn, Wellington	60.0	48.9	54.4	79.6 Feb.	33.3 July	88.0	28.6	1,877.6	47.95	145
Nelson Airfield	62.1	44.3	53.2	78.0 Jan.	22.4 June	92.0	22.4	2,365.3	39.96	127
Blenheim	64.1	44.6	54.4	88.4 Jan.	24.3 June	94.6	16.1	2,386.8	29.95	111
Hanmer	60.7	39.1	49.9	87.0 Feb.	16.6 June	97.0	8.2	1,859.7	46.84	149
Hokitika	59.2	44.1	51.6	74.0 Dec.	27.4 June	84.5	25.0	1,837.9	92.50	189
Lake Coleridge	60.1	40.2	50.2	84.2 Dec.	17.5 June	92.0	10.0		28.97	128
Christchurch	61.4	44.2	52.8	85.7 Feb.	23.4 June	95.7	19.3	1,898.3	25.62	123
Timaru	61.7	40.7	51.2	94.1 Jan.	23.6 June	99.0	19.8	1,789.0	28.30	91
Milford Sound	57.9	42.5	50.2	75.6 Jan.	25.4 June	79.8	23.1		254.67	183
Alexandra	62.1	39.9	51.0	90.9 Dec.	15.9 June	94.4	11.0	1,970.7	14.54	99
Musselburgh, Dunedin	58.5	44.4	51.4	85.5 Feb.	28.6 June	94.0	23.0	1,766.2	26.50	146
Invercargill	58.4	42.3	50.4	81.2 Nov.	23.6 Aug.	90.0	19.0	1,634.3	43.13	201

For 1952 the mean sea-level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hrs. New Zealand Standard Time were: Auckland, 1015.1; Wellington, 1013.1; Nelson, 1013.4; Hokitika, 1013.6; Christ-church, 1011.5; and Dunedin, 1010.7.

PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND.—Those desiring information on the flora and plant covering of New Zealand are referred to the article by Dr. W. R. B. Oliver, D.Sc., F.R.S.N.Z., which appeared in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, while a brief reference to the geographical distribution of the forest trees is made in the section of this Year-Book dealing with Forestry (Section 21). For more detailed information the following works may also be consulted: “Plants of New Zealand,” by R. M. Laing and E. W. Blackwell, ed. 4, 1940; “Manual of the New Zealand Flora.” by T. F. Cheeseman, ed. 2, 1925; “The Trees of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne and E. Phillips-Turner, 1950 (reprint); “The Forest Flora of New Zealand,” by T. Kirk, 1889; “New Zealand Trees and Shrubs and How to Identify Them,” by H. H. Allan, 1928; “New Zealand Ferns,” by H. B. Dobbie, ed. 4, 1952; “New Zealand Plants and Their Story,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 3, 1927; “The Vegetation of New Zealand,” by L. Cockayne, ed. 2, 1928; “The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants,” by L. Cockayne, 1923; “The Flora of New Zealand,” by W. Martin, ed. 3, 1947; “The Botanical Names of the Flora of New Zealand,” by A. Wall and H. H. Allan, ed. 2, 1950; “Grasses of New Zealand,” by H. H. Allan, 1936; “A Handbook of the Naturalized Flora of New Zealand,” by H. H. Allan, 1940; “Poisonous Plants in New Zealand,” by H. E. Connor, 1951; and numerous articles published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand.

FAUNA.—A brief article on the fauna of New Zealand, originally prepared by the late Mr. James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S., and revised by him in 1935, is contained in the 1940 and earlier editions of the Year-Book. Later publications dealing with this topic include “Native Animals of New Zealand,” by A. W. B. Powell, 1947, and “Introduced Mammals of New Zealand,” by Dr K. A. Wodzicki, 1950.

Chapter 2. SECTION 2—CONSTITUTION

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.—The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

At present (January 1954) the Executive Council consists of fifteen members in addition to the Governor-General. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

Under the Civil List Act 1950, which consolidated and amended the Civil List Act 1920 and its amendments, His Excellency the Governor-General receives an honorarium of £5,000 per annum, an allowance of £5,000 per annum for the salaries and expenses of his establishment (exclusive of the Official Secretary), plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travelling within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

In accordance with the recommendations contained in the report (issued in 1951) of the Royal Commission upon parliamentary salaries and allowances, the Prime Minister's salary as from 1 September 1951 was increased to £3,000 with a tax-free allowance of £1,000 for the expenses of his office and the Ministerial residence. In addition, while travelling on official business he receives £3 3s. per day to meet expenses, and by virtue of his office is entitled to free cars, secretarial assistance, and free postage. The salary of each Minister holding a portfolio is £2,000 with a tax-free expense allowance of £450, and that of each Minister without portfolio £1,650, with £400 tax-free expense allowance. Where the office of Minister of External Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister the expense allowance is increased to £600. Any Minister not occupying a Ministerial residence receives an allowance in lieu at the rate of £300 per annum. This allowance or the assessed value of the residence where one is provided is subject to income tax. Previously Ministers did not receive an expense allowance as such, but the Commissioner of Inland Revenue allowed a deduction from salary of £250 as an expense allowance. Ministers also receive an allowance of £3 3s. per day when travelling on official business.

The Civil List Amendment Act 1936 made provision for the appointment of Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, an innovation in executive control in New Zealand. The rate of salary attachable to such position is now £1,250, with the same house provision or allowances, and travel allowance while on official business, as for Ministers. An expense allowance of £350 is also payable. At the present time (January 1954) three such appointments are current.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.—The General Assembly now consists of the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council (in existence 1854 to 31 December 1950) having been abolished by the Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950.

Duration of Parliaments.—Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at three years. General elections have been held at three-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to five years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) and subsequent Parliaments to four years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the three-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to four years by the Prolongation of Parliament Act 1941. The Prolongation of Parliament Act 1942 extended the term still further to one year from the termination of the war, but with a proviso for a motion to be moved in the House of Representatives each year after the year 1942 either approving the continuation of the House or fixing an earlier date for its expiry. During the 1943 session a motion in favour of dissolution was carried, and Parliament was dissolved on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliaments has been of three years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved after the expiration of approximately twenty months.

Number of Representatives.—The number of members constituting the House of Representatives is eighty—seventy-six Europeans and four Maoris. They are designated “Members of Parliament.” The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than forty-two and not less than twenty-four, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of forty members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at forty-one; in 1860, at fifty-three; in 1862, at fifty-seven; in 1865, at seventy; in 1867, at seventy-two; in 1870, at seventy-four; in 1875, at eighty-four; in 1881, at ninety-one; in 1887, at seventy; and in 1900, at seventy-six. By the Maori Representation Act 1867, which is still in force, as embodied in the Electoral Act 1927, four Maori members were added, three for the North Island and one for the South.

Qualifications of Members.—Under the Electoral Act 1927 every registered elector of either sex, but no other person, is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. It is provided, however, that a person shall not be so elected who is disqualified as an elector under any of the provisions of the Act (see under “Franchise” post); or is an undischarged bankrupt; or is a contractor to the public service of New Zealand to whom any public money above the sum of £50 is payable, directly or indirectly (but not as a member of a registered company or incorporated body), in any one financial year. Though women's suffrage has been operative since 1893, women were not eligible as parliamentary candidates until the passing of the Women's Parliamentary Rights Act 1919, the provisions of which are now embodied in the Electoral Act 1927. Under the Electoral Act public servants were prohibited from being elected, but this prohibition was removed by the Political Disabilities Removal Act 1936, which provided that if elected they immediately cease to be public servants.

Salaries, &c.—The Civil List Act 1950 provided that, on a recommendation of a Royal Commission, the salaries and allowances of Ministers and Members of Parliament may be fixed by Order in Council, in which event the salaries and allowances so fixed will be payable instead of those specified in the Civil List Act 1950. In conformity with the recommendations of the Royal Commission issued in 1951 the honorarium paid to members of the House of Representatives has been increased to £900 per annum. They are also paid a basic allowance at the rate of £250 per annum for expenses incurred in connection with parliamentary duties and a sessional allowance of £150 per annum to all members except those representing the nine electorates in or around Wellington. To meet the higher travelling and other expenses for partly rural and predominantly rural electorates additional increments of £75 and £150 respectively are to be paid to members representing such electorates, subject to the classification of electorates by the Representation Commission into the four classes of (a) urban electorates in or near Wellington or Lower Hutt, (b) urban electorates other than Wellington electorates, (c) partly urban and partly rural electorates, and (d) predominantly rural electorates (refer Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances Order 1951). Payment to members is subject to certain deductions for absence not due to sickness or other unavoidable cause. In addition to the honorarium, members are entitled to certain privileges in respect of railway and other forms of travel, a stamp allowance of £4 a month, &c.

Part V of the Superannuation Act 1947 introduced a contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives, which provided a minimum retiring allowance of £250 per annum for a member with nine years' service, the allowance increasing by £25 per annum for every year's service in excess of that period until a maximum allowance of £400 per annum is reached after fifteen years' service.

A member must be fifty years of age before he qualifies, on ceasing to be a member, to receive the allowance. The annual contribution, which is compulsory, is £50 per annum, but a member may if he so desires receive a refund of his contributions upon ceasing to be a member.

In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of two-thirds of the retiring allowance to which her husband was entitled at the time of his death.

The election of a Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Both Speaker and Chairman of Committees hold office until a dissolution and receive payment until the first meeting of a new Parliament. The Speaker's remuneration is £1,600 per annum, in addition to which he receives an expense allowance of £500 and residential quarters in Parliament House. The honorarium of the Chairman of Committees is £1,300, and an allowance of £350 per annum to cover expenses incurred in connection with his parliamentary and official duties is also paid.

The Leader of the Opposition is paid a salary of £1,600 with an expense allowance of £400. In addition, a secretary and typist are provided by the State and an allowance of £150 is payable for travel outside his electorate. His official stamp allowance is £10 per month.

Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

ELECTORAL PROVISIONS. — Following each population census, which is normally taken every five years, New Zealand is divided anew into seventy-six European electorates. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time, by Proclamation, alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, but, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is the total population as disclosed by the census, with the following exceptions:

Maoris:
Persons detained in mental institutions:
Persons detained in prisons:
Persons on board ship:
Temporary guests in licensed hotels:
Persons residing temporarily in military, &c., camps:
Patients in public hospitals.

Provision exists for an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of 7½ per cent of the total population where districts containing the exact quota could not be formed consistently with consideration of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

These provisions, which differ considerably from those previously in force, are contained in the Electoral Amendment Act 1950. This Act also provided that all general elections and by-elections shall be held on a Saturday and for both European and Maori elections to be held on the same day. Previously the Maori elections were held on the day preceding the European elections. An amendment in 1951 provides for the polling hours in Maori electorates to be extended to 7 p.m., as in the case of European electorates.

The Electoral Amendment Act 1951 provided that, if at any time Parliament is dissolved before it has been two years in existence, the general and supplementary rolls used in the previous general election, together with a further supplementary roll, may be used if in the opinion of the Chief Electoral Officer it is impracticable to print new general rolls. The same rolls, together with a further supplementary roll, are to be used for any by-election occurring before the next following general election.

The latter amending Act also provides for the voting at elections and licensing polls by servicemen serving overseas who are or will be of, or over the age of, twenty-one years before the date of the election or poll, whether or not registered as electors of any electoral district. Each such serviceman shall be qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which is situated his usual place of residence before he last left New Zealand.

FRANCHISE.—Since the abolition of plural voting in 1889 and the introduction of women's suffrage in 1893 every person twenty-one years of age or over has had the right to exercise a vote in the election of members for the House of Representatives. To be registered as an elector a person must have resided for one year in New Zealand, and for three months in the electoral district for which he claims to vote. A system of compulsory registration of electors was introduced at the end of 1924, but for Maori electors a Proclamation was necessary before registration became operative. The Electoral Amendment Act 1948, however, provided for the preparation of rolls for Maori electoral districts, which, subject to and after notification in the Gazette that these rolls have been formed, shall be for all purposes the electoral rolls of the districts concerned.

There are, of course, slight exceptions to the foregoing, for, if a person is classified as one of the following, he or she is not entitled to register as an elector or to vote:

An alien:
A mentally defective person:
A person convicted of an offence punishable by death or by imprisonment for one year or upwards within any part of Her Majesty's dominions, or convicted in New Zealand as a public defaulter, or under the Police Offences Act 1927 as an idle and disorderly person or as a rogue and vagabond, unless such offender has received a free pardon, or has undergone the sentence or punishment to which he was adjudged for such offence.

The Electoral Emergency Regulations 1943 prescribed the following additional classes of persons who were not entitled to be registered as electors or to vote:

A person who was committed to military defaulters' detention and had not been discharged therefrom:
A person who was taken into custody under the Aliens Emergency Regulations 1940 and had not been released therefrom.

Maoris are qualified to vote only at elections of the four members representing the Maori race. A Maori half-caste is entitled to be registered either as an elector of a Maori or a European electoral district, while special provisions govern any changeover of registration.

By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937, which made provision for a secret ballot in Maori elections, Maori electors were granted the same privileges, in the exercise of their vote, as European electors.

For the system of local-government administration a modified form of franchise exists, a ratepaying qualification being necessary for the exercising of votes on financial issues. Further reference to this aspect of franchise will be found in Section 31 of this Year-Book.

Chapter 3. SECTION 3—POPULATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL REVIEW.—A population census was taken as for the night of Tuesday, 17 April 1951, in New Zealand, while censuses of its island territories were conducted by the Department of Island Territories for the night of Tuesday, 25 September 1951.

The minor islands (see page 2), other than the Kermadec Islands and Campbell Island, were uninhabited at the date of the census, as was also the Ross Dependency, situated in Antarctic regions.

The 1951 census population of geographic New Zealand (i.e., excluding Island Territories) was 1,939,472, inclusive of 115,676 Maoris.

For the Island Territories 1951 census figures were: Cook Islands and Niue Island, 19,632; Tokelau Islands, 1,580; Trust Territory of Western Samoa, 83,096. The total census population of New Zealand and Island Territories was 2,043,780. Armed Forces personnel overseas at the time of the census and not included in the population numbered 1,894 (Europeans 1,830, Maoris 64).

The figures contained in the following summary are the latest available.

—	Date	Males	Females	Totals
* Includes population of the inhabited minor islands—i.e., Kermadec Islands, 14 (males); and Campbell Island, 5 (males).
New Zealand—
(a) Exclusive of Island Territories—
Europeans	30 September 1953	972,261	963,301	1,935,562
Maoris	30 September 1953	63,982	61,136	125,118
Totals, New Zealand (excluding Island territories)	30 September 1953	1,036,243	1,024,437	^*2,060,680
(b) Island Territories—
Tokelau Islands	31 March 1953	785	886	1,671
Cook Islands	31 March 1953	7,963	7,380	15,343
Niue Island	31 March 1953	2,224	2,389	4,613
Totals, New Zealand (including Island territories)		1,047,215	1,035,092	^*2,082,307
Trust Territory of Western Samoa	25 September 1951	43,790	41,119	84,909

INCREASE OF POPULATION.—Since the commencement of European settlement in New Zealand the European population has in every year shown an increase, though the rate of increase has fluctuated considerably. As will be seen later in this section, the movement of Maori population has followed a different course. Census records for the last half-century are quoted in the succeeding table and include Maoris.

Date of Census	Numbers	Intercensal Numerical Increase	Intercensal Percentage Increase	Average Annual Percentage Increase
* Excludes New Zealand Armed Forces personnel overseas. † Includes New Zealand Armed Forces personnel overseas.
March 1901^*	815,853	72,646	9.77	1.89
April 1906	936,304	120,451	14.76	2.75
April 1911	1,058,308	122,004	13.03	2.52
October 1916^*	1,149,225	90,917	8.59	1.50
April 1921	1,271,664	122,439	10.65	2.27
April 1926	1,408,139	136,475	10.73	2.06
March 1936	1,573,810	165,671	11.77	1.13
September 1945^*	1,702,298	128,488	816	0.83
September 1945^†	1,747,679	173,869	11.05	1.11
April 1951^*	1,939,472	237,174	13.93	2.37
April 1951^†	1,941,366	193,687	11.08	1.91

In no fewer than four of the nine censuses covered by the above table the figures are disturbed by the absence overseas of Armed Forces in time of war. Increase during the intercensal period preceding the census is thus diminished and in the period following is augmented by the return of such personnel or, more accurately and regrettably, the survivors. Numbers of Armed Forces personnel overseas at the respective dates were: 1901, 2,500 (approx.); 1916, 44,000 (approx.); 1945, 45,381; and 1951, 1,894.

It will be noted that the growth of population has been substantial in each period. The lowest rates are those of 1926–36, a result of the great economic depression, and of 1936–45, which included six years of war.

Omitting movements of army and air force personnel but including naval crews, post-war increases in population have been—

	Numbers	Per Cent
* 2.39 for a full year.
1946	34,932	2.02
1947	33,716	1.89
1948	33,710	1.85
1949	38,363	2.07
1950	36,678	1.94
1951	43,392	2.25
1952	53,913	2.74
1953 (9 months)	36,157	1.79^*
Total	310,861

If the numbers of the first three quarters of 1953 are maintained in the fourth quarter, the year's gain will be slightly less than the gain for 1952, which was the highest in the history of New Zealand.

Sources of population increase are threefold—viz., enlargement of territory, excess of arrivals over departures, and excess of births over deaths or natural increase. The first is inapplicable to New Zealand, the second is dealt with later in this section, and the third is discussed in the section relating to vital statistics. One aspect of the latter may, however, be given here. This is the reproduction index which, though not free from error, is a convenient indication of the growth or decline of a population. It is based on female children born (gross rate) and probably surviving to maturity (net rate). A net rate of 1.0 indicates a stationary population; above unity a rising population and below unity a falling population.

Reproduction rates during the last three years were as follows, the figures relating only to the European population.

Year	Gross Rate	Net Rate
1950	1.650	1.587
1951	1.640	1.578
1952	1.717	1.652

A cautionary observation may be appended here. Though the total increase of population is the sum of natural increase and migration increase, certain discrepancies may be noted. The reason is that, following the census, revisions have been made to statistics of total population, but it has not been possible to make corresponding adjustments to migration or natural increase figures.

POPULATION PROJECTION.—It is of interest to note that New Zealand reached its first million of population in December 1908 and the second million in August 1952, the population thus having doubled in approximately 43¾ years.

Interest in the future population of New Zealand was such that it was obvious there was a real need for up-to-date forecasts. However, to produce forecasts of real value, considerable work is involved in making careful studies of trends in fertility, mortality, immigration, etc. To meet the needs of those wishing to make estimates based on probable future changes in population, the following provisional projections have been made for the total population, inclusive of Maoris. These are based on two assumptions:

That the annual rate of natural increase will be 15 per thousand persons living.
That the net inflow due to migration will be 10,000 persons per annum.

MEAN POPULATION FOR TWELVE MONTHS ENDING 31 MARCH (INCLUDING MAORIS)

Year	Estimated Population	Year	Estimated Population	Year	Estimated Population	Year	Estimated Population
	(000)		(000)		(000)		(000)
1953	2,010	1965	2,533	1977	3,159	1989	3,907
1954	2,050	1966	2,581	1978	3,216	1990	3,976
1955	2,090	1967	2,630	1979	3,275	1991	4,046
1956	2,132	1968	2,679	1980	3,334	1992	4,116
1957	2,174	1969	2,729	1981	3,394	1993	4,188
1958	2,216	1970	2,780	1982	3,455	1994	4,261
1959	2,260	1971	2,832	1983	3,516	1995	4,335
1960	2,303	1972	2,884	1984	3,579	1996	4,410
1961	2,348	1973	2,938	1985	3,643	1997	4,486
1962	2,393	1974	2,992	1986	3,707	1998	4,563
1963	2,439	1975	3,047	1987	3,773	1999	4,642
1964	2,486	1976	3,102	1988	3,840	2000	4,721

It should be remembered that while these figures give a reliable indication of what will happen if the assumptions given above are realized, the sex and age groupings for the total population was not available at the time of writing. A compilation has however been made for the non-Maori population, and details are given under the next heading. Maori life tables are now being compiled and, when these are completed, it will be possible to prepare similar projections for the Maori section of the population. Meantime, it is not advisable to try to estimate future Maori population by deducting one projection from the other.

NOTE.—Projections by age-groups for the total and the Maori population have since become available; refer to latest statistical information.

European Population Projection by Age Groups.—In preparing the projection of the non-Maori population to December 1957 and December 1962, chances of survival for the existing population, for net immigration, and for births have been calculated from the 1950–52 life tables for non-Maori lives.

Three alternative assumptions are made with regard to immigration:

A net inflow of 10,000 per annum.
A net inflow of 5,000 per annum.
Emigration balances immigration.

In each case the age and sex distribution of the net inflow have been assumed to be the same as for the period 1934–53. During the last five years the net inflow has averaged 11,527 per annum, but over the last twenty years the average has been 4,005.

Expected births have been calculated with reference to the average number of women of child-bearing age, using average annual birth rates for the period 1949–52.

It should be stressed that population projections are not predictions of what the population will be at any given time. They merely show what would be the effect on the existing population of certain stated assumptions, without implying that those assumptions will necessarily be realized. Anyone who wishes to predict the population should therefore examine not only the figures given but also the validity of the assumptions, and the likelihood that they will continue to apply in the future.

NON-MAORI POPULATION PROJECTION

Age Groups	December 1957			December 1962
Age Groups	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
(a) Assuming 10,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	115,000	109,100	224,100	119,000	112,900	231,900
5 and under 10 years	112,850	107,800	220,650	116,150	110,250	226,400
10 and under 15 years	96,800	92,600	189,400	114,450	109,250	223,700
15 and under 20 years	78,750	75,850	154,600	98,150	93,750	191,900
20 and under 25 years	65,300	61,650	126,950	81,750	77,350	159,100
25 and under 30 years	71,800	65,350	137,150	70,400	63,900	134,300
30 and under 35 years	76,900	70,700	147,600	75,950	67,650	143,600
35 and under 40 years	70,950	70,600	141,550	79,350	72,500	151,850
40 and under 45 years	67,450	68,000	135,450	72,250	71,500	143,750
45 and under 50 years	65,400	63,500	128,900	67,550	68,000	135,550
50 and under 55 years	57,200	54,950	112,150	64,000	62,550	126,550
55 and under 60 years	47,550	47,500	95,050	54,350	53,150	107,500
60 and under 65 years	36,050	40,900	76,950	43,450	44,900	88,350
65 years and over	88,800	105,900	194,700	89,400	112,700	202,100
Totals	1,050,800	1,034,400	2,085,200	1,146,200	1,120,350	2,266,550
(b) Assuming 5,000 Per Annum Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	113,600	107,750	221,350	115,800	109,850	225,650
5 and under 10 years	111,800	106,950	218,750	113,750	108,050	221,800
10 and under 15 years	95,800	91,800	187,600	112,450	107,600	220,050
15 and under 20 years	77,850	75,200	153,050	96,250	92,250	188,500
20 and under 25 years	63,500	60,750	124,250	79,050	75,800	154,850
25 and under 30 years	69,000	64,100	133,100	65,800	61,750	127,550
30 and under 35 years	74,550	69,400	143,950	70,850	65,100	135,950
35 and under 40 years	69,350	69,450	138,800	75,400	70,050	145,450
40 and under 45 years	66,350	67,150	133,500	69,550	69,550	139,100
45 and under 50 years	64,650	62,950	127,600	65,700	66,600	132,300
50 and under 55 years	56,750	54,600	111,350	62,850	61,650	124,500
55 and under 60 years	47,300	47,300	94,600	53,650	52,600	106,250
60 and under 65 years	35,900	40,700	76,600	43,100	44,550	87,650
65 years and over	88,600	105,400	194,000	89,050	111,700	200,750
Totals	1,035,000	1,023,500	2,058,500	1,113,250	1,097,100	2,210,350
(c) Assuming no Net Inflow from Immigration
Under 5 years	112,200	106,400	218,600	112,600	106,800	219,400
5 and under 10 years	110,800	106,100	216,900	111,350	105,850	217,200
10 and under 15 years	94,800	91,000	185,800	110,500	105,900	216,400
15 and under 20 years	76,950	74,500	151,450	94,350	90,750	185,100
20 and under 25 years	61,700	59,900	121,600	76,350	74,250	150,600
25 and under 30 years	66,200	62,850	129,050	61,200	59,650	120,850
30 and under 35 years	72,200	68,050	140,250	65,700	62,500	128,200
35 and under 40 years	67,750	68,300	136,050	71,450	67,600	139,050
40 and under 45 years	65,200	66,300	131,500	66,800	67,600	134,400
45 and under 50 years	63,950	62,400	126,350	63,850	65,200	129,050
50 and under 55 years	56,300	54,250	110,550	61,700	60,750	122,450
55 and under 60 years	47,050	47,100	94,150	53,000	52,050	105,050
60 and under 65 years	35,800	40,500	76,300	42,750	44,150	86,900
65 years and over	88,400	104,950	193,350	88,600	110,800	199,400
Totals	1,019,300	1,012,600	2,031,900	1,080,200	1,073,850	2,154,050

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—In the following summary of certain selected countries the two most recent census years are quoted together with the annual average percentage increase of population during the respective intercensal periods.

Country	Census Period	Average Annual Percentage Increase
* Excluding Newfoundland. † European population. ‡ Including Hyderabad, but excluding Kashmir, Jammu, and the tribal areas of Assam. § Excluding full-blooded aborigines. NOTE.—Minus sign (−) denotes a decrease.
New Zealand	1945–51	2.37
England and Wales	1931–51	0.46
Scotland	1931–51	0.26
Northern Ireland	1937–51	0.48
Austria	1939–51	0.33
Denmark	1945–50	1.04
Finland	1940–50	0.82
France	1936–46	−0.34
Hungary	1941–49	−0.15
Republic of Ireland	1946–51	0.03
Netherlands	1930–47	1.18
Portugal	1940–50	0.95
Sweden	1945–50	1.09
Switzerland	1941–50	112
Canada^*	1941–51	1.72
Union of South Africa^†	1946–51	2.06
India^‡	1941–51	1.26
Pakistan	1941–51	0.75
Ceylon	1931–46	1.51
Australia^§	1933–47	0.96
United States of America	1940–50	1.36

The outstanding feature of the above table is the position occupied by New Zealand, with an annual rate of increase of 2.37 per cent. This would, however, be reduced to 1.91 per cent if members of the Armed Forces who were overseas in 1945 and 1951 were added to the New Zealand totals at the census dates and not regarded as population gains in the intercensal period.

The Commonwealth countries, Union of South Africa (206 percent), Canada (1.72 percent), and Ceylon (1.51 per cent), show the next highest rates of increase. On the other hand, European countries show the lowest rates of increase—France and Hungary actually show decreases—with the United Kingdom countries recording very low figures. The significance of the census dates, particularly in the case of Australia and of the Union of South Africa, must not be overlooked. In Australia, for instance, the great bulk of its huge post-war immigration took place after the 1947 census.

SEX PROPORTIONS.—Latest (September 1953) available figures show that males outnumber females by 8,960 in the European population, 2,846 in the Maori population, and 11,806 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males were: European, 991; Maori, 956; total population, 989. Net increase of population from migration adds to the male preponderance, but the major source of population increase is the excess of births over deaths, and this results in a female preponderance. In the relatively near future it seems probable that females will outnumber males. Females per 1,000 males at the last four censuses have been—

1926	957
1936	970
1945	1044
1945 (including Armed Forces abroad)	991
1951	991
1951 (including Armed Forces abroad)	989

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand. The following observations relate to the census of 1951 and give the number of females per 1,000 males.

In the aggregate of cities and boroughs the ratio was 1,071; in town districts, 1,010; and in counties, 885. For the provincial districts ratios were—

Canterbury	1028
Otago (Otago portion)	1016
Hawke's Bay	1003
Wellington	999
Auckland	982
Marlborough	960
Taranaki	958
Otago (Southland portion)	951
Nelson	948
Westland	937

Female preponderance in towns does not appear to have a direct relation to the size of the towns. Of the fifteen urban areas which comprise the largest centres of population eight had ratios higher than the average for all cities and boroughs, but seven were below the average, and of these Hutt, fifth largest urban area, even had an excess of males.

New Plymouth	1119
Dunedin	1100
Timaru	1098
Gisborne	1089
Christchurch	1087
Napier	1085
Hastings	1083
Whangarei	1075
Palmerston North	1070
Invercargill	1062
Hamilton	1059
Nelson	1058
Auckland	1057
Wellington	1052
Hutt	991

METHOD OF COMPILATION.—In common with almost all countries, the chief instrument in compiling population data in New Zealand is the census, which in this country in normal times is taken quinquennially. The minutiae of the distribution of population, together with analyses of various population characteristics compiled from census data, will be found in the official publications compiled after each census.

The basis adopted for the census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of the population present, which may be defined as the population present at the place of enumeration at the time of the enumeration.

Intercensal population statistics for New Zealand are statistics of record; those for lesser divisions such as provincial districts, counties, or boroughs are estimates.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand—i.e., Island Territories are omitted except in the first table where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Cook Islands, Niue Island, and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately.

Maoris are included in all population data unless the contrary is stated. Maori-Europeans who are in half or greater degree of Maori origin are included with Maoris. For some purposes the population dichotomy of European and Maori is necessary or desirable and “European” is used, conveniently if not altogether accurately, as referring to all population other than Maori, a usage long established in New Zealand.

INTERCENSAL RECORDS.—The intercensal statements of total population, prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration, have been by virtue of the favourable position of New Zealand in this respect relatively accurate. Moderate discrepancies, however, are inevitable and, in the tables following, revisions have been made for figures subsequent to the 1945 census to conform with the 1951 census figures.

The following population figures exclude members of New Zealand Armed Forces who were overseas, and also members of the Armed Forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

—	Population (Including Maoris) at End of Year			Increase During Year		Mean Population for Year
—	Males	Females	Totals	Numerical	Per Cent	Mean Population for Year
* Minus sign (−) signifies a decrease.
Years Ended 31 March
1943	789,400	844,694	1,634,094	−244^*	−0.01^*	1,640,191
1944	789,772	854,128	1,643,900	9,806	0.60	1,637,570
1945	814,470	865,502	1,679,972	36,072	2.19	1,664,585
1946	878,739	878,017	1,756,756	76,784	4.57	1,710,680
1947	894,810	894,666	1,789,476	32,720	1.86	1,770,291
1948	915,359	912,666	1,828,025	38,549	2.15	1,807,611
1949	935,019	929,541	1,864,560	36,535	2.00	1,843,767
1950	955,427	947,456	1,902,883	38,323	2.06	1,881,317
1951	973,082	964,950	1,938,032	35,149	1.85	1,917,934
1952	997,468	987,262	1,984,730	46,698	2.41	1,958,729
1953	1,024,463	1,013,090	2,037,553	52,823	2.66	2,009,506
Years Ended 31 December
1942	793,681	842,722	1,636,403	5,127	0.31	1,639,572
1943	790,842	851,199	1,642,041	5,638	0.34	1,635,635
1944	813,568	862,718	1,676,286	34,245	2.09	1,655,795
1945	855,494	872,323	1,727,817	51,531	3.07	1,694,641
1946	891,321	889,893	1,781,214	53,397	3.09	1,759,526
1947	910,055	907,398	1,817,453	36,239	2.03	1,798,262
1948	929,233	924,573	1,853,806	36,353	2.00	1,834,655
1949	949,443	942,599	1,892,042	38,236	2.06	1,871,748
1950	967,308	960,321	1,927,629	35,587	1.88	1,909,092
1951	989,513	981,009	1,970,522	42,893	2.23	1,947,529
1952	1,017,874	1,006,682	2,024,556	54,034	2.74	1,996,149

The figures given in the preceding table show the population inclusive of Maoris. The following table shows the population exclusive of Maoris.

—	Population (Excluding Maoris) at End of Year			Increase During Year		Mean Population for Year
—	Males	Females	Totals	Numerical	Per Cent	Mean Population for Year
* Minus sign (−) signifies a decrease.
Years Ended 31 March
1943	740,369	797,268	1,537,637	−3,021^*	−0.20^*	1,545,052
1944	739,744	805,297	1,545,041	7,404	0.48	1,539,978
1945	763,155	815,236	1,578,391	33,350	2.16	1,564,436
1946	826,877	828,967	1,655,844	77,453	4.91	1,610,193
1947	841,070	843,870	1,684,940	29,096	1.76	1,667,631
1948	860,419	860,538	1,720,957	36,017	2.14	1,701,873
1949	878,487	876,111	1,754,598	33,641	1.95	1,735,223
1950	897,618	892,710	1,790,328	35,730	2.04	1,770,130
1951	913,852	908,674	1,822,526	32,198	1.80	1,803,944
1952	936,338	929,104	1,865,442	42,916	2.35	1,841,332
1953	961,389	952,965	1,914,354	48,912	2.62	1,888,334
Years Ended 31 December
1942	745,008	795,622	1,540,630	2,484	0.16	1,545,112
1943	741,045	802,741	1,543,786	3,156	0.20	1,538,651
1944	762,566	812,885	1,575,451	31,665	205	1,556,318
1945	804,809	823,548	1,628,357	52,906	3.36	1,593,898
1946	838,010	839,488	1,677,498	49,141	3.02	1,657,851
1947	855,480	855,640	1,711,120	33,622	2.00	1,693,168
1948	873,062	871,489	1,744,551	33,431	1.95	1,726,839
1949	891,991	888,237	1,780,228	35,677	2.05	1,761,204
1950	908,479	904,467	1,812,946	32,718	1.84	1,795,830
1951	928,879	923,337	1,852,216	39,270	2.17	1,831,058
1952	955,354	947,102	1,902,456	50,240	2.71	1,875,940

EXTERNAL MIGRATION.—Statistics of external migration have been recorded in New Zealand since 1860. Since 1 April 1921 they have been compiled from individual statements obtained from each person entering or leaving New Zealand.

Including crews of vessels, 121,471 persons from overseas arrived in New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1953, which, compared with 1951–52, shows an increase of 9,412. During the same period 101,137 persons departed. This figure, compared with the corresponding one for 1951–52, shows an increase of 4,557.

In addition to the figures just quoted there were also 5,645 “through” passengers who called at a port of New Zealand en route to their destination.

The excess of total arrivals over total departures for 1952–53 was 20,334, compared with a similar excess of 15,479 during 1951–52. This is the highest figure for net immigration since 1879.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last eleven years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, “through” passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and members of the Armed Forces, &c., have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 March	Arrivals			Departures			Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
Year Ended 31 March	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals	Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
1943	1,890	1,243	3,133	1,382	1,210	2,592	541
1944	2,122	1,625	3,747	1,848	1,792	3,640	107
1945	3,667	3,540	7,207	3,112	3,077	6,189	1,018
1946	6,416	6,893	13,309	5,657	5,309	10,966	2,343
1947	12,682	12,676	25,358	11,417	10,903	22,320	3,038
1948	17,004	16,140	33,144	13,945	13,443	27,388	5,756
1949	18,646	17,300	35,946	15,837	15,928	31,765	4,181
1950	26,190	24,690	50,880	21,471	21,529	43,000	7,880
1951	28,309	26,335	54,644	23,411	23,711	47,122	7,522
1952	33,162	29,336	62,498	24,009	22,825	46,834	15,664
1953	35,574	30,666	66,240	22,399	21,809	44,208	22,032

The number of arrivals in 1952–53 was the highest in the history of New Zealand migration statistics. In 1951–52 the number of departures showed a slight decrease on the previous year, and this was continued in 1952–53, when there was a further drop of 2,626.

During the war years normal civilian movements overseas were largely restricted, but in post-war years immigration on an enhanced scale has been experienced. Had it not been for shipping difficulties and for the serious housing shortage there is little doubt that larger numbers would have been recorded.

In the eight-year period ending 31 March 1953 the net gain from passenger migration was 68,416, while if movement of crews is taken into account this is increased to 71,549.

Classes of Arrivals and Departures.—The following table gives an analysis of all classes of arrivals during the last five years, including “through” passengers, and crews. In classifying arrivals or departures as “permanent” the commonly used international rule is applied—i.e., residence or absence of one year or more.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Immigrants intending permanent residence	11,387	17,701	18,234	24,922	29,005
New Zealand residents returning	12,840	18,463	19,976	20,426	18,570
Visitors—
Tourists	7,828	10,768	12,183	12,325	13,309
On business	1,769	1,936	2,406	2,846	2,502
Theatrical, entertaining, etc.	700	1,117	634	582	785
Educational purposes	975	97	111	133	199
Others, officials, etc.	975	313	469	613	1,035
In transit	447	485	631	651	835
Through passengers	3,073	2,489	2,923	2,744	5,645
Crews	36,695	47,499	47,263	49,561	55,231
Totals	75,714	100,868	104,830	114,803	127,116

The succeeding table gives a similar analysis of departures.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
New Zealand residents departing—
Permanently	6,679	6,886	7,788	7,300	6,271
Temporarily	13,566	20,106	21,371	21,090	18,315
Temporary residents departing	11,520	16,008	17,963	18,444	19,622
Through passengers	3,073	2,489	2,923	2,744	5,645
Crews	36,849	45,958	46,411	49,746	56,929
Totals	71,687	91,447	96,456	99,324	106,782

Ages.—The following table gives the age-distribution of immigrants and emigrants for the twelve months ended 31 March 1953.

Age, in Years	Permanent Arrivals			Permanent Departures			Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals	Excess of Arrivals Over Departures
0–14	2,572	2,347	4,919	540	477	1,017	3,902
15–24	4,520	2,792	7,312	667	742	1,409	5,903
25–34	5,182	3,591	8,773	824	989	1,813	6,960
35–44	2,134	1,835	3,969	371	440	811	3,158
45–59	1,266	1,428	2,694	260	387	647	2,047
60 and over	450	787	1,237	202	365	567	670
Unspecified	51	50	101	1	6	7	94
Totals	16,175	12,830	29,005	2,865	3,406	6,271	22,734

Of the permanent arrivals during the year 1952–53, 17 per cent were under fifteen years of age, 42 per cent under twenty-five years, 73 per cent under thirty-five years, and 86 per cent under forty-five years. Permanent departures represented a similar age distribution with percentages of 16, 39, 68, and 81 respectively.

Origin.—The great majority of immigrants to New Zealand have always come from the British. Isles. During the immigration boom of the “seventies” several shiploads of immigrants from Baltic countries arrived under Government auspices. With this exception, systems of Government-assisted passages to immigrants have been until recently confined to immigrants from the United Kingdom. Conditions arising out of the recent war have brought changes, and systems of Government aid have been devised for immigrants from other countries. These conditions have also stimulated independent migration, apart from that governmentally aided. It is therefore of some interest to survey briefly the net gain of population in the post-war years.

The next table gives the excess of overseas arrivals oven departures for the eight years 1945–46 to 1952–53. The basis of “permanent” arrivals and “permanent” departures has not been used; this is founded on intention, and intentions, particularly in existing times, are subject to change. Instead the table covers total arrivals and total departures less (a) persons of New Zealand birth and (6) New Zealand residents of overseas origin returning after an absence of less than a year or departing for a period of less than a year. Included, it will be noted, are crews of vessels. Annually the surplus of crew arrivals over crew departures provides a moderate increment to the population of New Zealand. For the eight years the net gain from this source was 3,133. Information as to the country of origin is not available in this case.

The total surplus of arrivals on this basis was 83,469. Of these, 57,492 came from Commonwealth countries (including 46,868 from the United Kingdom) and 22,617 from other countries. Of the remainder, 227 came from unspecified countries or were born at sea. The period under review ends at 31 March 1953.

Country of Birth	Excess of Arrivals
Country of Birth	Males	Females
* Including condominia, protected states, and trust territories.
Commonwealth^*
United Kingdom	23,711	23,157
Union of South Africa	153	199
India and Pakistan	1,235	1,183
Canada	166	353
Australia	923	1,867
Cook Islands and Niue	653	675
Western Samoa	926	699
Fiji	280	347
Tonga	138	80
Others (Pacific)	73	45
All others	327	302
Totals	28,585	28,907
Other Countries
Denmark	343	267
Russia	214	173
Estonia	85	135
Latvia	251	249
Lithuania	96	90
Poland	772	308
Germany	267	501
Netherlands	6,735	2,929
France	48	77
Republic of Ireland and Ireland, undefined	1,041	742
Switzerland	214	125
Austria	190	145
Czechoslovakia	295	166
Hungary	179	129
Rumania	420	300
Yugoslavia	173	264
Bulgaria	153	28
Italy	138	328
Greece	144	161
Others (Europe)	162	162
Turkey	93	58
Egypt	64	77
Burma	133	121
Indonesia	545	337
China	456	503
United States of America	427	289
Others (Pacific)	40	29
All others	146	100
Totals	13,824	8,793
Born at sea	2	4
Not specified	103	118
Crews of vessels	2,994	139
Grand totals	45,508	37,961

Assisted Immigration.—Various systems of assisted immigration have been in force since 1871, with the exception of the period 1892 to 1903 (inclusive). The scheme that was operating prior to 1947 had been largely suspended since 1927, and only 50 immigrants received financial assistance during the ten years ended 31 March 1946.

To alleviate the shortage of staffs in mental hospitals the Government decided in 1946 to recruit labour in the United Kingdom, and the number of arrivals under this system totalled 240 (all females).

In July 1947 a comprehensive assisted passage scheme was introduced by the Government. Under this scheme financial aid was granted to certain categories of immigrants. Eligibility was confined to single residents of the United Kingdom (with no dependants) between the ages of twenty and thirty-five years who were suitable for, and willing to accept employment in, a wide variety of productive and servicing occupations. Free passages were provided for those successful applicants who served in the United Kingdom Armed Forces (including Merchant Navy) during the Second World War; all others selected were required to contribute £10 towards the cost of their fares. All assisted immigrants were required to enter into a contract with the New Zealand Government that they would engage in approved employment for two years after their arrival in New Zealand.

A scheme of child migration from the United Kingdom also came into operation during the same year, the first draft arriving in June 1949. This scheme was devised to bring to New Zealand, on a guardianship basis, British children between the ages of five and seventeen years whose parents were prepared to agree to their placement with foster-parents approved by the Superintendent of Child Welfare. Arrivals under this scheme totalled 169 in 1949–50, 107 in 1950–51, 99 in 1951–52, and 87 in 1952–53. This scheme was terminated on 31 May 1953.

In May 1950 a new immigration policy was announced by the Government, the main changes being as follows:—

The existing scheme in regard to unmarried British immigrants, including nominations, to continue, but with an extension of the age limit from thirty-five to forty-five years of age.
The contribution of £10 previously required to be paid by other than ex-service personnel towards the cost of their fares to New Zealand to be abolished. In future free passages to be provided for all British immigrants, both single and married (including wives and families), selected under the scheme.
Extension of the free passage scheme to certain categories of married British immigrants with up to two children.
The acceptance, after negotiation and conclusion of agreements with the countries concerned, of a number of single non-British men and women between the ages of twenty and thirty-five years. Such an agreement was later entered into with the Netherlands Government.

Arrivals of “assisted” Dutch immigrants were 55 males in 1950–51, 937 males and 163 females in 1951–52, and 2,108 males and 601 females in 1952–53.

The number of assisted immigrants (exclusive of displaced persons) arriving in New Zealand since the reintroduction of the scheme in 1947 was as follows:—

	Number
Year ending 31 March 1947	158
Year ending 31 March 1948	1,140
Year ending 31 March 1949	1,527
Year ending 31 March 1950	2,532
Year ending 31 March 1951	2,928
Year ending 31 March 1952	4,949
Year ending 31 March 1953	7,581

In the preceding migration tables assisted immigrants are included in the totals of “Immigrants intending permanent residence.”

Displaced Persons.—Commencing with the year 1949–50 the Government agreed to accept drafts of displaced persons from Europe, who were brought to New Zealand in shipping provided by the International Refugee Organization. These settlers were chosen by a New Zealand Selection Mission, and arrivals totalled 941 in 1949–50, 978 in 1950–51, and 2,663 in 1951–52, made up of young single men and women, widows with one child, family groups, orphans, and a number of elderly people. This scheme was brought to an end with the arrival in April 1952 of the final two displaced persons accepted by the Government.

PASSPORTS.—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington and Auckland. United Kingdom, Canadian, and Australian passports are issued by the respective High Commissioners for those countries. The representatives of New Zealand at London, Washington, New York, San Francisco, Ottawa, Canberra, Paris, The Hague, Bombay, and Tokyo are authorized to issue and renew New Zealand passports.

Entry into New Zealand.—Apart from British subjects arriving from Australia, no person sixteen years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless in possession of a valid passport or other travel document satisfactorily establishing nationality and identity. Exemption (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Restriction and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Acts) may be granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs. With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, all aliens require a British visa.

For persons from the Cook Islands, Niue, or Western Samoa the only requirement is a permit to visit New Zealand granted by the Resident Commissioner of the Cook Islands or Niue or the High Commissioner for Western Samoa, as the case may be.

The regulations, further, do not apply to a British subject who is the master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives.

Departure from New Zealand.—British subjects leaving New Zealand, with the exception of those travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION.—The legislation respecting the restriction of immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Restriction Act 1908 and its amendments, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919. It is administered by the Labour and Employment Department.

Subject to certain exemptions; the following classes of persons are prohibited from landing in New Zealand:—

Persons not of British birth and parentage, unless in possession of permits issued by the Labour and Employment Department. (Note.—A person is not deemed to be of British birth and parentage by reason that he or his parents or either of them is a naturalized British subject or by reason that he is an aboriginal Native or the descendant of an aboriginal Native of any dominion (other than New Zealand), colony, possession, or protectorate of Her Majesty.)
Idiots or insane persons.
Persons suffering from contagious diseases which are loathsome or dangerous.
Persons arriving in New Zealand within two years after the termination of a period of imprisonment for a serious offence.
Persons who are considered by the Attorney-General to be disaffected or disloyal, or of such a character that their presence in New Zealand would be injurious to the peace, order, and good government of the country.
Aliens of the age of fifteen years or over who refuse or neglect to take an oath (or make an affirmation) of obedience to the laws of New Zealand.

To obtain permits to enter New Zealand as permanent residents, application must be made by the intending immigrants themselves to the Director of Employment, Wellington. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin, in which country the applicant must have resided for at least twelve months prior to the date of application. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

Provision is made in the law to permit persons covered by clause (1) above to pay temporary visits to New Zealand for the purposes of business, pleasure, or health. Temporary permits are normally restricted to some period not exceeding six months, but may be extended if the proper authorities consider that the circumstances warrant such action. A deposit may be required in respect of such temporary permit, and is returned on the departure of the visitor if the conditions of the temporary permit have been complied with. A deed to be entered into by some approved person or persons resident in New Zealand guaranteeing to pay all expenses that may be incurred by the Crown or any public body for the visitor's maintenance, relief, arrest, or detention in New Zealand or his deportation therefrom may also be required.

Provision is also made whereby, under certain conditions, students may be allowed to enter New Zealand temporarily.

Restricted Immigrants.—When persons who are lunatic, idiotic, deaf, dumb, blind, or infirm arrive in New Zealand and are likely to become a charge upon the public or upon any public or charitable institution, the master, owner, or charterer of the ship by which such persons came to New Zealand may be called on to enter into a bond of £100 for each such person, guaranteeing payment of any expenses which may be incurred for his support and maintenance by or in any such institution within a period of five years.

Declaration by Persons Arriving in New Zealand.—Every person of and over the age of fifteen years who lands in New Zealand must, unless exempted by the Minister of Immigration, make and deliver to an officer of Customs a declaration giving the following particulars: Name, age, marital status, occupation, birthplace, nationality, race, particulars of children under fifteen years of age arriving with him, residence, etc.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALIZATION.—The British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, which came into force on 1 January 1949, was enacted following a conference of nationality experts of Commonwealth countries in February 1947, to discuss the basis of fresh nationality legislation. The scheme of the new legislation recommended by the Conference and accepted by Commonwealth Governments, is the “common status” of all British subjects, namely, that in each Commonwealth country all persons are recognized as British subjects who possess citizenship under the citizenship laws of any of the members of the Commonwealth. (NOTE.—The Act states that “British subject” and “Commonwealth citizen” have the same meaning.)

Upon the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship was automatically conferred on the following classes of British subjects:—

Those born in New Zealand.
Those naturalized in New Zealand.
Those ordinarily resident in New Zealand throughout the whole of the year 1948.
Those whose fathers were British subjects born or naturalized in New Zealand.
Women (being British subjects) married before the commencement of the Act to men who become citizens under the various provisions of the Act.

After the commencement of the Act, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways:—

By birth in New Zealand.
By descent.
By registration.
By naturalization.

Citizens of other Commonwealth countries acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration. The requirement is twelve months' ordinary residence. A British woman married to a New Zealand citizen is entitled to registration without any residence qualification.

The principal conditions governing the grant of naturalization to aliens under the 1948 Act are that the applicant shall satisfy the Minister of Internal Affairs (a) that he has resided in New Zealand for a period of five years, (b) that he is of good character and has a sufficient knowledge of the English language, (c) that if his application is granted he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand, (d) that the applicant gives a year's notice of his intention to apply, and (e) that the applicant possesses a sufficient knowledge of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship. There is discretionary provision for the Minister to allow residence in other Commonwealth countries to be reckoned for the purposes of the first condition, but in such cases a minimum of two years' residence in New Zealand is essential.

Naturalization granted to a married man does not automatically confer New Zealand citizenship on his wife and children, if they are aliens. These dependants may apply to be registered as New Zealand citizens after the head of the family has been naturalized. An alien woman marrying a British subject does not acquire her husband's nationality on marriage, but may apply to be registered as a British subject and New Zealand citizen. Acquisition of citizenship by naturalization or registration automatically confers the status of a British subject, and the two methods of acquiring citizenship are differences in legal procedure only.

A British woman marrying an alien does not lose her nationality under the present Act.

The complete numbers of naturalizations, registrations, etc., during the year ended 31 March 1953 were as follows.

Country of Birth	Certificates of Naturalization (Aliens and British-protected Persons)		Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen (British Subjects, Irish Citizens, British-protected Persons, and Aliens)		Certificates of Registration as a New Zealand Citizen—Minor Children (British Subjects and Aliens)
Country of Birth	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females
United Kingdom			89	36	3	4
Union of South Africa			1	3
Republic of India			6	11	1	4
Canada				1
Australia			5	6	1	2
Western Samoa	2	1		2
Fiji			1	2
Tonga	2			1
Norway	1
Sweden	2
Denmark	4
Russia	1
Lithuania	2
Latvia				1
Poland	12		1	7	1	3
Germany	6	3		3	1	1
Netherlands	7			2	2	3
Belgium	1		1
France	1		1
Republic of Ireland			1
Switzerland	4			3
Italy	5	1		2
Czechoslovakia	2			3
Austria	3			4
Hungary	2
Yugoslavia	28			7		1
Rumania	1			1
Greece	6			4
Egypt				1
Jordan						2
Turkey	1
Lebanon	3	4
Burma			6	5	1	1
Indonesia	7			5	1	3
China	2	1	1
United States of America	2		2	1
Mexico				1
Society Islands	1			1
Born at Sea					1
Totals	108	10	115	113	14	24

Of the certificates of registration granted to adult males, 110 were to British subjects or Irish citizens who acquired New Zealand citizenship by virtue of one year's residence in the country immediately preceding the date of application, and 5 to British subjects generally resident outside New Zealand who were registered as New Zealand citizens by virtue of their close associations by way of descent, residence, or otherwise, with New Zealand.

The certificates of registration granted to adult females were 50 to British subjects who acquired New Zealand citizenship by virtue of one year's residence in the country immediately preceding the date of application, 10 to British wives of New Zealand citizens, 5 to British subjects generally resident outside New Zealand, and 48 to alien women married to New Zealand citizens by birth or naturalization.

Certificates of registration granted to minor children were 33 (13 males, 20 females) to children of New Zealand citizens, by naturalization or registration, and 5 (1 male, 4 females) to children who lodged applications independently.

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS.—The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, the administration being carried out by the Police Department. This Act repealed earlier enactments relating to aliens.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at 1 April 1953 was 21,726, comprising 14,732 males and 6,994 females. This does not purport to be the complete number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under sixteen years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, Consuls, or employees of Embassies, Legations, and Consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand; (d) Western Samoans, except in special circumstances. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The following table shows the numbers on the register at 1 April 1952 and 1 April 1953.

Country of Nationality	1 April 1952			1 April 1953
Country of Nationality	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
Norway	134	34	168	134	39	173
Sweden	83	27	110	84	33	117
Denmark	316	160	476	364	188	552
Finland	28	12	40	27	17	44
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	135	87	222	128	89	217
Estonia	69	102	171	74	103	177
Latvia	220	245	465	232	247	479
Lithuania	83	87	170	84	89	173
Poland	953	669	1,622	996	703	1,699
Germany	156	162	318	184	203	387
Netherlands	3,246	1,130	4,376	6,574	2,604	9,178
Belgium	26	9	35	35	9	44
France	66	63	129	73	74	147
Switzerland	221	94	315	282	124	406
Italy	189	172	361	225	168	393
Czechoslovakia	246	122	368	251	117	368
Austria	35	42	77	135	52	187
Hungary	165	113	278	178	111	289
Yugoslavia	751	303	1,054	744	327	1,071
Albania	32	1	33	31	1	32
Rumania	46	32	78	49	28	77
Bulgaria	141	11	152	140	12	152
Greece	591	407	998	601	423	1,024
Lebanon	13	13	26	18	13	31
China	2,317	696	3,013	2,373	842	3,215
United States of America	608	249	857	548	238	786
Tonga	15	7	22	11	5	16
Other countries	62	33	95	59	34	93
Stateless	103	97	200	98	101	199
Totals	11,050	5,179	16,229	14,732	6,994	21,726

The number of aliens on the register as at 1 April 1953 shows an increase of 5,497 as compared with twelve months earlier, the countries contributing the major portion of this increase being Netherlands (4,802), China (202), Austria (110), Switzerland (91), Poland (77), Denmark (76), and Germany (69).

The United States of America recorded a numerical decrease of 71, this being the only country to show a decrease in excess of 6 during the year.

The age distribution and occupations of aliens on the register at 1 April 1952 will be found on page 31 of the 1953 issue of the Year-Book.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and these are published in Vol. 1—Increase and Location of Population. In the 1951 issue will be found figures for provincial districts, land districts, urban areas, counties, cities, boroughs, town districts, extra-county islands, and shipping. In addition, county figures are subdivided further into (a) ridings, and (b) townships, localities, etc.

North and South Islands.—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census Year	Population (Excluding Maoris)			Proportions Per Cent
Census Year	North Island	South Island	Totals	North Island	South Island
* Includes Maori half-castes (total, 4,236) living as Europeans.
1901	388,626	381,678	770,304	50.45	49.55
1906	474,605	411,390	885,995	53.57	46.43
1911	561,281	444,304	1,005,585	55.82	44.18
1916	648,439	447,789	1,096,228	59.15	40.85
1921	741,255^*	477,658^*	1,218,913^*	60.81	39.19
1926	831,813	512,656	1,344,469	61.87	38.13
1936	938,939	552,545	1,491,484	62.95	37.05
1945	1,050,984	552,570	1,603,554	65.54	34.46
1951	1,202,357	621,439	1,823,796	65.93	34.07

The natural increase of European population (i.e., excess of births over deaths) for the North Island during the 1945–51 intercensal period was 103,954, and the total net increase 151,373. For the South Island the natural increase was 48,806, and the total net increase 68,869. It is clear that in the strict sense of the term there was no “northward drift” of population in this period. Inclusive of Maoris, the North Island increase was 167,577, or 14.62 per cent, and the South Island increase 69,597, or 12.52 per cent. In contrast to preceding periods the South Island rate of increase approaches fairly closely that of the North Island.

At the 1951 census the North Island population was 1,313,869, inclusive of 111,512 Maoris; and the South Island population 625,603, inclusive of 4,164 Maoris.

At 31 March 1953 the North Island population was estimated as 1,389,390, inclusive of 118,923 Maoris; and the South Island population as 648,163, inclusive of 4,276 Maoris.

Provincial Districts.—The approximate areas and the estimated populations, inclusive of Maoris, of the various provincial districts are given in the next table.

For the guidance of overseas readers it is necessary to explain that there have been no provinces in New Zealand since 1875. Provincial districts are simply the former provinces, but they have no functions and are now merely historic divisions serving as useful units for a primary geographical break-down. There is no Southland Provincial District and the “Southland portion of Otago” has little resemblance in area to the former Southland Province.

Provincial District	Area (Square Miles)	Estimated Population 1 April 1953	Provincial District	Area (Square Miles)	Estimated Population 1 April 1953
Auckland	25,420	792,490	Canterbury	13,940	290,863
Hawke's Bay	4,260	95,600	Otago—
Taranaki	3,750	90,400	Otago portion	14,050	164,600
Wellington	10,870	410,900	Southland portion	11,480	79,700
Marlborough	4,220	24,100
Nelson	10,870	70,300	New Zealand	103,740	2,037,553
Westland	4,880	18,600

The foregoing table illustrates the wide disparities in the size of the provincial districts, whether measured by area or by population.

The area shown for New Zealand now includes certain islands which formerly were excluded. These are Kermadec Islands (13 square miles), Campbell Island (44 square miles), and the uninhabited islands—Three Kings, Solander, Bounty, Snares, Antipodes, and Auckland—with a total area of 263 square miles.

Urban and Rural Population.—On 17 April 1951 somewhat over two-fifths (43.7 per cent) of the population of New Zealand (excluding Maoris) were included in the five principal urban areas—Auckland, Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—and over one-half (54.4 per cent) in these or in the ten secondary urban areas. In the following table urban population means the population in cities and boroughs, while rural population covers counties, all town districts, and extra-county islands. It will be observed that there was a marked slackening in the rate of the urban drift between 1926 and 1936, but the 1945 figures, due, no doubt, to wartime influences, disclosed a substantial increase in the urban population, whereas the rural population, for the first time, recorded a decrease. In the 1945–51 period a substantial gain was recorded in the rural population, but it was insufficient to prevent further deterioration of its ratio to total population.

Census	Population			Percentage of Total
Census	Rural	Urban	Migratory	Rural	Urban	Migratory
* Figures exclude military and internment camps. † Figures include Armed Services in New Zealand at census date and internment camps, but exclude members of the United States Forces present in New Zealand and also enemy prisoners of war. ‡ Inclusive of Maori half-castes (3,221 in 1916 and 4,236 in 1921) living as Europeans.
Excluding Maoris—
1901	416,701	349,842	3,761	54.09	45.42	0.49
1906	457,297	424,251	4,447	51.61	47.89	0.50
1911	495,577	505,003	5,005	49.28	50.22	0.50
1916^*^‡	501,956	585,306	3,463	46.02	53.66	0.32
1921^‡	531,694	681,988	5,231	43.62	55.95	0.43
1926	552,344	785,040	7,085	41.08	58.39	0.53
1936	602,519	884,293	4,672	40.40	59.29	0.31
1945^†	591,855	1,008,534	3,165	36.91	62.89	0.20
1951	654,921	1,163,090	5,785	35.91	63.77	0.32
Including Maoris—
1926	610,446	790,555	7,138	43.35	56.14	0.51
1936	677,087	892,024	4,699	43.02	56.68	0.30
1945^†	674,821	1,024,292	3,185	39.64	60.17	0.19
1951	748,922	1,184,672	5,878	38.62	61.08	0.30

Another conception of urban and rural population is presented in the next table. For this purpose urban population has been taken as that enumerated in cities, boroughs, or town districts with a minimum population of 1,000. Migratory population is excluded.

—	Including Maoris		Excluding Maoris
—	1926	1951	1926	1951
Numbers
Urban: towns of—
1,000–2,500	104,360	88,532	102,201	86,560
2,500–5,000	86,408	123,596	85,430	114,757
5,000–10,000	82,662	107,251	82,144	115,666
10,000–25,000	186,545	251,812	185,580	236,930
25,000 or over	338,213	625,666	337,221	617,921
Totals, urban	798,188	1,196,857	792,576	1,171,834
Rural	602,813	736,737	544,808	646,177
Totals, New Zealand	1,401,001	1,933,594	1,337,384	1,818,011
Percentages
Urban: towns of—
1,000–2,500	7.45	4.58	7.64	4.76
2,500–5,000	6.17	6.39	6.39	6.31
5,000–10,000	5.90	5.55	6.14	6.36
10,000–25,000	13.31	13.02	13.88	13.03
25,000 or over	24.14	32.36	25.21	33.99
Totals, urban	56.97	61.90	59.26	64.45
Rural	43.03	38.10	40.74	35.55
Totals, New Zealand	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

Some apparent anomalies where the numbers exclusive of Maoris exceed those inclusive of Maoris arise from the transfer of towns to other categories as a result of the different basis of population.

An important characteristic of the distribution of urban population in New Zealand is what may be termed its decentralization. In place of one great metropolis containing a huge proportion of the population, the more highly urbanized portion of the community is localized in four widely separated centres. These four centres (counting Wellington and Hutt as a single conurbation) have always existed more or less on the same plane, a fact which has played no small part in the development of the country. An interesting feature is the wide gap which has long existed between the four major centres and the next largest towns.

Urban and rural communities are not evenly distributed. The South Island, for example, contains proportionately more rural population than does the North Island.

RECENT MOVEMENTS IN TOWNS AND COUNTIES: Urban Areas.—These are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. In addition to the central city or borough, they include neighbouring boroughs, town districts, and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population.

Urban areas were formed in 1917 and, except for two additions and one deletion, remained unaltered until 1951, when a revision of boundaries was made and the new areas used in the 1951 census. From census records and maps revised population figures were prepared on the basis of the new boundaries. In the case of European population the figures were revised for each census back to 1911, and on the basis of population including Maoris the revision was possible back to the 1926 census. The most significant change resulting from this revision was the division of the former Wellington Urban Area, plus additional areas to the north, into the two adjacent urban areas of Hutt and Wellington. The two areas in a sense form a single conurbation, and for some purposes it may still be convenient to use a combined figure. However, the extent and pattern of development in the Hutt Valley have been such as to establish it as a centre complementary to Wellington but no longer suburban to it. In Auckland the boundaries were extended considerably, but in most other cases it was found that little change was necessary.

Urban Area	Population (Including Maoris)				Population Increase 1945–51
Urban Area	1926	1936	1945	1951	Numerical	Percentage
Auckland	204,549	226,366	286,767	329,123	42,356	14.77
Hamilton	17,271	20,096	27,319	33,137	5,818	21.30
Gisborne	15,089	15,878	16,995	19,774	2,779	16.35
Napier	18,594	19,170	20,741	24,538	3,797	18.31
Hastings	14,612	17,920	20,306	23,797	3,491	17.19
New Plymouth	16,344	18,597	21,057	24,923	3,866	18.36
Wanganui	26,521	25,750	26,262	29,717	3,455	13.16
Palmerston North	20,107	24,372	27,820	32,908	5,088	18.29
Hutt.	25,327	37,295	55,786	74,878	19,092	34.22
Wellington	103,687	122,062	132,305	133,414	1,109	0.84
Nelson	11,746	13,493	16,523	20,497	3,974	24.05
Christchurch	118,708	133,515	151,068	174,221	23,153	15.33
Timaru	16,959	18,771	19,672	22,851	3,179	16.16
Dunedin	88,862	85,607	87,587	95,457	7,870	8.99
Invercargill	22,054	25,912	27,755	31,613	3,858	13.90
Totals	720,430	804,804	937,963	1,070,848	132,885	14.17

In the quarter-century covered by the table all urban areas, with two exceptions, have consistently recorded increases in population. Of these exceptions, one comprised a slight recession at Wanganui, 1926–36. The other was Dunedin, 1926–36, but there the recession arose from the inflation of the 1926 population by visitors to the exhibition then being held at Dunedin. In numbers, growth during the twenty-five years is led by Auckland; in rate, Hutt and Hamilton are outstanding.

The Wellington figure is partly explained by the substantial growth in the adjacent Hutt Urban Area. However, the increase for the two urban areas combined is 10.74 per cent, a rate exceeded by all urban areas except Dunedin.

Of particular interest is the marked increase in the Maori population in urban areas during the last twenty-five years. In Auckland the number of Maoris increased from 1,209 in 1926 to 7,621 in 1951. In the fifteen urban areas there were 3,457 Maoris in 1926, as compared with 16,010 in 1951.

The next table contains the population (Maoris included) of the fifteen urban areas as estimated for 1 April 1953. The component parts of the five largest centres of population are given in detail, while for the remaining ten areas totals only are quoted. In most of the ten cases the urban area comprises the central city or borough plus the urban portion of the adjoining county. At 1 April 1953 the five largest urban areas had a total population of 849,000, this being equivalent to 41.67 per cent of the New Zealand total. The total for urban areas at the same date was 1,128,100, or 55.37 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

Urban Area	Population (Including Maoris)	Urban Area	Population (Including Maoris)
Auckland		Wellington
Auckland City	131,400	Wellington City	126,500
Birkenhead Borough	5,070	Tawa Flat Town District	3,050
Northcote Borough	3,400	Remainder of urban area	8,050
Takapuna Borough	14,750
Devonport Borough	12,150	Total	137,600
Henderson Borough	2,270
Glen Eden Borough	3,020	Christchurch
New Lynn Borough	6,800	Christchurch City	126,600
Mt. Albert Borough	26,500	Riccarton Borough	8,380
Mt. Eden Borough	19,400	Lyttelton Borough	3,620
Mount Wellington Borough	8,370	Heathcote County	7,660
Newmarket Borough	2,630	Remainder of urban area	36,540
Ellerslie Borough	3,960
One Tree Hill Borough	12,900	Total	182,800
Mt. Roskill Borough	21,800
Howick Borough	2,630
Onehunga Borough	17,550	Dunedin
Otahuhu Borough	8,420	Dunedin City	71,100
Papatoetoe Borough	9,210	Port Chalmers Borough	3,110
Manurewa Borough	3,580	West Harbour Borough	2,020
Papakura Borough	3,870	St. Kilda Borough	7,430
Panmure Township Road District	660	Green Island Borough	3,710
Remainder of urban area	30,160	Mosgiel Borough	3,350
		Remainder of urban area	7,180
Total	350,500	Total	97,900
		Hamilton	35,500
		Gisborne	21,100
Hutt		Napier	26,100
Lower Hutt City	46,600	Hastings	25,300
Upper Hutt Borough	9,370	New Plymouth	26,600
Petone Borough	10,750	Wanganui	31,200
Eastbourne Borough	2,770	Palmerston North	35,000
Remainder of urban area	10,710	Nelson	21,600
		Timaru	24,000
Total	80,200	Invercargill	32,700

Counties.—The following table gives the estimated population (including Maoris) of individual counties at 1 April 1953, together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “Administrative Counties” do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include town districts which form parts of counties.

North Island—
Mangonui	7,770	958
Whangaroa	2,460	240
Hokianga	7,900	613
Bay of Islands	12,290	824
Whangarei	14,250	1,044
Hobson	6,410	745
Otamatea	6,340	421
Rodney	5,890	477
Waitemata	31,500	607
Eden	1,720	1
Great Barrier Island	290	110
Manukau	17,200	239
Franklin	17,060	550
Raglan	11,350	930
Waikato	14,620	644
Waipa	15,180	445
Otorohanga	6,290	600
Kawhia	1,960	325
Waitomo	7,770	1,138
Taumarunui	3,760	878
Coromandel	2,700	444
Thames	3,090	414
Hauraki Plains	5,300	233
Ohinemuri	3,540	237
Piako	11,750	444
Matamata	15,000	994
Tauranga	15,900	721
Rotorua	10,600	1,040
Taupo	9,150	3,040
Whakatane	13,950	1,684
Opotiki	5,010	1,326
Matakaoa	1,970	295
Waiapu	6,220	793
Uawa	1,680	261
Waikohu	3,490	1,018
Cook	8,120	832
Wairoa	7,990	1,371
Hawke's Bay	17,600	1,671
Waipawa	3,710	524
Waipukurau	1,110	128
Patangata	3,130	651
Dannevirke	4,380	428
Woodville	1,830	156
Weber	330	118
Ohura	1,890	423
Whangamomona	780	447
Clifton	2,650	443
Taranaki	7,890	229
Inglewood	3,310	199
Egmont	4,970	239
Stratford	5,280	419
Eltham	3,680	207
Waimate West	2,840	83
Hawera	6,310	191
Patea	3,850	591
Kaitieke	3,640	550
Waimarino	2,500	829
Waitotara	3,640	468
Wanganui	3,850	460
Rangitikei	11,950	1,729
Kiwitea	2,350	359
Pohangina	1,340	259
Oroua	4,110	190
Manawatu	6,500	265
Kairanga	5,720	184
Horowhenua	9,060	544
Hutt	20,100	450
Makara	6,270	99
Pahiatua	2,740	286
Akitio	1,250	321
Castlepoint	610	230
Eketahuna	1,820	311
Mauriceville	550	115
Masterton	3,230	586
Wairarapa South	3,080	440
Featherston	4,130	952
Totals	491,450	43,710
South Island—
Sounds	940	507
Marlborough	8,020	1,896
Awatere	1,590	1,030
Kaikoura	3,190	906
Amuri	2,680	2,285
Cheviot	1,360	327
Waimea	16,050	1,537
Takaka	2,620	458
Collingwood	1,020	552
Buller	4,920	1,885
Murchison	1,410	1,372
Inangahua	3,470	942
Grey	5,230	1,579
Westland	4,580	4,410
Waipara	2,500	937
Kowai	1,960	157
Ashley	660	309
Rangiora	3,440	96
Eyre	1,750	175
Oxford	1,590	318
Tawera	740	941
Malvern	3,540	250
Paparua	9,860	136
Waimairi	29,200	48
Heathcote	7,660	19
Halswell	2,730	40
Mount Herbert	590	66
Akaroa	1,500	169
Chatham Islands	470	372
Wairewa	910	170
Springs	2,220	91
Ellesmere	2,870	230
Selwyn	1,610	954
Ashburton	10,500	2,459
Geraldine	5,150	691
Levels	4,410	262
Mackenzie	3,490	2,739
Waimate	6,040	1,383
Waitaki	10,500	2,392
Waihemo	1,160	338
Waikouaiti	3,610	316
Peninsula	4,040	40
Taieri	6,680	902
Bruce	3,860	520
Clutha	5,920	1,025
Tuapeka	7,600	1,388
Maniatoto	2,670	1,340
Vincent	4,240	2,922
Lake	1,700	3,872
Southland	25,610	3,724
Wallace	9,370	3,727
Fiord	20	3,035
Stewart Island	560	670
Totals	250,010	58,909
Grand totals	741,460	102,619

During the year ended 1 April 1953 twelve counties are estimated to have gained population to the extent of 500 or more persons. Of these Waitemata, Waimairi, and Hutt counties were estimated to have gained population to a greater extent than all other counties during the year.

The growth of population in such counties as Waitemata, Manukau, Hutt, Makara, and Waimairi is largely attributable to urban development in the areas bordering on the three largest centres of population—Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

Matamata County gained population as a result of development of the forest industry, particularly at Tokoroa, a township built to house the employees of the timber mills at Kinleith, 4½ miles away. Tauranga County population increased considerably during the year, especially in the area adjoining Tauranga Borough. In addition new timber mills have been commenced in this area. In Rotorua County also the forest industry was responsible for the substantial population gain.

Taupo and Tuapeka increased as a result of State hydro-electric development at Whakamaru and Roxburgh respectively.

In Whakatane County the development of the pulp and paper project has been largely responsible for the population increase. The gain in Rangitikei County population was mainly due to the increase in numbers at Waiouru. As a result of alterations to boundaries Waiouru military establishment (previously in Waimarino County) is now included in Rangitikei County.

Once again decreases in population were very few, in fact it was estimated that only two counties lost in excess of 100 persons during the period. In both cases reductions in numbers at military camps were responsible—Linton Camp in Kairanga County and Burnham camp in Malvern County were both extensively reduced in numbers.

Boroughs.—Similar information as in the case of counties is now given for boroughs.

Borough	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Acres
North Island—
Kaitaia	1,940	1,310
Kaikohe	1,740	1,342
Whangarei	12,800	3,507
Dargaville	2,950	2,800
Helensville	1,170	1,315
Birkenhead	5,070	3,084
Northcote	3,400	1,190
Takapuna	14,750	2,780
Devonport	12,150	1,100
Henderson	2,270	1,265
Glen Eden	3,020	1,244
New Lynn	6,800	1,393
Auckland (City)	131,400	18,253
Mount Albert	26,500	2,430
Mount Eden	19,400	1,476
Mount Wellington	8,370	3,770
Newmarket	2,630	182
Ellerslie	3,960	745
One Tree Hill	12,900	2,430
Mount Roskill	21,800	4,605
Howick	2,630	1,103
Onehunga	17,550	1,876
Otahuhu	8,420	1,345
Papatoetoe	9,210	1,587
Manurewa	3,580	1,960
Papakura	3,870	2,010
Pukekohe	4,060	3,470
Huntly	3,940	1,678
Ngaruawahia	2,290	1,112
Hamilton (City)	32,000	5,705
Cambridge	3,210	1,280
Te Awamutu	4,200	1,162
Te Kuiti	3,480	1,668
Taumarunui	3,320	1,925
Thames	4,760	2,712
Paeroa	2,680	1,419
Waihi	3,720	4,094
Te Aroha	2,760	2,783
Morrinsville	3,020	950
Matamata	2,480	934
Putaruru	2,160	975
Mount Maunganui	2,120	935
Tauranga	8,780	2,748
Te Puke	1,590	1,047
Rotorua	11,350	3,611
Whakatane	4,240	1,539
Opotiki	2,090	772
Gisborne	18,500	3,378
Wairoa	3,540	1,603
Napier (City)	20,800	2,477
Hastings	18,450	2,612
Havelock North	2,310	1,165
Waipawa	1,480	1,710
Waipukurau	2,630	971
Dannevirke	4,870	1,300
Woodville	1,300	1,054
Waitara	3,300	1,587
New Plymouth (City)	23,300	4,132
Inglewood	1,590	703
Opunake	1,150	676
Stratford	4,760	2,016
Eltham	2,030	1,599
Hawera	5,560	897
Patea	1,750	1,420
Ohakune	1,660	2,079
Raetihi	1,180	958
Wanganui (City)	28,700	5,726
Taihape	2,370	1,923
Marton	3,710	1,415
Feilding	6,260	2,031
Foxton	2,340	757
Palmerston N. (City)	32,900	6,943
Shannon	1,090	844
Levin	5,350	1,332
Otaki	2,790	1,390
Upper Hutt	9,370	2,165
Lower Hutt (City)	46,600	7,688
Petone	10,750	1,132
Eastbourne	2,770	1,546
Wellington (City)	126,500	17,798
Pahiatua	2,210	720
Eketahuna	730	948
Masterton	12,200	3,116
Carterton	2,320	1,265
Greytown	1,340	1,927
Featherston	1,140	759
Martinborough	980	1,070
Totals	871,110	203,453
South Island—
Picton	2,000	1,052
Blenheim	8,540	1,945
Nelson (City)	17,800	5,550
Richmond	2,220	2,600
Motueka	2,730	2,523
Westport	5,700	760
Runanga	1,830	1,186
Greymouth	9,090	2,594
Brunner	1,160	5,700
Kumara	480	842
Hokitika	3,060	674
Ross	470	3,800
Rangiora	2,920	877
Kaiapoi	2,450	786
Riccarton	8,380	728
Christchurch (City)	126,600	16,788
Lyttelton	3,620	2,560
Akaroa	580	233
Ashburton	8,580	1,860
Geraldine	1,590	745
Temuka	2,290	795
Timaru (City)	22,500	3,524
Waimate	3,060	771
Oamaru	8,450	1,385
Hampden	290	630
Palmerston	930	900
Waikouaiti	620	1,958
Port Chalmers	3,110	714
West Harbour	2,020	2,181
Dunedin (City)	71,100	13,536
St. Kilda	7,430	462
Green Island	3,710	878
Mosgiel	3,350	965
Milton	1,760	315
Kaitangata	1,240	1,280
Balclutha	2,680	1,000
Tapanui	450	129
Lawrence	650	615
Roxburgh	790	515
Naseby	200	112
Alexandra	1,530	815
Cromwell	860	806
Arrowtown	200	457
Queenstown	1,060	270
Gore	6,240	2,276
Mataura	1,750	1,272
Winton	1,160	505
Invercargill (City)	27,700	6,399
South Invercargill	1,330	2,257
Bluff	2,290	2,111
Riverton	1,060	718
Totals	391,610	104,354
Grand totals	1,262,720	307,807

During the year 1952–53 it was estimated that Auckland City, with a gain of 3,300 persons, had the highest numerical increase in population of all cities and boroughs. Mount Roskill with 1,700 increase was in second position, and Christchurch City third with an increase of 1,600. Five other cities and boroughs each gained in excess of 1,000. These were Lower Hutt City, Hamilton City, Wellington City, Palmerston North City, and Upper Hutt Borough.

Petone was estimated to have lost 200 persons, and was the only borough to suffer a population decrease. This was largely the result of the closing of Shandon Industrial Workers' Camp.

Town Districts.—As stated earlier, the population of independent town districts—i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts—section (b)—is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town District	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Acres	Town District	Population (Including Maoris)	Approximate Area, in Acres
* Parent county shown in parentheses
(a) Town Districts Not Forming Parts of Counties
North Island—
Hikurangi	930	960	Tawa Flat	3,050	797
Kamo	850	852
Warkworth	770	1,420	Totals	19,630	17,701
Waiuku	1,240	1,275	South Island—
Tuakau	1,140	1,265	Takaka	610	585
Leamington	990	1,330	Leeston	760	391
Otorohanga	1,650	560	Tinwald	890	1,525
Manunui	830	1,251	Pleasant Point	580	730
Taupo	1,800	2,290	Wyndham	590	680
Taradale	2,760	1,469	Lumsden	510	1,264
Ohura	520	815	Nightcaps	610	285
Manaia	680	510	Otautau	740	954
Waverley	800	484
Mangaweka	380	955	Totals	5,290	6,414
Hunterville	530	791
Bulls	710	677	Grand totals	24,920	24,115
(b) Town Districts Forming Parts of Counties^*
North Island—
Kohukohu (Hokianga)	230	1,020	Patutahi (Cook)	220	1,275
			Kaponga (Eltham)	450	558
Rawene (Hokianga)	480	280	Normanby (Hawera)	410	260
Russell (Bay of Islands)	620	1,066	Totals	6,540	10,995
Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)	670	280	South Island—Havelock (Marlborough)	290	210
Onerahi (Whangarei)	1,000	990
Mercer (Franklin)	310	1,000	Southbridge (Ellesmere)	390	531
Te Kauwhata (Waikato)	670	1,290
			Outram (Taieri)	360	886
Ohaupo (Waipa)	300	1,283	Edendale (Southland)	510	696
Kihikihi (Waipa)	480	523
Kawhia (Kawhia)	310	470	Totals	1,550	2,323
Te Karaka (Waikohu)	390	700
			Grand totals	8,090	13,318

Extra-county Islands and Migratory Population.—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include migratory population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 8,453 people at 1 April 1953.

Of the islands concerned, Waiheke, estimated at 2,000 for 1 April 1953, was the only one with a population of any size.

DENSITY OF POPULATION.—The relation of population to area, which is commonly referred to as “density of population,” is a subject of much interest and a source of serious misconceptions. Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon land-utilization or industrialization. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, while there are also large areas of water or of broken, swampy, or hilly country which is either incapable of effective use or which can be used profitably only for pastoral purposes, afforestation, or the like. No exact figures for the whole country are available, but it is known that only a moderate fraction of the total area of New Zealand is potentially arable.

There are no large areas of good land still to be brought into occupation and use, and most of the land remaining will require special methods or heavier capital expenditure to bring into use. Ultimately many such areas will be developed, and, in addition, improved methods and facilities will no doubt increase production from the land, but it seems unlikely that exceptional development may be expected in the near future.

While industrial development has made very marked growth in New Zealand over the years, and extensive further development appears certain, there are factors unfavourable to the growth of industry to a point where dense populations could be supported—not the least of which are weakness in mineral resources, relative smallness of the home market (even with an expanded population), and distance from export markets.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The North Island, with an area of 44,294 square miles, had a population density of 29.66 persons per square mile at the 1951 census date, and the South Island, with an area of 59,442 square miles, had a population density of 10.52 persons per square mile at the same date.

The following table provides comparative density figures on a provincial district basis.

Provincial District	Area, in Square Miles	Persons Per Square Mile
Provincial District	Area, in Square Miles	1901	1911	1921	1936	1951
Auckland	25,420	8.06	11.75	16.00	21.52	29.31
Hawke's Bay	4,260	9.30	12.46	14.94	18.07	21.41
Taranaki	3,750	10.79	14.44	17.40	20.71	23.17
Wellington	10,870	13.46	18.80	23.43	29.11	35.94
Marlborough	4,220	3.26	3.90	4.33	4.54	5.42
Nelson	10,870	3.50	4.48	4.39	5.47	6.23
Westland	4,880	2.98	3.24	2.92	3.83	3.72
Canterbury	13,940	10.34	12.52	14.34	16.81	20.09
Otago—
Otago portion	14,050	8.95	9.46	9.76	10.76	11.33
Southland portion	11,480	4.18	5.17	5.44	6.35	6.76
Totals	103,740	7.86	10.20	12.26	15.17	18.70

MAORI POPULATION.—The first official general census of Maoris was taken in 1857–58, and others occurred in regular sequence from 1874 onwards. Owing to inherent difficulties the earlier census records make no pretence towards complete accuracy.

According to census records the Maori population suffered a period of almost unbroken decline from 1858 to 1896. The following causes no doubt contributed to this decline—internecine warfare of the tribes and the heavier casualties which resulted from the introduction of firearms; the susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and other diseases introduced with the white race; and the mental outlook of the Maori under the new conditions.

During the last fifty years, however, the Maori population has increased continuously, at first steadily and of later years at a fairly rapid rate. In fact, the vitality exhibited by the Maori race in recent years is a most outstanding feature. The rate of natural increase of the Maori population is now about double that of the European.

A statement of Maori population is now given for each census from 1901 to 1951.

Year	Maori Population	Intercensal Increase	Intercensal Increase	Average Annual Increase
* Includes members of Armed Forces overseas at census date.
		Number	Per Cent	Per Cent
1901	45,549	3,436	8.2	1.6
1906	50,309	4,760	10.5	2.0
1911	52,723	2,414	4.8	1.0
1916	52,997	274	0.5	0.1
1921	56,987	3,990	7.5	1.6
1926	63,670	6,683	11.7	2.2
1936	82,326	18,656	29.3	2.6
1945	98,744	16,418	19.9	1.9
1945^*	100,044	17,718	21.5	2.1
1951	115,676	16,932	17.1	2.9
1951^*	115,740	15,696	15.7	2.7

The average annual percentage increase from 1945 to 1951 was 2.89, which is considerably higher than the corresponding figure for the European population—viz., 2.34 per cent. Movements of troops have tended to invalidate this comparison; the natural increase ratios for the year 1952 shown below afford a better illustration.

	European	Maori
Birth rate	24.77	45.41
Death rate	9.28	12.34
Natural-increase rate	15.49	33.07

Of the 115,676 Maoris at the 1951 census, 111,512 were in the North Island. Auckland Provincial District contains the bulk of the Maoris, particularly in the Auckland Peninsula and Poverty Bay regions. In the South Island Maoris do not attain any numerical significance. Maoris have always been residents in rural communities and this is still substantially true. A marked change is, however, taking place which probably acquired impetus during the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 census only 8,249 Maoris (10.02 per cent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1951 census the comparative figure was 22,726 (19.65 per cent). The largest concentration is in Auckland Urban Area, where 7,621 Maoris were enumerated.

The records of the 1945 and 1951 censuses permit of a statement of the total numbers wholly or partly of Maori blood.

Counted in the Maori population—

	1945	1951
Full Maori	61,440	76,918
Maori-Europeans—
Three-quarter caste	18,956	15,201
Half-caste	18,348	23,183
Maori-other Polynesian		374
Totals	98,744	115,676

Counted in the population other than Maori—

	1945	1951
Maori-European quarter-caste	16,902	18,421
Maori-Polynesian	263
Maori-Japanese	20	16
Maori-Chinese	198	369
Maori-Indian	134	220
Maori-Syrian	57	42
Maori-Lebanese		31
Maori-American Indian		28
Maori-Negro	19	11
Maori-Filipino	8	10
Maori-West Indian	11	13
Maori-Melanesian	10	33
Totals	17,650	19,166

In 1951 there were recorded in New Zealand some 134,842 persons wholly or partly of Maori origin, compared with 116,394 in 1945.

STATISTICS OF THE 1951 CENSUS.—The tabulation and analysis of the population census taken for the night of 17 April 1951 is still proceeding, and the following volumes of census results have been published:

Volume I—Increase and Location of Population.
Volume II—Ages and Marital Status.
Volume III—Religious Professions, etc.
Appendix A—Census of Poultry.
New Zealand Life Tables, 1950–52.
Interim Returns of Population and Dwellings.

Some of the data to be covered by further volumes of census results are available, and certain summaries are given in the following pages; others will be found in the appropriate sections of this volume—e.g., Building, Construction, and Housing; Incomes and Income Tax; Employment and Unemployment, etc. The figures are subject to revision, but it is improbable that any major changes will be necessary.

It should be noted that Maoris are included in all tables, except where otherwise stated. When making comparisons with the figures for the census of 25 September 1945 allowance should be made for the fact that both censuses exclude members of the New Zealand Forces who were overseas at the respective census dates. The number absent overseas in 1945 was 45,381 (44,715 males and 666 females), and in 1951, 1,894 (1,891 males and 3 females). The 1945 census figures also exclude 250 members of the United States of America Forces and 803 enemy prisoners of war in New Zealand. On the other hand, refugees and internees were included in the enumeration.

AGES.—The age distribution of the population as disclosed at the censuses of 1945 and 1951 is now given.

Age Group (Years)	1945 Census			1951 Census
Age Group (Years)	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Under 5	90,992	87,533	178,525	119,443	114,989	234,432
5–9	74,930	72,993	147,923	92,746	88,951	181,697
10–14	67,630	64,573	132,203	78,381	76,111	154,492
15–19	70,007	68,531	138,538	66,931	63,583	130,514
20–24	50,223	70,718	120,941	71,716	68,957	140,673
25–29	54,788	68,278	123,066	74,220	72,234	146,454
30–34	61,043	67,299	128,342	67,165	69,233	136,398
35–39	61,324	62,465	123,789	69,294	69,149	138,443
40–44	55,339	53,892	109,231	65,241	62,407	127,648
45–49	49,334	50,108	99,442	57,490	54,119	111,609
50–54	41,808	45,065	86,873	48,370	48,763	97,133
55–59	42,740	42,765	85,505	39,400	42,989	82,389
60–64	39,846	39,175	79,021	38,121	40,390	78,511
65–69	32,514	32,923	65,437	34,225	36,270	70,495
70–74	20,282	20,616	40,898	25,979	27,931	53,910
75–79	11,750	12,832	24,582	14,650	16,276	30,926
80–84	5,010	5,929	10,939	6,905	8,321	15,226
85–89	1,844	2,297	4,141	2,245	3,083	5,328
90–94	424	582	1,006	506	788	1,294
95–99	76	110	186	88	153	241
100 and over	7	23	30	15	24	39
Not specified—Adults	858	598	1,456	794	731	1,525
Minors	108	116	224	43	52	95
Totals	832,877	869,421	1,702,298	973,968	965,504	1,939,472

The percentage of age distribution for the last two censuses is now given.

Age Group (Years)	1945	1951	Age Group (Years)	1945	1951
	Per Cent	Per Cent		Per Cent	Per Cent
Under 5	10.50	12.10	50.54	5.11	5.01
5–9	8.70	9.38	55.59	5.03	4.25
10–14	7.77	7.97	60.64	4.65	4.05
15–19	8.15	6.73	65.69	3.85	3.64
20–24.	7.11	7.26	70.74	2.40	2.78
25–29	7.24	7.56	75.79	1.44	1.60
30–34	7.55	7.04	80.84	0.64	0.79
35–39	7.28	7.14	85.89	0.24	0.27
40–44	6.42	6.59	90 and over	007	0.08
45–49	5.85	5.76	Totals	100.00	100.00

The exclusion of members of the Armed Forces overseas affects the comparison in the above tables, particularly in regard to certain age groups. In the following summary, however, the absent members have been included in order to give a better picture of the changes in the age constitution of the population. All of these have been included in the age group 15 and under 65 years.

Age Group (Years)	1945 Census		1951 Census		Increase 1945–51
Age Group (Years)	Numbers	Per Cent	Numbers	Per Cent	Numbers	Per Cent
NOTE.—Minus sign (—) denotes a decrease.
Under 15	458,651	26.27	570,621	29.42	111,970	24.41
15 and under 65	1,140,129	65.30	1,191,666	61.43	51,537	4.52
65 and over	147,219	8.43	177,459	9.15	30,240	20.54
Not specified	1,680		1,620		−60
Totals	1,747,679	100.00	1,941,366	100.00	193,687	11.08

The outstanding points emerging from this table are the large increases in the numbers of children under 15 years, and of persons aged 65 or over, and the comparatively little change in the group 15 and under 65 years. The increase in children is mainly due to the high birth rate in the post-war years, while the gradual ageing of the population has been in evidence over a long period. The group 15 and under 65 years, which includes most of the working population, is, of course, affected by deaths in two World Wars.

MARITAL STATUS.—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the census of 1951 is summarized in the following tables. The status is that existing at the census date—i.e., a person who had been widowed or divorced, but had remarried before the census, is counted as married.

Age Group (Years)	Never Married	Married	Legally Separated	Widowed	Divorced	Not Specified	Total
Males
16–19	53,042	365	1	1	3	75	53,487
20	13,497	695	6	1	2	31	14,232
21–24.	42,830	14,358	130	28	46	92	57,484
25–29	27,288	45,774	617	134	326	81	74,220
30–34	12,638	52,901	705	271	592	58	67,165
35–39	9,472	57,681	775	428	879	59	69,294
40–44	7,129	55,550	820	731	966	45	65,241
45–49	5,994	48,628	802	1,049	974	43	57,490
50–54	5,080	40,150	613	1,590	869	68	48,370
55–59	4,107	32,072	508	1,997	666	50	39,400
60–64	4,003	29,819	462	3,144	629	64	38,121
65–69	3,679	25,032	534	4,426	496	58	34,225
70–74	3,014	17,267	386	4,927	338	47	25,979
75–79	1,734	8,300	190	4,226	156	44	14,650
80–84	800	3,242	85	2,695	64	19	6,905
85–89	224	838	19	1,132	24	8	2,245
90 and over	68	163	3	371		4	609
Not specified, adults	102	256	7	27	9	393	794
Totals 1951	194,701	433,091	6,663	27,178	7,039	1,239	669,911
Totals 1945	181,083	366,114	4,805	26,297	5,948	914	585,161
Females
16–19	47,547	3,134	32	7	3	49	50,772
20	10,169	3,690	47	9	10	10	13,935
21–24	23,772	30,555	459	69	117	50	55,022
25–29	13,653	56,720	903	336	577	45	72,234
30–34	8,564	58,035	914	807	877	36	69,233
35–39	7,561	58,104	1,024	1,373	1,049	38	69,149
40–44	7,066	51,269	897	2,042	1,104	29	62,407
45–49	6,380	42,805	780	3,089	1,018	47	54,119
50–54	5,764	36,531	682	4,873	881	32	48,763
55–59	5,317	29,479	577	6,854	729	33	42,989
60–64	5,039	24,129	548	9,971	646	57	40,390
65–69	4,636	18,490	486	12,136	472	50	36,270
70–74	3,677	11,288	280	12,381	257	48	27,931
75–79	2,389	4,587	111	9,042	112	35	16,276
80–84	1,089	1,507	42	5,646	22	15	8,321
85–89	396	337	7	2,330	10	3	3,083
90 and over	99	82	2	777	1	4	965
Not specified, adults	81	434	12	93	6	105	731
Totals 1951	153,199	431,176	7,803	71,835	7,891	686	672,590
Totals 1945	174,781	378,854	6,003	64,292	6,392	183	630,505

The proportional distribution of the adult population—i.e., those aged 21 years and over—is given in the following summary.

Marital Status	Males		Females
Marital Status	1945	1951	1945	1951
Per Cent
Never married	21.98	21.32	19.75	15.72
Married	70.84	71.88	66.61	69.88
Legally separated	0.93	1.11	1.06	1.27
Widowed	5.10	4.52	11.44	11.83
Divorced	1.15	1.17	1.14	1.30
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

The return of many single men who were overseas in 1945 would tend to obscure movement in the proportions of males as between the censuses. It is evident, however, that the high post-war marriage rates have increased the proportion of married men, but not to the same extent as is observed for females.

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS.—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the last census, with comparative figures for 1945 being given also.

Religious Profession	Adherents
Religious Profession	1945	1951
Church of England	634,364	726,626
Presbyterian	376,602	446,333
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)	230,819	264,555
Methodist	137,755	156,077
Baptist	27,533	31,518
Brethren	18,868	21,398
Ratana	17,945	17,414
Protestant (undefined)	12,122	14,432
Salvation Army	13,300	13,607
Church of Christ	11,406	11,937
Latter Day Saints	7,798	10,008
Congregational	6,416	6,824
Seventh Day Adventist	5,084	6,159
Ringatu	5,244	4,970
Christian (undefined)	3,780	4,853
Christian Scientist	4,827	4,586
Freethinker	3,109	3,774
Hebrew	3,470	3,661
Lutheran	2,145	3,309
Undenominational Christian	1,692	2,726
Rationalist.	2,887	2,088
Agnostic	1,547	2,083
Jehovah's Witness	650	1,756
Atheist	1,657	1,746
Missions	2,982	1,610
Christadelphian	1,367	1,484
Undenominational	1,530	1,382
Hindu	661	1,089
Eastern Orthodox Catholic	595	1,007
Apostolic	707	756
Spiritualist	763	717
Commonwealth Covenant Church	835	659
Society of Friends	546	593
Confucian	638	523
Pentecostal	443	477
Assemblies of God	362	475
Unitarian	417	456
Nonconformist	396	403
Theosophist	409	383
Liberal Catholic	334	328
Uncertain	341	322
Hau Hau	662	307
No religion (so returned)	11,313	11,475
All other religious professions	3,247	4,538
Object to state	133,431	137,597
Not specified	9,299	10,451
Totals	1,702,298	1,939,472

The category recorded as “Object to state” represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. It is very likely that the “not specified” group may also include a number of persons objecting to the question.

The proportional distribution according to number of adherents is as shown below.

Religious Profession	Percentage of Total Population
Religious Profession	1945	1951
Church of England	37.27	37.47
Presbyterian	22.12	23.01
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)	13.56	13.64
Methodist	8.09	8.05
Baptist	1.62	1.63
Brethren	1.11	1.10
Ratana	1.05	0.90
Protestant (undefined)	0.71	0.74
Salvation Army	0.78	0.70
Church of Christ	0.67	0.62
Latter Day Saints	0.46	0.52
No religion (so returned)	0.66	0.59
Object to state	7.84	7.09
All others (including “not specified”)	4.06	3.94
Totals	100.00	100.00

BIRTHPLACES.—The distribution of the population in 1951 according to place of birth is now presented, with the 1945 figures being incorporated for comparative purposes. The nomenclature used in regard to countries of birth refers to status and territories in the census year and not necessarily to the present position.

Birthplace	Census
Birthplace	1945	1951
Commonwealth of Nations with Protected States, Protectorates, Trust Territories, and Condominia—
New Zealand	1,456,067	1,672,962
England	114,508	125,957
Wales	3,911	4,433
Scotland	43,818	44,089
Northern Ireland	9,024	8,817
United Kingdom or Great Britain, n.o.d.	219	155
Isle of Man	362	331
Channel Islands	622	563
Union of South Africa	1,223	1,398
Republic of India	2,096	3,838
Canada (including Newfoundland)	1,760	2,091
Australia	36,789	35,828
Cook Islands	393	999
Niue Island	222	330
Western Samoa	592	1,336
Fiji	1,173	1,702
Tonga	433	608
Other Pacific Islands within Commonwealth	243	351
All other countries within Commonwealth	915	1,355
Total, Commonwealth Countries	1,674,370	1,907,143
Other Countries—
Republic of Ireland	7,249	6,423
Ireland undefined	2,342	1,932
Norway	508	516
Sweden	478	389
Denmark	1,039	1,191
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	348	506
Latvia	65	423
Poland	1,307	2,003
Germany	1,297	1,427
Netherlands	128	1,655
France	303	324
Switzerland	599	678
Italy	840	1,058
Czechoslovakia	166	357
Austria	342	454
Yugoslavia	3,090	2,901
Greece	260	369
China	3,150	3,264
United States of America	1,079	1,713
All other countries outside Commonwealth	1,720	3,068
Total other countries	26,310	30,651
Born at sea	570	410
Not specified	1,048	1,268
Grand totals	1,702,298	1,939,472

The heavy post-war immigration is reflected in a number of instances in the above table, particularly in regard to several foreign countries. The arrival of assisted immigrants from Netherlands is mainly responsible for the large increase shown for that country, while several thousand “displaced persons” arrived from other European countries.

DURATION OF RESIDENCE OF OVERSEAS-BORN.—Persons born elsewhere than in New Zealand are now classified by their duration of residence in this country.

Duration of Residence (Years)	Census
Duration of Residence (Years)	1945	1951
0–4	7,922	52,185
5–9	14,145	8,620
10–14	5,743	11,759
15–19	25,989	4,960
20–24	43,565	19,862
25–29	19,711	40,141
30–34	35,684	24,613
35–39	30,901	26,372
40–44	18,473	29,735
45–49	6,934	15,621
50–54	6,567	7,288
55–59	4,057	4,239
60–64	7,160	3,329
65–69	6,486	4,126
70–74	6,884	4,311
75–79	1,015	3,830
80–84	1,209	593
85–89	212	374
90 and over	45	86
Not specified	3,529	4,466
Totals	246,231	266,510

The curtailment of migration during the war years and the recovery following the cessation of hostilities is shown in the figures quoted above for persons with less than 5 years' residence in New Zealand.

In making comparisons between the two censuses it should be noted that the intercensal period was 5½ years, and in addition the figures are affected by troop movements. This appears to be the reason for the large increase from the 19,711 in the 25–29 group in 1945 to 24,613 in the 30–34 group in 1951.

RACIAL ORIGINS.—The racial origins of the population are shown in three main divisions together with comparative figures for the 1945 census. While it is not possible to complete an accurate ethnological survey from census data, the information obtained is of considerable value.

Race	Census
Race	1945	1951
* Included with Polynesian. NOTE.—F.B. signifies “full blood,” M.B. “mixed blood,” the second race being European.
European—
European	1,575,974	1,791,020
European-Maori quarter-caste	16,902	18,421
Totals, European	1,592,876	1,809,441
Maori—
Full Maori	61,440	76,918
Three-quarter caste	18,348	15,201
Half-caste	18,956	23,183
Maori-other Polynesian	^*	374
Totals, Maori	98,744	115,676
Race alien—
Negro—F.B.	17	19
M.B.	85	59
Lebanese—F.B.		828
M.B.	F.B. 901	383
Syrian—F.B.	M.B. 438	109
M.B.		197
Lebanese-Maori	57	31
Syrian-Maori		42
Arab—F.B.	1	44
Indian—F.B.	1,116	1,784
M.B.	299	407
Indian-Maori	134	220
Burmese—F.B.	1	7
M.B.	11	84
Chinese—F.B.	4,373	4,832
M.B.	361	420
Chinese-Polynesian	8	99
Chinese-Maori	198	369
West Indian—F.B.	11	24
M.B.	45	44
Melanesian—
Fijian—F.B.	20	40
M.B.	164	237
Other—F.B.	6	9
M.B.	18	39
Melanesian-Maori	10	33
Polynesian—
Cook Island Maori (including Niuean)—F.B.	387	934
M.B.	192	425
Other or undefined—F.B.	170	750
M.B.	1,410	1,515
Polynesian-Melanesian		46
Other race aliens—F.B.	72	107
M.B.	173	218
Totals, race aliens	10,678	14,355
Grand totals	1,702,298	1,939,472

The increase in Maoris of full-blood was at a substantially higher rate than that of Maori-Europeans; in fact, the three-quarter caste Maoris returned a decrease during the intercensal period. It does not seem likely that the decrease is a real one and it is possible that a change in enumeration technique may be partly responsible. Prior to 1951 a special Maori household schedule was used in the North Island and all persons in a Maori dwelling were enumerated on the one schedule. In 1951 Maoris were enumerated on the same schedules as Europeans and a separate personal schedule was used for each occupant in a dwelling on census night.

The relative rates of increase between 1945 and 1951 for the three groups were—Europeans, 13.6 per cent; Maoris, 17.1 per cent; and race aliens, 34.4 per cent. The substantial increases in Indians and Polynesians (other than Maori) result mainly from immigration.

DEPENDENT CHILDREN.—The term “dependent children” in these statistics covers all living children under the age of sixteen years irrespective of financial dependency between parent and child. In a few instances children under sixteen were not financially dependent on their parents, while in other cases children may be partly or wholly supported by their own efforts; generally, however, the great bulk of children under sixteen years are dependent on their parents.

Number of Dependent Children Under 16 Years	1945 (Excluding Maoris)			1951 (Including Maoris)
Number of Dependent Children Under 16 Years	Married Men	Widowers	Widows	Married Men	Widowers	Widows
Nil	164,563	21,764	55,228	186,712	24,417	65,541
1	71,082	1,425	3,616	83,217	1,301	3,182
2	58,223	622	1,704	79,155	705	1,526
3	32,303	343	744	45,222	315	707
4	14,543	151	286	21,118	220	369
5	6,085	79	106	9,130	98	197
6	2,628	37	52	4,080	52	80
7	1,083	14	32	1,974	19	74
8	484	9	9	1,076	10	18
9 or over	372	3	9	818	7	15
Not specified	425	36	101	589	34	126
Totals	351,791	24,483	61,887	433,091	27,178	71,835

In the following summary, showing the average number of dependent children, the figures quoted for 1951 are under two headings—viz., exclusive of Maoris and inclusive of Maoris—figures for Maoris were not available for 1945. The exclusion of Maoris results in decreases in all cases of the average numbers of children.

—	1945		1951
—	Excluding Maoris	Excluding Maoris	Including Maoris
Average Number of Dependent Children
Married men—
Per person	1.15	1.24	1.30
Per person with dependent children	2.16	2.22	2.29
Widowers—
Per person	0.21	0.16	0.21
Per person with dependent children	1.91	1.93	2.06
Widows—
Per person	0.19	0.14	0.17
Per person with dependent children	1.77	1.83	1.96

OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE.—The compilation of statistics regarding war service was restricted to service in uniform with the Armed Forces overseas from the place of enlistment. It included Navy, Army, and Air Force service, but not Merchant Navy, and only service with a Commonwealth Force in the First and Second World Wars and the South African War was counted. Of the 209,784 persons with overseas war service, 205,178 saw service in one war only, 4,535 had service in two wars, while 71 claimed service in the three wars.

OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE: NUMBERS

Wars	Males	Females	Total
Overseas service—
Only in World War II	134,323	4,110	138,433
Only in World War I	62,973	1,300	64,273
Only in South African War	2,447	25	2,472
In World War II and World War I	3,282	49	3,331
In World War I and South African War	1,130	8	1,138
In World War II and South African War	65	1	66
In World War II, World War I, and South African War	70	1	71
Totals with overseas war service, 1951 census	204,290	5,494	209,784
Totals with overseas war service, 1945 census	157,744	2,840	160,584

The figures quoted for both censuses are exclusive of the members of the New Zealand Armed Forces overseas at the respective dates.

OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE: WARS AND FORCES WITH WHICH SERVED

Forces with Which Served	World War II		World War I		South African War
Forces with Which Served	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females
NOTE.—In this table where persons served in more than one war, they are shown for each war in which they served.
New Zealand Forces	125,154	1,858	52,617	576	2,083	18
Australian Forces	1,075	120	1,224	39	226	1
United Kingdom Forces and Indian Forces	11,015	2,100	13,262	735	1,244	15
Canadian Forces	282	30	284	5	23
Other Commonwealth Forces	214	53	68	3	136	1
Totals	137,740	4,161	67,455	1,358	3,712	35

Chapter 4. SECTION 4—VITAL STATISTICS

Table of Contents

4 E—TOTAL POPULATION, INCLUDING MAORIS

4 F—MORBIDITY

4 A—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION.—The law as to registration of births is embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. The provisions generally as to registration are that a birth may be registered within two months without fee. After two months and within six months a birth is registrable only after a statutory declaration of the particulars required to be registered has been made before the Registrar by the parent or some person present at birth, and on payment of the prescribed fee. A birth may be registered after six months only upon the direction of the Registrar-General, who may authorize registration in any case within two years after the date of birth. An information for neglect to register must be laid within two years of date of birth. In cases of neglect or refusal to give the Registrar information in respect of any birth the Registrar-General may at any time within two years after the birth of the child authorize some person to give the Registrar the information required to enable him to register the birth, and to sign as informant the entry in the register, upon which the Registrar shall register the birth.

Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, power is given by the Act for the Registrar-General to register an unregistered birth which occurred in New Zealand, irrespective of the time that may have elapsed. Satisfactory evidence on oath, and such other proof as the Registrar-General may deem necessary, are required. This provision does not, however, relieve any person from liability to prosecution for failure to register in the proper manner.

Although two months are allowed for the registration of a birth, it is compulsory to notify the birth to the Registrar within a much shorter interval. The occupier of any premises in which a child is born is to give notice to the Registrar according to the best of the knowledge and belief of the occupier of the fact of the birth, the date on which it occurred, the name and address of the mother or father of the child, and of such other particulars as the Registrar-General may require. Any such notice is to be in writing, signed by the occupier and endorsed by some other person, if any, in attendance at the confinement, and is to be delivered or posted to the Registrar within forty-eight hours after the birth if in a borough, or seven days in any other case. Births are to be registered by the Registrar whose office is nearest to the place of birth.

Particulars required to be registered are: date and place of birth; name and sex of child; names, ages, and birthplaces of parents; occupation of father; maiden name of mother; date and place of parents' marriage; and ages and sex of previous issue (distinguishing living and dead) of the marriage. The father of an ex-nuptial child is not required to give information, nor is his name entered in the register unless at the joint request of the mother and himself, or unless he subsequently marries the mother. A child born out of New Zealand but arriving before attaining the age of eighteen months may be registered within six months of arrival. The Registrar-General may authorize registration of such a child who is over eighteen months but under three years of age. Additional information required on notification of birth—but not registration—includes (a) weight of child at birth, and (b) period of gestation of mother. These particulars are required for statistical purposes.

Birth statistics are compiled from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year irrespective of the year of birth. The figures do not include still-births, except in the special classification on page 65 and in a table on page 60.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The general long-term history of the birth rate in New Zealand has been downward. A reference to the diagram on page 58 and to the table on page 56, showing quinquennial average birth rates, indicates this trend very clearly. After the pioneering days of the nineteenth century, when the population consisted very largely of young immigrants faced with the raising of a family, the birth rate began to decline appreciably. A further migration wave at the turn of the century reversed the trend temporarily, but in 1909 the downward movement was again resumed. With minor fluctuations in the earlier stages and in the years influenced by the First World War this decline continued until 1936. In that year a slight upward movement began, and by 1940 some of the deficit had been made up by the gradual rise. This was accelerated during the Second World War (with minor fluctuations) until successive record high totals (as regards the numbers of births) were established in 1945–47. In 1948 a decline in births was shown with a further recession in 1949. The decreases were not large, and in 1950–52 increases were again in evidence with the 46,469 births registered in 1952 as the highest recorded in the history of New Zealand. The numbers and rates of births (children born alive) for each of the last twenty years are given in the following table.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1933	24,334	16.63
1934	24,322	16.51
1935	23,965	16.17
1936	24,837	16.64
1937	26,014	17.29
1938	27,249	17.93
1939	28,833	18.73
1940	32,771	21.19
1941	35,100	22.81
1942	33,574	21.73
1943	30,311	19.70
1944	33,599	21.59
1945	37,007	23.22
1946	41,871	25.26
1947	44,816	26.47
1948	44,193	25.59
1949	43,988	24.98
1950	44,309	24.67
1951	44,651	24.39
1952	46,469	24.77

Much of the movement in the birth rate during recent years has been allied to movement in the marriage rate. As may be expected, the movement in the birth rate reflects the tendency for couples to marry and have children in prosperous years rather than in years of depression.

Comparisons of birth rates over a series of years or between different countries are usually made on the basis of the “crude” rates—i.e., the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age.

The “crude” rates do not permit of allowance being made for variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages, and it is advisable and of interest to supplement the table of “crude” rates with a computation of the legitimate birth rate per 1,000 married women of 15 and under 45 years of age, or the total birth rate per 1,000 of all women of these ages. The following table gives both rates for New Zealand for each census from 1881 to 1951 together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Year	Birth Rate Per 1,000 Women 15 and Under 45 Years		Crude Birth Rate
Year	Legitimate^*	Total	Crude Birth Rate
* Per 1,000 married women.
1881	315.0	194.8	37.95
1886	298.2	163.7	33.15
1891	279.2	139.2	29.01
1896	254.6	117.6	26.33
1901	246.2	111.7	26.34
1906	235.3	114.1	27.08
1911	211.7	109.5	25.97
1916	193.6	106.7	25.94
1921	181.6	99.0	23.38
1926	166.9	90.9	21.06
1936	136.6	72.2	16.64
1945	166.5	99.8	23.22
1951	172.8	116.9	24.39

The legitimate rate per 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45 fell steadily at each census date from 1881 to 1936, the figure registered in the latter year being equal to a decline of 57 per cent. Considerable improvement was, however, effected in 1945, with a further improvement in 1951, but the latter rate shows a fall of 43 per cent on the 1881 figure. The rate on the basis of all women between the ages of 15 and 45 exhibited a greater fall, the 1936 figure being 63 per cent lower, but again substantial improvement was shown in 1945 and 1951, the latter rate being equivalent to a decrease of 40 per cent. The greater fall in the rate for all women is due to the fact that the proportion of married women in the child-bearing ages is now smaller than in former years.

Although the “crude” birth rates have fluctuated more so than the refined rates, the decline has not been so great, the 1951 figure being equal to a fall of 36 per cent on the 1881 rate.

A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages. As the birth rate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

NATURAL INCREASE.—The decline of the birth rate in New Zealand has been accompanied until recent years by a decrease in the death rate. Nevertheless, the nominal rate of natural increase of population has fallen from 29.32 per 1,000 of mean population in 1880 to 15.49 in 1952. Acceptance of this figure without consideration of the effect of the changing age constitution will give an erroneous view of the present margin of increase and of the probable trend of population growth in the future.

The last eleven years have seen considerable movement in the rate of natural increase, the exceptionally low figure in 1943 being the result of a low birth rate due to war conditions. The increase in births coupled with a decrease in deaths resulted in increases each year to 1947 when the natural increase rate rose to 1708. Since then the rate declined each year to 1951 on account of decreases in the birth rate, and for the three years 1949–51 owing to increases in the death rate. An increase in the birth-rate in 1952 together with a decrease in the death rate has resulted in the highest natural increase since 1949. The average annual rate of natural increase for the quinquennium 1946–50 was 1606, and it is necessary to go back to 1911–15 to find a higher average annual rate, the figure for that period being 16.76.

Year	Numbers			Rate Per 1,000 Mean Population
Year	Births	Deaths	Natural Increase	Births	Deaths	Natural Increase
1942	33,574	16,385	17,189	21.73	10.60	11.13
1943	30,311	15,447	14,864	19.70	10.04	9.66
1944	33,599	15,363	18,236	21.59	9.87	11.72
1945	37,007	16,051	20,956	23.22	10.07	13.15
1946	41,871	16,093	25,778	25.26	9.71	15.55
1947	44,816	15,904	28,912	26.47	9.39	17.08
1948	44,193	15,812	28,381	25.59	9.16	16.43
1949	43,988	16,012	27,976	24.98	9.09	15.89
1950	44,309	16,715	27,594	24.67	9.31	15.36
1951	44,651	17,512	27,139	24.39	9.56	14.83
1952	46,469	17,413	29,056	24.77	9.28	15.49

The natural increase rate provides a useful guide to population increase and a further method is that of the net reproduction index, which is based on female children born and probably surviving. Details of gross and net reproduction rates for recent years will be found in Section 3 of this issue.

The movements that have taken place since 1880 are well illustrated in the accompanying diagram, which shows the rates at annual intervals, although only every tenth year is labelled.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates is made in the following table. New Zealand's position is much higher on the basis of natural increase than it is on that of the birth rats. The rates, which are the average of the five years 1948–52, are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

Country	Rates Per 1,000 of Population
Country	Births	Natural Increase
Costa Rica	47.2	34.9
Mexico	44.7	28.1
Ceylon	39.5	27.1
Puerto Rico	38.4	28.0
Chile	33.7	17.6
Israel	30.7	24.1
Japan	29.3	18.6
Yugoslavia	29.1	15.9
Canada	27.3	18.3
Union of South Africa	25.8	17.0
India	25.2	9.8
Portugal	25.2	12.5
Argentina	25.1	16.1
New Zealand	24.9	15.6
Finland	24.8	14.4
United States of America	24.1	14.4
Netherlands	23.3	15.7
Australia	23.1	13.5
Republic of Ireland	21.6	8.8
Spain	21.2	10.2
France	20.2	7.3
Italy	19.6	9.4
Norway	19.3	10.6
Denmark	18.7	9.8
Switzerland	181	7.7
Sweden	16.7	6.8
United Kingdom	16.6	4.9
Austria	15.8	3.4

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN.—With the exception of one year (1860), there has always been a preponderance of males in the number of children born in New Zealand. The proportions are usually shown by stating the number of births of male children to every 1,000 female births. This number has been as high as 1,113 (in 1859), and as low as 991 (in 1860), but little significance can be attached to any figures prior to 1870, on account of the comparatively small number of births. It is a popular idea that the proportion of male births tends to increase considerably in war years, but the experience in this country does little to bear out this theory, the average over the six years 1940–45 being 1,057, as against that of 1,050 for the preceding ten years. Figures taken out some years ago prove that the masculinity rate for first births is distinctly higher than for subsequent births. As the first-birth rate tends to rise during war years, and actually reached a very high peak during the early part of Second World War, the total masculinity rate would also be affected and would give rise to the popular idea that wars result in an increase in the proportion of male children born. The extreme range since 1870 has been from 1,016 male per 1,000 female births in 1878 to 1,081 in 1923. Rates for the last five years are given below.

Year	Number of Births of		Male Births Per 1,000 Female Births
Year	Males	Females	Male Births Per 1,000 Female Births
1948	22,617	21,576	1,048
1949	22,733	21,255	1,070
1950	22,677	21,632	1,048
1951	23,068	21,583	1,069
1952	23,814	22,655	1,051

MULTIPLE BIRTHS.—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (living births only) during the last five years are shown in the following table.

Year	Total Births	Total Cases	Cases of Twins	Cases of Triplets	Multiple Cases Per 1,000 of Total Cases
* Includes one case where triplets would have been recorded had not one child been still-born. † Includes one case of quadruplets.
1948	44,193	43,667	522	2	12.00
1949	43,988	43,450	533^*	3	12.34
1950	44,309	43,756	540	6^†	12.48
1951	44,651	44,125	510^*	8	11.74
1952	46,469	45,893	570^*	3	12.49

Counting only cases where both children were born alive, there were 569 cases of twin births registered in 1952. There were also three cases of triplets and one case where one of triplets was still-born.

The total number of confinements resulting in living births was 45,893, and on the average one mother in every 80 gave birth to twins (or triplets).

When still-births are taken into account, the total number of confinements for the year 1952 is increased to 46,683, and the number of cases of multiple births to 628. On this basis the proportion of mothers giving birth to twins or triplets is increased to one in 73.

The incidence of multiple births has not varied greatly in recent years, as may be seen from the following summary.

Year	Cases of Twins				Cases of Triplets					Total Multiple Cases	Rate Per 1,000 Confinements
Year	Both Born Alive	One Born Alive, One Still-born	Both Still-born	Total	All Born Alive	One Born Alive, Two Still-born	Two Born Alive, One Still-born	All Still-born	Total	Total Multiple Cases	Rate Per 1,000 Confinements
* Includes one case of quadruplets.
1948	522	30	7	559	2				2	561	12.6
1949	532	43	9	584	3		1		4	588	13.3
1950	540	46	12	598	6^*			1	7	605	13.6
1951	509	40	10	559	8		1		9	568	12.7
1952	569	47	8	624	3		1		4	628	13.7
Average of five years	534	41	9	585	4				5	590	13.2

The proportion of multiple births has been consistently high during recent years, while the rate of 14.2 experienced in 1944 was a record figure. The number of cases of triplets recorded in 1951 was exceptional.

The likelihood of still-births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still-born.

Year	Still-birth Cases Per 100 of Total Cases (Including Still-births)
Year	Single Cases	Multiple Cases
1948	1.80	6.60
1949	1.68	8.86
1950	1.81	9.75
1951	1.68	8.98
1952	1.70	8.92
Average of five years	1.75	8.62

During the five years 1948–52 there were 2,672 cases of live twin births (including ex-nuptial), and of these in 865 instances, or 32.4 per cent, both children were males; in 847, or 31.7 per cent, both were females; and in the remaining 960, or 35.9 per cent, the children were of opposite sexes.

The three cases of triplets in 1952 comprised one of three females, one of one male and two females, and one of two males and one female.

AGES OF PARENTS.—Information as to the relative ages of parents of legitimate living children whose births were registered in 1952 is shown in the following tables.

Age of Mother, in Years	Age of Father, in Years
Age of Mother, in Years	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Under 50	50 and Under 55	55 and Under 65	65 and Over	Total Cases
* Including 45 legitimate cases where twins would have been registered had not one child been still-born. † Including 9 cases of triplets and 1 case where one of triplets was still-born.
Single Births
Under 21	259	1,352	856	142	32	13	8				2,662
21 and under 25	99	2,952	5,343	1,631	388	111	18	11	4	1	10,558
25 and under 30	6	681	6,333	5,108	1,705	406	94	30	11		14,374
30 and under 35	1	60	986	3,903	3,030	1,021	283	77	38	11	9,410
35 and under 40		4	89	582	2,011	1,445	460	140	64	11	4,806
40 and under 45		2	7	43	227	550	314	130	58	13	1,344
45 and over					9	21	42	26	12		110
Totals	365	5,051	13,614	11,4091	7,402	3,567	1,219	414	187	36	43,264^*
Multiple Births
Under 21	3	4	5	1							13
21 and under 25	1	20	49	22	5						97
25 and under 30		5	79	65	17	4	2				172
30 and under 35			22	62	51	15		1			151
35 and under 40				10	37	30	17	1	4		99
40 and under 45					4	6	1	2	3		16
45 and over						1					1
Totals	4	29	155	160	114	56	20	4	7		549
Grand totals	369	5,080	13,769	11,569	7,516	3,623	1,239	418	194	36	43,813^†

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS.—Information as to the previous issue of the existing marriage, required in connection with the registration of births in New Zealand, is useful not only for record purposes, but also as providing valuable data for statistical purposes. Tables are given in the annual Report on Vital Statistics containing detailed information as to number of previous issue in conjunction with (1) age of mother and (2) duration of marriage. The table under the first heading for the year 1952 is here summarized.

Age of Mother, in Years	Number of Previous Issue									Total Legitimate Cases
Age of Mother, in Years	0	1	2	3	4	5	6 and Under 10	10 and Under 15	15 and Over	Total Legitimate Cases
* This number represents 43,264 single cases and 549 multiple cases.
Under 21	1,998	578	88	11						2,675
21 and under 25	5,586	3,459	1,230	288	80	11	1			10,655
25 and under 30	3,903	5,090	3,483	1,372	466	144	88			14,546
30 and under 35	1,488	2,432	2,676	1,567	746	335	301	16		9,561
35 and under 40	598	864	1,104	904	627	344	405	58	1	4,905
40 and under 45	144	169	251	216	177	139	213	45	6	1,360
45 and over	6	11	17	18	15	12	24	8		111
Totals	13,723	12,603	8,849	4,376	2,111	985	1,032	127	7	43,813^*

In computing previous issue, multiple births have been given their full significance, the numbers at the head of the columns relating to children born alive. In the following table this procedure has been followed not only for the previous issue, but also for children covered by the 1952 registrations, who are also taken into account in the computation of the averages.

Age of Mother, in Years	Total Mothers	Total Issue	Average Issue
Under 21	2,675	3,462	1.29
21–24	10,655	17,820	1.67
25–29	14,546	33,868	2.33
30–34	9,561	28,874	3.02
35–39	4,905	18,335	3.74
40–44	1,360	6,194	4.55
45 and over	111	589	5.31
Totals	43,813	109,142	2.49

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1952) born up to the present time to those mothers of legitimate children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years were as follows: 1948, 2.40; 1949, 2.42; 1950, 2.45; and 1951, 2.46. In 1915, the earliest year for which reliable comparative figures are available, the average issue was 3.11. This fall in the average issue of women giving birth to children is some indication of the tendency towards smaller families. The 1943 average, for the first time since these figures were compiled, reversed the trend, and a further increase was recorded in 1944, but with the increase in the proportion of first births in the three following years the average declined. A slight improvement has been noted for the years 1948–52, this being accounted for by decreases in the proportion of first births.

FIRST BIRTHS.—Of a total of 254,396 confinements resulting in legitimate births during the six years 1947–52, the issue of no fewer than 87,089, or 34 per cent, were first-born children. In 35,586, or 41 per cent, of these cases the birth occurred within twelve months, and in 64,289, or 74 per cent, within two years after the marriage of the parents. In the remaining 26 per cent of cases where there was any issue to the marriage two years or more had elapsed before the birth of the first child.

The annual number of first births registered naturally follows closely the movement in the marriage rate. With the return of men from service overseas there came a heavy increase in the number of marriages, and correspondingly the proportion of first births rose steeply to 4003 per cent in 1947, a rate very little below the record figure of 41.69 per cent established in 1940. Since 1947, however, a downward tendency has been evident. An interesting feature of the birth statistics for 1947 and 1948 was the high proportion of first births occurring within two years after marriage—75.62 per cent of all legitimate first cases recorded in 1947 and 75.44 per cent in 1948 falling in this class. These are the highest figures recorded since 1929. The steady decline in the marriage rate since the post-war peak figure of 1946 has been accompanied by a marked downward movement in the actual proportion of first births to total births.

Year	Total Legitimate Cases	Total Legitimate First Cases	Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases	First Cases Within One Year After Marriage		First Cases Within Two Years After Marriage
Year	Total Legitimate Cases	Total Legitimate First Cases	Proportion of First Cases to Total Cases	Number	Proportion to Total First Cases	Number	Proportion to Total First Cases
			Per Cent		Per Cent		Per Cent
1947	42,566	17,039	40.03	7,293	42.80	12,885	75.62
1948	42,005	15,164	36.10	6.244	41.18	11,440	75.44
1949	41,796	14,087	33.70	5,659	40.17	10,269	72.90
1950	42,006	13,629	32.45	5,419	39.76	9,964	73.12
1951	42,210	13,447	31.86	5,424	40.34	9,830	73.10
1952	43,813	13,723	31.32	5,547	40.42	9,881	72.00
Totals for six years	254,396	87,089	34.23	35,586	40.86	64,269	73.82

The period of time elapsing before the birth of the first child has varied considerably during recent years mainly as a result of war and post-war influences. The following table compares the 1952 figures with those for earlier years, and illustrates the movement in the duration-of-marriage factor in first births.

Duration of Marriage, in Years	Proportion Per Cent of Total First Births
Duration of Marriage, in Years	1914	1924	1934	1944	1952
Under 1 year	52.95	50.06	46.25	38.47	40.42
1 and under 2 years	28.62	26.64	26.79	26.30	31.58
2 and under 3 years	9.02	10.43	10.24	11.28	12.85
3 and under 4 years	3.43	5.51	6.16	7.88	5.92
4 and under 5 years	1.88	3.03	3.96	7.18	3.54
5 and under 10 years	3.26	3.36	5.49	7.36	4.58
10 years and over	0.84	0.97	1.11	1.53	1.11
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

For the years covered by the foregoing table the average duration of marriage before the birth of the first child was—1914, 1.63 years; 1924, 1.76 years; 1934, 1.85 years; 1944, 2.22 years; and 1952, 1.81 years.

An item of interest extracted from the birth statistics is a table of first births occurring to mothers in different age groups, expressed as a proportion per cent of the total first births. A comparison has also been computed on this basis for the years 1914, 1924, 1934, 1944, and 1952.

FIRST BIRTHS, BY AGE OF MOTHER

Age of Mother, in Years	First Births, Proportion Per Cent at Each Age Group to Total First Births
Age of Mother, in Years	1914	1924	1934	1944	1952
Under 20	6.73	7.55	8.90	7.33	7.94
20 and under 25	35.89	38.16	40.39	41.79	47.32
25 and under 30	35.01	32.59	32.79	29.54	28.44
30 and under 35	15.61	14.68	13.10	14.61	10.84
35 and under 40	5.52	5.33	3.79	5.36	4.36
40 and under 45	1.16	1.59	0.99	1.34	1.05
45 and over	0.08	010	0.04	0.03	0.05
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

The figures of average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child are as follows for the above years: 1914, 26.55; 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; and 1952, 25.48.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS.—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the years 1942–52, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, were as follows.

Year	Number	Percentage of Total Births
1942	1,339	3.99
1943	1,467	4.84
1944	2,020	6.01
1945	1,824	4.93
1946	1,824	4.36
1947	1,727	3.85
1948	1,686	3.82
1949	1,671	3.80
1950	1,768	3.99
1951	1,935	4.33
1952	2,104	4.53

War influences, resulting in unusual movements of the population and the influx of servicemen to the more heavily populated centres, no doubt are responsible for the high percentages recorded during 1943–46.

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for each census year from 1911 to 1951 are as follows.

Census Year	Unmarried Women 15 and Under 45 Years of Age	Ex-nuptial Births	Ex-nuptial Birth Rate Per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911	120,778	1,078	8.93
1916	125,461	1,159	9.24
1921	136,539	1,258	9.21
1926	148,551	1,473	9.92
1936	167,781	1,126	6.71
1945	156,326	1,824	11.67
1951	130.343	1.935	14.85

Included in the total of 2,104 ex-nuptial births in 1952 were twenty-four cases of twins, and two cases where one of twins was still-born, the number of confinements being thus 2,080. From the following table it will be seen that of the 2,080 mothers 664, or 32 per cent, were under twenty-one years of age.

Age	Cases
14	5
15	22
16	48
17	97
18	146
19	164
20	182
21	162
22	152
23	133
24	115
25–29	450
30–34	234
35–39	131
40–44	38
45 and over	1
Total	2,080

The Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1930 directed the omission of the word “illegitimate” from the register when the birth of an ex-nuptial child is registered. The word “illegitimate” appearing in any entry made prior to the passing of the Act is deemed to be expunged and deleted, and must also be omitted from any certified copy of an entry.

The Legitimation Act.—Important changes were made by the Legitimation Act of 1939, which repealed previous legislation on the subject. This Act stipulates that every ex-nuptial person whose parents have intermarried, whether before or after the passing of the Act, shall be deemed to have been legitimated from birth by reason of such marriage. The Act requires the parents or surviving parent of any person legitimated under the Act to register with the Registrar-General the particulars of the birth of that person, showing that person as the lawful issue of the parents. Application for registration was required to be made within six months after the date of the passing of the Act in cases where the marriage took place prior to that date. In cases where the marriage has taken place subsequent to the passing of the Act, application for registration must be made within three months after the date of the marriage.

Where the Registrar-General has reason to believe that any person has been legitimated under the terms of the Act, and no application for registration has been made within the prescribed time, he may require the responsible parents or parent to make an application within a specified period of not less than seven days after receiving notice to do so. Any failure to comply with the notice requiring application for registration within the time specified renders the person or persons responsible liable on summary conviction to a fine of £5. If no application for registration is made within the appropriate time specified in the Act or in the notice received from the Registrar-General, application for registration of the particulars of the birth of any legitimated person may be made by that person, or by one of his parents, or by any other person.

The number of legitimations registered in each of the last five years, and the total since the Act of 1894 came into force, are shown in the following table.

Year	Number of Children Legitimated
Year	Previously Registered	Not Previously Registered	Total
1948	518	3	521
1949	411	2	413
1950	401		401
1951	394		394
1952	415		415
Totals from 1894 to 1952	11,726	3,294	15,020

ADOPTIONS.—The Births and Deaths Registration Act contains provision for the registration of adopted children. The Registrar of the Court by which any adoption order is made is required to furnish to the Registrar-General particulars of the order, including the full name and place of birth of the child, as well as the full names and addresses of both the natural and the adopting parents. An entry is made in the prescribed form in the register of births, particulars of the adopting parents being given in lieu of those of the natural parents. If the child's birth has previously been registered in New Zealand a note of the adoption order is made on the original entry. An amendment to the Infants Act in 1939 extended the age at which a child might be legally adopted from under fifteen years to under twenty-one years.

The adoption of a Maori child is required to be registered in the same manner as that of a European child unless the adoption order is made under the Maori Affairs-Act 1953.

The following table shows the number of adoptions (exclusive of Maori children) which have been registered during the last five years.

Year	Number
Year	Males	Females	Total
1948	698	664	1,362
1949	654	595	1,249
1950	629	626	1,255
1951	696	709	1,405
1952	690	740	1,430

Of the 1,430 adoptions registered in 1952, 797 were children under the age of one year, 247 were between one and five years, 189 were between five and ten years, and 197 were aged ten years or over. In addition, 186 Maori children (99 males and 87 females) were adopted in 1952.

Statistics of adoptions registered have been available in New Zealand since 1919, and these indicate that the numbers are considerably influenced by the economic condition of the country, the lowest total, 329, being recorded in 1931. The highest total prior to 1940 occurred in 1921, when 584 adoptions were registered, this, no doubt, being the result of influences operating after the First World War. Possibly various factors arising out of the Second World War have had a bearing on the high totals for recent years, but the extension of age at which a child might legally be adopted is also of importance in this connection. It should also be noted that the unprecedented totals since 1944 are associated with the high number of ex-nuptial births occurring in these years.

STILL-BIRTHS.—The registration of still-births was made compulsory in New Zealand as from 1 March 1913. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Section 15 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1946, amending the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1924, stipulated, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the still-birth. Particulars of causes of still-births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.” Still-births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The registrations of European still-births during each of the years 1948–52 were as follows.

Year	Females	Totals	Male Still-births Per 1,000 Female Still-births	Percentage of Still-births to—
Year	Females	Totals	Male Still-births Per 1,000 Female Still-births	Living Births	All Births
1948	483	351	834	1,376	1.89	1.85
1949	449	347	796	1,294	1.81	1.78
1950	489	376	865	1,301	1.95	1.92
1951	449	355	804	1,265	1.80	1.77
1952	442	404	846	1,094	1.82	1.79

Masculinity is in general much higher among still-births than among living births, the rate for still-births in 1952 being 1,094 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,051 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptials among still-born infants was in 1952, 6.41, and among infants born alive, 2.42.

Of the living legitimate births registered in 1952, 31 per cent were first births, while of legitimate still-births 37 per cent were first births. Statistics over many years indicate that there is a considerably greater probability of still-births occurring to mothers having their first confinement than to those having subsequent confinements. In addition to the 846 European still-births in 1952, there were 110 Maori still-births registered, comprising 57 males and 53 females.

FOETAL DEATHS.—Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 stipulates that in the case of a foetal death where the child has issued from its mother after the twentieth week, and up to and including the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy, a medical practitioner or a midwife who was in attendance at the confinement shall sign and supply a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the foetal death, and such other particulars as may be required by the Registrar-General. This requirement came into force as from 1 April 1952. A foetal death is not required to be registered as in the case of a still-born child.

4 B—MARRIAGES

MARRIAGE may be celebrated in New Zealand only on the authority of a Registrar's certificate, either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. Marriage by an officiating minister may be celebrated only between 8 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the even; ??. Marriage before a Registrar can be celebrated at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business.

Notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage, and one of the parties must have resided for three full days in the district within which the marriage is to be celebrated. In the case of a person under twenty-one years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parent or guardian is necessary before the Registrar's certificate can be issued. A schedule to the Guardianship of Infants Act 1926 sets out the person or persons whose consent is required in various circumstances. In cases where double consent is required, section 8 provides for dispensing with the consent of one party if this cannot be obtained by reason of absence, inaccessibility, or disability. In similar cases where the consent of only one person is necessary, consent may be given by a Judge of the Supreme Court. Consent of the Court may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

If in any particular case a declaration is made that there is no parent or lawful guardian resident in New Zealand, then a certificate may be issued by the Registrar (without the necessity of Court proceedings) fourteen days after the date on which the notice of intended marriage was given.

The system of notice and certificate has operated in New Zealand since 1855. Officiating ministers and Registrars are required to send to the Registrar-General returns of all marriages celebrated, and as the returns come in they are checked off with the entries in the Registrars' lists of notices received and certificates issued. In case of the non-arrival of a marriage return corresponding to any entry in the list of notices, inquiries are made as to whether the marriage has taken place.

Marriage is forbidden between persons within certain degrees of relationship, any such marriage being declared void. The prohibition applies whether the relationship is by the whole blood or by the half-blood, and whether the relationship is nuptial or ex-nuptial. The present law on this matter is contained in the Marriage Amendment Act 1946.

An amendment to the Marriage Act in 1939, which repealed a similar provision passed in 1933, stipulates that a Registrar may not issue a certificate of marriage where either of the intending parties is under sixteen years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to have been unduly solemnized, however, by reason only of this provision. The 1933 amendment made provision enabling women to become officiating ministers for the purposes of the Marriage Act. The 1946 amending Act provides for the validity of Service—i.e., Armed Forces overseas—marriages.

The Maori Purposes Act 1951 stipulates that after 1 April 1952 every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be celebrated in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a European; and all the provisions of the Marriage Act 1908 shall apply accordingly.

As a result of this legislative change marriage statistics for the year 1952 are inclusive of Maoris and Maori marriage figures as a separate feature have lapsed. Figures quoted in this subsection for years prior to 1952 are all exclusive of Maoris.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found at the close of this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The movement of the marriage rate over a lengthy period of time may be observed from the statistical summary appearing towards the end of this Year-Book. The numbers and rates of marriages during each of the last twenty years are here given.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Population	Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Population
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1933	10,510	7.18	1943	11,579	7.53
1934	11,256	7.64	1944	13,125	8.43
1935	12,187	8.23	1945	16,160	10.14
1936	13,808	9.25	1946	20,535	12.39
1937	14,364	9.55	1947	18,525	10.94
1938	15,328	10.09	1948	17,192	9.96
1939	17,115	11.12	1949	16,785	9.53
1940	17,448	11.28	1950	16,504	9.19
1941	13,313	8.65	1951	16,359	8.93
1942	12,219	7.91	1952	17,061^*	8.55^*

Both the marriage rate and the number of marriages in 1946 were the highest on record. The main reason for this was the return from overseas of many thousands of men in the most prolific marriage age groups. An appreciable decline, however, in both the number of marriages and in the marriage rate took place in 1947 and 1948 and continued until 1951. Although separate figures for European marriages are not available for 1952, the total of all marriages showed a small increase on the 1951 figure.

Comparison with Other Countries.—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1952 are given below (these particulars have been taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, issued by the Statistical Office of the United Nations).

Country	Rates Per 1,000 Mean Population	Country	Rates Per 1,000 Mean Population
Israel	11.1	Chile	8.1
Yugoslavia	10.5	Argentina	8.0
United States of America	10.0	Portugal	7.8
Canada	8.8	Switzerland	7.8
Australia	8.6	Spain	7.7
New Zealand	8.6	Sweden	7.4
Netherlands	8.4	France	7.3
Austria	8.3	Italy	7.0
Denmark	8.2	Ceylon	6.6
Norway	8.2	Mexico	6.2
Puerto Rico	8.2	Republic of Ireland	5.3

MARITAL STATUS.—The total number of persons married during the year 1952 was 34,122, of whom 29,867 were single, 1,750 widowed, and 2,505 divorced. The figures for the five years 1948 to 1952, showing the sexes separately, are given in the table following.

Year	Single		Widowed		Divorced		Total Persons Married
Year	Bridegroom	Bride	Bridegroom	Bride	Bridegroom	Bride	Total Persons Married
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1948	14,799	14,920	897	832	1,496	1,440	34,384
1949	14,480	14,584	870	781	1,435	1,420	33,570
1950	14,280	14,452	894	776	1,330	1,276	33,008
1951	14,244	14,371	854	731	1,261	1,257	32,718
1952^*	14,927	14,940	911	839	1,223	1,282	34,122

The position is more easily seen by studying the percentages given in the next table.

Year	Bridegrooms			Brides
Year	Single	Widowed	Divorced	Single	Widowed	Divorced
* Inclusive of Maoris.
	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent
1948	86.08	5.22	8.70	86.78	4.84	8.38
1949	86.27	5.18	8.55	86.89	4.65	8.46
1950	86.52	5.42	8.06	87.57	4.70	7.73
1951	87.07	5.22	7.71	87.85	4.47	7.68
1952^*	87.49	5.34	7.17	87.57	4.92	7.51

Reference to the divorce statistics at the end of this subsection will show that the number of divorces since and including the later war-years has been at a high level, although there has been a steady decline since 1946. The number of decrees absolute in the period 1948–52 was 8,644, as compared with 4,907 in the five years 1936–40, an increase of 76 per cent. The increase in the number of divorced people remarrying is therefore not surprising. The number of widowed persons remarrying, which was 39 per 1,000 in 1940, rose to 51 per 1,000 in 1952.

The relative marital status of bridegrooms and brides for each of the five years 1948 to 1952 is next given.

Year	Marriages Between Bachelors and			Marriages Between Widowers and			Marriages Between Divorced Men and
Year	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women	Spinsters	Widows	Divorced Women
* Inclusive of Maoris.
1948	13,582	390	827	434	279	184	904	163	429
1949	13,336	327	817	385	302	183	863	152	420
1950	13,271	285	724	378	330	186	803	161	366
1951	13,260	288	696	364	306	184	747	137	377
1952^*	13,875	316	736	378	367	166	687	156	380

The relative proportions of divorced men and divorced women remarrying during the last three years has changed but little compared with ten years earlier. During the three years 1938–40 the number of male divorcees remarrying was 2,066, as compared with 2,169 females, which gives a rate of 95 males for every 100 females. In 1950–52 the respective numbers were 3,814 males and 3,815 females, and the corresponding rate 100 males for every 100 females. In the case of widowed persons remarrying, however, there has been a marked change in the figures. In the three-year period 1938–40, 2,420 widowers remarried but only 1,619 widows, whereas in 1950–52, there were 2,659 widowers and 2,346 widows who remarried, the number of widowers per 100 widows being 149 in the former period and 113 in the latter period.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED.—Of the 34,122 persons married in 1952, 5,162, or 15 per cent, were under twenty-one years of age; 12,591, or 37 per cent, were returned as twenty-one and under twenty-five; 8,194, or 24 per cent, as twenty-five and under thirty; 4,673, or 14 per cent, as thirty and under forty; and 3,502, or 10 per cent, as forty years of age or over. The following table relates to the year 1952.

Age of Bridegroom, in Years	Age of Bride, in Years							Total Bridegrooms
Age of Bridegroom, in Years	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Over	Total Bridegrooms
Under 21	639	213	19	3				874
21 and under 25	2,379	3,081	481	60	8	1	1	6,011
25 and under 30	1,038	2,505	1,382	294	54	8	7	5,288
30 and under 35	171	553	605	345	137	37	12	1,860
35 and under 40	43	147	271	227	171	67	32	958
40 and under 45	12	55	104	140	131	112	61	615
45 and over	6	26	44	112	173	237	857	1,455
Total brides	4,288	6,580	2,906	1,181	674	462	970	17,061

There have been some considerable changes in the proportions of persons marrying at the various age periods. To illustrate the extent to which these figures have varied a table is given showing since 1920 the proportions of men and women married at each age period to every 100 marriages.

Period	Under 21	21 and Under 25	25 and Under 30	30 and Under 35	35 and Under 40	40 and Under 45	45 and Over	Totals
Males
1920–24	3.13	24.66	32.21	17.73	10.24	5.43	6.60	100.00
1925–29	3.49	28.04	34.49	14.33	7.70	4.48	7.47	100.00
1930–34	3.46	27.28	37.02	15.14	6.10	3.61	7.39	100.00
1935–39	2.68	25.91	38.26	16.46	6.75	3.22	6.72	100.00
1948–52	4.41	34.03	31.06	12.02	6.60	3.87	8.01	100.00
Females
1920–24	15.99	35.47	26.21	10.66	5.53	2.98	3.16	100.00
1925–29	18.61	37.88	23.67	8.93	4.65	2.82	3.44	100.00
1930–34	18.67	38.51	24.79	8.22	3.85	2.40	3.56	100.00
1935–39	17.10	38.26	26.30	8.86	3.91	2.02	3.55	100.00
1948–52	23.63	38.90	18.07	7.40	4.43	2.66	4.91	100.00

A perusal of the above table reveals the fact that greater proportions of marriages are now being celebrated at the younger and, to a lesser extent, at the older age groups. This has become very marked in the 1948–52 period, and is mainly due to the fact that the outbreak of war induced a number of earlier marriages which has resulted in fewer unmarried people entering the middle-age groups.

For many years the average age (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females, more particularly the latter, showed a tendency to increase. However, in recent years there has been very little change, the year to year fluctuations being within very narrow limits. The figures for each of the years 1945–52 are as follows.

Year	Bridegrooms	Brides
* Inclusive of Maoris.
	(Years)	(Years)
1945	30.52	26.75
1946	29.73	26.18
1947	29.71	26.11
1948	29.96	26.32
1949	29.89	26.30
1950	29.67	26.14
1951	29.42	25.96
1952	29.52^*	26.19^*

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the last five years according to marital status were as shown below.

Year	Bridegrooms			Brides
Year	Bachelors	Divorced	Widowers	Spinsters	Divorced	Widows
* Inclusive of Maoris.
	Years	Years	Years	Years	Years	Years
1948	27.55	39.60	53.63	24.42	35.41	44.63
1949	27.42	39.89	52.82	24.31	35.42	45.46
1950	27.15	40.06	54.46	24.19	35.59	46.90
1951	26.95	40.77	53.93	23.97	36.19	47.05
1952^*	26.98	41.00	55.60	24.08	35.98	48.83

The foregoing figures give the average ages at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides (21) has remained unchanged for very many years, but in the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied, and for recent years it has been 23 or 24.

Marriages of Minors.—Of every 1,000 men married in 1952, 52 were under twenty-one years of age, while 251 in every 1,000 brides were under twenty-one.

In 639 marriages in 1952 both parties were given as under twenty-one years of age, in 3,649 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 235 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last five years. In the latest year (1952) one bride in every four was under twenty-one years of age, the proportion for grooms being one in twenty.

Year	Age, in Years					Totals
Year	16	17	18	19	20	Number	Rate Per 100 Marriages
* Inclusive of Maoris.
Bridegrooms
1948	2	14	57	205	412	690	4.01
1949		26	68	168	412	674	4.02
1950	2	9	74	195	421	701	4.25
1951	3	13	63	222	457	758	4.63
1952^*	2	26	103	254	489	874	518
Brides
1948	102	326	699	1,163	1,485	3,775	21.95
1949	111	303	744	1,141	1,456	3,755	22.37
1950	100	301	777	1,274	1,513	3,965	24.02
1951	115	316	727	1,236	1,646	4,040	24.70
1952^*	158	384	884	1,300	1,562	4,288	25.13

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES.—Of the 17,061 marriages registered in 1952, Church of England clergymen officiated at 4,334, Presbyterians at 4,428, Roman Catholics at 2,257, and Methodists at 1,453, while 3,384 marriages were celebrated before Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the years 1946–52.

Church	Percentage of Marriages
Church	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952^*
* Inclusive of Maoris.
Presbyterian	28.35	28.26	28.86	28.07	28.31	27.91	25.95
Church of England	27.68	26.53	26.55	25.80	25.95	25.83	25.40
Roman Catholic	11.85	12.25	11.81	12.17	11.93	12.67	13.23
Methodist	9.78	9.58	9.25	9.19	9.32	8.53	8.52
Others	5.74	5.18	5.50	5.78	5.65	5.51	7.06
Before Registrars	16.60	18.20	18.03	18.99	18.84	19.55	19.84
Totals	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the Church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population (inclusive of Maoris) at the general census of 1951, 37.8 per cent were recorded as adherents of the Church of England, 24.3 percent Presbyterian, 13.6 percent Roman Catholic, 8.1 per cent Methodist, and 16.2 per cent of other religions or of no religion, or who objected to state their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS.—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was (January 1953) 2,731, and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

Church	Number
Roman Catholic Church	580
Church of England	506
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand	451
Methodist Church of New Zealand	327
Salvation Army	151
Ratana Church of New Zealand	149
Baptist	113
Seventh Day Adventist	52
Latter Day Saints	45
Ringatu Church.	44
Brethren	39
Associated Churches of Christ	34
Congregational Independent	30
Commonwealth Covenant Church	26
Assemblies of God	18
Jehovah's Witness	16
Apostolic Church	15
Liberal Catholic Church	14
Evangelistic Church of Christ	10
United Maori Mission	10
Churches of Christ	8
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference	8
Pentecostal Church of New Zealand	8
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi	7
Spiritualist Church of New Zealand	7
Absolute Maori Established Church	5
Hebrew Congregations	5
Others	53
Total	2,731

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the Absolute Maori Established Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organizations.

DIVORCE.—The provisions as to dissolution of marriage are contained in the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928 (which consolidated and amended the then existing legislation on the subject) and its later amendments.

A brief historical account of divorce legislation is given in the 1931 issue of the Year-Book; the present position is outlined in the following résumé.

Any married person domiciled in New Zealand (for two or more years in the case of restitution and separation, grounds (i), (j), (k), (l) below) at the time of filing the petition may obtain a divorce on one or more of the following grounds:

Adultery since the celebration of the marriage.
Wilful and continuous desertion for three years or more.
Habitual drunkenness for four years, coupled with (wife's petition) failure to support or habitual cruelty, or with (husband's petition) neglect of, or self-caused inability to discharge, domestic duties.
Since the celebration of the marriage the respondent has been convicted of attempting to commit the murder of the petitioner or any child (of any age) of the petitioner or respondent, or has been convicted of any offence under section one hundred and ninety-seven of the Crimes Act 1908 against the petitioner or any such child.
Respondent has since the celebration of the marriage been convicted of murder.
Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for seven out of ten years preceding the petition.
Insanity for seven years, and confinement for three years immediately preceding the petition.
Insanity and confinement as a lunatic for the five years immediately preceding the petition.
Failure for three years or more to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights.
Parties have separated under an agreement, written or verbal, which has been in full force for not less than three years.
Parties have been separated by a decree of judicial separation or a separation order which has been in force for three years. (An amendment in 1930 removed the restriction imposed by the principal Act—which permitted only New Zealand decrees or orders—and extended the provision to cover similar decrees or orders made in any country.)
Parties are living apart, are unlikely to be reconciled, and have been living apart for not less than seven years.
Husband guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality since marriage.

In cases based on separation of the parties, whether by order or agreement or otherwise, the Court is bound to dismiss the petition if the respondent opposes it and the Court is satisfied that the separation was due to the wrongful act or conduct of the petitioner; and in all those cases, as well as in cases where the ground is failure to comply with a decree for restitution of conjugal rights, the Court has in any event a discretion whether or not to grant a decree.

A deserted wife whose husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the time of desertion is considered, for the purpose of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1928, as retaining her New Zealand domicile. Where a wife petitions on grounds (j), (k), and (l), her New Zealand domicile is retained if her husband was domiciled in New Zealand at the date of the agreement, decree, order, or commencement of separation.

The amending Act of 1953 establishes a New Zealand domicile for a wife petitioning for divorce where she has been living apart from her husband if she has been living in New Zealand for three years preceding the petition and has the intention of residing in New Zealand permanently.

Until the passing of the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act 1953 there were no statutory provisions as to nullity of marriage. This Act embodies the common law on the subject, with several additions to the grounds on which a marriage is voidable, and some changes.

The basis of the Court's jurisdiction in nullity is established as the domicile of either petitioner or respondent in New Zealand at the time of the filing of the petition, or the celebration of the marriage in New Zealand.

A petition for a nullity decree may be presented in respect of either a void, or a voidable marriage, the former being those which are invalid and of no effect whether or not a decree is obtained, and the latter those which are valid unless and until a decree is obtained.

Marriages are void in the following cases:

Where at the time of the ceremony either party to the marriage was already married.
Where, whether by reason of duress or mistake or insanity or otherwise, there was at the time of the marriage an absence of consent by either party to marriage to the other party.
Where the parties are within the prohibited degrees of relationship as set out in the Marriage Amendment Act 1946.
Where the marriage was not solemnized in due form.

Marriages are voidable on the following grounds:

Incapacity or wilful refusal of the respondent to consummate the marriage.
Mental deficiency of either party within the meaning of the Mental Defectives Act 1911 although that party was capable of consenting to the marriage.
Venereal disease (of the respondent) in a communicable form.
Pregnancy of the respondent by some person other than the petitioner.

In cases (b), (c), and (d) the facts alleged must have existed at the time of the marriage and proceedings must be instituted within a year of the marriage. The Court must be satisfied—

That the petitioner was at the time of the marriage ignorant of the facts;
That marital intercourse with the petitioner's consent has not taken place since the discovery of the existence of the grounds for a decree.

The Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Act 1947 made special provisions, in respect of war marriages (i.e., a marriage celebrated on or after 3 September 1939 but before 1 June 1950) where one of the parties was domiciled outside New Zealand by: (1) extension of jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to certain marriages irrespective of domicile; (2) recognition of decrees and orders (in relation to such marriages) made in the United States of America; and (3) shortening the period of desertion or separation as ground for divorce in such cases from three years to twelve months.

By authority of the Act, previous legislation on the subject embodied in the Matrimonial Causes (War Marriages) Emergency Regulations 1946 was revoked, accrued rights being protected.

Figures showing the operations of the Supreme Court in its divorce jurisdiction during recent years are as follows. About 50 per cent of the decrees granted in any year relate to petitions filed in prior years.

Year	Dissolution or Nullity of Marriage			Judicial Separation		Restitution of Conjugal Rights
Year	Petitions Filed	Decrees Nisi	Decrees Absolute	Petitions Filed	Decrees for Separation	Petitions Filed	Decrees for Restitution
1942	1,177	988	962	5	3	142	94
1943	1,641	1,398	1,100	4	1	302	227
1944	1,992	1,821	1,630	7	2	499	421
1945	2,211	1,915	1,725	11	2	550	461
1946	2,363	2,137	2,133	10	6	562	463
1947	2,191	2,051	2.117	7	1	430	371
1948	2,160	1,974	1,853	20	7	355	300
1949	2,001	1,824	1,892	15	1	331	262
1950	1,912	1,707	1,633	11	4	304	217
1951	1,882	1,666	1,582	11	7	263	210
1952	1,960	1,727	1,684	15	8	296	204

The later years of the war witnessed a marked increase in divorce. The high level of decrees absolute granted in 1945 was exceeded by approximately 400 in each of the two succeeding years. However, a slight falling off, for the first time in six years, was recorded in 1947 and continued in 1948. A small increase was shown in 1949, after which the decrease continued in 1950 and 1951, being quite substantial in the former year. In 1952, however, there was an increase over 1951 of 102, or 6.4 per cent.

It is worth noting that there was one divorce for every ten marriages solemnized in 1952, while the ratio in 1951 was one divorce to every eleven marriages.

The next table gives the grounds (dissolution or nullity cases) of petitions and decrees during 1951 and 1952.

Grounds	Petitions Filed				Decrees Absolute Granted
	Husbands' Petitions		Wives' Petitions		Husbands' Petitions		Wives' Petitions
	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952
Adultery	218	277	138	153	163	183	112	102
Bigamy	1	3	5	2		2	3	3
Desertion	153	165	166	173	125	143	131	136
Drunkenness with cruelty, failure to maintain, etc.	2	2	8	5	1		4	1
Insanity	9	15	4	4	6	10	6	6
Consanguinity				1			1
Non-compliance with order for restitution of conjugal rights	158	136	51	49	147	134	59	45
Separation for not less than three years	411	415	548	555	344	386	472	527
Non-consummation	6	2	3	3	1	1	4	5
Murder of children			1				1
Totals	958	1,015	924	945	789	859	793	825

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. It should be mentioned here, and a glance at the line “non-compliance, etc.” in the table above will show, that the number of decrees absolute granted can, and often do, number more than the petitions filed. The reason for this is that all decrees granted are not necessarily from petitions filed in a particular year. The petition may have been filed in one year but the case not heard until the succeeding year.

Mention should be made here of the fact that over a period of five years, 1948–52 inclusive, the average percentage of decrees absolute granted on wives' petitions was greater than those granted to husbands. The figures are—wives 89.2 per cent, husbands 85.3 per cent.

The principal grounds on which petitions were filed during 1952 showed the following increases compared with 1938, a normal pre-war year: adultery, 227 (111.8 per cent); desertion, 126 (59.4 per cent); non-compliance with restitution order, 76 (69.7 per cent); and separation, 335 (52.8 per cent).

In 627 of the 1,960 cases where petitions for dissolution were filed during 1952 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 558 cases, 2 in 378 cases, 3 in 207 cases, 4 or more in 186 cases, while the number of issue was not stated in four cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which petitions for dissolution were filed in the five years 1948 to 1952.

Duration of Marriage, in Years	Husbands' Petitions					Wives' Petitions
Duration of Marriage, in Years	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Under 5	197	204	191	192	168	169	137	141	147	139
5 and under 10	308	334	296	263	312	340	282	255	279	301
10 and under 15	243	198	212	203	222	243	217	202	203	196
15 and under 20	126	128	121	104	126	133	114	128	112	133
20 and under 30	162	148	139	142	128	141	127	121	134	134
30 and over	56	55	55	48	56	34	36	43	47	40
Not stated	7	11	3	6	3	1	10	5	2	2
Totals	1,099	1,078	1,017	958	1,015	1,061	923	895	924	945

The number of children affected by the divorce petitions of their parents during each of the last five years was as follows: 1948, 3,108; 1949, 2,885; 1950, 2,682; 1951, 2,784; and 1952, 2,858.

4 C—DEATHS

REGISTRATION.—The law as to registration of deaths is now embodied in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, a consolidation of the then existing legislation. Particulars required in the registration of a death include date, place of residence and domicile, name, occupation, sex, age, cause of death, birthplace, duration of residence in New Zealand, whether cremated or not, marital status, living issue of married persons, race (European or Maori), medical attendant by whom certified, particulars as to burial, and, in the case of married males, age of widow.

Every death occurring in New Zealand is required to be registered within three days after the day of the burial. There is a penalty up to £10 for neglect, the funeral director in charge of the burial being solely responsible for registration. When an inquest is held the Coroner becomes responsible for registration, the time allowed being three days after the conclusion of the inquest. The Coroner may, in writing, authorize an agent to attend to registration on his behalf. Registrations must not be effected before the conclusion of the inquest.

Where the Coroner decides not to hold an inquest the funeral director is responsible for registration of the death.

The law does not impose any limit of time after which a death may not be registered as it does in the case of a birth. Although it is necessary to effect a birth-registration entry in the case of a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. The principal Act stipulates, however, that a medical practitioner or a midwife in attendance at a confinement where a still-birth occurs must furnish a certificate stating to the best of his or her knowledge and belief the cause of the stillbirth.

New provisions in the 1951 Act include prohibition of burial at sea of a person dying in New Zealand except upon the authority of a Coroner, and provide for the registration of the death of a person whose body is removed for anatomical examination under Part II of the Medical Act 1908, or is removed for burial outside New Zealand.

Any person burying, or permitting or taking part in the burial of the body of any deceased person without a certificate of cause of death signed by a duly registered medical practitioner, or a Coroner's order to bury the body, renders himself liable to a fine of £50.

From 1 April 1952 (reverting to the system followed prior to 1937) it is incumbent upon a medical practitioner to give the certificate of cause of death to the person required to supply information for the purpose of registering the death (the funeral director in charge of the burial). During the intervening period the medical practitioner was required to deliver the certificate direct to the Registrar. The practitioner is required to report forthwith to the Coroner any case where, in his opinion, the death has occurred in any circumstances of suspicion.

The Act provides for the correction of errors (clerical, of fact, of substance, or of omission) in the register in the manner authorized by the Registrar-General.

Deaths of Members of the Forces while Overseas.—The Registration of Deaths Emergency Regulations 1941, which superseded 1940 regulations of similar title, required the Registrar-General to compile a War Deaths Register of persons of New Zealand domicile who died while out of New Zealand on service in some capacity in connection with the Second World War. Members of the New Zealand Naval Forces were excluded from the regulations, special provision having previously been made in their case. These regulations were revoked by the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1947, which made statutory provision in this connection. The amendment required the Registrar-General to compile a register of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any of the Armed Forces of Her Majesty and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand. Deaths registered in the War Deaths Register were not taken into account in arriving at the number and rate of deaths in New Zealand, nor were deaths of visiting overseas servicemen or prisoners of war in New Zealand. Deaths of New Zealand servicemen which occurred in New Zealand were, however, included. The Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 requires the Registrar-General to compile a register containing particulars of all persons who have died while out of New Zealand on service with any Commonwealth force within the meaning of the Army Act 1950 and who at the time of their deaths were domiciled in New Zealand.

Registration of Maori Deaths.—Registration of the deaths of Maoris are effected with the Maori Registrars in the various districts set up for this purpose. Statistics relating to the deaths of Maoris are not included in this subsection, but are fully covered in Section 4D.

NUMBERS AND RATES.—The following table shows the number of deaths and the death rate per 1,000 of the mean population during each of the last twenty years.

Year	Number	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1933	11,701	7.99
1934	12,527	8.50
1935	12,217	8.25
1936	13,056	8.75
1937	13,658	9.08
1938	14,754	9.71
1939	14,158	9.20
1940	14,282	9.24
1941	15,146	9.84
1942	16,385	10.60
1943	15,447	10.04
1944	15,363	9.87
1945	16,051	10.07
1946	16,093	9.71
1947	15,904	9.39
1948	15,812	9.16
1949	16,012	9.09
1950	16,715	9.31
1951	17,512	9.56
1952	17,413	9.28

New Zealand has been noted for many years for its favourable death rate. The fact that the death rate is still comparatively very low, despite the older age constitution of the population, is probably due, inter alia, to improvements in medical techniques, expansion of health services, etc. This progress has been reflected, for example, in a relatively low incidence of serious outbreaks of the more important epidemic diseases (which were much more prevalent in the early years of colonization) and in a remarkably low infant-mortality rate.

The general trend of the death rate in New Zealand was for many years downwards, reaching its lowest level during the depression years of the early “thirties.” Since then an upward trend has been in evidence, and the figures recorded during the war years were the highest for a long time. It is possible that the absence overseas of considerable numbers of men of early adult age, at which 'mortality experience is the most favourable, would have some effect on the rates established. The strains of wartime would also have some effect on deaths in the older age groups; in fact, the high rate of 1942 disclosed a sharp rise in deaths resulting from diseases of the heart and nervous system. For four years following 1945 a downward trend was again in evidence—the 1949 figure being the lowest since 1937—but although small increases have been recorded in 1950 and 1951, the 1952 rate again shows a decrease.

The death rates of males and females for the last eleven years are shown separately in the next table.

Year	Deaths Per 1,000 of Mean Population			Male Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths	Male Rate Expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100)
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Male Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths	Male Rate Expressed as Index Number of Female Rate (= 100)
1942	11.80	9.47	10.60	119	125
1943	11.36	8.81	10.04	119	129
1944	11.32	8.53	9.87	123	133
1945	11.37	8.84	10.07	122	129
1946	10.55	8.86	9.71	118	119
1947	10.50	8.28	9.39	127	127
1948	10.17	8.14	9.16	125	125
1949	9.94	8.24	9.09	121	120
1950	10.23	8.38	9.31	123	122
1951	10.50	8.62	9.56	122	121
1952	10.12	8.44	9.28	121	120

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES.—An international comparison of death rates is made in the following table. They are the average of the five years 1948–52 and are taken from the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics issued by the United Nations.

Country	Rates Per 1,000 of Population	Country	Rates Per 1,000 of Population
* European population only.
Israel	6.6	Switzerland	10.4
Netherlands	7.6	Japan	10.7
Norway	8.7	Spain	11.0
Union of South Africa^*	8.8	United Kingdom	11.7
Denmark	8.9	Costa Rica	12.3
Argentina	9.0	Austria	12.4
Canada	9.0	Ceylon	12.4
New Zealand	9.3	Portugal	12.7
Australia	9.6	Republic of Ireland	12.8
United States of America	9.7	France	12.9
Sweden	9.9	Yugoslavia	13.2
Italy	10.2	India	15.4
Finland	10.4	Chile	16.1
Puerto Rico	10.4	Mexico	16.6

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR.—An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the period 1942–52 gives the following averages: March quarter, 3,493; June quarter, 3,989; September quarter, 4,720; and December quarter, 4,044.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1952 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were August, July, and June, with totals of 1,980, 1,761, and 1,548 respectively. Excluding December, a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January, February had the least number of deaths, 1,159, followed by April and January, with 1,202 and 1,282 respectively.

The lowest number of deaths on any one day, again excluding December, was 23, this number occurring on 21 January. The greatest number (84) occurred on 5 August.

AGE AT DEATH.—The deaths registered during the year 1952 are tabulated below according to age.

Age	Males	Females	Totals	Age	Males	Females	Totals
Under 1 month	366	338	704	45–49 years	294	223	517
1–2 months	57	39	96	50–54 years	451	334	785
3–5 months	63	46	109	55–59 years	566	410	976
6–11 months	67	38	105	60–64 years	828	629	1,457
1 year	43	40	83	65–69 years	1,286	875	2,161
2 years	37	27	64	70–74 years	1,475	1,186	2,661
3 months	19	19	38	75–79 years	1,351	1,263	2,614
4 months	19	15	34	80–84 years	996	986	1,982
5–9 months	58	46	104	85–89 years	527	638	1,165
10–14 months	52	23	75	90–94 years	148	196	344
15–19 months	79	33	112	95–99 years	24	55	79
20–24 months	113	34	147	100 years	2	3	5
25–29 months	116	61	177	101 years		1	1
30–34 months	127	63	190	102 years		1	1
35–39 months	160	115	275	105 years		1	1
40–44 months	202	148	350	115 years	1		1
				Totals	9,527	7,886	17,413

The following table indicates the changes that have occurred since 1930 in the age distribution of persons dying. The movement in the proportions of deaths occurring at the different age groups is very striking. The results of three main factors are illustrated—viz., health measures, which have achieved an immense saving of young life; the fluctuations in the birth rate over the period; and the great increase in the proportion of old people in the community.

Age, in Years	Number of Deaths				Percentage of Total
Age, in Years	1930	1940	1950	1952	1930	1940	1950	1952
Under 1	924	990	1,008	1,014	7.57	6.93	6.03	5.82
1 and under 5	327	205	199	219	2.68	1.44	1.19	1.26
5 and under 10	167	98	87	104	1.37	0.69	0.52	0.60
10 and under 15	105	108	64	75	0.86	0.76	0.38	0.43
15 and under 20	222	151	120	112	1.82	1.06	0.72	0.64
20 and under 25	315	247	158	147	2.58	1.73	0.95	0.84
25 and under 30	337	270	142	177	2.76	1.89	0.85	1.01
30 and under 35	337	290	191	190	2.76	2.03	1.14	1.09
35 and under 40	374	320	275	275	3.07	2.24	1.65	1.58
40 and under 45	478	362	328	350	3.92	2.53	1.96	2.01
45 and under 50	640	472	522	517	5.25	3.30	3.12	2.97
50 and under 55	794	798	697	785	6.51	5.59	4.17	4.51
55 and under 60	881	1,145	1,021	976	7.22	8.02	6.11	5.62
60 and under 65	1,003	1,461	1,503	1,457	8.22	10.23	8.99	8.37
65 and under 70	1,077	1,697	2,170	2,161	8.83	11.88	12.98	12.41
70 and under 75	1,171	1,772	2,536	2,661	9.60	12.41	15.17	15.28
75 and under 80	1,242	1,556	2,316	2,614	10.18	10.89	13.86	15.01
80 and over	1,805	2,340	3,378	3,579	14.80	16.38	20.21	20.55
Totals	12,199	14,282	16,715	17,413	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

During the earlier period covered by the next table the fall in the death rate was common to all ages and to both sexes. In more recent years, however, there have been some fluctuations in the rates for the higher age groups, but the 1952 figures again reflect a declining tendency. Of special significance are the low rates recorded in the childhood and early adult life age groups in 1951 and 1952 and the high percentage reduction effected during the entire period. The female rate for the various age groups is almost invariably lower than the male rate. The rapid increase in the death rate (per 1,000 of population) at successive age groups is well exemplified.

Year	Under 1^*	1 and Under 5	5 and Under 15	15 and Under 25	25 and Under 35	35 and Under 45	45 and Under 55	55 and Under 65	65 and Under 75	75 and Over
* Per 1,000 live births in this case.
Males
1901	78.60	6.81	1.89	3.52	3.97	6.16	11.94	23.12	50.59	141.67
1911	63.48	5.36	1.91	2.42	3.87	6.27	11.02	20.83	53.22	130.58
1921	53.10	4.78	1.85	2.44	3.56	5.55	9.61	19.96	46.17	128.60
1931	38.21	2.83	1.35	2.28	2.77	4.64	8.69	18.25	44.18	130.57
1941	32.55	2.14	0.99	1.98	2.62	3.76	8.79	20.67	46.31	137.85
1951	26.49	1.40	0.64	1.54	1.82	2.93	7.20	20.04	46.90	127.33
1952	23.22	1.35	0.66	1.50	1.75	2.77	7.00	18.41	46.56	119.33
Females
1901	63.87	5.50	1.64	3.58	4.72	6.70	10.62	19.44	43.32	127.98
1911	48.74	5.37	1.48	2.76	4.34	4.92	8.38	17.89	40.44	119.60
1921	42.31	4.49	1.31	2.34	3.38	4.46	8.00	14.88	36.81	120.23
1931	25.67	2.47	0.97	1.85	3.20	3.81	6.84	15.36	36.83	122.87
1941	26.85	2.04	0.71	1.35	2.05	3.14	6.58	14.55	38.06	116.57
1951	18.81	1.19	0.36	0.73	1.17	2.04	5.29	13.27	32.35	113.75
1952	20.35	1.20	0.43	0.55	0.91	2.04	5.40	12.58	32.00	104.52
Both Sexes
1901	71.40	6.17	1.77	3.55	4.33	6.40	11.37	21.63	47.87	135.71
1911	56.31	5.36	1.70	2.58	4.09	5.64	9.82	19.55	47.74	126.13
1921	47.82	4.64	1.58	2.39	3.47	5.10	8.85	17.59	41.90	124.84
1931	32.15	2.65	1.17	2.07	2.98	4.22	7.80	16.88	40.56	126.87
1941	29.77	2.09	0.85	1.65	2.32	3.44	7.65	17.68	42.20	126.76
1951	22.77	1.30	0.50	1.15	1.49	2.49	6.26	16.52	39.36	119.96
1952	21.82	1.27	0.55	1.03	1.34	2.41	6.21	15.37	38.98	111.32

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of persons of either sex at ten-yearly intervals since 1901 and during each of the last five years was as follows.

Year	Males (Years)	Females (Years)
1901	41.64	37.68
1911	46.17	42.37
1921	48.45	46.97
1931	54.14	55.48
1941	58.65	59.60
1948	61.62	62.33
1949	60.43	62.94
1950	62.15	64.37
1951	61.58	65.25
1952	62.16	64.89

There has been a striking upward movement in the average age at death since 1901. A noticeable feature is that in the earlier years the age for females was considerably lower than that for males, the margin gradually narrowing until virtual equality was reached in 1927–28, since when the female average age at death has been higher than the male.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.—Life tables for the European section of the population based on the mortality experience of New Zealand, ranging from 1880 to 1938, have been published at various times in previous issues of the Year-Book. The latest investigation was based on the 1951 census combined with the deaths for the three years 1950–52, and the (complete) expectation of life at various ages is given below. Complete results, accompanied by a brief account of the methods employed in the construction of the table, will be found in the Special Supplement to the July 1953 issue of Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Age	Males	Females
0	68.29	72.43
1	69.03	72.90
2	68.17	72.05
3	67.27	71.12
4	66.33	70.18
5	65.39	69.23
10	60.60	64.37
20	51.15	54.64
30	41.89	45.06
40	32.65	35.64
50	23.83	26.68
60	16.19	18.53
70	10.05	11.46
80	5.55	6.16

The expectation of life at age 0 has risen by 13.00 years in the case of males and by 14.34 years in the case of females over the period since the first New Zealand life table of 1891–95. The effect of the lowered infant-mortality rate and the efficacy of the health services generally is clearly demonstrated, however, by the fact that at age 5 the expectation of life of males has increased by only 7–10 years and females by 9.20 years over the same period.

A brief comparison is quoted below.

Period	Males (Years)	Females (Years)
1891–1895	55.29	58.09
1896–1900	57.37	59.95
1901–1905	58.09	60.55
1906–1910	59.17	61.76
1911–1915	60.96	63.48
1921–1922	62.76	65.43
1925–1927	63.99	66.57
1931	65.04	67.88
1934–38	65.46	68.45
1950–52	68.29	72.43

The above tables are exclusive of Maoris. A table showing the expectation of life of the Maori population is given in Section 4D.

A comparison of the expectation of life at age 0 for various countries is now given. In selecting comparable tables from the experience of other countries due regard was had to securing the most recent figures available. The countries selected are for the most part those of similar racial stock.

Country	Males	Females
* Exclusive of Maoris. † White population.
New Zealand (1950–52)^*	68.29	72.43
Australia (1946–48)	66.07	70.63
Union of South Africa (1945–47)^†	63.78	68.31
England and Wales (1951)	65.84	70.88
United States of America (1950)^†	66.6	72.4
Norway (1945–48)	67.76	71.68
Netherlands (1947–49)	69.4	71.5
Denmark (1946–50)	67.8	70.1
Sweden (1941–45)	67.06	69.71
Finland (1941–45)	54.62	61.14
France (1946–49)	61.9	67.4
Switzerland (1939–44)	62.68	66.96
Canada (1947)	65.18	69.05

STANDARDIZED DEATH RATES.—Except where specifically stated, all death rates quoted throughout this section are crude rates—i.e., those ascertained by applying the mean population for the year to the total deaths registered during the year.

In New Zealand the age and sex constitutions of the people have changed very materially over the years, so that death rates for recent years relate to a differently constituted population than do death rates for earlier years. This factor has had a marked influence on the risks—and causes—of dying. In order to eliminate the effect of a changing age constitution from other causes influencing the death rate, the device of standardization is resorted to. The principle of this method is to compute death rates on the assumption that the sex and age composition of the population has not varied. A “standard” population is selected, and the mortality experience of any particular year is weighted according to the age distribution of that standard population.

The standardized death rates thus calculated for each of a number of countries, or for a number of years for the same country, may then be regarded as indices of the relative mortalities free from the distortion which might arise through differences in their respective sex or age constitutions. A comparison of the relative proportions of population in various age groups between New Zealand and the United Kingdom, for instance, shows this country to have higher proportions in the age groups under 30, while the United Kingdom has higher proportions in the age groups over 30 years.

A system of standardization of death rates was introduced some years ago in New Zealand, the age and sex constitution of the population as disclosed at the census of 1911 being taken as the basis. The following table gives both recorded and standardized death rates per 1,000 of population (on the 1911 standard population) for each fifth year from 1920 to 1950 and for the year 1952.

Year	Recorded Rates			Standardized Rates
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1920	11.11	9.15	10.15	10.83	8.84	9.89
1925	9.10	7.48	8.30	8.68	6.78	7.78
1930	9.42	7.69	8.57	8.66	6.48	7.63
1935	8.95	7.52	8.25	7.68	5.78	6.78
1940	10.18	8.28	9.24	7.95	5.67	6.87
1945	11.37	8.84	10.07	7.96	5.40	6.75
1950	10.23	8.38	9.31	6.94	4.55	5.81
1952	10.12	8.44	9.28	6.88	4.44	5.73

INFANT MORTALITY.—Over a long period of years New Zealand has been renowned for its low rate of infant mortality, a fact attributable partly to such matters as climate, virility of the race, comparative absence of densely settled areas, etc., and partly to legislative and educative measures—the latter conducted by the State as well as by various organizations (one of the most important of these is the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children which was founded in 1907).

Particulars of deaths of infants under one year of age for each of the years 1942–52 are shown in the following table.

Year	Number			Rate Per 1,000 Live Births
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1942	587	377	964	34.0	23.1	28.7
1943	551	400	951	35.0	27.4	31.4
1944	578	434	1,012	33.6	26.5	30.1
1945	607	429	1,036	32.0	23.8	28.0
1946	631	462	1,093	29.3	22.7	26.1
1947	624	498	1,122	27.3	22.7	25.0
1948	569	401	970	25.2	18.6	22.0
1949	600	446	1,046	26.4	21.0	23.8
1950	569	439	1,008	25.1	20.3	22.8
1951	611	406	1,017	26.5	18.8	22.8
1952	553	461	1,014	23.2	20.4	21.8

In the following table New Zealand's infant-mortality rate is shown in comparison with that of other countries. The figures are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics. It is interesting to observe that the distinction of having the lowest infant-mortality rate in the world now belongs to Sweden, which achieved the phenomenally low ratio of 20 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1952, as compared with New Zealand's 22 for the same year. In the case of the Union of South Africa and New Zealand the European population only has been taken into account.

Country	Quinquennium	Deaths Under 1 Year Per 1,000 Births
Sweden	1948–52	21
New Zealand	1948–52	23
Australia	1947–51	26
Netherlands	1948–52	26
United States of America	1948–52	30
Norway	1949–50	31
United Kingdom	1948–52	32
Switzerland	1947–51	34
Denmark	1947–51	34
Union of South Africa	1948–52	36
Israel	1948–52	42
Canada	1947–51	42
Finland	1947–51	47
Republic of Ireland	1947–51	52
West German Federal Republic	1948–52	56
Belgium	1947–51	61
France	1946–50	62
Japan	1947–51	64
Cyprus	1947–51	66
Austria	1948–52	67
Italy	1948–52	68
Spain	1948–52	69
Czechoslovakia	1946–50	88
Ceylon	1947–51	90
Mexico	1947–51	100
Portugal	1947–51	101
India	1946–50	134
Eygpt	1945–49	139
Chile	1947–51	158
Rumania	1943–47	179

The male rate of infant mortality is considerably above the female rate, the average over the five-year period 1948–52 being 25.3 male deaths per 1,000 male births and 19.8 female deaths per 1,000 female births.

The rates per 1,000 births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last eleven years.

INFANT-MORTALITY RATES, 1942–52 (PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS)

Year	Under One Day	One Day and Under Two Days	Two Days and Under One Week	Total Under One Week	One Week and Under Two Weeks	Two Weeks and Under Three Weeks	Three Weeks and Under One Month	Total Under One Month	One Month and Under Twelve Months	Total Under One Year
1942	7.7		5.3	15.6	1.6	0.8	0.7	18.7	10.0	28.7
1943	8.4	3.6	5.8	17.8	2.0	0.8	0.7	21.3	10.1	31.4
1944	8.6	2.5	5.5	16.6	2.3	1.3	0.4	20.6	9.5	30.1
1945	8.4	2.5	5.4	16.3	1.9	0.8	0.6	19.6	8.4	28.0
1946	8.2	3.0	4.9	16.1	1.8	0.7	0.5	19.1	7.0	26.1
1947	8.0	3.0	4.5	15.5	1.4	0.7	0.5	18.1	6.9	25.0
1948	6.7	2.9	4.1	13.7	1.1	0.6	0.4	15.8	6.2	22.0
1949	8.2	3.0	4.0	15.2	1.0	0.5	0.3	17.0	6.8	23.8
1950	7.3	3.1	4.2	14.6	1.2	0.6	0.2	16.6	6.2	22.8
1951	6.9	2.8	4.9	14.6	1.0	0.2	0.3	16.2	6.6	22.8
1952	6.3	2.4	4.3	13.0	1.2	0.4	0.5	15.1	6.7	21.8

Infants who die in the first year of life may be grouped roughly into two main classes—viz., those dying within one month of birth and those surviving the first month of life but dying before the first anniversary of their birth. Deaths amongst the first class, called neo-natal deaths, are due principally to pre-natal and natal influences. The second group covers those infants who have succumbed in the main to causes arising from post-natal influences such as the various epidemic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system, faulty feeding, and other environmental factors.

The next table shows that, whereas in the quinquennium 1946–50 the death rate for children under one month of age was 42 per cent lower than in the quinquennium 1881–85, the rate for children who had survived the first month of life was only approximately one-ninth as high as in the “eighties.”

In other words, whereas formerly over sixty children out of every 1,000 who survived the first month of life died before reaching one year of age, now only seven such deaths occur. While the decline in the under-one-month group has been progressive for some years, it was among infants who had survived the first month of life that the most marked reductions were achieved. In the “thirties,” however, the reduction of this rate was arrested, and in the quinquennium 1941–45 an increase was recorded for the first time. For some years it had been considered that any further substantial decrease in the total infant-mortality rate would have to be achieved in the under-one-month group. The figures for 1946–50, however, indicate that whereas this group recorded a decrease of 13 per cent from 1941–45, the one-month-and-over group declined by 31 per cent.

Period	Deaths Per 1,000 Births
Period	Under I Year	Under 1 Month	Between 1 and 12 Months
1881–1885	90.60	29.77	60.83
1886–1890	84.09	27.57	56.52
1891–1895	87.60	30.34	57.26
1896–1900	80.06	30.38	49.68
1901–1905	74.77	30.64	44.13
1906–1910	69.62	30.28	39.34
1911–1915	53.63	29.28	24.35
1916–1920	48.62	28.16	20.46
1921–1925	42.75	27.48	15.27
1926–1930	36.70	24.82	11.88
1931–1935	31.88	22.34	9.54
1936–1940	31.83	22.51	9.32
1941–1945	29.53	20.01	9.52
1946–1950	23.92	17.31	6.61
1952	21.82	15.15	6.67

The accompanying diagram further illustrates the reduction in the infant-mortality rate that has taken place over a long period.

Causes of Infant Mortality.—The principal causes of infant mortality over the last ten years, showing both numbers and rates per 1,000 live births, are shown in the following table. The classification is according to the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International List.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths
Causes of Death	1943	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Tuberculosis, all forms	4	6	8	5	6	3	5		1	4
Congenital syphilis	7	5	2	2		1	4			1
Enteric fever and other Salmonella infections								3
Dysentery, all forms				1			1
Diphtheria	2	5	8	10	5			2
Whooping-cough	10	32	5	1	20	4	12	12	4	6
Meningococcal infections	10	5	8	9	2	4		2	5	10
Tetanus			2	4			1		1
Poliomyelitis	2									2
Measles			3	1	1		3	1		2
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of life	90	73	61	72	80	74	85	53	96	79
Pneumonia of the newborn	19	19	32	27	25	31	26	22	30	22
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life	26	28	18	29	21	21	17	15	26	10
Diarrhoea of the newborn	4	6	5	6	5	2	3	3		1
Congenital malformations	147	165	182	181	190	159	163	198	151	205
Birth injury	83	103	115	130	154	167	158	142	146	118
Asphyxia and atelectasis	61	64	77	93	100	102	111	128	164	174
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	29	34	29	34	37	35	30	50	38	34
Immaturity unqualified	249	284	274	311	276	193	238	223	191	191
Accidents	34	33	33	35	38	44	52	30	33	26
Other and undefined causes	174	150	174	142	162	130	137	122	131	129
Totals	951	1,012	1,036	1,093	1,122	970	1,046	1,008	1,017	1,014

Causes of Death	Rates Per 1,000 Live Births
Causes of Death	1943	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Less than 0.1.
Tuberculosis, all forms	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1		^*	0.1
Congenital syphilis	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.1		^*	0.1			^*
Enteric fever and other Salmonella infections								0.1
Dysentery, all forms				^*			^*
Diphtheria	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.1			0.1
Whooping-cough	0.3	1.0	0.1	^*	0.5	0.1	0.3	0.3	0.1	0.1
Meningococcal infections	0.3	0.2	0.2	0.2	^*	0.1		0.1	0.1	0.2
Tetanus			0.1	0.1			^*		^*
Poliomyelitis	0.1									0.1
Measles			0.1	^*	^*		0.1	^*		0.1
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis after the first four weeks of life	3.0	2.2	1.7	1.7	1.8	1.7	1.9	1.2	2.2	1.7
Pneumonia of the newborn	0.6	0.6	0.9	0.6	0.6	0.7	0.6	0.5	0.6	0.5
Gastro-enteritis after the first four weeks of life	0.9	0.8	0.5	0.7	0.5	0.5	0.4	0.3	0.6	0.2
Diarrhoea of the newborn	0.1	0.2	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1		^*
Congenital malformations	4.9	4.9	4.9	4.3	4.2	3.6	3.7	4.5	3.4	4.4
Birth injury	2.7	3.1	3.1	3.1	3.4	3.8	3.6	3.2	3.3	2.5
Asphyxia and atelectasis	2.0	1.9	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.3	2.5	2.9	3.7	3.7
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	10	1.0	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.8	0.7	1.1	0.9	0.7
Immaturity unqualified	8.2	8.5	7.4	7.4	6.2	4.4	5.4	5.1	4.3	4.1
Accidents	1.1	1.0	0.9	0.8	0.9	1.0	1.2	0.7	0.7	0.6
Other and undefined causes	5.7	4.5	4.7	3.4	3.6	2.9	3.1	2.8	2.9	2.8
Totals	31.4	30.1	28.0	26.1	25.0	22.0	23.8	22.8	22.8	21.8

Some remarkable changes are disclosed by the next table, which gives the infant-mortality rates for various groups of causes in quinquennial periods commencing with the years 1872–76 and for 1952. It would appear that diseases which can be combated openly, such as epidemic diseases, respiratory diseases, and diseases due to faulty nourishment, etc. (i.e., diseases of the digestive system), have shown a definite response to the strenuous campaigns launched against them. If a comparison be made between the averages of the first and last five-yearly periods given—i.e., 1872–76 and 1947–51—it is found that the general infant-mortality rate shows a decline of 74 per cent, while even greater decreases are recorded for tuberculosis (98 per cent), convulsions (99 per cent), gastric and intestinal diseases (95 per cent), epidemic diseases (92 per cent), and respiratory diseases (78 per cent). The rate for epidemic diseases still continues to decline, and it is interesting to note that over 40 per cent of the total under this heading in the years 1947–51 were due to whooping-cough, while an additional 27 per cent were assigned to influenza. During the five-year period 1948–52 there were only two deaths of infants from diphtheria and three deaths due to scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat.

The increase shown for malformations and the decrease for tuberculosis are probably somewhat less than is indicated by the figures. In the earlier years covered by the table the latter heading included all deaths from hydrocephalus, many of which were no doubt due to congenital hydrocephalus, which is now included among the malformations. A proportion of the deaths from hydrocephalus in the earlier years would also probably be due to meningitis. The following table shows quinquennial average death rates of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births. To enable the comparison with past years to be maintained, the infant deaths for 1950 onwards have been re-assembled to conform to the former classifications for the purposes of this table—i.e., influenza deaths have been included under epidemic diseases, while both pneumonia and diarrhoea of the newborn have been included under respiratory and gastric and intestinal diseases respectively, and not as diseases of early infancy.

Period	Epidemic Diseases	Tuberculosis	Infantile Convulsions	Respiratory Diseases	Gastric and Intestinal Diseases	Malformations	Early Infancy	Other Causes	Totals
1872–1876	13.5	5.5	9.7	12.9	24.2	1.2	25.0	17.3	109.3
1877–1881	10.2	5.2	7.5	12.3	19.8	1.4	21.9	15.3	93.6
1882–1886	9.3	4.7	7.9	11.8	19.1	1.2	25.5	12.3	91.8.
1887–1891	8.9	3.7	6.3	10.5	18.5	1.3	24.7	8.8	82.7
1892–1896	9.8	3.3	6.6	11.0	16.6	1.4	24.9	11.2	84.8
1897–1901	6.1	2.6	5.6	10.0	17.2	1.5	26.2	9.7	78.9
1902–1906	5.5	1.5	4.1	9.7	15.3	1.3	27.6	7.9	72.9
1907–1911	5.9	1.3	3.3	7.6	15.5	1.9	26.7	6.3	68.5
1912–1916	3.6	0.6	2.2	5.1	7.4	3.9	26.2	3.5	52.5
1917–1921	3.2	0.5	1.9	4.7	4.5	4.3	26.1	2.9	48.1
1922–1926	1.8	0.4	1.3	4.3	2.8	4.8	22.4	3.3	41.1
1927–1931	1.5	0.3	0.5	3.7	1.7	5.0	19.4	3.1	35.2
1932–1936	1.5	0.2	0.6	3.3	1.2	5.0	17.5	2.4	31.7
1937–1941	1.4	0.2	0.2	3.1	1.3	5.5	17.4	2.5	31.6
1942–1946	1.1	0.1	0.1	2.9	1.2	4.6	16.1	2.6	28.7
1947–1951	0.6	0.1	0.1	2.3	0.8	3.8	13.6	2.0	23.3
1952	0.6	0.1	0.1	2.3	0.4	4.4	12.2	1.7	21.8

It is convenient to consider still-births and neo-natal deaths together, as they are largely the result of common causes. The combined group may be termed perinatal mortality. The term is particularly appropriate when we consider how deaths in the newborn crowd closely towards the day of birth. This effect is clearly shown in the table on page 87. Still-births and neo-natal deaths are considered together in the next table and are computed as rates per 1,000 total births.

Year	Still-births		Neo-natal Deaths		Neo-natal Deaths Plus Still-births
Year	Number	Rate	Number	Rate	Number	Rate
1948	834	18.52	698	15.50	1,532	34.02
1949	796	17.77	748	16.70	1,544	34.47
1950	865	19.15	734	16.25	1,599	35.40
1951	804	17.69	724	15.93	1,528	33.62
1952	846	17.88	704	14.88	1,550	32.76

Recent years have shown a definite trend towards improvement in the combined rate.

CAUSES OF STILL-BIRTH.—still-born child is defined in New Zealand as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue.”

The registration of still-births has been effected in New Zealand since 1913, but no information regarding the causes of still-births was required for registration purposes until 1947. As from 1 July 1952 a certificate of the cause of death in cases of intermediate foetal deaths—i.e., deaths after the end of the twentieth but before the end of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy—was also required to be furnished. The certificates of causes of still-birth and foetal death provide for both maternal and foetal causes to be entered.

Of the 846 still-births registered during 1952, in 61 cases (7 per cent) the cause was not known or not stated. Foetal causes only were specified in 448 cases (53 per cent); maternal causes only in 202 (24 per cent); while for 135 still-births (16 per cent of the total) there were both foetal and maternal causes present.

The following table shows the 846 still-births registered during 1952 classified (a) according to maternal causes and (b) according to foetal causes.

Causes of Still-birth	Number of Cases
Causes of Still-birth	Males	Females	Total
(a) Maternal Causes
Chronic disease in mother	9	9	18
Acute disease in mother	11	2	13
Diseases and conditions of pregnancy and child-birth	71	83	154
Difficulties in labour	81	58	139
Other causes in mother	8	6	14
No maternal cause	262	246	508
Totals	442	404	846
(b) Foetal Causes
Placental and cord conditions	176	124	300
Birth injury	19	10	29
Congenital malformation of foetus	39	73	112
Diseases of foetus and ill-defined causes	105	98	203
No foetal cause	103	99	202
Totals	442	404	846

PERINATAL MORTALITY AND PREMATURITY.—Approximately three out of every four infants who die in the first year of life do so in the first month, and of those dying in the first month 41 per cent die in the first day of life and 86 per cent in the first week.

A principal factor in the loss of this new life is prematurity. This is seen in the following table, where causes of neo-natal deaths for 1952 are set out in accordance with the International List of 1948.

Causes of Death	Under One Day	One Day and Under One Weeks	One Week and Under Two Weeks	Two Weeks and Under Three Weeks	Three Weeks and Under One Month	Total Under One Month
Congenital malformations	29	54	20	12	11	126
Injury at birth	26	36	7	1	1	71
Injury at birth with prematurity	19	22	4			45
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis	49	30	4	1	2	86
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis, with prematurity	29	44	3	2		78
Pneumonia of newborn		6	5	1	4	16
Pneumonia of newborn, with prematurity	1	2		1	1	5
Disorders arising from maternal toxaemia		3				3
Disorders arising from maternal toxaemia, with prematurity	5	8	3			16
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis)	6	16	1			23
Haemolytic disease of newborn (erythroblastosis), with prematurity	2	5	3			10
Haemorrhagic disease of newborn	1	5				6
Haemorrhagic disease of newborn, with prematurity			1			1
Nutritional maladjustment	1	1				2
Nutritional maladjustment, with prematurity	3					3
Ill-defined diseases peculiar to early infancy		1				1
Ill-defined diseases peculiar to early infancy, with prematurity	4	4				8
Immaturity with mention of any other subsidiary condition
Immaturity, unqualified	111	73	3	2	1	190
Hernia, intestinal obstruction	1	1	1			3
External causes	1					1
Other causes	3	3	1		3	10
Totals	291	314	56	20	23	704

A total of 190, or 27 per cent, of all neo-natal deaths are directly attributed to prematurity (immaturity) and a further 166 deaths are given as associated with it. The principal conditions of early infancy with which prematurity was associated were (i) asphyxia in 78 cases (11.1 per cent of all neo-natal deaths), (ii) birth injury in 45 cases (6.4 per cent of all neo-natal deaths), and (iii) all other causes peculiar to early infancy, 43 cases (6.2 per cent of all neo-natal deaths).

In the case of still-births, out of 846 there were 378 cases, or 45 per cent, where gestation fell short of full term.

It is not possible to assess what the reduction in perinatal mortality would be if every pregnancy were to go to full term, but there is no doubt that it would be considerable.

As a first step in the campaign to reduce this grave loss of new life, details of the birth weight and gestation period of all infants born alive or dead after 1 July 1952 were required to be furnished to the Registrars of Births and Deaths. These will provide essential basic data for further studies on prematurity. It will give a measure of the extent of the problem in different localities according to the age and parity of the mother and the occupation of the father, and it will enable cohorts of infants to be followed through their first year of life so that their mortality and morbidity experience may be shown according to their degree of maturity at birth.

CAUSES OF DEATH.—Since 1908 the classification of causes of death in New Zealand has been on the basis of the international classification initiated by Dr. Jacques Bertillon. Almost all countries are member States of the World Health Assembly, and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death has world-wide application.

The sixth (1948) revision of the classification was applied in New Zealand to the deaths for 1950. At the same time a departure was made from the previous arbitrary rules of selection, when more than one cause of death was entered on a certificate, to an assignment according to what is termed the underlying cause of death. This may be defined as (a) the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury. The responsibility for indicating the train of events is placed on the physician or surgeon signing the medical certificate of death.

The following table shows the numbers of deaths and death rates per million of mean population according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes (Sixth Revision, 1948). In order to provide a comparison with the years 1950 et seq the individual causes for each of the years 1948 and 1949 were, wherever possible, reassembled under the headings of the 1948 revision of the classification. It should be observed that no allowance was possible for the alteration in method of primary cause selection.

The statistics for tuberculosis, cancer, puerperal causes, and violent causes, which are of special interest and significance, are discussed later on in this subsection. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria) are not listed in the table below, as there were no deaths occurring from these causes in the years shown.

Causes of Death	Numbers					Rates Per Million of Mean Population
Causes of Death	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Comparative figures not obtainable. with those given for later years (see letterpress). † Less than one. ‡ These figures and rates are not comparable
Tuberculosis of respiratory system	408	365	351	319	225	236	207	195	174	120
Tuberculosis, other forms	61	70	61	64	47	35	40	34	35	25
Syphilis and its sequelae	82	71	91	67	62	47	40	51	37	33
Typhoid fever	3	3	2			2	2	1
Dysentery, all forms	3	3	5	3	2	2	2	3	2	1
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat	3		1	1	1	2		^†	^†	1
Diphtheria	3	5	4	3	2	2	3	2	2	1
Whooping-cough	6	21	16	7	7	3	12	9	4	4
Meningococcal infections	9	7	9	14	19	5	4	5	8	10
Acute poliomyelitis	52	13	2	1	54	30	7	1	^†	29
Measles	4	24	3	2	29	2	14	2	1	16
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	56	55	85	75	62	32	31	47	41	33
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	2,563	2,588	2,652	2,836	2,799	1,484	1,469	1,477	1,549	1,492
Benign and unspecified neoplasms	23	46	55	36	42	13	26	31	20	22
Diabetes mellitus	347	355	228	244	221	201	202	127	133	118
Anaemias	40	29	57	80	75	23	16	32	44	40
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system	^*	^*	1,824	2,063	2,165	^*	^*	1,016	1,127	1,154
Non-meningococcal meningitis	20	15	18	15	23	12	9	10	8	12
Rheumatic fever	6	9	14	17	8	3	5	8	9	4
Chronic rheumatic heart-disease	251	258	233	204	220	145	146	130	111	117
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart-disease
	4.775	4,960	4,657			2,659	2,709	2,483
	5,430	5,744				3,144	3,261
Other diseases of the heart			595	591	660			331	323	352
Hypertension with heart-disease			653	676	632			364	369	337
Hypertension without mention of heart	^*	^*	162	154	165	^*	^*	90	84	88
Influenza	51	45	77	78	130	30	26	43	43	69
Pneumonia	578	554	414	406	413	335	315	231	222	220
Bronchitis	131	128	150	250	348	76	73	84	137	185
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum	149	147	146	150	140	86	83	81	82	75
Appendicitis	37	40	34	28	27	21	23	19	15	14
Intestinal obstruction and hernia	123	115	127	118	110	71	65	71	64	58
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of newborn	65	85	86	115	75	38	48	48	63	40
Cirrhosis of liver	42	56	54	64	57	24	32	30	35	30
Nephritis and nephrosis	^*	^*	212	199	189	^*	^*	118	109	101
Hyperplasia of prostate	108	106	149	154	140	62	60	83	84	75
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium	56	45	40	31	33	32	26	22	17	18
Congenital malformations	206	217	299	202	255	119	123	166	110	136
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis			270	310	292			150	169	156
Infections of the newborn	585	640	25	30	25	339	363	14	16	13
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified			318	296	274			177	162	146
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined and unknown causes	212	206	186	209	182	123	117	104	114	97
All other diseases	^‡3,100	^‡3,014	1,334	1,426	1,536	^‡1,795	^‡1,711	743	779	819
Motor-vehicle accidents	181	195	212	269	252	105	111	118	147	134
All other accidents	618	547	501	549	550	358	311	279	300	293
Suicide and self-inflicted injury	181	171	165	182	189	105	97	92	99	101
Homicide and operations of war	19	20	20	14	19	11	11	11	8	10
Totals	15,812	16,012	16,715	17,512	17,413	9,157	9,092	9,308	9,564	9,282

TUBERCULOSIS.—The death rate from tuberculosis of the respiratory system has shown a declining tendency for many years, but the reduction by nearly one-half in the space of the five years 1948–52 is a noteworthy achievement. The rate for 1952, 120 per million of population, is a record low rate for this country.

In addition to the 225 deaths from tuberculosis of the respiratory system during 1952, there were 47 deaths from other forms of tuberculosis, comprising—

Tuberculosis of meninges and nervous system	14
Tuberculosis of intestines, peritoneum, and mesentery	2
Tuberculosis of bones and joints	10
Tuberculosis of lymphatic system	1
Tuberculosis of genito-urinary system	13
Tuberculosis of adrenal glands	1
Disseminated tuberculosis	6

The following table shows the number of deaths from tuberculosis in 1952, classified according to sex and age groups. Of those dying from this cause in 1952, persons under the age of 45 years formed 49 per cent.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 5	6	8	14
5 and under 10	2	2	4
10 and under 15	1	1	2
15 and under 20		1	1
20 and under 25	5	7	12
25 and under 30	9	8	17
30 and under 35	12	7	19
35 and under 40	5	7	12
40 and under 45	14	4	18
45 and under 50	15	6	21
50 and under 55	18	8	26
55 and under 60	20	7	27
60 and under 65	14	6	20
65 and under 70	25	1	26
70 and under 75	20	5	25
75 and under 80	10	4	14
80 and over	9	5	14
Totals	185	87	272

CANCER.—A special report on cancer is issued annually by the Medical Statistics Branch of the Department of Health. Besides a section dealing with cancer as a cause of death there are analyses of returns received from the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society. These returns, together with those of patients treated in the public hospitals of New Zealand, provide for reasonably wide coverage. A system of registration enables a follow-up of each patient to be maintained which will eventually enable survival rates by site and method of treatment to be compiled. Special articles and statistical tables on the subject of cancer are contained in the 1917 and 1926 issues of the Year-Book, while the 1949 report of the Department of Health contains data covering the twenty-six years from 1924 to 1949.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant diseases. This classification was introduced in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions.

Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than can be assigned to any cause other than diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, it exacts a heavy toll throughout the life-span. With the inclusion of Hodgkin's disease and leukaemia under the cancer heading the disease assumes a very high position as a cause of death among children and adolescents. It is interesting to compare the decline in the death rate from tuberculosis with the rise in the cancer death rate. These rates are set out in the following table and diagram. The fall in the tuberculosis rate may be said to reflect the achievements of the public-health service, whilst the rise in the cancer rate portrays in general the increasing age of the population.

This is illustrated by the following figures.

Period	Average Death Rates Per 10,000 of Population
	Tuberculosis	Cancer
1880–89	12.35	3.42
1890–99	10.62	5.44
1900–09	9.10	6.79
1910–19	6.99	8.22
1920–29	5.69	9.30
1930–39	4.17	11.17
1940–49	3.46	13.56
1950–52	1.63	15.06

The relative movements in the death rates from cancer and tuberculosis are further illustrated in the following diagram, which shows the rates at five-yearly intervals since 1880.

In 1952 there were 2,799 deaths from cancer in New Zealand, a proportion of 14.92 per 10,000 of mean population. A summary for the last eleven years is given below.

Year	Number of Deaths From Cancer	Recorded Death Rate	Standardized Death Rate^*
* Standard population used for standardized rates—England and Wales 1901. † Includes Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., from 1950 onwards.
1942	2,029	13.13	8.31
1943	2,131	13.85	8.67
1944	2,182	14.02	8.58
1945	2,213	13.88	8.42
1946	2,268	13.68	8.48
1947	2,315	13.67	8.30
1948	2,453	14.21	8.65
1949	2,472	14.04	8.59
1950^†	2,652	14.77	8.99
1951	2,836	15.49	9.49
1952	2,799	14.92	9.03

A summary showing the location of the disease in deaths from cancer during 1952 is given in the following table.

Site of Disease	Numbers			Rates Per Million of Mean Population
Site of Disease	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
Buccal cavity and pharynx	40	17	57	43	18	30
Oesophagus	58	32	90	62	34	48
Stomach	235	155	390	250	166	208
Intestine, except rectum	135	200	335	143	214	179
Rectum	84	70	154	89	75	82
Larynx	23	3	26	24	3	14
Trachea, and of bronchus and lung not specified as secondary	234	40	274	248	43	146
Breast	3	275	278	3	294	148
Cervix uteri		76	76		81	41
Other and unspecified parts of uterus		62	62		66	33
Prostate	168		168	178		89
Skin	31	22	53	33	24	28
Bone and connective tissue	12	20	32	13	22	17
All other and unspecified sites	293	318	611	311	340	326
Leukaemia and aleukaemia	60	24	84	64	26	45
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic system	57	52	109	61	56	58
Totals	1,433	1,366	2,799	1,522	1,462	1,492

The standardized figures for recent years suggest that cancer, while undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence, is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. Improvement in diagnosis has been responsible for some of the numerical increase in the recorded deaths from cancer, though this factor has now become more stabilized. A classification according to sex and age groups for 1952 is now given.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 5	14	8	22
5 and under 10	6	6	12
10 and under 15	4	5	9
15 and under 20	3	3	6
20 and under 25	8	1	9
25 and under 30	12	5	17
30 and under 35	10	20	30
35 and under 40	27	32	59
40 and under 45	33	49	82
45 and under 50	44	78	122
50 and under 55	78	117	195
55 and under 60	122	136	258
60 and under 65	139	157	296
65 and under 70	243	177	420
70 and under 75	273	229	502
75 and under 80	226	176	402
80 and over	191	167	358
Totals	1,433	1,366	2,799

Ninety-one per cent of the deaths from cancer during 1952 were at ages 45 years and upwards, and 60 per cent at ages 65 years and upwards. Approximately one death in every six of persons who die after the age of 50 years is due to cancer.

PUERPERAL CAUSES.—In point of numbers of deaths, puerperal accidents and diseases do not rank high among causes of death. Nevertheless, deaths from puerperal causes are of special importance and significance. The rate per 1,000 live births in each of the last twenty years is shown in the following table.

Year	Proportion Per 1,000 Live Births
1933	4.44
1934	4.85
1935	4.21
1936	3.70
1937	3.61
1938	4.07
1939	3.64
1940	2.93
1941	3.36
1942	2.53
1943	2.21
1944	2.71
1945	2.24
1946	2.05
1947	1.07
1948	1.26
1949	1.02
1950	0.90
1951	0.69
1952	0.71

A survey of the death rate from puerperal causes since 1872 shows that for a period in the early part of the twentieth century there was a tendency for the rate to decline. Then followed a definite upward movement, culminating in a rate of 6.48 per 1,000 live births in 1920, the third highest on record, this figure having been exceeded only in 1884 and 1885. Comparatively high rates persisted until 1931, since when the decline has been more or less steady. The efficacy of new drugs and methods of treatment is reflected in the extremely low rates recorded in recent years, the figure for 1951 of 0.69 being a new record. This low rate has been achieved mainly by a reduction in the number of deaths from septic abortion and puerperal toxaemia, the latter being a cause which had hitherto been particularly resistant to preventive measures. Deaths from complications of childbirth have also been unusually few since 1949.

It is generally conceded that in years of high birth rates the maternal-mortality rate tends to rise, probably due to the abnormally high proportion of first births in the total of births, upon which the death rate for these causes is based. In common with most countries for which recent figures are available, the reverse has been the experience in New Zealand during recent years;. Possibly a contributory factor in this reversal has been the rise in the proportion of births taking place in institutions, more particularly in special annexes attached to the larger hospitals, where every facility for the care of the patient is more readily available.

Details of deaths from deliveries and complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium for the three years 1950 to 1952 are shown in the following summary. The disease headings conform to the 1948 Revision of the Classification introduced in 1950.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 Live Births
Causes of Death	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Toxaemias of pregnancy	13	7	9	2.93	1.57	1.94
Placenta praevia		3	1		0.67	0.22
Other haemorrhage of pregnancy	1	1	1	0.23	0.22	0.22
Ectopic pregnancy	1		1	0.23		0.22
Other complications arising from pregnancy		1			0.22
Abortion without mention of sepsis or toxaemia	1	3	3	0.23	0.67	0.64
Abortion with sepsis	8	2	4	1.81	0.45	0.85
Delivery complicated by placenta praevia or antepartum haemorrhage	1	1	3	0.23	0.22	0.64
Delivery complicated by retained placenta	2		1	0.45		0.22
Delivery complicated by other post-partum haemorrhage	5	4	4	1.13	0.90	0.85
Delivery with trauma	1	3	3	0.23	0.67	0.64
Sepsis of childbirth and the puerperium	2	1	1	0.46	0.22	0.22
Puerperal phlebitis and thrombosis	1		1	0.23		0.22
Puerperal pulmonary embolism	1	3	1	0.23	0.67	0.22
Puerperal eclampsia	3	1		0.63	0.22
Other and unspecified complications of the puerperium		1			0.22
Totals, including septic abortion	40	31	33	9.03	6.94	710
Totals, excluding septic abortion	32	29	29	7.22	6.49	6.25

A summary of maternal mortality from all puerperal causes, in triennial periods since 1927 and for the year 1952, is now given.

Causes of Death	1927–29	1930–32	1933–35	1936–38	1939–41	1942–44	1945–47	1948–50	1952
Number
Puerperal sepsis	128	58	39	44	46	30	12	6	1
Eclampsia and other toxaemias	101	97	93	94	80	58	62	42	9
Septic abortion	47	85	91	68	58	61	33	20	4
Accidents, haemorrhage, and other mortality	124	124	104	91	135	94	110	73	19
Total maternal mortality	400	364	327	297	319	243	217	141	33
Maternal mortality, excluding septic abortion	353	279	236	229	261	182	184	121	29

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES.—Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 4 per cent of the total deaths. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the three years 1950, 1951, and 1952 according to the Intermediate List of the 1948 Revision of the International Classification. It is necessary to refer to the detailed list of circumstances of accident or means of injury if a comparison with years prior to 1949 is required, as the inclusions under the headings below differ considerably from past practice—e.g., drowning from boats and ships or from horseback whilst crossing rivers are included below as transport fatalities, as also are falls on board ship and from horseback.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per Million of Mean Population
Causes of Death	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Motor-vehicle accidents	212	269	252	118	147	134
Other transport accidents	85	115	90	47	63	48
Accidental poisoning	17	29	30	9	16	16
Accidental falls	149	139	168	83	76	90
Accident caused by machinery	31	19	35	17	10	19
Accident caused by fire and explosion of combustible material	11	19	21	6	10	10
Accident caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation	14	17	11	8	9	6
Accident caused by firearm	19	22	17	11	12	9
Accidental drowning and submersion	64	90	81	36	49	43
All other accidental causes	111	99	97	62	54	52
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)	17	14	18	9	8	10
Injury resulting from operations of war	3			2
Totals	733	832	820	408	454	437

The number of deaths recorded from all accidental causes in 1952 was 802, corresponding to a rate of 4.28 per 10,000 of population. By comparison with 1936, there was an increase of 104 in the number of deaths, but the death rate has decreased by 0.40 per 10,000 of population.

Transport Accidents.—In classifying deaths attributable to transport accidents under the various subheadings shown in the following table the rule of assignment is that in fatalities due to collisions of railway trains and electric tram cars with motor vehicles the death is assigned to the railway train or electric tram car as being the heavier and more powerful vehicle. In the case of collisions between motor vehicles and horse-drawn vehicles, the death is assigned to the motor vehicle.

The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, tramway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last eleven years are as follows.

Year	Deaths Due to Accident				Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Population
Year	Railway	Tramway	Motor Vehicle	Aircraft	Railway	Tramway	Motor Vehicle	Aircraft
1942	51	16	125	58	0.33	0.10	0.81	0.38
1943	74	9	113	97	0.48	0.06	0.73	0.63
1944	36	11	129	41	0.23	0.07	0.83	0.26
1945	36	11	104	27	0.23	0.07	0.65	0.17
1946	40	22	157	3	0.24	0.13	0.95	0.02
1947	39	9	187	8	0.23	0.05	1.10	0.05
1948	34	7	175	24	0.20	0.04	1.01	0.14
1949	28	7	190	25	0.16	0.04	1.08	0.14
1950	30	7	198	6	0.17	0.04	1.10	0.03
1951	39	9	254	9	0.21	0.05	1.39	0.05
1952	32	2	240	14	0.17	0.01	1.28	0.07

Deaths arising out of aircraft accidents fell off steeply after 1945. This was to be expected, since the figures include Air Force accidents in New Zealand as well as civilian casualties. In 1948 the crashing on Mount Ruapehu of a National Airways Corporation plane with the loss of 13 lives was the principal cause of the high figure for civil air transport accidents in that year. New Zealand's worst air disaster occurred in 1949, when fifteen lives were lost in a crash at Waikanae. The figure of 25 deaths is the highest total recorded in a non-war year. The sharp increase in 1943 in deaths due to railway accidents is accounted for by one serious accident near Hyde in Central Otago, which resulted in twenty-one deaths. In 1948 a derailment near Blenheim resulting in the loss of six lives was a substantial contribution to the total in that year.

Deaths from motor-vehicle accidents recorded an appreciable increase up to 1930, but this trend was reversed during the depression years, largely owing to a great reduction in the number of motor vehicles on the roads during that period. With the advent of more prosperous times, the toll of the motor vehicle again mounted, although, fortunately, not in proportion to the tremendous increase in motor vehicular traffic on the highways. An appreciable drop, however, was experienced during the war years on account of there being less traffic on the roads owing to restrictions in the use of motor spirits and rubber tires. Since the war the number of fatalities from motor-vehicle accidents progressively increased up to 1951. The 1952 total of 240 deaths was a decrease of 14 on the figure for 1951.

The figures given in the above table for deaths from motor-vehicle accidents (which do not include deaths of Maoris) are exclusive of accidents where persons have been killed in collisions between motor vehicles and trains or trams, these being assigned to the heavier vehicle. For 1952 there were 12 deaths from such accidents, bringing the total number of deaths in cases where a motor vehicle was involved up to 252. The corresponding figure for 1951 was 269.

Non-transport Accidents.—Over the three-year period 1950 to 1952, 44 per cent of deaths from accidental causes involved transport vehicles or devices, with the remaining 56 per cent spread over a wide range of circumstances.

The 1948 Revision of the International List makes provision for these non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for each of the three years 1950, 1951, and 1952 according to this classification.

Place of Occurrence	Number			Rate Per Million of Mean Population
Place of Occurrence	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)	203	222	195	113	121	104
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)	44	29	47	25	15	25
Mine and quarry	4	7	10	2	4	5
Industrial place and premises	27	19	18	15	10	10
Place for recreation and sport	7	7	8	4	4	4
Street and highway	12	10	12	7	5	6
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)	6	13	5	3	7	3
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.,)	13	23	32	7	13	17
Other specified places	72	83	94	40	45	50
Place not specified	14	16	32	8	9	17
Totals	402	429	453	224	234	241

One in every two fatal non-traffic accidents occurs in or about the home.

The chief killer in the home is falls, which exacts a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Second comes asphyxia from regurgitation of foodstuffs and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes: this is the principal hazard of the first six months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed underlying respiratory infection. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between one and two years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the immediate home vicinity.

There were 120 deaths from non-transport accidents on farms in the period covered, while fatal non-transport accidents in industrial plants, factories, and workplaces totalled 64.

OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENTS.—The majority of occupational accidents are included in accidents occurring in industrial places or premises, on railways, farms, and mines and quarries, but a certain number occur in such places as places of recreation and sport, streets and highways, and public buildings. For example, 8 occupational accidents causing the deaths of 7 jockeys and 1 trotting driver are included under “place for recreation and sport.”

The following table shows details of deaths from accidental causes arising out of and in the course of the deceased's employment. So far as transport accidents are concerned, where these occurred to farmers engaged in transporting produce and to persons whose occupation was driving, these were included as occupational. Details of occupational accidents are not available for 1952.

Description of Accident	1949	1950	1951	Totals, 1949–51
Railway accident involving railway employee	10	3	11	24
Railway accident involving other person	2	1	1	4
Motor-vehicle traffic accidents	5	11	11	27
Motor-vehicle non-traffic accidents	1	1		2
Other road-vehicle accidents	15	6	3	24
Submersion of occupant of small boat	1	1	3	5
Other water transport injury by submersion	5	4	1	10
Falls on ships	1	3	1	5
Crushing while loading or unloading ship	1	2	2	5
Aircraft accidents	7	3	5	15
Poisoning by liquid substance		1		1
Poisoning by gases and vapours	2	1		3
Falls	9	5	6	20
Blow from falling object	12	13	13	38
Accident caused by mine vehicle			1	1
Machinery accidents	17	30	18	65
Accident caused by cutting or piercing instrument		1		1
Accident caused by electric current	11	7	8	26
Accident caused by fire and explosion of combustible material	2	3		5
Accident caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, and steam	1	1	1	3
Accident caused by firearm			4	4
Mechanical suffocation	1		3	4
Sting of venomous insect	1			1
Accident caused by animals	3	3	1	7
Drowning and submersion		1	3	4
Excessive cold			1	1
Crushing			1	1
Totals	107	101	98	306

Farming and agricultural employment, which contributed an average of 31 occupational deaths in each year, were responsible for the highest total in any one occupational group. The annual average number of deaths in other occupational groups were (i) railway employees 8, (ii) transport drivers 5, (iii) fishermen and seamen 5, (iv) miners and quarrymen 5.

Further data regarding accidents will be found elsewhere in this volume (see Index). A later section is devoted wholly to statistics of industrial accidents.

SUICIDES.—Suicidal deaths in 1952 numbered 189—males 141, females 48—the death rate per 10,000 of mean population being 101.

Year	Number of Suicidal Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1948	131	50	181	1.52	0.58	1.05
1949	114	57	171	1.29	0.65	0.97
1950	121	44	165	1.34	0.49	0.92
1951	136	46	182	1.48	0.50	0.99
1952	141	48	189	1.50	0.51	1.01

The following table presents, for annual averages of various quinquennia, the suicide rate per 10,000 of mean population.

Annual Average During	Males	Females	Both Sexes
1895–99	1.48	0.31	0.93
1900–04	1.66	0.31	1.02
1905–09	1.62	0.34	1.02
1910–14	1.83	0.41	1.16
1915–19	1.79	0.40	1.10
1920–24	1.92	0.46	1.20
1925–29	2.17	0.56	1.38
1930–34	2.29	0.55	1.44
1935–39	1.63	0.57	1.10
1940–44	1.44	0.56	0.99
1945–49	1.38	0.57	0.97
1950–52 (3 years)	1.44	0.50	0.97

4 D—MAORIS

Unless specially stated to the contrary, in each of the preceding subsections Maoris have been excluded from the statistical tables presented. The standard of registration of Maoris is still below that of the European section of the population of New Zealand. This is due partly to difficulties of language, educational status, etc., and partly to problems of access. This latter difficulty arises from the fact that the greater portion of the Maori population is resident in country districts not so well served with modern facilities as regards transport, medical, and nursing services, etc. Consequently registration of vital facts regarding the Maori race as a whole is not quite at the same high level of accuracy as obtains for the European population, but very considerable improvement has been effected in recent years.

MAORI BIRTHS.—In the successive Registration Acts special provision was made for exemption from the necessity of registration in the case of births and deaths of Maoris, though registration could be effected if desired. Section 20 of the Births and Deaths Registration Amendment Act 1912 (now section 52 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951) empowered the making of regulations to provide for the registration of births and deaths of Maoris. Regulations were made accordingly, and Maori births and deaths became registrable as from 1 March 1913. The number of Registrars of Maori Births and Deaths in New Zealand is over 250, most of these being in the North Island, where the great majority of the Maori population is located. Every Maori settlement of any size is within reach of one of these Registrars. Maori registrations are entered in a separate register, which does not, however, make provision for as many particulars as is the case with registrations of Europeans.

The number of births of Maoris registered during 1952 was 5,459 (2,856 males, 2,603 females). The Maori birth rate in 1952 was almost twice the European birth rate (24.77 per 1,000). Registrations of Maori births in each of the last eleven years were as follows.

Year	Number of Maori Births			Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Rate Per 1,000 of Mean Population
1942	2,222	2,108	4,330	45.84
1943	2,267	2,173	4,440	45.78
1944	2,328	2,180	4,508	45.32
1945	2,389	2,255	4,644	46.10
1946	3,007	2,769	5,776	56.81
1947	2,541	2,447	4,988	47.46
1948	2,589	2,367	4,956	45.97
1949	2,510	2,407	4,917	44.48
1950	2,606	2,499	5,105	45.07
1951	2,746	2,492	5,238	44.97
1952	2,856	2,603	5,459	45.41

Prior to 1946 there was reason to believe that the number of Maori births was somewhat understated, and this view was confirmed by the registration figures for 1946, the year in which the provision of family benefits under the Social Security scheme was extended to cover all children under sixteen years of age irrespective of the income of the parents. Of the 5,776 Maori births registered during 1946, no fewer than 1,447, or 25 per cent, had actually occurred before 1945—i.e., over a year before registration.

For the purposes of the Maori Births and Deaths Registration Regulations 1935 a Maori is defined as “a person belonging to the aboriginal race of New Zealand, and includes a half-caste and a person intermediate in blood between half-castes and persons of pure descent from that race”.

Only registrations relating to persons possessing half or more Maori blood are made in the register of Maori births or Maori deaths. All registrations in respect of persons possessing less than half Maori blood must be made in the European register.

MAORI MARRIAGES.—In the 1953 and preceding issues of the Year-Book a brief statement of the legislative position relating to Maori marriages was given. The Maori Purposes Act 1951, however, brought about a complete change to that hitherto existing. The view was taken that the Maori race had now reached a stage where such special dispensations were no longer justifiable. From 1 April 1952 all Maori marriages are subject to the ordinary laws affecting European marriages, and no marriage according to Maori custom subsequent to that date will be held valid. As a result it is not now possible to distinguish marriages of Maoris from those of Europeans, and Maori marriage statistics as a separate feature will lapse.

The Maori marriage figures for each of the eleven years (1941–51) were as follows.

Year	Under Maori Land Act	Under Marriage Act	Totals	Year	Under Maori Land Act	Under Marriage Act	Totals
1941	410	107	517	1947	468	54	522
1942	463	93	556	1948	518	40	558
1943	363	79	442	1949	550	19	569
1944	428	93	521	1950	569	26	595
1945	457	76	533	1951	522	34	556
1946	511	50	561

MAORI DEATHS.—Registrations of Maori deaths during each of the last eleven years have been as follows.

Year	Number			Rate Per 1,000 of Maori Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1942	933	799	1,732	19.43	17.20	18.34
1943	862	813	1,675	17.51	17.11	17.27
1944	861	825	1,686	17.12	16.77	16.95
1945	865	770	1,635	16.93	15.50	16.23
1946	837	790	1,627	16.03	15.97	16.00
1947	796	742	1,538	14.74	14.52	14.63
1948	789	684	1,473	14.25	13.04	13.66
1949	797	769	1,566	14.03	14.31	14.17
1950	734	635	1,369	12.62	11.52	12.09
1951	739	585	1,324	12.38	10.31	11.37
1952	803	680	1,483	13.04	11.60	12.34

The rates for the two sexes are much more nearly equal for Maoris than for the rest of the population, the female rate being indeed higher than the male in some years. The total Maori death rate has shown considerable improvement during recent years, with a decline from 18.34 in 1942 to 12.34 in 1952.

Apart from mere numbers by sex, statistics of Maori deaths are not available prior to 1920, but annual tabulations are now made on the bases of age and cause of death. The ages of Maoris whose deaths were registered during the year 1952 were as shown in the following table.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
Under 1	250	211	461
1 and under 5	79	67	146
5 and under 10	20	15	35
10 and under 15	13	18	31
15 and under 20	14	9	23
20 and under 25	29	18	47
25 and under 30	29	16	45
30 and under 35	16	14	30
35 and under 40	27	28	55
40 and under 45	25	24	49
45 and under 50	31	34	65
50 and under 55	34	30	64
55 and under 60	37	34	71
60 and under 65	53	34	87
65 and under 70	33	35	68
70 and under 75	28	20	48
75 and under 80	40	31	71
80 and under 85	20	17	37
85 and under 90	12	14	26
90 and under 95	7	3	10
95 and under 100	4	3	7
100 and over	2	5	7
Totals	803	680	1,483

EXPECTATION OF LIFE.—Official life tables dealing with the Maori population have been compiled for the first time. The investigation was based on the 1951 Census combined with the deaths for the three years 1950–52, and the (complete) expectation of life at various ages is given below.

Age	Males	Females
0	54.05	55.88
1	57.69	59.08
2	57.71	59.03
3	57.02	58.26
4	56.25	57.45
5	55.42	56.61
10	50.99	52.05
20	42.21	43.29
30	34.25	35.11
40	26.41	27.00
50	18.86	20.07
60	12.81	14.41
70	8.39	9.98
80	4.79	5.71

The expectation of life of Maoris is much shorter than that of the European population. A comparison at age 0 shows a longer expectation of 14.24 years for European males and 16–55 years for European females.

A similar table to the above for Europeans will be found in Section 4C.

Causes of Maori Deaths.—With the exception of diphtheria and scarlet fever, epidemic and infectious diseases generally exact a much heavier toll proportionately among Maoris than among the European population, the most noteworthy examples being tuberculosis, particularly of the respiratory system, and typhoid fever. Other diseases of the respiratory system also show much higher rates for Maoris than for Europeans, and the same state of affairs is disclosed for diarrhoeal diseases and stomach complaints.

On the other hand, there is a much lower mortality rate among Maoris from certain diseases which rank high as causes of death among the European population. Principal among these are cancer, heart-disease and other diseases of the circulatory system, nephritis, the group of general diseases which includes diabetes and exophthalmic goitre, and the group of diseases of the nervous system which includes apoplexy and cerebral haemorrhage. Malformations show lower rates for Maoris than for Europeans, but the indefinite nature of the data in the registration entries covering the deaths of many Maori infants may be partly responsible, as the figures of deaths from malformations and the group “early infancy” taken in conjunction indicate a much higher rate for Maoris from these causes as a whole than for the European population.

The Introduction of the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death in 1950, together with the change to assignment according to the underlying cause of death, prevent accurate comparisons being made between the 1950 and subsequent mortality tabulations and those for earlier years. The following table shows the Maori deaths for 1950 to 1952 classified according to the Abbreviated List of the 1948 Revision.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Maori Population
Causes of Death	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Tuberculosis of respiratory system	194	129	111	17.13	11.08	9.23
Tuberculosis, other forms	60	39	38	5.30	3.35	3.16
Syphilis and its sequelae	9	4	4	0.79	0.34	0.33
Typhoid fever	5	2		0.44	0.17
Dysentery, all forms	7	2	3	0.62	0.17	0.25
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat	1		1	0.09		0.08
Whooping-cough	7	4	11	0.62	0.34	0.92
Meningococcal infections		8	2		0.69	0.17
Acute poliomyelitis		1	3		0.09	0.25
Measles			15			1.25
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	10	11	14	0.88	0.94	1.16
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	65	77	106	5.74	6.61	8.82
Benign and unspecified neoplasms	4	2	1	0.35	0.17	0.08
Diabetes mellitus	4	5	5	0.35	0.43	0.42
Anaemias	1	1	1	0.09	0.09	0.08
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system	31	51	44	2.74	4.38	3.66
Non-meningococcal meningitis	18	12	17	1.59	1.03	1.42
Rheumatic fever	9	6	14	0.79	0.52	1.16
Chronic rheumatic heart-disease	38	40	36	3.36	3.43	2.99
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart-disease	141	191	141	12.45	16.40	11.73
Other diseases of the heart	46	83	44	4.06	7.13	3.66
Hypertension with heart-disease	9	19	21	0.79	1.63	1.75
Hypertension without mention of heart	2	1	5	0.18	0.09	0.42
Influenza	20	14	22	1.77	1.20	1.83
Pneumonia	165	149	187	14.57	12.80	15.56
Bronchitis	27	30	65	2.38	2.58	5.41
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum	2	1	10	0.18	0.09	0.83
Appendicitis	5	4	3	0.44	0.34	0.25
Intestinal obstruction and hernia	10	13	9	0.88	1.12	0.75
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn	50	50	76	4.41	4.29	6.32
Cirrhosis of liver	5	1	1	0.44	0.09	0.08
Nephritis and nephrosis	19	9	23	1.68	0.77	1.91
Hyperplasia of prostate	1	2	5	0.09	0.17	0.42
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium	12	5	14	1.06	0.43	1.16
Congenital malformations	21	23	40	1.85	1.97	3.33
Birth injuries, postnatal asphyxia, and atelectasis	55	48	47	4.86	4.12	3.91
Infections of the newborn	8	12	14	0.71	1.03	1.16
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified	75	65	82	6.62	5.58	6.82
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined and unknown causes	27	32	21	2.38	2.75	1.75
All other diseases	96	73	104	8.48	6.27	8.65
Motor-vehicle accidents	26	29	44	2.30	2.49	3.66
All other accidents	74	61	68	6.53	5.24	5.66
Suicide and self-inflicted injury	7	6	9	0.62	0.52	0.75
Homicide and operations of war	3	9	2	0.26	0.77	0.17
Totals	1,369	1,324	1,483	120.87	113.68	123.37

From 1925 onwards information has been obtained as to whether the cause of death has been certified by a medical practitioner or a Coroner's inquest. As an indication of the improvements achieved in the specifying of the causes of deaths of Maoris, it may be said that in 1925, out of a total of 867 deaths, 446, or 51 per cent, were definitely shown to have been certified, while in 1952 the number so certified was 1,392 out of 1,483 registrations, equivalent to 94 per cent.

MAORI INFANT MORTALITY.—As regards infant mortality, the Maori rate is much higher and more variable than the European, principally owing to the ravages of epidemic diseases, tuberculosis, respiratory diseases, and diarrhoeal diseases. The infant-mortality rate for the first year of life was 77 per 1,000 births in the case of Maoris for the five years 1948–52, as compared with 23 per 1,000 among European infants. The decrease in the Maori infant-mortality rate during the years 1946 and 1947 is more apparent than real, as the birth figures on which they are based include a considerable number of late registrations of hitherto unregistered births (see p. 98).

The numbers and rates per 1,000 live births for the last eleven years are given in the next table.

Year	Maoris		Europeans
Year	Number of Deaths Under One Year	Rate Per 1,000 Live Births	Number of Deaths Under One Year	Rate Per 1,000 Live Births
1942	424	97.92	964	28.71
1943	399	89.86	951	31.37
1944	461	102.26	1,012	30.12
1945	413	88.93	1,036	27.99
1946	431	74.62	1,093	26.10
1947	365	73.18	1,122	25.04
1948	380	76.67	970	21.95
1949	422	85.82	1,046	23.78
1950	356	69.74	1,008	22.75
1951	357	68.16	1,017	22.78
1952	461	84.45	1,014	21.82

The next table shows for the year 1952 the principal causes of death of Maori infants in the various subdivisions of the first year of life. The classification is according to the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death.

Causes of Death	Under 1 Day	1 Day and Under 2 Days	2 Days and Under 1 Week	1 Week and Under 2 Weeks	2 Weeks and Under 3 Weeks	3 Weeks and Under 1 Month	1 Month and Under 2 Months	2 Months and Under 3 Months	3 Months and Under 6 Months	6 Months and Under 9 Months	9 Months and Under 12 Months	Totals
Tuberculosis									2	4	1	7
Syphilis	1											1
Dysentery, all forms								1		1		2
Whooping-cough								1	3	4	1	9
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic				1	1			1	2	3	1	9
Non-meningococcal meningitis								2	8	3	1	14
Influenza								2	5	3	1	11
Pneumonia, except of newborn							9	11	31	36	29	116
Bronchitis				1				1	8	7	5	22
Intestinal obstruction and hernia						1	1		1			3
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of newborn							3	2	22	24	13	64
Congenital malformations	5		2	2	4	1	1	2	5	3	3	28
Birth injuries	7	13	4	1							1	26
Post-natal asphyxia and atelectasis	14	2	4	1								21
Infections of the newborn	1		3	2		2	6					14
Immaturity unqualified	16	10	13	1				1				41
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy	9	4	8	2		1		2	5	2	3	36
Accidents		1	1			1	1	1	5	4		14
Other diseases				1				1	4	12	5	23
Totals	53	30	35	12	5	6	21	28	101	106	64	461

Of the total of 14 deaths in the above table due to infections of the newborn, 2 were defined as diarrhoea and 12 as pneumonia. Immaturity unqualified accounted for 41 infant deaths, but in a further 26 deaths due to diseases peculiar to early infancy, prematurity was an associated condition.

The great achievement in reducing the infant-mortality rate for the European population has been accomplished during the period after the first month of life up to the end of the first year. Conversely, the causes of the extremely high Maori mortality rates are to be found in the same period of life. This is indicated in the next table, which contrasts the mortality rates per 1,000 live births for European and Maori infants respectively for the last twenty years.

Year	Europeans			Maoris
Year	Under One Month	One and Under Twelve Months	Total Under One Year	Under One Month	One and Under Twelve Months	Total Under One Year
1933	22.81	8.83	31.64	23.07	69.54	92.61
1934	22.86	9.25	32.11	17.11	76.48	93.59
1935	22.03	10.23	32.26	24.30	84.90	109.20
1936	22.31	8.65	30.96	22.32	87.60	109.92
1937	22.21	9.00	31.21	21.66	70.51	92.17
1938	24.15	11.48	35.63	30.32	122.94	153.26
1939	21.85	9.29	31.14	32.07	82.85	114.92
1940	22.03	8.18	30.21	23.92	63.30	87.22
1941	20.00	9.77	29.77	26.85	98.21	12506
1942	18.73	9.98	28.71	19.40	78.52	97.92
1943	21.27	10.10	31.37	18.92	70.94	89.86
1944	20.60	9.52	30.12	19.30	82.96	102.26
1945	19.59	8.40	27.99	26.05	62.88	88.93
1946	19.08	7.02	26.10	18.35	56.27	74.62
1947	18.08	6.96	25.04	25.46	47.72	73.18
1948	15.80	6.15	21.95	28.85	47.82	76.67
1949	17.01	6.77	23.78	22.78	63.04	85.82
1950	16.57	6.18	22.75	28.41	41.33	69.74
1951	16.22	6.56	22.78	25.01	43.15	68.16
1952	15.15	6.67	21.82	25.82	58.63	84.45

The principal causes of death of Maori infants responsible for the high mortality rates after the first month of life are diarrhoea and enteritis, broncho-pneumonia, pneumonia, and other diseases of the respiratory system.

4 E—TOTAL POPULATION, INCLUDING MAORIS

IT is desirable that a complete coverage of the vital statistics of a country as a whole should be available, and the statistical data presented in this subsection cover the entire population of New Zealand.

For many years the standard of registration of vital events for Maoris was subject to elements of inaccuracy and incompleteness due to several factors. However, with the introduction of the medical and related benefits under the social security legislation, which covers Maori and European alike, certain information was essential for the claiming of benefits, and a gradual improvement in recent years has been in evidence. Since 1 April 1952 all Maori marriages have been celebrated in the same manner and registration effected in the same way as European marriages. As regards births and deaths, however, separate registers for Maoris and Europeans are used, and in the case of Maoris the information required is not as detailed as that for Europeans. It is probable that the standard of registration of Maori vital statistics is now very little inferior to that of Europeans.

TOTAL BIRTHS.—As mentioned previously, registration of Maori births are somewhat less accurate (although improvement has been manifest in recent years) than those of the European population. In the table following, which shows the numbers and rates of European, Maori, and total births for each of the last eleven years, allowance should be made for the element of inaccuracy and incompleteness affecting a proportion of the figures, particularly for the earlier years covered.

For instance, owing to the extensive time lag in the receipt by the Registrar-General of a considerable number of registrations, the statistics of Maori births relate to the number of registrations received during the year, whereas the European figures cover actual registrations effected during the year.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori Total
1942	33,574	4,330	37,904	21.73	45.84	23.12
1943	30,311	4,440	34,751	19.70	45.78	21.25
1941	33,599	4,508	38,107	21.59	45.32	23.01
1945	37,007	4,644	41,651	23.22	46.10	24.58
1946	41,871	5,776	47,647	25.26	56.81	27.08
1947	44,816	4,988	49,804	26.47	47.46	27.70
1948	44,193	4,956	49,149	25.59	45.97	26.79
1949	43,988	4,917	48,905	24.98	44.48	26.13
1950	44,309	5,105	49,414	24.67	45.07	25.88
1951	44,651	5,238	49,889	24.39	44.97	25.62
1952	46,469	5,459	51,928	24.77	45.41	26.01

The abnormal increase in the number of Maori births shown for the year 1946 is mainly accounted for by the late registration of births which occurred prior to 1946 (see p. 98).

The inclusion of Maoris raises the level of the birth rate all through the period covered, but in no case does it reverse the trend of the rate on the normal published basis—i.e., the birth rate of New Zealand, exclusive of Maoris. In an international comparison for the quinquennium 1948–52 the inclusion of Maoris raises New Zealand's position from fourteenth to tenth in a total of twenty-eight countries covered.

TOTAL NATURAL INCREASE.—The birth and death rates of the European population are not subject to violent fluctuation, and consequently the natural-increase rate—i.e., excess of births over deaths—for this section of the population shows a decline to 1943 in the period covered by the next table, followed by a steady rise to 1947, and a regular decline each year until 1952, when a record increase was established. The Maori population, on the other hand, evinces sudden changes in both birth and death rates, with a resultant considerable fluctuation in the natural-increase rate. The effect of combining the two sections of the populations is to smooth out the variations in the Maori rate of natural increase, but the general trend is the same as the European rate. The following table shows the numbers gained by natural increase, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population for the last eleven years.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori	Total
1942	17,189	2,598	19,787	11.13	27.50	12.07
1943	14,864	2,765	17,629	9.66	28.51	10.78
1944	18,236	2,822	21,058	11.72	28.37	12.71
1945	20,956	3,009	23,965	13.15	29.87	14.14
1946	25,778	4,149	29,927	15.55	40.81	17.01
1947	28,912	3,450	32,362	17.08	32.83	18.00
1948	28,381	3,483	31,864	16.43	32.31	17.37
1949	27,976	3,351	31,327	15.89	30.31	16.74
1950	27,594	3,736	31,330	15.36	32.98	16.41
1951	27,139	3,914	31,053	14.83	33.60	15.94
1952	29,056	3,976	33,032	15.49	33.07	16.54

In the ten years 1943–52 New Zealand has gained by natural increase of the population a total of 283,547. comprising 248,892 Europeans and 34,655 Maoris.

TOTAL MARRIAGES.—The following table shows the numbers of European, Maori, and total marriages celebrated during each of the last eleven years.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori	Total
* Not available, see following paragraph.
1942	12,219	556	12,775	7.91	5.89	7.79
1943	11,579	442	12,021	7.53	4.56	7.35
1944	13,125	521	13,646	8.43	5.24	8.24
1945	16,160	533	16,693	10.14	5.29	9.85
1946	20,535	561	21,096	12.39	5.52	11.99
1947	18,525	522	19,047	10.94	4.97	10.59
1948	17,192	558	17,750	9.96	5.18	9.67
1949	16,785	569	17,354	9.53	5.15	9.27
1950	16,504	595	17,099	9.19	5.25	8.96
1951	16,359	556	16,915	8.93	4.77	8.78
1952	^*	^*	17,061	^*	^*	8.55

The fluctuations in the Maori marriage rate, and hence, to a lesser extent, in the total marriage rate, cannot be taken at their face value, as elements of Maori psychology played no small part on occasions in influencing the number of Maori marriages registered, as distinct from the number actually celebrated. Apart from these factors, the differences observed in the movements of the respective rates to 1951 are, of course, considerably affected by variations in the application of social and other legislation to the Maori race and the European population respectively. As a result of legislative changes it is not possible to distinguish marriages of Maoris from those of Europeans after 1 April 1952.

TOTAL DEATHS.—The effect of including Maoris is to increase slightly the total death rate for New Zealand, as is seen in the following table.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori	Total
1942	16,385	1,732	18,117	10.60	18.34	11.05
1943	15,447	1,675	17,122	10.04	17.27	10.47
1944	15,363	1,686	17,049	9.87	16.95	10.30
1945	16,051	1,635	17,686	10.07	16.23	10.44
1946	16,093	1,627	17,720	9.71	16.00	10.07
1947	15,904	1,538	17,442	9.39	14.63	9.70
1948	15,812	1,473	17,285	9.16	13.66	9.42
1949	16,012	1,566	17,578	9.09	14.17	9.39
1950	16,715	1,369	18,084	9.31	12.09	9.47
1951	17,512	1,324	18,836	9.56	11.37	9.67
1952	17,413	1,483	18,896	9.28	12.34	9.47

Although the Maori death rate is consistently and appreciably higher than the European rate, the inclusion of Maoris does not raise the general death rate much above the European rate. Countries with lower death rates (in 1952) than New Zealand included Netherlands, 7.3; Norway, 8.3; Canada, 8.6; Union of South Africa (European population only), 8.6; and Denmark, 9.0.

Total Deaths by Causes.—Numbers and rates for principal causes of death over the five years 1945–49 are given in the following table. This table follows the Abridged International List of Causes of Death (Fifth Revision, 1938) and includes Maoris. Similarly based figures covering the same five years will be found for the Maori population separately on page 88 of the 1953 Year-Book and for the European population by reference to page 87 of the 1950 edition of the Year-Book.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths					Rates Per Million of Mean Population
Causes of Death	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever	10	14	21	7	7	6	8	12	4	4
Scarlet fever	14	1		4		8	1		2
Whooping-cough	16	1	49	34	52	9	1	27	18	28
Diphtheria	63	59	28	6	10	37	34	15	3	5
Tuberculosis of the respiratory system	789	753	717	616	569	466	428	399	336	304
Other forms of tuberculosis	191	202	156	130	135	113	115	87	71	72
Syphilis	100	135	125	95	83	59	77	69	52	44
Influenza	74	148	48	73	57	44	84	27	40	31
Measles	14	43	2	6	53	8	24	1	3	28
Other infective and parasitic diseases	132	131	131	162	123	78	74	73	88	66
Cancer and other malignant tumours	2,268	2,326	2,388	2,522	2,547	1,338	1,322	1,328	1,175	1,361
Non-malignant tumours	55	72	69	25	51	32	41	38	14	27
Chronic rheumatism and gout	30	30	23	29	27	18	17	13	16	14
Diabetes mellitus	324	347	332	355	363	191	197	184	193	194
Alcoholism	7	4	3	6	6	4	2	2	3	3
Avitaminoses, other general diseases, diseases of the blood, and chronic poisoning	270	260	250	236	252	159	148	139	129	135
Meningitis, and diseases of the spinal cord	80	81	77	96	84	47	46	43	52	45
Intracranial lesions of vascular origin	1,671	1,613	1,695	1,698	1,655	986	917	942	925	884
Other diseases of the nervous system and organs of special sense	212	180	156	173	169	124	102	87	94	90
Diseases of the heart	5,924	6,015	6,008	5,939	6,283	3,496	3,419	3,340	3,237	3,357
Other diseases of the circulatory system	300	263	262	314	280	177	149	146	171	150
Bronchitis	208	177	201	162	151	123	100	112	88	81
Pneumonia and bronc-pneumonia	720	840	750	812	828	425	477	417	443	442
Other diseases of the respiratory system	234	204	228	207	197	138	116	127	113	105
Diarrhoea and enteritis	239	159	127	110	142	141	90	71	60	76
Appendicitis	64	58	57	46	45	38	33	32	25	24
Diseases of the live and biliary	130	121	98	128	140	77	69	55	70	75
passages Other diseases of the digestive system	376	306	334	339	343	222	174	186	185	183
Nephritis	442	475	414	385	399	261	270	230	210	213
Other diseases of the genito-urinary system	258	215	245	227	194	152	122	136	124	104
Puerperal infection	29	35	18	18	13	17	20	10	10	7
Other diseases of the puerperal state	63	74	41	47	49	37	42	23	26	26
Diseases of the skin and cellular tissue, and of the bones and organs of locomotion	42	37	31	22	32	25	21	17	12	17
Congenital debility, malformations, premature birth, and other diseases of early infancy	945	999	1,049	905	950	558	568	583	493	508
Senility	513	369	343	241	229	303	210	191	131	122
Suicide	182	173	140	187	176	107	98	78	102	94
Homicide	27	18	13	20	28	16	10	7	11	15
Automobile accidents	132	187	231	195	216	78	107	128	106	115
Other accidental deaths	520	586	566	693	620	307	333	315	378	331
Cause of death not specified or ill-defined	18	9	16	15	20	11	5	9	8	11
Totals	17,686	17,720	17,442	17,285	17,578	10,436	10,071	9,699	9,421	9,391

Although the incidence of different diseases as causes of death varies considerably as between the Maori and European sections of New Zealand's population, the only important disease to show a marked influence on the general death rate by the inclusion of Maoris is tuberculosis. The average death rate for the total population from tuberculosis (all forms) for the five years 1948–52 was 325 per million of mean population, as against 220 for the European death rate. New Zealand has for many years had a comparatively low tuberculosis death rate for the European section of its population, but when Maoris are included the latest triennial international figures available (1947–49) show New Zealand to be sixth out of a total of thirty-one countries. With Maoris excluded, New Zealand's position would be second for the same period.

Total deaths for the years 1950 to 1952 according to the Abbreviated List of the Sixth (1948) Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death are contained in the following table. Comparative tables for the European and Maori population separately may be found by reference to Section 4C and Section 4D respectively.

Causes of Death	Number of Deaths			Rate Per Million of Mean Population
Causes of Death	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
Tuberculosis of respiratory system	545	448	336	285	230	168
Tuberculosis, other forms	121	103	85	63	53	43
Syphilis and its sequelae	100	71	66	52	36	33
Typhoid fever	7	2		4	1
Dysentery, all forms	12	5	5	6	3	3
Scarlet fever and streptococcal sore throat	2	1	2	1	1	1
Diphtheria	4	3	2	2	2	1
Whooping-cough	23	11	18	12	6	9
Meningococcal infections	9	22	21	5	11	10
Acute poliomyelitis	2	2	57	1	1	29
Measles	3	2	44	2	1	22
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	95	86	76	50	44	38
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	2,717	2,913	2,905	1,423	1,496	1,455
Benign and unspecified neoplasms	59	38	43	31	19	21
Diabetes mellitus	232	249	226	121	128	113
Anaemias	58	81	76	30	42	38
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system	1,855	2,114	2,209	972	1,085	1,107
Non-meningococcal meningitis	36	27	40	19	14	20
Rheumatic fever	23	23	22	12	12	11
Chronic rheumatic heart-disease	271	244	256	142	125	128
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart-disease	4,916	5,151	4,798	2,575	2,645	2,404
Other diseases of the heart	641	674	704	336	346	353
Hypertension with heart-disease	662	695	653	347	357	327
Hypertension without mention of heart	164	155	170	86	80	85
Influenza	97	92	152	51	47	76
Pneumonia	579	555	600	303	285	301
Bronchitis	177	280	413	93	144	207
Ulcer of stomach and duodenum	148	151	150	77	77	75
Appendicitis	39	32	30	20	16	15
Intestinal obstruction and hernia	137	131	119	72	67	60
Gastritis, duodenitis, enteritis, and colitis, except diarrhoea of the newborn	136	165	151	71	85	76
Cirrhosis of liver	59	65	38	31	33	19
Nephritis and nephrosis	231	208	212	121	107	106
Hyperplasia of prostate	150	156	145	79	80	73
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium	52	36	47	27	18	23
Congenital malformations	320	225	295	168	116	148
Birth injuries, post-natal asphyxia, and atelectasis	325	358	339	170	184	170
Infections of the newborn	33	42	39	17	22	19
Other diseases peculiar to early infancy, and immaturity unqualified	393	361	356	206	185	178
Senility without mention of psychosis, ill-defined, and unknown causes	213	241	203	112	124	102
All other diseases	1,430	1,499	1,640	749	770	822
Motor-vehicle accidents	238	298	296	125	153	148
All other accidents	574	610	638	301	313	320
Suicide and self-inflicted injury	172	188	198	90	96	99
Homicide and operations of war	24	23	21	13	12	10
Totals	18,084	18,836	18,896	9,473	9,672	9,466

TOTAL INFANT MORTALITY.—The establishing of the vital statistics of New Zealand on a total basis by the inclusion of Maoris has the greatest influence upon the infant-mortality rate. The infant-mortality rate of the European population of New Zealand was the lowest in the world for a long period, and recently has declined to a particularly low level. The Maori rate, on the other hand, always a high one, has not shown any noticeable improvement in recent years. It is also subject to violent fluctuations owing to the ravages of certain epidemic diseases, which have relatively very little effect on the European rate. The European, Maori, and total infant-mortality figures for the last twenty years are given in the next table.

Year	Numbers			Rates Per 1,000 Live Births
Year	European	Maori	Total	European	Maori	Total
1933	770	273	1,043	31.64	92.61	38.23
1934	781	279	1,060	32.11	93.59	38.82
1935	773	355	1,128	32.26	109.20	41.45
1936	769	399	1,168	30.96	109.92	41.03
1937	812	366	1,178	31.21	92.17	39.29
1938	971	566	1,537	35.63	153.26	49.67
1939	898	473	1,371	31.14	114.92	41.61
1940	990	372	1,362	30.21	87.22	36.78
1941	1,045	517	1,562	29.77	125.06	39.81
1942	964	424	1,388	28.71	97.92	36.62
1943	951	399	1,350	31.37	89.86	38.85
1944	1,012	461	1,473	30.12	102.26	38.65
1945	1,036	413	1,449	27.99	88.93	34.79
1946	1,093	431	1,524	26.10	74.62	31.99
1947	1,122	365	1,487	25.04	73.18	29.86
1948	970	380	1,350	21.95	76.67	27.47
1949	1,046	422	1,468	23.78	85.82	30.02
1950	1,008	356	1,364	22.75	69.74.	27.60
1951	1,017	357	1,374	22.78	68.16	27.54
1952	1,014	461	1,475	21.82	84.45	28.40

The inclusion of Maoris not only places the infant-mortality rate for New Zealand on a considerably higher level, but also replaces the general downward movement by a much more fluctuating trend.

It also has a considerable effect on the position occupied by New Zealand among the countries of the world. In the quinquennium 1947–51 New Zealand's infant-mortality rate (exclusive of Maoris), with an average of 23, was the second lowest of thirty countries for which reliable figures were available, whereas the inclusion of the Maori population relegated it to third place equal with the Netherlands, with Sweden clearly in the lead, and Australia in second place.

4 F—MORBIDITY

COMPARISONS of healthiness of a community over a period of years which are based on death rates do not fully take into account the effect of the advance of medical science in recent years. It is common knowledge that many diseases regarded a few decades ago as incurable now show a fair percentage of recoveries. Similarly, the death rates in epidemics are in general much lower now than formerly, owing partly to the steps taken to prevent the spread of the disease, partly to the necessity of early notification in most countries, and partly to increased medical knowledge. Again, many diseases seldom or never result fatally. Death-rate statistics are therefore supplemented by data relating to illness.

The principal source of statistics of illness in New Zealand, apart from that resulting in death, conies from the public hospitals, to which some 85 per cent of all hospital inpatients are admitted. Information concerning every person discharged from a public hospital is collected and tabulated (from 1 January 1950) in accordance with the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death, and published annually in the Health Department's publication Medical Statistics. Similar information was formerly published in the Annual Report on Vital Statistics issued by the Census and Statistics Department. At present no attempt is being made to bridge the gap between illness where there was admission to a public hospital and illness where there was no such admission. Other morbidity statistics in New Zealand are those concerning certain notifiable diseases, shown in the next paragraph, those about industrial accidents reported in Section 42, those concerning benefits granted under the Social Security Act reported in Section 7A, and those to sick members of Friendly Societies mentioned in Section 7E.

NOTIFICATION OF DISEASES.—The numbers of all notifiable diseases reported during the calendar year 1952 are shown in the following table; the European figures are given month by month, with the totals for Maoris being shown in the last column.

Disease	All Cases													Maoris
Disease	January	February	March	April	May	June	July	August	September	October	November	December	Totals	Totals Only
Scarlet fever: Streptococcal sore throat	44	31	44	60	56	70	76	73	56	70	60	96	736	10
Diphtheria	2	3	1	3	5	12	6	7	4	6	2	1	52	10
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever	2	9	8	3	5	5	10	11	8	3	11	10	85	54
Pulmonary tuberculosis	114	133	150	129	152	138	149	128	175	170	130	137	1,705	493
Other tuberculosis	13	34	26	35	28	41	35	29	32	39	39	40	391	121
Meningococcus meningitis	8	5	5	4	5	7	7	16	20	15	5	7	104	16
Poliomyelitis	1	4	7	12	6	15	50	75	121	198	192	209	890	29
Pneumonic influenza			1	2			2	1	3	1		1	11
Erysipelas	5	13	15	18	20	22	19	14	10	21	18	9	184	8
Puerperal fever—
Following childbirth	4	1	5	1	2		4	2	4	4	4	8	39	4
Following abortion	3	1	1	1	2		3	3	1		2	3	21	1
Eclampsia	4	4	10	7	5	4	3	8	9	9	12	8	83	2
Tetanus	2	3	3	6	2	2	2		3	3	4	2	32	3
Hydatids	5	1	6		1	2	3		4	3	9	3	39	14
Trachoma			2		4	1		1			1	2	11	9
Ophthalmia neonatorum		3				2		2	2		9	2
Lethargic encephalitis									1				1
Food poisoning	18	27	113	27	22	13	22	5	9	11	27	18	312	41
Bacillary dysentery	5	5	11	17	13	4	8	27	15	2	6	2	115	36
Amoebic dysentery		5	2		1	2	4		5	4	4	1	28	4
Undulant fever	3	4	4	3	4	4	9	7	12	7	11	10	78	5
Chronic lead poisoning								6	2				8
Malaria	1			1		6	14	10	8	2	2	1	45	2
Actinomycosis									2				2
Anchylostomiasis (hookworm)												1	1	1
Leptospirosis							4	1	5	3	5	14	32	3
Salmonellosis					10		4	3	7	26	12	9	71	3
Leprosy				1									1
Beriberi						1		1					2
Totals	234	283	414	333	343	350	434	432	516	599	558	592	5,088	871

Total notifications for each of the last five years for all cases and for Maoris for some of the notifiable diseases are shown in the following table.

Disease	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Scarlet fever: streptococcal sore throat All cases	1,110	1,049	1,037	770	736
Maori	4	11	6	10	10
Diphtheria All cases	166	89	56	67	52
Maori	12	6	5	6	10
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever All cases	67	80	82	73	85
Maori	27	56	48	49	54
Pulmonary tuberculosis All cases	1,760	1,693	1,769	1,557	1,705
Maori	404	476	475	387	493
Meningococcus meningitis All cases	45	46	51	74	104
Maori	6	8	3	11	16
Poliomyelitis All cases	963	355	72	27	890
Maori	49	9	2	1	29
Puerperal fever and septic abortion All cases	139	87	79	55	60
Maori	1	6	5	5	5
Tetanus All cases	23	19	39	26	32
Maori		2	6	4	3
Hydatids All cases	53	43	38	58	39
Maori	6	16	8	16	14
Food poisoning All cases	160	111	519	456	312
Maori	1	7	11	25	41
Bacillary dysentery All cases	155	155	190	116	115
Maori	59	39	59	28	36
Undulant fever All cases	30	32	45	58	78
Maori	3	1	2	3	5

Scarlet Fever: Streptococcal Sore Throat.—Notifications from this cause continue to remain at a low level.

Diphtheria.—Notifications again fell at 52 (Europeans 42, Maoris 10), this being a new low record.

Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever.—Only sporadic cases occurred in 1952.

Meningosoccus Meningitis.—In 1952 the incidence was slightly higher than for recent years—104 cases (Europeans 88, Maoris 16)—as compared with 74 (Europeans 63, Maoris 11) in 1951.

Poliomyelitis.—Between July 1952 and April 1953 New Zealand experienced its fifth major epidemic of poliomyelitis in a space of thirty-eight years. This was unexpected, for whereas previously major epidemics have occurred at approximately ten-year intervals, this recent outbreak began barely three years after the end of the 1947–49 epidemic. Furthermore, while all four earlier epidemics had begun explosively in the summer the latest began gradually in the autumn and was at its worst in winter and spring.

From 1 April 1952 to 1 April 1953 total cases numbered approximately 1,292. For the calendar year 1952 the number of cases notified was 890 (October-December being the worst months). The disease tended to be more severe in older people, there being 20 deaths in 510 patients under fifteen years, and 37 deaths in 380 patients over 15 years. Included in the total of 890 were 29 Maoris. The number of paralysed cases was 502 and non-paralysed 388.

Details for the years 1951 and 1950 are summarized herewith. Cases in 1951 totalled 27 (of whom 18 were paralysed), while deaths numbered 3. There was only 1 Maori case included in the total. For 1950, cases recorded were 72 (including 2 Maoris), of which 17 were paralysed, with 2 deaths resulting.

The 1947–49 epidemic first appeared in November 1947 and continued with undiminished intensity throughout 1948, and only died down in the middle of 1949, although it was less intense than the previous epidemics. In the period November 1947 to July 1949 the number of cases and suspected cases notified was 1,720, of which 1,406 proved positive. Of these, 805 showed evidence of paralysis or paresis, and there were 77 deaths from the disease.

The youngest age group (0–4 years) which in 1916 and 1924–25 suffered the highest attack rate dropped to third place in 1947–49. The incidence in the higher age groups was greater than in previous epidemics.

The number of deaths in the 1947–49 epidemic was 77, of whom 42 were males and 35 females. These numbers included 5 Maori males and 1 Maori female. The case mortality for all cases was 5.1 per cent for males, 5.9 per cent for females, with a combined rate of 5.5 per cent. For paralysed cases the mortality rates were: males, 9.3 per cent; females, 9.9 per cent; combined, 9.6 per cent. The highest mortality rates were in the higher age groups, particularly in females over thirty years of age.

The attack rate varied considerably in different parts of the country and the incidence in the New Plymouth Health District (22.43 per 10,000 of population) was markedly higher than elsewhere. The epidemic took approximately one year to travel from Auckland to Dunedin, although air transport covers the distance in a few hours. The outbreak in Wellington was unusual in that it was almost entirely a winter outbreak, whereas elsewhere the incidence showed a lessened intensity in the winter months.

As indicated earlier, there were differences between the major epidemics of poliomyelitis in respect of their duration, and this applies also to their intensity, severity, and distribution by age groups. Data showing these features for the four earlier epidemics were given on pp. 99–100 of the 1953 issue of the Year-Book.

Hydatid Disease.—The figures for 1952 (Europeans 25, Maoris 14) show a fall over those of previous years. As a result of the educational activities of the Department of Health, carried out in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture, farmers' organizations in several parts of the country have become very conscious of the existence of the disease, and are giving valuable assistance in encouraging their members to dose their dogs and to avoid re-infecting them.

Food Poisoning.—The reported cases were Europeans 271, Maoris 41. It is certain, however, that while outbreaks involving numbers of people are generally reported there must be many sporadic cases and family outbreaks which are dismissed as “summer sickness” “or gastric flu'.”

Undulant Fever.—The notified cases of this disease show a rising tendency, although probably only a small proportion of the total infections are notified. All cases are due to Br. abortus, the infectivity of which, for humans, is relatively low.

Venereal Disease.—In the early war years the incidence of venereal disease increased considerably, but after 1941 there was an appreciable decrease. This trend was not sustained, however, and a new peak for gonorrhoea was reached in 1946, while the incidence of syphilis also increased substantially. The 1947 and 1948 figures for gonorrhoea showed some improvement, but an increase was recorded in 1949. New cases of syphilis rose very steeply in 1948, but there were considerable reductions between 1949 and 1952. Gonorrhoea has shown little marked change during the period 1950 to 1952. The following table shows the number of persons seen for the first time at the venereal-disease clinics in the four main centres of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, during each of the years 1948–52, and found to be suffering from gonorrhoea or syphilis.

—	Gonorrhoea			Syphilis
—	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
1948	993	360	1,353	161	111	272
1949	1,104	396	1,500	107	107	214
1950	818	313	1,131	64	87	151
1951	961	283	1,244	55	72	127
1952	847	310	1,157	34	50	84

A large proportion of these recorded male cases refer to first attendances of infected seamen visiting our main ports. So far as the local population is concerned, as indicated by the figures for females, these diseases are relatively uncommon except in the Auckland district, where the number of new female infections remains high.

Tuberculosis.—With an intensification of case-finding by all tuberculosis workers in recent years the position regarding notification of tuberculosis has improved to a degree that enables a reasonable picture of the disease to be presented as it affects this country. From a study of the returns over the last few years there is reason to believe that the annual increase in notifications of the disease has reached stability, and that an addition of approximately 250 cases (including Maoris) per year in the national total of notified cases can be expected. The Department of Health is continuing its efforts to reduce both incidence and mortality. The corps of District Health Nurses available for tuberculosis case-finding work has been increased, and hospital clinics in the charge of chest specialists have now been provided to give a wider coverage. The responsibilities of the Department of Health in case-finding and domiciliary care are being co-ordinated with that of the Hospital Boards, which are responsible for diagnosis and treatment.

The medical officers of the Department of Health assist the District Nurses in the examination of contacts and arrange tuberculin tests and X-ray examinations. One mass miniature X-ray unit has been in operation for over three years in Taranaki, a unit is established in Christchurch, and other units are available for Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin. Special investigation by these methods is directed towards those groups of the population which are likely to show a high incidence of the disease, and this type of work is being extended. Cases that are found to be tuberculosis, or suspected of having the disease, are referred to hospital chest clinics, which assess the diagnosis and prescribe treatment. The supervision of “after care” on discharge from a hospital or sanatorium then becomes the joint responsibility of the District Nurse and the hospital clinic staff.

As a contribution to prophylaxis, health education is being stimulated, and B.C.G. vaccination against tuberculosis has been commenced in hospital staffs and contacts and adolescents.

The following figures reflect the work performed by the district nursing service and school medical officers in this connection during the five years 1948–52.

	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Not available.
Total number of homes under control	9,283	9,687	9,880	10,282	10,578
Number of new contacts brought under supervision during year	2,748	5,423	5,121	4,728	5,102
Total number of contacts under surveillance during year—
Found to be tuberculosis	244	272	476	223	286
Removed from list	^*	3,238	2,582	2,858	2,359
Remaining under supervision	^*	23,103	24,194	23,834	24,684
Totals	24,161	26,613	27,252	26,915	27,329

The Department of Health maintains a Tuberculosis Register, which attempts to classify all known cases, and a clearer conception of the type, form, and extent of the disease is being obtained as workers become more accustomed to provide the necessary information. The number of cases on the Register (inclusive of Maoris) at 31 December 1952 was 11,221, of which 9,773 were pulmonary and 1,448 non-pulmonary. The number of new cases notified in 1952 was 2,096, of which 1,482 were European and 614 Maori. Of the European cases, 1,212 were pulmonary and 270 non-pulmonary, and in the Maori cases the figures were 493 and 121 for pulmonary and non-pulmonary respectively. Some of these cases have since proved non-tuberculosis and have been deregistered.

The total number of persons on the register at the end of 1952 amounted to 4.31 per 1,000 of the European population, and 26.04 per 1,000 of the Maori population. The combined figure was 5.62 per 1,000.

PUBLIC HOSPITALS: Patients Treated.—The hospitals to which the following statistics relate include all except private hospitals.

The following table shows the numbers of patients treated annually since 1946, the rate per 10,000 of the population, and the average length of stay of patients in hospital.

Year Ended 31 March	Total Patients Treated	Rate Per 10,000 of Mean Population	Average Stay (Days)
1946	176,864	1,034	24.2
1947	179,658	1,013	21.1
1948	174,814	964	21.0
1949	181,348	980	20.3
1950	187,259	990	20.2
1951	190,681	994	19.7

The total number of patients treated has risen by about 14,000, though the rate per 10,000 of the population has not increased, but has, in fact, shown a slight decline. Accommodation for the extra number hospitalized has to some extent been found by a reduction by almost 20 per cent in the average length of stay of patients.

Age and Sex of Patients.—The next table shows the number of patients discharged from or dying in hospital during 1950 according to their age and sex, with the rate per 10,000 of the population of the same ages and sex, and the average length of time spent in hospital. The figures for women exclude admissions for pregnancy, childbirth, or puerperal conditions.

Age Group, in Years	Males			Females
Age Group, in Years	Number of Patients	Rate Per 10,000 Mean Population	Average Stay (Days)	Number of Patients	Rate Per 10,000 Mean Population	Average Stay (Days)
0–7	14,465	846	15.0	10,779	659	15.6
8–14	7,227	633	16.6	5,596	507	17.3
15–44	25,932	625	21.1	25,053	617	21.3
45–64	13,287	727	26.0	11,741	632	26.2
65 and over	11,101	1,345	36.3	8,161	909	41.0

It will be seen that there are proportionately more admissions for men than for women at all ages, especially at the extremes of life. The length of time spent on the average in hospital shows an increase with age, at first gradual then rising more steeply in the evening of life, so that the average number of days spent in hospital by persons aged sixty-five and over is four times greater per head than that for persons under sixty-five. The numbers in this former age group are steadily rising, but the demand for hospital beds for them enlarges fourfold and this must become a factor of increasing importance in the provision of hospital beds.

Principal Diseases.—A summary is now given of the principal diseases treated in public hospitals during the year 1950, based on a modification of the “C” list of the International Classification. Later figures are not yet available. Cases of normal delivery in childbirth are excluded. All figures given are inclusive of Maoris.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for the treatment of which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in the death statistics. Cystitis, for instance, ranks comparatively high in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some more important disease, which would take precedence over cystitis in the statistics of causes of death. As indicated earlier, the hospital returns now show each disease for which the patient was treated during his stay in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which he was admitted, regardless of what other diseases may have been present or developed during the stay of the patient in hospital. In the death statistics, on the other hand, the primary cause of decease is of paramount importance. In the hospital statistics a case admitted on account of the fracture of any bone is treated and classified as “fracture.” Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the fracture—e.g., motor-car accident, accidental fall, etc. The morbidity code, with a few exceptions and a considerable extension of the accident group, follows the mortality code fairly closely, and a comparison of the morbidity and mortality statistics can be obtained without difficulty.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL DISEASES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1950

Disease	Total Cases in Public Hospitals	Deaths in Public Hospitals	Fatality Rate, Per Cent
Tuberculosis of respiratory system	3,174	302	9.5
Tuberculosis, other forms	1,133	92	8.1
Syphilis and its sequelae	335	34	10.1
Gonococcal infection	139
Dysentery, all forms	420	3	0.7
Other infective diseases commonly arising in intestinal tract	251	12	4.8
Scarlet fever	595
Diphtheria	46	3	6.5
Whooping-cough	225	10	4.4
Measles	43	1	2.3
Mumps	10
Hydatids	137	6	4.4
All other diseases classified as infective and parasitic	2,159	56	2.6
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	4,620	1,374	29.7
Benign neoplasms, and neoplasms of unspecified nature	2,599	33	1.3
Allergic disorders	1,271	29	2.3
Diseases of thyroid gland	764	16	2.1
Diabetes mellitus	1,224	64	5.2
Avitaminosis, and other deficiency states	77
Anaemias	364	35	9.6
Psychoneuroses and psychoses	2,509	49	2.0
Vascular lesions affecting central nervous system	1,855	927	50.0
Diseases of eye	2,209	4	0.2
Diseases of ear and mastoid process	2,573	11	0.4
Rheumatic fever	487	29	60
Chronic rheumatic heart disease	174	39	22.4
Arteriosclerotic and degenerative heart disease	2,292	945	41.2
Hypertensive disease	1,331	328	24.6
Diseases of veins	2,599	40	1.5
Acute nasopharingitis (common cold)	211
Acute pharyngitis and tonsillitis, and hypertrophy of tonsils and adenoids	8,813	4	0.1
Influenza	1,031	9	0.9
Pneumonia	4,771	425	8.9
Bronchitis	1,722	102	5.9
Silicosis and occupational pulmonary fibrosis	9	4	44.4
All other respiratory diseases	2.783	103	3.7
Diseases of stomach and duodenum except cancer	2,250	109	4.8
Appendicitis	5,667	29	0.5
Hernia of abdominal cavity	3,018	27	0.9
Diarrhoea and enteritis	1,289	37	2.9
Diseases of gall-bladder and bile ducts	2,439	69	2.8
Other diseases of digestive system	3,964	158	4.0
Nephritis and nephrosis	369	84	22.8
Other diseases of urinary system	2,225	50	2.2
Diseases of male genital organs	1,962	77	3.9
Diseases of female genital organs	5,529	11	0.2
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium	8,459	26	0.3
Boil, abscess, cellulitis, and other skin infections	3,646	7	0.2
Other diseases of skin	1,664	8	0.5
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever	1,871	17	0.9
Diseases of bones and other organs of movement	4,120	9	0.2
Congenital malformations and diseases peculiar to early infancy	3,040	371	12.2
Symptoms, senility, and ill-defined conditions	6,205	235	3.8
Other specified diseases	5,925	582	9.8
Fractures	7,594	267	3.5
Burns	1,153	23	2.0
Poisoning	672	22	3.3
Other injuries	10,704	104	1.0
Special conditions and examinations without sickness	2,682
Admissions for convalescent care, plastic treatment, and fitting of prosthetic devices	447
Totals	141,849	7,411	5.2

Chapter 5. SECTION 5—PUBLIC HEALTH, HOSPITALS, ETC.

Table of Contents

5 A—PUBLIC HEALTH

5 B—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS

5 C—MENTAL HOSPITALS

5 A—PUBLIC HEALTH

DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES IN NEW ZEALAND.—Before 1872 there was no public health service in New Zealand. A few local authorities appear to have exercised a crude form of negative sanitary government, but otherwise little seems to have been done. Certainly no attempt was made to cope with outbreaks of diseases, even when they assumed epidemic proportions.

In 1872 the first Public Health Act became law. Under it a Central Board of Health was set up in each province and power was given to each Central Board to set up Local Boards of Health as required.

The Central Boards each consisted of the Provincial Superintendent, the Provincial Executive Council, and three other members. They acted mainly in a supervising capacity and took little active part in initiating or controlling preventive health measures. They were required to make periodical reports to the Governor of the colony, but, in fact, few were made.

The local Board of Health was usually the local authority for the area concerned. The Board was normally financed from rates, though if appointed by the Central Board it could be financed by parliamentary appropriation. In general its function was to administer the Public Health Act in its district, and it had power to appoint a medical adviser, who was in all cases a part-time officer.

The abolition of the provinces in 1876 brought the disappearance of the provincial Central Boards of Health and the establishment of one Central Board of Health for the whole colony. Otherwise there was practically no change in the system which had existed since 1872.

The first period of public health administration in New Zealand came to an end in 1900. It is doubtful whether at any time during these twenty-eight years the administration of the 1872 Act and the later consolidating Act of 1876 was marked by much energy or thoroughness. Local Boards were hampered by lack of finance and by lack of zeal and knowledge. The powers of their Medical Officers (where appointed) were limited, and often the advice given by these officers was disregarded. The incidence of typhoid fever, a good index to the sanitary standards of a community, remained high throughout the whole of this period.

In 1900 the outbreak of bubonic plague in Australia stimulated the authorities to action. In that year a Bubonic Plague Prevention Act was passed which, later in the same year, was repealed and embodied in the Public Health Act 1900. Under this Act public health administration in New Zealand was put on a much more satisfactory basis. A separate Department of Public Health was set up under its own Minister; the country was divided into a number of health districts, and properly trained and qualified staff were appointed to administer the Act. In the years following the establishment of the Department steady progress was made in the building-up of a public health organization. Acts were passed dealing with the sale of food and drugs; the registration of medical practitioners, pharmacists, nurses and midwives, plumbers; the prevention of quackery; and the control of venereal disease. Sanatoria were established to help in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. Attention was given to problems of maternal welfare. Medical supervision of school children came into operation, at first under the control of the Education Department, though in 1921 it was transferred to the Department of Health.

In 1909 a closer link between curative and preventive medicine was forged by merging the Hospitals and Charitable Aid Department into the Department of Public Health's organization.

During the years 1900 to 1920 there was also an increasing public interest being taken in health matters. As a result a number of voluntary health organizations were established with the objects of diffusing knowledge of infant welfare, first aid, and home nursing.

The 1918–19 influenza epidemic brought to light a number of defects in the public health organization, particularly the need for a simplification of existing health legislation and the need for a clear definition of the duties of local authorities, Hospital Boards, and the Department of Health. The result of this experience was the passing of the Health Act 1920 under which, with its amendments, the Department of Health has since operated.

Following the passing of this Act new health districts were created and the existing activities of the Department were expanded. Among the more important of the new activities of the Department were the establishment of a School Dental Service in 1920, the building-up of health publicity work, and, in 1937, the institution of the Medical Research Council. Registration was also widened to include dentists, opticians, and masseurs.

The interest of the general public in health matters continued to expand after 1920, and was marked by the establishment of additional voluntary health organizations.

Recent developments have included a more positive attack on the problem of tuberculosis marked by the passing of the Tuberculosis Act 1948 and the establishment of the National Health Institute. At the end of 1947 the Mental Hospitals Department ceased to be a separate Government Department, and became the Division of Mental Hygiene of the Department of Health.

A more detailed outline of the development of public health services in New Zealand up to 1939 will be found in the annual report of the Department of Health for that year.

PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES.—Local Authorities: Part II of the Health Act 1920 lays definite obligations on local authorities in regard to public health. Each local authority must either appoint its own Sanitary Inspectors or contribute to the salary of an Inspector of the Department of Health. Each Inspector must hold a certificate of the Royal Sanitary Institute (or certain equivalents) before he can be appointed. A local authority's responsibility in health matters is wide. It must promote and conserve the public health within its district—a function which includes regular inspections of its district; abatement of nuisances as defined in the Health Act; provision of efficient refuse, nightsoil, and sanitary services; protection and purification of water supplies; closing and demolition of insanitary buildings; registration and regulation of cattle saleyards; and the enforcement of certain minimum sanitary requirements for residences and business premises. It may also make by-laws dealing with public health matters. In certain circumstances some local authorities may be exempted from the above duties, but in such cases the Department must do whatever is necessary for the promotion and conservation of public health in that district. All expenses incurred are recoverable from the local authority concerned.

Department of Health: The chief administrative officer of the Department is the Director-General of Health. He is assisted by two Deputy Directors, and the work of the Department is divided among the following Divisions—Public Hygiene, Hospitals, Child Hygiene, Nursing, Clinical Services, Tuberculosis, Private and Maternity Hospitals, Dental Hygiene, Occupational Health, and Physical Medicine. There is also the Division of Mental Hygiene, the activities of which are described in Section 5c. New Zealand as a whole is divided into fourteen health districts, each under the control of a Medical Officer of Health, who must be a medical practitioner with special qualifications in sanitary science.

The Department is required to take whatever steps are necessary to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and co-ordination of measures necessary to promote public health. It administers all Acts relating to public health; it advises local authorities on matters relating to public health; it must do whatever is possible to prevent, limit, or suppress disease; it promotes research into matters connected with public health and the prevention and treatment of disease; it conducts health publicity and organizes and controls medical, dental, and nursing services paid from public funds. With the authority of the Minister, a Medical Officer of Health may exercise very wide powers in the event of an outbreak of infectious disease, including the requisitioning of land and buildings, prohibition of public gatherings, and controlling the movements of cases and contacts of any infectious disease. Certain diseases, mostly infectious, but including some non-communicable, must be notified by medical practitioners. Provisions relating to quarantine are included in the Health Act; and extensive power is given to make regulations relating to the conservation and promotion of public health.

The Department's organization includes a Board of Health, which may in certain circumstances require local authorities to carry out prescribed works.

In addition to the Health Act 1920, a summary of which is given in the 1927 issue of the Year-Book, the following Acts are administered by the Department:

Cemeteries Act 1908.
Dangerous Drugs Act 1927.
Dentists Act 1936.
Dietitians Act 1950.
Food and Drugs Act 1947.
Hospitals Act 1926.
King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Act 1953.
Medical Act 1908.
Medical Advertisements Act 1942.
Medical Practitioners Act 1950. Medical Research Council Act 1950.
Mental Defectives Act 1911.
Nurses and Midwives Act 1945.
Occupational Therapy Act 1949.
Opticians Act 1928.
Physiotherapy Act 1949.
Plumbers Registration Act 1953.
Poisons Act 1934.
Radioactive Substances Act 1949.
Social Hygiene Act 1917.
Social Security Act 1938 (Part III).
Tuberculosis Act 1948.

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper H–31).

The actual expenditure on the activities of the Department of Health for the years ended 31 March 1952 and 1953, and the estimated expenditure for the year ended 31 March 1954, are given in the following table.

—	Expenditure, Year Ended 31 March 1952	Expenditure, Year Ended 31 March 1953	Estimated Expenditure, Year ended 31 March 1954
	£	£	£
Salaries, departmental officers	1,049,096	1,106,048	1,210,661
Health education and publicity	30,556	24,383	30,000
Medical bursaries	18,903	16,675	13,700
Subsidies under Hospitals Act	8,293,729	9,618,373	10,280,000
Medical research work	40,000	40,000	40,000
Grants to voluntary organizations	109,378	100,170	112,060
Departmental institutions	319,530	348,179	367,000
Other costs of administration	626,052	724,382	838,465
Expenditure from Consolidated Fund	10,487,244	11,978,210	12,891,886
Maternity benefits	884,781	919,422	980,700
Medical benefits	2,760,583	3,047,202	3,229,300
Hospital benefits	2,112,494	2,135,218	2,213,800
Pharmaceutical benefits	2,428,216	3,015,833	3,272,200
Supplementary benefits	1,181,953	1,310,922	1,481,000
Expenditure from Social Security Fund	9,368,027	10,428,597	11,177,000
Total Expenditure by Department	19,855,271	22,406,807	24,068,886

The above figures do not include expenditure on mental hygiene, which, for the year ended 31 March 1952, was £2,288,589; for the year ended 31 March 1953, £2,446,344; and which was estimated to be £2,638,114 for the year 1953–54.

PUBLIC HEALTH ACTIVITIES.—This account covers measures relating to “preventive” medicine, as distinct from activities in “curative” medicine, which are dealt with elsewhere in this volume—see Section 5B (Hospitals) and Section 5C (Mental Hospitals). Information on medical, hospital, and other related benefits, which are administered by the Department of Health, is given in Section 7A (Social Security).

It is convenient to consider public health activities under headings which correspond generally to certain of the divisions within the Department of Health. These headings are—

Public Hygiene.
Dental Hygiene.
Tuberculosis.
Maternal Welfare.
Child Hygiene.
Occupational Health.

PUBLIC HYGIENE.—The Health Act places responsibility for the maintenance of the public health largely on the Department, but local authorities have powers and duties to perform in a number of sanitary and inspection services. Each of the fourteen health districts in New Zealand is under the control of a Medical Officer whose duties include the administration of all enactments relating to Public Health and who can provide local governing bodies with expert advice in this field. Public Hygiene is concerned more particularly with the control of infectious disease, environmental hygiene, food and drugs, poisons and addiction-producing drugs, and burial and cremation.

Disease: The control of disease is based on a system of notification which has long been in force. The present list of notifiable diseases is as follows.

Notifiable Infectious Diseases—

Acute poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis).
Anthrax.
Cerebro - spinal fever (cerebro - spinal meningitis).
Cholera.
Dengue.
Diphtheria.
Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary).
Encephalitis lethargica.
Enteric fever (typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever).
Erysipelas.
Fulminant influenza.
Leprosy.
Leptospiral infections.
Ophthalmia neonatorum.
Plague (bubonic or pneumonic).
Pneumonic influenza.
Puerperal fever (puerperal septicaemia, puerperal sapraemia).
Puerperal fever, involving any form of puerperal sepsis other than, or in addition to, puerperal septicaemia and puerperal sapraemia.
Salmonella infections.
Septicaemia consequent upon abortion or miscarriage.
Septicaemic influenza.
Any form of sepsis or sapraemia consequent upon abortion or miscarriage.
Smallpox (variola, including varioloid, alastrim, amaas, Cuban itch and Philippine itch).
Streptococcal sore throat (including scarlet fever).
Trachoma (granular conjunctivitis, granular ophthalmia, granular eyelids).
Typhus.
Undulant fever.
Yellow fever.

Other Notifiable Diseases—

Actinomycosis.
Anchylostomiasis (hookworm disease).
Bilharziosis (endemic haematuria, Egyptian haematuria).
Beriberi.
Eclampsia.
Hydatids.
Food poisoning (botulismus, ptomaine poisoning).
Chronic lead poisoning.
Malaria.
Phosphorus poisoning.
Tetanus.

All forms of tuberculosis are notifiable under the Tuberculosis Act 1948.

Venereal Diseases: Venereal diseases, while scheduled infectious diseases, are only notifiable if the patient discontinues treatment before cure is effected. The Venereal Diseases Regulations 1941 give adequate powers for the examination and treatment of persons suspected of suffering from the diseases. Free treatment has been established in the larger cities and treatment is available to seamen at the main ports in accordance with the Brussels Agreement. Restrictions are also placed on the nature of the employment such persons may undertake if they are suffering from the diseases in a communicable form.

In the administration of the regulations, every precaution is taken to ensure the avoidance of publicity.

Environmental Hygiene is concerned with the provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating-houses. These matters are primarily the responsibility of the local authorities, but the Department of Wealth acts in a general advisory capacity. In the case of many of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental Inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities.

Food and Drugs: Legislation relating to the sale of food and drugs has been in force since 1908. The Act at present in force is the Food and Drugs Act 1947. It provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any article of food or drink, or of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food or drug intended for sale. If any such article is proved to be unfit for human consumption heavy penalties may be inflicted on the person or persons responsible. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration of food, drink, or drugs, and for the inspection of places where such goods are manufactured or packed. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food and drugs.

Considerable progress has been made in implementing the purposes of the Act. All the common foodstuffs are standardized, and the labelling of packages is controlled by regulations, which are revised and added to as the necessity arises. Regular sampling of foods, particularly milk, is undertaken by departmental Inspectors, and these samples are analysed in the Dominion Laboratory and its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food or drug whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food or drug, whether or not it is standardized by regulation. This matter is also covered by the Medical Advertisements Act 1942, which is referred to later.

The definition of “drug” includes medicines used externally or internally by man, anaesthetics, soaps, and disinfectants.

Any person may, on payment of the prescribed fee, together with the cost of the sample, require any authorized officer to purchase a sample of any food and submit it for analysis.

A new power contained in the 1947 Act enables any drug to be withheld from the public except when prescribed by a doctor, dentist, or veterinary surgeon.

Dangerous Drugs and Poisons: In order to carry out New Zealand's obligations under international conventions relating to habit-forming drugs, the Dangerous Drugs Act 1927 was enacted. The dealing in and the use of prepared opium are prohibited, and the production, manufacture, sale, and distribution of other dangerous drugs are restricted to persons licensed by the Director-General of Health. The importation of these drugs is controlled by the Customs Department. Provision is made to prevent illicit traffic in drugs of a habit-forming nature. Suitable regulations, the Dangerous Drugs Regulations 1951, are in force to give effect to the provisions of the Act, and are similar to the regulations in the United Kingdom and Australia.

The Poisons Act 1934 controls the proper labelling and packing of poisons, and in particular requires that all liquid poisons be packed in bottles of distinctive colour and shape. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. The Act also provides for the control of certain poisonous drugs by preventing their sale to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. The regulations under the Poisons Act follow the corresponding legislation in force in the United Kingdom. Power to introduce special safeguards for certain dangerous chemicals now used in horticulture is contained in the Poisons Amendment Act 1952.

After 1 July 1954 labels for poisons in the “Deadly Poison” group must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in using the poison, the symptoms of poisoning, and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Director-General of Health.

Hydatid Prevention: In January 1937 an amendment to the Dogs Registration Act 1908 came into force requiring local authorities to keep a supply of approved remedies for the care or prevention of disease in dogs caused by infection from the parasite echinococcus granulosus. At the time of registration every person registering a dog receives a sufficient amount of an approved remedy to enable him to treat the dog every three months until the ensuing date of registration, and also printed instructions for the use of the remedy. The approved remedy at present supplied is arecoline hydrobromide.

Medical Advertisements Act 1942: This Act, which repealed the Quackery Prevention Act 1908, came into force in January 1943. Under it the word “advertisement” is defined broadly, but does not include any advertisement or scientific matter distributed only to members of the medical and allied professions.

The Act sets up a Medical Advertisements Board, which is given power to control all medical advertisements. The Board may require the claims or statements made or implied in any medical advertisement to be substantiated to its satisfaction. Subsequent publication of such an advertisement is prohibited until after the Board has notified its decision. For the purpose of protecting the public the Board is given power to publish privileged statements concerning the subject matter of any medical advertisement.

Regulations issued under the Act limit the nature of the subject matter which may be included in any medical advertisement, and include a list of diseases concerning which no advertisement may make a claim to cure.

Cemeteries: The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Cemeteries Act 1908 and its amendments of 1912, 1922, 1926, 1950, and 1953. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946.

Widespread provision for cemeteries has been made in the past by the reservation of areas of Crown land for this purpose, but apart from this the Cemeteries Act makes it clear that local authorities are charged with ensuring that in their districts there exists adequate provision for the disposal of the dead.

In most rural areas and in the smaller centres the local authority either acts as trustee or else has been delegated the power of appointing individual trustees to carry out the provisions of the Act. For some cemeteries established on Crown reserves trustees are appointed by the Governor-General. In the larger centres local authorities have acquired land for the establishment of cemeteries.

The law provides that cremation may be carried out subject to the conditions that the deceased was not known to have left any written direction to the contrary and that the cremation is effected in conformity with the regulations. The latter impose stringent precautions against cremation being used for any criminal purpose. Crematoria have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hastings, Wanganui, Nelson, and Palmerston North.

TUBERCULOSIS.—In the 1947–49 issue of the Year-Book (pp. 110–112) is given an account of the developments in the control of tuberculosis in this country, which led to New Zealand being one of the first countries to have special legislation dealing solely with this disease. In addition to giving the background to the Tuberculosis Act 1948, the account mentions the work of the Tuberculosis Division of the Department of Health and refers to the recommendations of the World Health Organization.

Briefly, the control of tuberculosis is based on—

Accurate notification and registration of cases.
Adequate supervision and reclassification.
Segregation of active infectious cases.
Instruction and treatment of individual patients.
Rehabilitation of convalescent and arrested cases.

There is statistical evidence to suggest that these methods of control are resulting in a decrease in the death rate and the incidence of the disease, although it will be several years before this can be confirmed.

In addition to the programme of vaccination with B.C.G. Vaccine, which has been commenced on a voluntary basis in certain sections of the population, particularly nurses and contacts of cases of tuberculosis, a campaign of vaccination has been commenced amongst the post-primary-school children and young adults.

The 1950 amendment to the Tuberculosis Act 1948 empowers Inspectors of Health, in addition to those classes of persons already specified, to make inspections of residences or places of work of persons known or suspected to be suffering from tuberculosis or to be a contact of such a sufferer. The principal Act is also amended by strengthening those powers relating to isolation, in certain cases, of persons likely to spread infection.

CHILD HYGIENE.—The Division of Child Hygiene is responsible for the supervision of all measures for safeguarding the health of school children and ensuring a satisfactory environment at school. The medical oversight of pre-school children from age eighteen months is also provided for.

The professional staff of the Division consists at present of a Director, who is a medical practitioner, and seventeen full-time and ten part-time Medical Officers. The Medical Officer in charge of a health district is responsible, within the limits of the policy laid down and the instructions he receives, for the direction and control of all child hygiene work done in his district.

The Division aims at giving each primary-school child at least three physical examinations during his primary-school life. The first, as an entrant, is carried out by the Medical Officer, and the others, in Standard 2 and Form II, by the Public Health Nurse, who refers any departure from normal for a special examination by the Medical Officer. Special medical examinations by the Medical Officer are also made whenever parents, teachers, the Public Health Nurse, or the Medical Officer consider them to be necessary. Children found to be suffering from defects are kept under observation until the necessary treatment is obtained from the private practitioner or hospital. Mentally backward and feeble-minded children are given special attention, arrangements being made, in conjunction with the Department of Education, for their entry into special schools, special classes, or other institutions as may be necessary.

An effort is being made to have each pre-school child examined once a year, but if the child is normal and of good physique this period may be lengthened and the parent asked to return only if the child shows any departure from normal in the meantime. The examination of pre-school children is carried out at kindergartens and, assisted by the Public Health Nurse, at school clinics, or at Plunket Rooms in conjunction with the Plunket Nurses.

A start has been made on the more detailed medical examination of post-primary-school children. Physically handicapped children enrolled with the Education Department's Correspondence School are also thoroughly examined.

Throughout its work the Division tries to secure the interest and co-operation of parents, because only in this way can the work be made effective. With this object in view parents are invited to be present at the medical examination of their children, an opportunity of which the majority take advantage.

Prevention of Disease: The activities of the Division are not confined to the routine medical examination of school children. In addition, certain positive measures are taken to prevent disease and correct physical defects. The more important of these measures are—

Diphtheria Immunization.—Protection against diphtheria is a routine procedure and is provided for by a home visit from the Public Health Nurse, who will herself immunize the child at age from six months to twelve months, or arrange for a medical practitioner to do so. Diphtheria immunization of children who have been missed during: the first year of life is undertaken by medical officers at the pre-school clinics. Booster doses are also given by the medical officers when the child enters school.
Typhoid Inoculations.—Maori children in the North Island are inoculated annually against the typhoid group of diseases.
Vaccination Against Whooping-cough is offered at pre-school clinics to children six months to two years of age.
Goitre Control.—The use of iodized salt and iodine-rich foods are advocated by the officers of the Division.
The Milk-in-schools Scheme aims at maintenance of nutrition and convalescence.
Health Camps are established to which children are admitted for convalescence or correction of malnutrition.

The object of the Milk-in-schools Scheme is to supply to each school child in New Zealand half a pint of pasteurized milk on each day the school is open. The milk, delivered at the school bottled, under the organization of the New Zealand Milk Board is consumed through a straw from the original container. To ensure that the milk delivered to the schools is of the best possible quality the sources of supply are inspected regularly, and the processing and distribution of the milk is subject to close supervision. If for any reason it is not possible to supply a school with milk under the scheme, then powdered malted milk is supplied, provided that it can be served under hygienic conditions. In some schools with facilities available the milk in winter is used in making cocoa.

Health camps cater for delicate and undernourished children in the 5–12 years age group. The service selects the children to attend the camps (which are maintained by an independent organization—the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation) and, as necessary, re-examines them before admission and after discharge. In the camps the children live under an orderly and disciplined routine, they eat plain, well-cooked food, and they get plenty of rest and sunshine. In practically all cases a child who attends a health camp benefits both physically and mentally.

DENTAL HYGIENE.—The Division of Dental Hygiene, which was instituted in 1921, is concerned with the administration of the various dental activities of the Government, and in particular —(a) The national dental service which comprises (i) the School Dental Service and (ii) the Adolescent Dental Service; (b) The Dentists Act 1936 and regulations; (c) Dental bursaries; (d) Inspection of dental departments of Public Hospitals; and (e) Dental research.

The Division of Dental Hygiene has at its head a Director (a dental surgeon), who is responsible to the Minister of Health, through the Director-General of Health. The Director is assisted by a Deputy Director, an Assistant Director, a Principal Dental Officer (Health Education), and a Principal Dental Officer (Orthodontics). A Senior Executive Officer is responsible for the secretarial services. Also attached to the Director's staff is a Dental Field Research Officer, who is seconded from the New Zealand Medical Research Council.

The service is organized in eight units, each of which is controlled by a senior dental officer, who is directly responsible to the Director. These officers are the Principal of the Dominion Training School for Dental Nurses, the Principal of the Student Dental Nurses Training School, Auckland, and the Principal Dental Officers in charge of the six dental districts into which New Zealand is divided.

The School Dental Service is staffed by trained School Dental Nurses and the Adolescent Service by Dental Surgeons.

The School Dental Service.—Briefly, the functions of the Service are to improve the standard of dental health of school children (and of pre-school children) by affording them regular and systematic treatment at six-monthly intervals, commencing from the primer classes (or earlier where possible), and continuing through to the highest class of the primary (or intermediate) school. Thereafter they are eligible for enrolment in the Adolescent Service. At present an unprecedented increase in the school population is being experienced as a result of the unusually high birth rate of late years. Until the number of Dental Nurses can be increased proportionately, children are being transferred to the “adolescent” service at an earlier stage, in order to enable the Dental Nurses to maintain six-monthly treatment for the younger children. This is a temporary phase, pending the training of more Dental Nurses.

The other main function of the School Dental Service is health education—the instruction of the children and of the general public in the principles of oral hygiene and the prevention of dental disease. For this purpose there is within the Division an organization for health education, to which further reference is made under a later heading.

The Dominion Training School in Wellington is the main training centre for School Dental Nurses. A second training school for dental nurses at Auckland has now been established. Two years are devoted to their theoretical and practical training. Approximately two hundred Student Dental Nurses are in training at the one time. The course is carefully graduated, and is in the hands of a staff of Dental Surgeons and Dental Tutor Sisters. Private dental practitioners are represented on the examining board for the final examination. During the period of training Student Dental Nurses reside in hostels owned and controlled by the Department of Health.

On completing her training, a School Dental Nurse is posted to a school dental clinic, where she becomes responsible to the Principal Dental Officer of her district for the dental treatment of a group of approximately five hundred patients. She is visited at intervals by the Principal Dental Officer or one of his staff, who discusses current problems, and assists the Dental Nurse to maintain a high standard in the conduct of her work.

Dental treatment comprises fillings in both temporary teeth and permanent teeth, cleaning and scaling of the teeth, extractions where necessary, and sodium fluoride treatment. There were 225,819 children under regular treatment by the School Dental Nurses during the year 1952–53. The aim of the Service is to promote dental health by conserving the natural teeth and preventing dental decay. Only a small number of teeth have to be extracted as unsaveable, about six for every hundred saved by suitable treatment.

Orthodontic treatment is carried out principally in Wellington, where an orthodontic section is established at the Wellington Dental Clinic. Dental officers on field clinics undertake a limited amount of orthodontic treatment of a simple nature.

Adolescent Dental Service.—The original aim was to provide dental service for adolescents through the medium of a full-time salaried service, but while the present shortage of dental surgeons continues progress towards this objective will be slow. In addition to the service provided by a number of clinics controlled by the Department of Health, dental care for adolescents is in the meantime being provided by private practitioners as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the practitioners being reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person having undergone regular dental care up to within three months of the time of application, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment of adolescents is in effect a continuation of the treatment provided by the School Dental Service, and is continued until a patient has reached his nineteenth birthday, or such earlier age as the Minister may from time to time appoint. For the present the maximum age has been fixed as the sixteenth birthday.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at six-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are indicated in the 1951 Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1946. Dentists are free to exercise their professional judgment, and, if in their opinion a case demands a form of treatment that is not provided for in the schedule, there is provision, with certain limitations, for such treatment to be approved as a charge on the Social Security Fund.

At 31 March 1953 the number of adolescents enrolled for dental benefits, and the amount paid for dental benefits for the year 1952–53, were—

	Number	Amount Paid, 1952–53
		£
For general dental benefits	160,694	545,003
For special dental benefits	4,123	545,003

Dental Health Education.—The dental health education activities of the Department are under the control of the Principal Dental Officer (Health Education), who is responsible for the production of posters, pamphlets, sound films, film strips, radio talks, newspaper advertisements, and all other types of advertising media. In the departmental health exhibit is a dental section which is staffed when on tour by a Dental Tutor Sister (Health Education) and by School Dental Nurses from the locality in which the exhibit is on view.

Officers of the Service are kept in touch with health education and other matters by mean's of the national Dental Service Gazette, which is published bi-monthly.

Dental Officers and School Dental Nurses are expected to impress on their patients the necessity of maintaining a high standard of oral health. To further this end every opportunity is taken of distributing health educational literature, displaying posters, and devoting reasonable clinical time to instruction in oral hygiene. Opportunities to address meetings of various kinds are availed of wherever possible.

Dental Research.—By arrangement with the New Zealand Medical Research Council, a Dental Field Research Officer is attached to the Service. Primarily this officer is engaged in a long-term programme of field research on dental problems, but his services are also available to assist the dental administration in carrying out short-term research projects when information is required for a specific purpose.

In addition to this work, the investigation of dental materials and methods of using them goes on constantly, and provides useful data for the selection and use of materials for the Service.

Dental Bursaries.—The Government grants between twenty and thirty bursaries each year to selected students to assist them to qualify as dentists. The bursaries are of a value of £70 per annum, plus free tuition the value of which is £50, and are tenable for five years, subject to satisfactory reports from the University authorities. An additional allowance of £40 per annum is payable to students who have to live away from home in order to pursue their studies. Students who are granted bursaries must enter into an agreement to pursue their studies diligently and, on graduating, to enter the service of the Crown or of a Hospital Board appointed by the Crown for a specified period not exceeding three years.

MATERNAL WELFARE.—Maternal- and infant-welfare work in New Zealand is based on cooperation between the Department of Health, Hospital Boards, the medical profession, and the Plunket Society.

The Director who deals with maternal welfare is a medical practitioner, and the division of the Department is styled “Private and Maternity Hospitals.” He supervises the inspection of maternity hospitals, the techniques in use in these hospitals, and, generally, the promotion of all aspects of maternal welfare.

The Medical Officers of Health, through their staff of Nurse Inspectors, exercise a general supervision over the work of midwives and closely control the many private hospitals throughout the country. All private hospitals are required to be licensed under the Hospitals Act 1926, and the Department of Health sees that standards regarding the buildings, equipment, and staff are observed.

Except in an emergency, no persons other than registered medical practitioners and registered midwives are allowed to conduct confinements, and only registered midwives and registered maternity nurses are permitted to nurse women in childbirth. Approximately 97 per cent of all confinements take place in the various types of maternity hospital—a maternity annex to a public hospital, a St. Helens Hospital, or a private maternity hospital.

Important contributions to maternal welfare are made by the Division of Nursing, which includes in its duties the supervision of the training of midwives and maternity nurses, and by the Hospitals Division, which includes in its duties the approval of plans for accommodation to be provided by the various types of maternity hospital. The work of these two Divisions is surveyed elsewhere in this section.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH.—In 1944 a Medical Inspector of Factories in Great Britain was seconded to the Department of Health in order to undertake a survey of conditions of work in New Zealand factories. In his report he suggested “that consideration be given to the formation within the Department of Health of a Division of Industrial Hygiene to include the factory inspectorate, relieved of all other duties and to administer those parts of a new Factories Act and such other legislation as is concerned with the health, welfare, and safety of the industrial worker”.

The principle of a Division of Industrial Hygiene was accepted, and the first medical appointment to the new Division was made during 1946, the appointee taking up his duties in January 1947. The name of the Division has since been changed from “Industrial Hygiene” to “Occupational Health,” the new title giving a better indication of the scope of the work that might well eventually be covered. Four District Industrial Medical Officers have also been appointed to work in the four main centres, and a fifth in Palmerston North. Between them they cover the whole of New Zealand, under the general direction of the Director of the Division at the Head Office of the Department of Health.

A prominent characteristic of the diversification of New Zealand industry is that it is of recent growth and is contained in small unit. In many of the small factories, on account of the high per caput cost, amenities tend to be of a lower standard than in the average large factory. A substantial proportion of small factories, in addition to a number of the larger ones, fail to conform to the 1946 Factories Act standards, and the first objective of the Occupational Health Service, therefore, must be to assist the Department of Labour and Employment to establish the minimum standards required by the Act. In this the District Industrial Medical Officers need to work in close co-operation with the inspectors of the Department of Labour and Employment, and in order to facilitate this liaison, office accommodation has been provided in most centres for the medical officers in the District Labour and Employment offices.

The Factories Act 1946, section 78, gives to Medical Officers of Health or other authorized officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as Inspectors of Factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The Act gives the officers of the Department of Health no legal standing in relation to the provisions for safety, although the lost time caused by accidents demands more preventive work in which medical men and nurses with an industrial training should play a part.

The Division has also the more confined objective of guarding the health of those workers who are exposed to the special health risks, such as those handling lead salts, or liable to breathe dangerous fumes, or those who are in contact with skin irritants. Inevitably there is a great deal of ignorance and lack of consciousness on the part of management and workers of the dangers and hazards associated with their work. Education on these matters, together with publicity and propaganda, will do much to raise the level of understanding and is properly a function of the Division.

In 1947 an industrial nursing course was incorporated into the syllabus of the Post-graduate Nurses' Training School, and this has been repeated in subsequent years. Nurses completing this course have been appointed to the Department of Health, attached to the staff of the District Industrial Medical Officers, or to Government Departments such as the Railways and Post and Telegraph. These nurses have had special training in blood examination of workers at risk from lead absorption, and their duties include the monthly blood examination of such workers required under the Lead Process Regulations. Other groups of workers at special risk from health hazards, such, for example, as those in electro-plating shops, are included under the regular supervision of the nurses, who are also available for any special work that may be required in looking after juveniles, pregnant women, or physically handicapped workers.

In addition, a number of industrial nurses are employed by the larger private firms. A Nurse Inspector appointed by the Department of Health regularly visits these nurses in order to advise them in their work and to co-ordinate and broaden the conception of a health service in industry. Part of this officer's time is occupied as tutor at the Post-graduate Nurses' School in Wellington.

In 1952 an Investigating Officer was appointed to the Division. He is available to travel throughout the country investigating special problems and surveying the health risks of particular industries and occupations, in co-operation with the District Industrial Medical Officers.

The Division is concerned with the health of all workers, not merely those covered by the Factories Act, and from time to time surveys of working conditions are undertaken in specific industries. As a result of inspections and reports on conditions of work of waterside workers at Wellington, Lyttelton, and Auckland, industrial health centres have been set up at each of these ports, staffed by the Department's industrial nurses and under the supervision of the Industrial Medical Officer for the area. An industrial health centre has been established in the Woolston area of Christchurch and another at the Foreshore, Dunedin, to serve industries in the neighbourhood. These are situated in premises made available by one of the larger firms in each area. The first ad hoc industrial health centre has been built in the Penrose area of Auckland, the cost of construction being borne by the Workers' Compensation Board. Contributions towards maintenance costs will be made by the Penrose Industrial Progress Association, and equipment and nursing staff provided by the Department of Health.

Radiation Protection.—An important step was taken with the passing of the Radioactive Substances Act 1949. Although the dangers associated with the generation and use of X-rays have long been realized, there had previously been no statutory authority for specific control of X-ray plants and their operators. The hazards arising from the high voltages employed have been well known, but it was not until 1944, when the Electrical Wiring (X-ray) Regulations were drawn up, that these hazards became subject to specific control. With the increasing use of radium in medicine and the possibilities that have appeared in the last few years of radioactive elements being used in fundamental research, there has come about a need for legislation designed to protect all persons from harmful radiations. Factors contributing to the realization of this need have been that X-ray equipment of old design was still being used and that X-rays have found an increasing use in industry, and even in some special branches of merchandising, such as the fitting of footwear.

The Radioactive Substances Act 1949 established a special council of radiologists and physicists, who will advise the Minister of Health on all questions of a technical nature. The Act set up a very thorough licensing system for all users of irradiating apparatus and radioactive substances, and gave very wide powers for the making of specific regulations. These latter, known as the Radiation Protection Regulations 1951, have specific requirements relating to the health of those persons whose work is likely to expose them to harmful radiations, ventilation of rooms in which these radiations are produced, quantitative limitations on the exposure of persons to radiation, and generally those precautions and protective devices which will all contribute to safe practice. The same regulations require full records to be kept of various uses of radiations, in order that long-term effects on a person's health may later be traced. Separate regulations, the Transport of Radioactive Substances Regulations 1951, have been made to deal with all aspects of the packing, shielding, labelling, and transport of radioactive substances, and, in addition, the Department has issued to all radiation workers, to supplement the regulations, a booklet entitled “Recommendations for Protection from Radiation Hazards.”

In all problems associated with the use of irradiating apparatus and radioactive substances the Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory at Christchurch is playing an important part.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE.—The Division of Physical Medicine is concerned primarily with rheumatic diseases, which are responsible for a very large amount of morbidity in this country.

Its work is centred mainly on the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, where there is an active research unit in operation, engaged in endeavouring to ascertain the causation of the various rheumatic diseases and the best means of treatment.

The treatment of cerebral palsy is another function of the Division. There is a special diagnostic and treatment unit centred at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which also provides post-graduate tuition for those engaged in this work in other centres.

The Division is also responsible for the general organization and maintenance of physiotherapy and occupational therapy in the public hospitals of this country. The various spa facilities, particularly those at Rotorua, are under immediate control of the Division, which is also keenly interested in the problem of rehabilitation of the disabled.

NURSING DIVISION.—Training of nurses commenced in New Zealand in 1886 and registration of nurses was introduced in 1901 and of midwives in 1904. In 1921 the Division of Nursing was set up in the Department of Health and the Nurse Inspector of Hospitals was appointed Director of the Division. In 1928 a Post Graduate Course for the purpose of providing nurses for executive, teaching, and public health positions was established. Today a block and study day system of organization of theoretical and practical work operates in practically all nursing schools, and any reasonable experimentation by the schools is encouraged.

The training of all nurses and midwives is governed by the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945. This Act is administered by the Nurses and Midwives Board, which comprises mainly nurse members who are in active practice, and is independent of political and departmental control, although the Director-General of Health is the Chairman, and the Director, Division of Nursing, is the Registrar. The current regulations under the Act are the Nurses and Midwives Regulations 1947.

The Division is responsible for the maintenance of an adequate and efficient nursing service and the supervision of conditions, including health for nurses and other staff and recruitment of nurses.

The Nurses and Midwives Board delegates to the Division the supervision of hospitals and nursing schools on all aspects of training, and also the examination and registration of nurses. The Nurse Supervisor who makes a visit to a hospital carries out the dual purpose, therefore, of making reports each to the Director-General of Health through the Nursing Division, and to the Nurses and Midwives Board. This integration of work is a feature which has preserved good relationships in the hospitals, and has enabled the practical and theoretical training of nurses as well as their conditions to be maintained at a uniformly high standard.

The control of most of the public health nursing services and of district (home) nursing is exercised from the Division, although the specialized infant welfare and mothercraft work of the Plunket Society is under the control of that organization; close co-operation with this Society is, however, maintained.

Another part of the work is the selection and placement of nurses in the various groups of Pacific islands for which the New Zealand Government is responsible either under Trusteeship or Mandate. These nurses for hospital and public health work are seconded from the New Zealand service for periods of two years, pension rights being continuous. The supervision of this service is exercised by regular visits to the islands,

Close liaison exists between the nursing services organized for the Armed Services and the Division, while any organization for emergency nursing is carried out by the Division.

The organization of refresher courses for all groups is another responsibility, while the Post Graduate Course is a special feature of its work. As already stated this was organized in 1928 and is controlled by a committee on which the Department of Health, the University, and Hospital Boards Association, are represented. Courses are followed in Hospital and Nursing School Administration, Public Health Nursing, Medical Social Work, Industrial Nursing, and Teaching and Administration in Obstetric Nursing. Up to sixty students take the eight months' course annually, and with few exceptions they are specially selected and attend on bursaries from the Department of Health, Hospital Boards, and voluntary organizations, while during recent years there has been an increasing number from overseas countries. The school has its own building, library, classrooms, offices, and hostel. The full-time instructors at the school conduct the refresher courses during the school recess, and also carry out supervision of hospitals, nursing schools, and public health work, thus keeping up to date with the practical needs of the field.

The New Zealand Nurses' Association is an active body having relationships with the Nursing Division, it being represented by three members on the Nurses and Midwives Board and by two on the Nurses Salaries Board, while at the annual Conference and more frequent Executive meetings various matters are brought to the notice of the authorities concerned.

New Zealand with its small population, good climate, and good standard of living, should have a comparatively healthy people, but has its particular health and social needs. The administration on the nursing side has expanded to meet these and the increasing opportunities for service in the fields of human welfare.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL.—Under the Medical Research Council Act 1950 a Medical Research Council was set up with the following functions:

To foster medical research and to prepare and publish such reports on these matters as may in its opinion be necessary or of value to teachers or other persons.
To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organizations concerned with medical research.

This Council took over and developed the work of a departmental committee, bearing the same name, which had been in existence since 1938. At the end of 1952 research in the following fields was in progress:

Chest diseases.
Clinical medicine.
Dentistry.
Endocrinology.
Island Territories research.
Microbiology.
Neuropathology and neurophysiology.
Nutrition.
Obstetrics.

The Council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by the Travis Trust Laboratory for tuberculosis research and the New Zealand Branch of the British Empire Cancer Campaign Society.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS.—Medical Practitioners: The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1950, consists of the Director-General of Health, the Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Otago, and five other registered medical practitioners. One of the five members is appointed on the recommendation of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association.

The Council deals with all applications for registration under the Act, which prescribes that every person shall be entitled to conditional registration who satisfies the Council that he is a graduate in medicine and surgery of the University of New Zealand; or registered on the register kept in accordance with the provisions of the Acts regulating the registration of medical practitioners in the United Kingdom or the Republic of Ireland; or the holder, after a course of not less than five years, of a foreign diploma approved by the Council. The Council may, however, refuse to approve any diploma (even in the case of persons registered in the United Kingdom or the Republic of Ireland) unless it appears that New Zealand graduates are, without further examination, entitled to registration in the country granting the diploma. It may also require the holder of a foreign diploma to attend a course and pass an examination in medicine and surgery.

The fee for registration is £5, which is payable on deposit of evidence of qualifications. An applicant who is refused registration has the right of appeal to the Supreme Court. Each year every registered medical practitioner who is not specially exempted under the Act and who is actually practising medicine in New Zealand is required to obtain an annual practising certificate, the fee payable being £1.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided. The Supreme Court, on the motion of the Medical Council, may order the removal of a name from the register in cases where a medical practitioner is guilty of grave impropriety or infamous conduct in a professional respect, or is convicted of an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment with hard labour for a term of two years or upwards. The Medical Council is also given power to hear appeals against the decisions of the Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee also set up under the Medical Practitioners Act 1950. Any person involved who feels aggrieved by the decision of the Medical Council on an appeal from the Disciplinary Committee may appeal to the Supreme Court against the Council's decision.

The Medical Council has been given power to institute an internship scheme in New Zealand. This became effective from 1 December 1952.

The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1953 was 2,781.

Dentists: The Dentists Act 1936 provides for the constitution of a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The Dentists Register is kept by the Director-General of Health, to whom applications for registration are addressed. The applications are submitted by the Director-General of Health to the Dental Council for consideration and direction regarding acceptance for registration. The Director-General of Health may issue to any person who has applied for registration as a dentist a provisional practising certificate which entitles the person to practise dentistry pending consideration of his application by the Dental Council.

Every adult person is entitled to be registered as a dentist who satisfies the Dental Council that he is the holder of a qualification in dentistry obtained from the University of New Zealand; or that he is the holder of a qualification approved by the Dental Council and obtained from a University or other institution in the United Kingdom or in some other part of the British Commonwealth (in the latter case, however, the Council may require a further examination); or is the holder of an approved foreign qualification, but the Council may refuse to approve any foreign qualification if New Zealand graduates in dentistry are not accepted for registration without further examination in the country concerned, or the Council may require the applicant to pass a further examination.

The fee for initial registration is £5. If a provisional practising certificate is required, there is a further fee of 5s. A fee of £1 per annum is payable for an annual practising certificate.

The number of private dental practitioners holding annual practising certificates at 31 March 1953 was 732.

Nurses and Midwives: Under the Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 is constituted the Nurses and Midwives Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (Chairman), the Director, Division of Mental Hygiene, the Registrar (Director, Division of Nursing), one registered medical practitioner, a representative of the Hospital Boards' Association of New Zealand, two registered nurses, one registered midwife, and one registered psychiatric nurse. Members other than official members are appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Health, the nursing personnel being nominated by the New Zealand Registered Nurses' Association.

The functions of the Board are—

To determine the courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examination.
To approve hospitals and other institutions at which training or any portion of training may be received.
To conduct examinations; to appoint examiners and make all necessary arrangements for examinations; to issue suitable certificates of registration.
To receive applications for registration and to authorize registration in proper cases.
To have regard to the conduct of persons registered under the Act, and, within the scope of its authority, to do whatever may be necessary for the effective administration of the Act.

Under the Act, regulations authorized by the Governor-General by Order in Council may be made, the current regulations being the Nurses and Midwives Regulations 1947.

Registration.—The Nurses and Midwives Act 1945 requires that the following registers be kept by the Registrar: (a) Nurses, (b) Midwives and Maternity Nurses, (c) Male Nurses, (d) Psychiatric Nurses, and (e) Nursing Aids.

Every person trained in New Zealand who satisfies the Board that she or he has served the stipulated training period, has passed the prescribed qualifying examination, and has complied with the other conditions laid down by the Act is entitled to have her or his name entered in the appropriate register. In addition, persons trained outside New Zealand who satisfy the Board that their training and qualifications are equal to the equivalent New Zealand training and qualifications are entitled to be registered in the appropriate New Zealand registers.

In the case of New Zealand trained nurses the fee payable for the qualifying examination includes the registration fee. Overseas-trained nurses whose applications for registration have been approved by the Board are required to pay a fee of £1 for the initial qualification and a further fee of 10s. for each additional qualification. A practising fee of 5s. is payable annually.

Physiotherapists: Under the Physiotherapy Act 1949 is constituted the New Zealand Physiotherapy Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health, the Principal of the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, the Inspecting Physiotherapist of the Department of Health, one registered medical practitioner nominated by the Minister, and three practising physiotherapists nominated by the New Zealand Society of Physiotherapists (Incorporated).

The Board is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, and has regard to the conduct of those registered under the Act.

At present the training period is three years. Full time training for male and female students is conducted at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, and six months of the final year is spent at one of the subsidiary training schools in various parts of New Zealand. At the conclusion of training all students are required to pass the State final examination in physiotherapy in order to qualify for registration. The fees payable for examination and registration are prescribed by regulations under the Act.

Every person registered under the Act and engaged in the practice of physiotherapy must hold an annual practising certificate. The fee payable is 10s. per annum.

The Act also provides for the admission to the register of overseas personnel whose standard of training is acceptable to the Board.

Occupational Therapists: Under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949 is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health as Chairman; the Director, Division of Nursing as Registrar; the Director, Division of Mental Hygiene; the Medical Superintendent of a mental hospital; the Supervisor of Occupational Therapy; a Medical Superintendent of a public hospital; a representative of the Red Cross Society; a representative of the Occupational Therapists' Association, and one other person appointed by the Minister.

The Board is concerned with the training, examination, registration, and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand.

The training period is at least two years, and is undertaken at the School of Occupational Therapy, Avondale, Auckland.

Every person registered under the Act and engaged in the practice of occupational therapy in New Zealand must hold an annual practising certificate.

The Act also provides for the admission to the register of persons trained outside New Zealand whose standard of training is acceptable to the Board.

Dietitians: Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health as Chairman; the Dean of the Faculty of Home Science of the University of Otago; the Director, Division of Nursing, Department of Health; the Nutritionist, Department of Health; Inspecting Dietitian, Department of Health; two dietitians nominated by the New Zealand Dietetic Association (Incorporated); and one other person appointed by the Minister of Health.

The functions of the Board are (a) to advise and make recommendations to the Minister of Health in respect of any matter affecting the profession of dietetics, (b) to determine courses of training and instruction to be undergone by candidates for examinations, (c) to approve hospitals and allied institutions as training schools, (d) to conduct examinations, (e) to effect registration, (f) to have regard to the conduct of persons registered under the Act, and (g) to effectively administer the Act.

The training period is, in the case of the holder of a degree in home science conferred by the University of New Zealand or of the holder of a Diploma of Associate in the Home Science of the University of Otago, fifteen months in a hospital training school. In the case of a registered nurse, the training period is two academic years in the School of Home Science, University of Otago, together with two periods totalling ten months in a hospital training school.

At the conclusion of training all students are required to pass the State examination for dietitians in order to qualify for registration. The fees payable for examination and registration are prescribed by regulations under the Act.

Every person registered under the Act and engaged as a practising dietitian must hold an annual practising certificate. The fee payable is 10s. per annum.

The Act also provides for admission to the Register of overseas personnel whose standard of training is acceptable to the Board.

Opticians: The Opticians Act 1928 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand (one of whom must be practising as an employee of another registered optician), and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes.

The Board deals with all applications for registration under the Act. On payment of the prescribed fee (£5), every person is entitled to registration as an optician who satisfies the Board that—

He has received satisfactory training qualifying him to practise as an optician and is the holder of a certificate of qualification recognized by the Board; or
He has passed an examination under the Act, both theoretical and practical, after a course of not less than three years' approved training in New Zealand as prescribed by regulations, or produces evidence of satisfactory training overseas.

An annual practising certificate fee of £1 is required.

Regulations pursuant to the Opticians Act 1928 prescribe the conditions and period of training and the syllabus for the examination conducted by the Opticians Board.

The number of opticians on the register at 30 June 1953 was 305.

Plumbers: The Plumbers Board of New Zealand, constituted under the Plumbers Registration Act 1953, consists of five members—viz., the Director-General of Health or his deputy (Chairman), the Director of Education, a city or borough engineer nominated by the Municipal Association of New Zealand, and a master plumber and a journeyman plumber elected by their respective associations.

The Board is concerned with the examination and registration of plumbers. Once registered under the Act a plumber is not required to pass any further examination or pay licence fees to local bodies.

The total of names on the register at 31 March 1953 was 4,069. but they were not all employed n the plumbing trade.

Pharmaceutical Chemists: There arc about 1,250 names on the Register of Pharmaceutical Chemists in New Zealand. All “registered pharmaceutical chemists” automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the Society's affairs being managed by the Pharmacy Board constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1939.

The Board consists of twelve members, one of whom is appointed by the Minister of Health, nine are elected on a district basis by registered pharmaceutical chemists, and two by persons, not necessarily registered pharmaceutical chemists, who have served an approved apprenticeship and who, at the time of the election, are employed in pharmacy. The main function of the Pharmacy Board is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the interests of the public in relation thereto.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmaceutical chemist, either in the capacity of proprietor or enrolled manager.

The Board has reciprocal arrangements with the pharmaceutical authorities of Great Britain, Northern Ireland, Republic of Ireland, and all the Australian States in the matter of registration. Any person registered as a pharmaceutical chemist in any of these places is eligible for registration in New Zealand. Persons registered as pharmaceutical chemists in New Zealand, similarly, are eligible for registration in the countries mentioned.

The Board conducts the examinations prescribed in the Pharmacy Regulations. A person completing these examinations, as well as an approved apprenticeship of four years, qualifies for registration as a registered pharmaceutical chemist.

The College of Pharmacy in Wellington was taken over as a function of the Society at the beginning of 1944 after having been conducted privately for a period of eleven years. All persons indentured after 1 October 1944 are obliged to attend personally at the College for a period of three weeks during their final year of apprenticeship.

Pharmacy is subject to the provisions of the Industrial Efficiency Act 1936, every open shop being under licence. No company or individual may open a pharmacy or change his premises without consent from the Licensing Authority—namely, the Bureau of Industry. There are approximately 700 pharmacies at present licensed.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANIZATIONS.—Over the years voluntary welfare organizations have made valuable contributions to the solution of certain problems of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from public funds. Among the more important of these organizations are the Plunket Society, the King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation, St. John Ambulance (N.Z.), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the Crippled Children Society, and the New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations.

The Plunket Society—the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children—trains its own baby-welfare nurses, conducts baby-welfare clinics throughout the country, and maintains four Karitane Hospitals for premature babies or difficult feeders, but not catering for the sick baby. The oversight of the healthy baby is left to the Plunket Society, except in those areas where there is no Plunket clinic. In these areas the Health Department District Nurse does baby-welfare work.

The King George the Fifth Memorial Children's Health Camps Federation maintains a chain of permanent health camps for delicate and undernourished children. The Federation works in close co-operation with the Department of Health. It is the means whereby the voluntary nature of the various organizations is preserved, while ensuring that the available resources are utilized to the best advantage. Much of the finance for the Federation's activities is derived from the proceeds of the annual health stamp appeal.

The St. John Ambulance (N.Z.) has divisions throughout the country carrying out free ambulance work and instruction in first aid and home nursing. It is a branch of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.

The New Zealand Red Cross Society, a part of the International Red Cross Committee, has centres and sub-centres throughout the country. It gives training in first aid, home nursing, hygiene and sanitation, and emergency transportation of the injured. Graduates of these classes form voluntary aid detachments that in peacetime are recruited as aids in hospitals, and in wartime may be recruited for service overseas as well.

The Crippled Children Society keeps a register of all crippled children, helps them to acquire all possible medical treatment, and undertakes vocational training and home education where this is required.

The New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations looks after the interests of the tubercular. It assists the Department of Health with health education of the public regarding tuberculosis and concerns itself with after-care and vocational training and guidance.

NATIONAL PHYSICAL WELFARE AND RECREATION.—Because of the abundant natural facilities for popular recreation, New Zealand citizens have always been characterized by a love of outdoor sporting and recreational activity. Although, compared with the older countries of the world, there are large areas available as playing-fields, even in the cities, the demand still exceeds the supply. On the other hand, the long coastlines and frequent mountain ranges enable most people to enjoy outdoor life. A temperate, equable climate ensures the use of facilities on a year-round basis.

The most popular summer sports are swimming and surfing, tennis, cricket, athletics, lawn bowls, softball, rowing, and cycle touring.

Rugby football is the premier sport in winter, but there are enthusiastic and numerically large followings for hockey, association football, tramping, ski-ing and mountaineering, outdoor and indoor basketball, badminton, and table tennis. Both professional and amateur boxing and wrestling are quite popular winter sports, whilst the game of indoor bowls, hitherto confined to isolated areas, is attracting increasing numbers.

Generally speaking, facilities for indoor sports are inadequate in the face of the growing interest and participation in such sports as indoor basketball, badminton, table tennis, and indoor bowls. There is a growing realization of this inadequacy, and steps are being taken, usually in conjunction with community-centre movements, to provide and maintain indoor sporting facilities of a high standard.

All sporting activities in New Zealand are organized on a district basis, with representatives from each district forming a national controlling body. In this way every sport has a number of associations, unions, sub-associations, etc., which control the sport in each district from the strictly local aspect, while a New Zealand association (or union) is the controlling body in all matters of nation-wide significance in that particular sport.

An exception to this arrangement, whereby each sport is responsible for its own administration, is that of selection of representatives for the Olympic and the Empire Games. There exists in New Zealand an Olympic Council made up of representatives of all sports bodies interested in Olympic and Empire Games competition.

Organizational and Practical Assistance in Learn to Swim Campaigns—Extensive “Learn to Swim” campaigns are conducted each summer by the Department of Education (for school children) and by the Physical Welfare and Recreation Branch in conjunction with swimming associations (for adults). Frequently the two organizations combine in specific district campaigns.

During the last three summers an extensive publicity campaign has been conducted in an effort to decrease the incidence of deaths by drowning.

Community Centres.—A noteworthy trend in New Zealand of recent years has been the formation and planning of community centres in many districts. This trend has been facilitated by the Government subsidy on a pound-for-pound basis for such “living” war memorials as community centres, halls, and play areas. In addition to conforming to the requirements for a living war memorial, projects must be sponsored by the local authority in order to ensure future maintenance.

Financial Assistance for Sport and Recreation.—Provision was made in the Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937 for the making of grants by the Government to assist sport and recreation. Such grants are not made for honoraria, travelling expenses, personal uniforms, or general administrative expenses, nor where it is considered that an organization can carry out a project without grant assistance—i.e., grants are made only for additional capital expenditure.

5 B—HOSPITALS AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS

HISTORY.—Authentic information regarding the earliest steps taken to establish public hospitals is meagre. In July 1841 mention is made in the New Zealand Government Gazette of the appointment by the Government of the first Colonial Surgeon with Auckland as his headquarters. Apparently there was some institution in existence for European patients who obtained admission by applying to the Colonial Secretary, who was the only person having this authority. In the case of Maoris it was different; all that was required of them was to present themselves at the institution.

Due to Governor Grey's efforts, which were at first criticized by many, the Government in 1846 consented to grant money for the erection of hospitals in each of the four centres—Auckland, Wellington, Wanganui, and Taranaki—for the treatment of sick and destitute Europeans and free treatment for all Maoris. The foundation stone of the Wellington Hospital was laid in November 1846, whilst the Auckland Hospital was founded the following year.

It is recorded that the first Dunedin Hospital was built in 1851, and that Christchurch was first served by a hospital at Lyttelton known to have been operating in 1853.

In 1854 control of public hospitals was vested in the six Provincial Councils of Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago, but in 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, the hospitals reverted to the General Government.

As the result of a conference between local authority representatives and the Government in 1878 the first two hospital districts as they are now known were formed. They were based respectively on the hospitals of Dunstan (Clyde) and Cromwell. However, hospitals generally remained under Government control until 1885, when the first Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act was passed. By it New Zealand was divided into thirty-eight hospital districts, each under the control of its own Board.

In 1886 the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Amendment Act was passed giving power to two or more hospitals to join into a united district and control their own affairs. The legislation followed a recommendation of the Inspector of Hospitals that thirteen of the thirty-eight hospitals be closed as the population in some districts was insufficient to support a fully-equipped hospital. Instead of taking advantage of this legislation districts have moved in the opposite direction, and by amending legislation the number of districts gradually increased until by 1909 there were forty-seven; amalgamations since that date have reduced the number to thirty-seven, at which it now stands. In 1948 the title of the Act was changed to the Hospitals Act.

CONSTITUTION.—A “hospital district” comprises one or more counties and includes boroughs and town districts within the boundaries of the county or counties. The County Councils, Borough Councils, and Town Boards are the “contributory local authorities” within the hospital district.

Districts vary in size from Auckland with a population of 394,980 down to Maniototo which has only 2,860 people.

A Board consists of one or more representatives of each contributory local authority district or combined districts of two or more contributory districts where these do not justify independent representation, the number being fixed by the Governor-General by Order in Council, having regard to the relative populations and relative values of rateable property of the local authority districts. The total number of members of any Board must in no case be less than eight or more than twenty.

Board members are elected by the electors of the various contributory districts or combined districts in the hospital district, and the term of office is three years. Formerly electors in counties required a ratepayer's qualification, whereas electors in boroughs and town districts required only a residential qualification, and this applied even though the elected members sat on the same Board. Legislation in 1946 made the residential qualification universal.

POWERS.—A Hospital Board has power to establish, control, and manage any of the following institutions: hospitals, charitable institutions, maternity homes, convalescent homes, sanatoria, habitual inebriates' homes, reformatory institutions for women and girls, residential or day nurseries, and any other institutions for any purpose which the Governor-General by Order in Council may declare to be a public charitable purpose.

A Board cannot do the following without the consent of the Minister of Health:

Borrow money for the purpose of either maintenance or capital expenditure.
Expend more than the sum of £250 for the purpose of erecting, adding to, or altering buildings, or of purchasing land, or for paying off any loan, or for any other purposes of capital expenditure.
Sell or exchange land.
Close an institution.
Make grants to medical or nursing associations or to hospitals.
Make appointments to certain specified staff positions.

AUTHORITY OF DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF HEALTH.—It is the duty of every Hospital Board to provide and maintain such hospitals as the Director-General of Health considers necessary in any part of the district for the reception, relief, care, treatment, isolation, and removal to hospital or “other place” of persons who are suffering from infectious or other disease or from injury, and for maternity cases.

A Board must appoint such number of medical practitioners, dentists, nurses, dental nurses, midwives, and other officers as the Director-General may from time to time deem necessary for the care and treatment of persons in the district of the Board, whether within an institution under the control of the Board or elsewhere within the district. The Director-General is authorized to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint Assistant Inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

FINANCE.—When Boards were first established in 1885 they obtained their revenue from the following sources:

Voluntary contributions and bequests.
Government subsidy £1 for £1 on voluntary contributions and bequests.
Patients' fees.
Levy on contributory local authorities by rate on the capital value of land.
Government subsidy on levies paid from general taxation.

Voluntary contributions and bequests and subsidy thereon at no time formed an important part of Board revenue, and in 1932 the subsidy in this connection was abolished.

In the earliest days public hospitals were meant only for the destitute sick, but as time went on the standard of service was greatly improved and gradually they were availed of by all sections of the community. The hospitals charged a fee which covered cost of maintenance, and patients able to pay were expected to do so. Fees collected were usually found to form about one-third of a Board's total revenue.

Until 1923 the subsidy on levy was paid at the rate of £1 for £1 for both capital and maintenance purposes, but in that year the subsidy on account of maintenance was amended to a scale which had relation to the burden of levy on the rates of local authorities: the Board with the highest burden was paid 26s. subsidy; the Board with the lowest burden was paid 14s. subsidy; the average of all Boards remained at 20s. subsidy.

Under the Social Security Act 1938 a charge was made on all salaries and wages and other income, and the proceeds were paid into a special fund named the Social Security Fund. The charge was fixed at 1s. in the pound, and in 1946 it was raised to 1s. 6d. in the pound. The Act was to provide, inter alia, “a system whereby medical and hospital treatment will be made available to persons requiring such treatment.” Hospital benefits for inpatients were inaugurated in 1939. The effect of this change was to transfer the liability for payment of patients' fees from the patient to the Social Security Fund. The charge on the Fund was initially fixed at 6s. per patient per day, being the average collection made by the Boards from patients. To keep up with the rising cost of maintenance the rate in 1943 was increased to 9s. per day.

At this stage the proportions of revenue derived from the three main sources of Social Security Fund, levy on local authorities, and Government subsidy from general taxation were almost even. Rising costs led to increases in the levies on local authorities and property owners complained that they were being asked to carry an unfair burden as compared with other sections of the community. As a result legislation was passed in 1946 limiting the levy on contributory local authorities to 0.5d. in the £1 of rateable capital value, and this had the immediate effect of transferring a substantial portion of Boards' cash requirements from levy to the subsidy paid from general taxation. Also it followed that any further increases in cost would fall solely on the subsidy except to the extent that increases in rateable capital value of property increased the amount of levy. In consequence of this development the proportions of revenue derived from the main sources have changed. The approximate position for 1950–51 was: Social Security Fund, 25 per cent; levy, 15 per cent; subsidy, 55 per cent. The Hospitals Amendment Act 1951 provides for the abolition of the levy on contributory local authorities by an annual reduction of the rate of levy during the next five years. The first reduction was made for the year ended 31 March 1953, when the rate was 5½d. on the capital value. For the year ending 31 March 1954 the levy is 4½2d. per £1 of rateable capital value.

Board expenditure is subject to a measure of control by the Minister of Health. Boards are required in the month of April each year to make an estimate of their expenditure for both capital and maintenance purposes and to have the estimates confirmed at a special meeting of the Board. The Minister may, if he thinks it necessary so to do, require the Board to amend the estimate submitted.

Receipts.—Following is a summary of the actual receipts and payments of all Hospital Boards for the years ended 31 March 1952 and 1953.

—	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£
Voluntary contributions and bequests	2,903	23,503
Payments from Social Security Fund and by inmates of old people's homes	2,769,121	2,905,209
Levies	1,852,880	1,748,186
Subsidies	8,195,054	10,137,098
Rent, interest, and dividends	47,303	45,396
Sale of capital assets	17,228	23,048
Miscellaneous	108,747	108,301
Totals, excluding loans	12,993,236	14,990,741
Loans for capital works	911,958	1,508,301
Totals	13,905,194	16,499,042

Payments.—Actual payments during the same two years (excluding payments between Boards) are now given.

—	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£
Hospital maintenance	10,238,662	11,046,327
Old people's homes: Maintenance	242,253	261,815
Outdoor relief	19,434	22,946
Subsidies to private hospitals, grants to Ambulance Association, etc.	70,495	82,462
District nursing	99,144	108,387
Administration	308,451	325,272
National Provident Fund contributions	122,821	99,122
Miscellaneous—
Maintenance	290,776	203,711
Capital	22,871	103,021
Interest on loans	213,952	237,907
Amortization of loans	407,722	496,410
Capital works other than “loan”	1,016,513	1,194,806
Totals, excluding loans	13,053,094	14,182,186
Loan works	924,924	1,492,195
Totals	13,978,018	15,674,381

Hospital Maintenance Expenditure.—The average annual maintenance expenditure in general hospitals per occupied bed in the eleven-year period 1942–43 to 1952–53 was as follows.

Year	Provisions	Surgery and Dispensary	Domestic and establishment	Salaries and Wages	Miscellaneous	Totals
	£	£	£	£	£	£
1942–43	48.5	27.0	65.9	180.6	6.2	328.2
1943–44	52.4	27.8	71.4	187.0	6.3	344.9
1944–45	55.0	28.9	69.9	195.2	6.0	355.0
1945–46	600	33.6	82.9	231.2	7.0	414.7
1946–47	64.7	39.0	97.3	243.4	8.8	453.2
1947–48	73.7	47.2	117.4	291.4	11.2	540.9
1948–49	81.3	56.1	137.9	351.0	11.2	637.5
1949–50	86.1	56.5	153.9	364.9	12.8	674.2
1950–51	98.5	62.7	179.5	414.9	14.3	769.9
1951–52	112.2	77.6	208.5	486.0	16.3	900.6
1952–53	119.3	80.9	219.3	532.2	16.9	968.6

Charitable Aid.—The Act of 1885 laid down for the first time that charitable aid should be associated with hospitals and Hospital Boards were charged with the administration of charitable aid. Aid was both “indoor” and “outdoor,” the indoor being mainly the provision of homes for aged and destitute people and the outdoor the provision of food, clothing, etc., for people in necessitous circumstances.

The passing of the Social Security Act 1938 reduced materially Boards' charitable-aid activities. Practically all people over the age of sixty without means or having only limited means are entitled under this Act to an age benefit.

The introduction of invalidity benefits in 1936 and sickness and unemployment benefits in 1938 also relieved Boards of an appreciable amount of expenditure on outdoor relief.

Expenditure over the past ten years on old people's homes and outdoor relief is set out hereunder.

Year	Maintenance, Old People's Homes	Outdoor Relief
	£	£
1943–44	83,540	37,460
1944–45	94,355	38,197
1945–46	112,261	32,536
1946–47	121,722	21,687
1947–48	137,493	20,028
1948–49	151,077	20,361
1949–50	168,535	18,963
1950–51	173,202	20,389
1951–52	194,013	20,322
1952–53	208,476	22,429

Cost to Local Authorities and Government.—The following is a comparative statement of levies on local authorities and subsidies payable by Government during each of the five financial years from 1948–49 to 1952–53.

Year	Levies	Subsidies	Total
	£	£	£
1948–49	1,413,249	4,941,829	6,355,078
1949–50	1,503,735	4,725,214	6,228,949
1950–51	1,668,158	5,955,485	7,623,643
1951–52	1,853,003	8,230,366	10,083,369
1952–53	1,747,837	9,819,035	11,566,872

The reduction in levy in 1952–53 is due to the limiting of the levy to 5½d. in the £1 of rateable capital value as from 1 April 1952.

Loans.—Boards have been authorized by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme, but in recent years building progress generally has been slow because of shortage of labour and materials. In consequence, many loans authorized have not yet been floated or have been floated only in part.

The position of loan liability is as under.

Year	Amount Floated	Repayment	Balance	Reducible by Sinking Fund
	£	£	£	£
1948–49	768,981	372,593	5,285,579	121,756
1949–50	547,205	372,481	5,460,301	101,488
1950–51	695,532	353,413	5,802,419	112,188
1951–52	905,473	395,073	6,312,816	108,195
1952–53	1,509,479	451,472	7,370,819	113,323

PUBLIC HOSPITALS.—Section 4F contains statistics of inpatients treated at public hospitals other than purely maternity hospitals. In the following table the figures are inclusive of maternity hospitals, sanatoria; etc., and relate to the financial year instead of to the calendar year.

Year	Inpatients Treated		Average Number of Occupied Beds		Beds Available
Year	Total Number	Proportion per 1,000 of Population	Number	Proportion per 1,000 of Population	Number	Proportion per 1,000 of Population
1948–49	181,348	98.0	10,706	5.8	14,221	7.7
1949–50	187,259	99.0	10,902	5.8	14,129	7.5
1950–51	190,681	98.3	10,803	5.6	14,394	7.4
1951–52	200,328	102.3	11,044	5.6	14,288	7.3
1952–53	203,657	101.3	11,199	5.6	14,388	7.2

The average number of occupied beds per thousand of population in hospital districts varies from three to ten. Most of this variation can be accounted for by the relative distribution of population as between urban and rural areas and also by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient department.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public hospitals for the year ended 31 March 1953 was 185, comprising 77 general hospitals (6 of which were also old people's homes, and 2 special hospitals), 2 non-acute hospitals, 3 convalescent hospitals, 94 maternity hospitals, 6 tuberculosis sanatoria, 1 tuberculosis prevention institution, 1 chronic-tuberculosis hospital, and 1 tuberculosis dispensary. A comparison of beds and patients is as follows.

	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Now included under “General”. † In addition, dental cases treated during the year and attendances were: Auckland, 2,178, 9,711; Wellington, 16,835, 22,607; Lower Hutt, 7,754, 14,981; Christchurch, 3,909, 17,872; and Timaru, 590, 1,734.
Number of institutions	176	182	184	187	185
Number of beds—
General	8,346	8,361	8,566	10,738	10,765
Children's cots	1,713	1,685	1,746
Maternity	1,716	1,770	1,825	1,893	1,937
Tuberculosis	1,692	1,631	1,615	1,657	1,686
Infectious disease	754	682	642	^*	^*
Totals	14,221	14,129	14,394	14,288	14,388
Average number of occupied beds per day	10,706	10,902	10,803	11,044	11,199
Inpatients treated during year	181,348	187,259	190,681	200,328	203,657
Deaths during year	7,260	7,553	7,637	8,151	7,989
Outpatients—
Number	535,681	552,068	582,358	585,921	639,866^†
Attendances	1,264,669	1,335,405	1,396,096	1,350,475	1,447,717^†

PRIVATE HOSPITALS.—The control and licensing of private hospitals is provided for in Part III, Hospitals Act 1926. With specified exceptions every house in which two or more patients are lodged must be licensed. No premises are so licensed unless the Director-General is satisfied that they are suitable. Staffing and other requirements are governed by regulations, and all private hospitals are subject to regular inspection by the Health Department.

The total number of private hospitals licensed in New Zealand at 31 March 1953 was 153, providing 486 maternity beds and 1,726 beds for general cases.

The Social Security Act, inter alia, provides for the payment to licensees of private hospitals of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. Particulars are contained in Section 7A.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION.—The total number of hospitals (public and private, but exclusive of mental hospitals) at 31 March 1953 was 343, of which 185 were the responsibility of Hospital Boards, 5 continued under the control of the Health Department, and the remaining 153 were operated as private hospitals.

The number of available beds for the last five years in all classes of hospitals, except those in mental hospitals and those in a few institutions maintained by religious and charitable organizations, are given in the following table.

—	Number of Hospital Beds as at 31 March
—	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
Hospital Board and Health Department hospitals	14,432	14,340	14,394	14,288	14,388
Private hospitals	2,488	2,442	2,389	2,243	2,212
Totals	16,920	16,782	16,783	16,531	16,600
Number per 1,000 of population	9.1	8.9	8.7	8.4	8.3

Not all of the beds shown as available in 1949–50 and 1950–51 were correctly so described. A survey placed the number of beds then temporarily closed on account of staff shortages at approximately 800 beds. This number has since been substantially reduced.

MATERNITY SERVICES.—Benefits Under the Social Security Act 1938.—The Social Security Act, inter alia, makes provision for payments from the Social Security Fund to hospitals, medical practitioners, and nurses for services in connection with maternity cases. Particulars of maternity benefits provided under the Act will be found in Section 7A.

At the end of 1952 there were 229 maternity hospitals with a total available bed accommodation of 2,428, made up as follows:

Public hospitals	1,783
Private hospitals	496
State (St. Helens) hospitals	130
Alexandra Home (Wellington)	19
Total	2,428

The total number of confinements in maternity hospitals in 1952 was 49,519, of which 35,644 were in public maternity hospitals, 11,094 in private hospitals, 2,371 in St. Helens Hospitals, and 410 in the Alexandra Home, Wellington. Of the total confinements 47,052 were confined at the full term and 2,467 at from 7–9 months. In addition, there were 4,153 admissions for ante-natal treatment. These figures are inclusive of Maoris.

State Maternity Hospitals.—There were three State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals operating at 31 March 1953, these being located in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. Prior to the advent of the maternity benefits under the Social Security Act the use of these hospitals was restricted to cases where the husband's income did not exceed £5 per week, and in cases of large families £6 per week. There are now no restrictions in this respect, and all service is free to the patient. The main function now served by these hospitals is to provide extended training for maternity nurses, so that they may qualify for the more responsible work of midwives.

This service is given under the supervision of a Medical Superintendent, who is also responsible for the conduct of all abnormal cases and for the supervision of the ante-natal and post-natal care of all patients attending. There is also an outpatient department attached to each hospital which provides nursing services for patients not entering the institution.

District Midwives and Maternity Nurses.—A considerable number of Hospital Boards have district nurses who in most cases carry out some obstetrical work in conjunction with other health work. In addition, there are Health Department nurses appointed for the purpose of attending the Maori population, part of their work being attendance on Maori women during confinement.

Ante-natal Services.—Since maternity benefits have been provided free to patients under the Social Security Act and medical men have been paid a fee under that Act for giving ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention, the bulk of the ante-natal attendance has been provided by the patient's own medical attendant, this being one part of the service for which he receives a fee. The doctor's attendance, if desired, is supplemented by that of the midwife in charge of an ante-natal clinic. These free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the three St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals or maternity wards, and a number of clinics conducted by the Plunket Society. In the case of women living far from the main centres of population the work is also supplemented by the district nurses who are employed by the Health Department or by Hospital Boards.

The majority of women now realize that ante-natal care is as essential to their welfare as attendance during their delivery and lying-in period by a doctor and trained maternity nurse or midwife. The Department has supplemented the service by the free distribution of a pamphlet “Suggestions to Expectant Mothers,” which has served its purposes as propaganda for ante-natal care.

Every effort is being made to impress the public with the importance of parental hygiene and systematic ante-natal care throughout pregnancy. Addresses and lectures are delivered by Medical Officers of the Department of Health to nurses and societies interested in this subject. So that there will be definite co-operation between the midwife and the ante-natal clinic, and in order that the midwife may be informed of the clinical methods adopted by the Health Department, refresher courses of lectures, particularly on ante-natal work, are available to all registered midwives and maternity nurses.

BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, ORPHANAGES, AND YOUTH HOSTELS.—For some years returns were collected from benevolent and orphan institutions, the information covering such particulars as admissions, discharges, deaths, ages, orphanhood status, and the class of authority controlling the institutions. The collection was discontinued as from 1948, and the statistics for earlier years will be found in previous issues of this publication and in the annual reports on Vital Statistics.

In April 1950 Government approved a policy under which, provided certain conditions were complied with, religious or charitable organizations could be granted up to 50 per cent of the cost of establishing homes for old people. During 1951–52 this assistance was extended to cover erection of cottages or flats. In approved cases and subject to certain conditions cottages which are part of a larger approved scheme with a central building providing common amenities qualify for a subsidy of up to 50 per cent. Where the cottages are self-contained units the subsidy offered is up to 25 per cent, but in addition a loan of up to 25 per cent is also available if required. The Department of Health is responsible for the administration of this policy.

During 1952–53 subsidies totalling £47,372 were approved, which will result in the erection of old people's homes valued at over £95,000, and accommodating 167 old people. Subsidies in the two previous years amounted to £175,184 and £155,456 respectively, which related to the provision of homes to accommodate 269 in the later and 180 in the earlier year.

Benevolent and orphan institutions, which are conducted by Hospital Boards, religious bodies, and other public or semi-public organizations, are alike in that they provide accommodation on a benevolent or charitable basis, but differ largely in the classes of persons to whom they afford assistance. The generic name covers old people's homes, maternity and refuge homes for women and girls, orphanages, homes for the infirm or afflicted, “prison-gate” homes, and an institute for the blind. Some of the orphanages deal with cases similar to those dealt with by the special schools under the control of the Education Department, and a few of the women's institutions receive offenders committed to them by the Courts.

A substantial decrease in the number of inmates of charitable institutions has occurred during recent years, but the actual position is obscured by the fact that certain inmates of institutions under the control of Hospital Boards are now supported by hospital benefits from the Social Security Fund.

In many cases there is a variation in the class of inmate provided for by the different controlling bodies. For instance, none of the homes under the supervision of the Presbyterian Church, the Methodist Church, the Baptist Church, or the Brethren are maternity homes of any description. The four churches mentioned control children's homes and orphanages only, while the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church provide chiefly for children, although some maternity cases are dealt with. The Hospital Boards concentrate chiefly upon old people's homes, while the Salvation Army deals with all types, and is the only body that conducts extensively the “prison-gate” or industrial type of institution. Factors such as these affect the demands made upon the different institutions for accommodation or relief.

In June 1951 the Government decided that in approved cases and subject to certain conditions it would assist religious or welfare organizations to establish hostels for young people by granting up to 50 per cent of the cost of erecting or acquiring hostels. The object of this decision is to assist young men and young women who are living away from their homes and are having difficulty in finding suitable living accommodation. The Department of Health was made responsible for the administration of this policy.

During 1952–53 subsidies totalling £18,836 were approved, which will result in the erection of hostels valued at over £40,000 and accommodating 51 young people.

5 C—MENTAL HOSPITALS

THE legislative authority relating to mental hospitals is the Mental Defectives Act 1911 and its amendments, its administration under the direction of the Minister of Health devolving upon the Mental Hygiene Division of the Department of Health. Hospital Boards have no jurisdiction over mental hospitals which are under the direct control of the Mental Hygiene Division.

There are eleven public mental hospitals in New Zealand maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private hospital licensed for the reception of the mentally afflicted.

The patients on the register at the end of 1952 were distributed as shown below. Numbers given throughout this subsection are inclusive of Maoris. Figures for Maoris are also given separately toward the end of the subsection.

Statistics showing the numbers of voluntary patients are excluded from the following series of tables, though they are given later under the appropriate heading.

Mental Hospital	Males	Females	Totals
Auckland	775	761	1,536
Kingseat (Papakura)	444	421	865
Raventhorpe (Drury)	13	241	254
Tokanui	447	400	847
Lake Alice (Marton)	152		152
Levin Farm	209	79	288
Porirua	568	733	1,301
Nelson	576	471	1,047
Seaview (Hokitika)	213	269	482
Sunnyside (Christchurch)	770	797	1,567
Seacliff and Waitati	616	462	1,078
Ashburn Hall (private mental hospital)	14	14	28
Totals	4,797	4,648	9,445

The number of patients remaining at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table. During the period covered by the table the number of patients shows an increase of 613, or 6.9 per cent, but the proportion per 10,000 of population has fallen from 48.14 to 47.32

Year	Patients Remaining at 31 December			Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1948	4,612	4,220	8,832	50.20	46.07	48.14
1949	4,686	4,348	9,034	49.92	46.59	48.27
1950	4,724	4,445	9,169	49.30	46.75	48.03
1951	4,758	4,537	9,295	48.66	46.79	47.73
1952	4,797	4,648	9,445	47.81	46.82	47.32
Average of five years	4,715	4,440	9,155	49.15	46.61	47.89

The total number of patients under supervision, care, or control during 1951 and 1952 was 11,044 (5,561 males and 5,483 females) and 11,267 (5,654 males and 5,613 females) respectively. The average number resident in mental hospitals was 8,507 in 1951 and 8,584 in 1952.

ADMISSIONS.—The total admissions to mental hospitals during the year 1952 was 1,757 (785 males and 972 females), this number not including 215 transfers from one institution to another. The principal causes of insanity as assigned on admission for the years 1951 and 1952 were as given below.

Cause	1951	1952
Heredity	7	19
Congenital	127	171
Previous attack	314	338
Puerperal state	20	17
Senility	286	346
Involution	8	13
Mental stress	52	77
Syphilis	9	4
Constitutional	621	641
Alcohol	20	20
Epilepsy	27	15
Organic brain disease	46	28
Physical disorders	62	68
Totals	1,599	1,757

Of the 1,757 persons admitted to mental hospitals during 1952 those admitted for the first time to any mental hospital in New Zealand numbered 1,419 (663 males, 756 females), and those readmitted 338 (122 males, 216 females). First admissions for the year 1951 totalled 1,283 (574 males and 709 females), and readmissions 316 (100 males and 216 females).

The figures for 1952 represent one first admission for every 1,407 persons of the mean population of New Zealand. The number of first admissions and the rate per 10,000 of mean population for each of the last five years were as follows.

Year	Number of First Admissions			Proportion per 10,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1948	524	610	1,134	5.70	6.66	6.18
1949	514	632	1,146	5.48	6.77	6.12
1950	547	658	1,205	5.71	6.92	6.31
1951	574	709	1,283	5.87	7.31	6.59
1952	663	756	1,419	6.61	7.61	7.11
Average of five years	564	673	1,237	5.88	7.07	6.47

AGES OF INMATES.—A summary is now given showing the ages of patients in mental hospitals at the end of 1952.

Age, in Years	Males	Females	Totals
1 and under 5	34	34	68
5 and under 10	127	86	213
10 and under 15	172	119	291
15 and under 20	225	159	384
20 and under 30	586	467	1,053
30 and under 40	834	714	1,548
40 and under 50	837	772	1,609
50 and under 60	738	788	1,526
60 and under 70	696	790	1,486
70 and under 80	411	543	954
80 and under 90	107	146	253
90 and over	8	9	17
Unknown	22	21	43
Totals	4,797	4,648	9,445

Probably symptomatic to some extent of the ageing of the New Zealand population, the number of patients aged sixty years or over has attained a high proportion of admissions during recent years. Of those remaining in mental hospitals at the end of 1952, patients in this age group numbered 2,710—i.e., 28.7 per cent of the total.

DISCHARGES AND DEATHS.—The next table gives the average number resident, those who were discharged as recovered, and those who died, during the period 1948–52.

Year	Average Number Resident	Discharged as Recovered		Died
Year	Average Number Resident	Number	Percentage of Number Admitted	Number	Percentage of Average Number Resident
1948	8,145	535	37.36	553	6.79
1949	8,287	511	34.48	549	6.64
1950	8,384	558	36.64	616	7.35
1951	8,507	583	36.59	635	7.46
1952	8,584	609	34.66	752	8.76
Average of five years	8,381	559	35.95	621	7.40

The recovery rate has been satisfactorily maintained, particularly when it is considered that approximately 20 per cent of admissions suffer from senility and a further 10 per cent suffer from congenital conditions.

The table following shows the duration of residence in mental hospitals of patients who died and of patients who were discharged as recovered during the year 1952. Of those discharged as recovered, 58 per cent had been inmates for less than one year.

Duration of Residence	Patients Who Died			Patients Discharged as Recovered
Duration of Residence	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
Under 1 month	60	40	100	10	28	38
1 month and under 3 months	38	34	72	58	69	127
3 months and under 6 months	32	37	69	53	47	100
6 months and under 9 months	21	21	42	27	29	56
9 months and under 12 months	10	20	30	14	16	30
1 year and under 2 years	33	43	76	45	101	146
2 years and under 3 years	12	21	33	21	30	51
3 years and under 5 years	31	36	67	10	19	29
5 years and under 7 years	20	28	48	1	5	6
7 years and under 10 years	19	14	33	6	7	13
10 years and under 12 years	5	6	11	1	3	4
12 years and under 15 years	9	8	17	3	4	7
15 years and over	69	43	112	1	1	2
Died during absence	29	13	42
Totals	388	364	752	250	359	609

Old age and diseases of the circulatory and respiratory systems are the principal causes of death among mental hospital patients. The figures for the principal causes and groups of causes for the years 1951 and 1952 are as follows.

Cause	1951	1952
Tuberculosis	12	7
Cancer	16	20
Other general diseases	15	18
General paralysis of the insane	4	3
Epilepsy	14	24
Other diseases of the nervous system	64	67
Diseases of the circulatory system	236	235
Diseases of the respiratory system	137	129
Diseases of the digestive system	3
Diseases of the genito - urinary system	11	19
Old age	79	175
External causes	7	12
Died during absence	37	43
Totals	635	752

PRIVATE MENTAL HOSPITAL.—A licence may be granted to enable a private mental hospital to receive patients for treatment. Stringent conditions are attached to the issue of such a licence, which may be revoked at any time. The Director of the Mental Hygiene Division of the Health Department has wide powers in the regulation and control of private institutions, which are placed practically on the same footing as public mental hospitals in regard to inspection and other matters.

There is only one licensed private mental institution in New Zealand, that at Wakari (Ashburn Hall), near Dunedin, established in 1882. Particulars for the last five years of admissions, discharges, deaths, and patients remaining, are as follows. These figures are included in preceding tables.

Year	Admissions (Including Transfers)	Discharges (Including Transfers)	Deaths	Patients Remaining at End of Year
1948	10	15	4	29
1949	15	10	4	30
1950	11	9	2	30
1951	17	14	3	30
1952	16	18		28

MAORIS IN MENTAL HOSPITALS.—The number of Maoris admitted as patients to mental hospitals is small. The figures for the last five years were as follows.

Year	Admitted During Year			Remaining at End of Year
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1948	26	27	53	125	104	229
1949	23	24	47	128	104	232
1950	24	19	43	134	115	249
1951	46	40	86	133	107	240
1952	42	37	79	157	123	280

The above figures are also included in the tables covering all inmates of mental hospitals.

The number of Maoris remaining in mental hospitals at the end of 1952 represented a rate of only 23.29 per 10,000 of the mean Maori population, as compared with a rate of 47.32 in the case of the European population.

VOLUNTARY PATIENTS.—A person labouring under mental defect, but capable of understanding the meaning of the procedure, may seek admission to a mental hospital as a voluntary boarder. At the beginning of 1952 there were 468 such patients on the books (201 males, 267 females), and during the year 1,127 (517 males, 610 females) were admitted. If a voluntary boarder should after admission show mental defect sufficiently pronounced and sustained to render it improper to classify him any longer as such, application for a reception order is made to a Magistrate. During the year 1952, 6 (3 males, 3 females) were transferred from the voluntary to the ordinary register, and 20 males and 19 females died, while 1,023 (466 males, 557 females) were discharged, leaving 525 (231 males, 294 females) on the records at the end of the year.

A feature of interest has been the tendency for voluntary admissions to increase, both in absolute numbers and also in proportion to total first admissions. The following series illustrates this trend.

—	Voluntary Patients First Admissions		—	Voluntary Patients First Admissions
—	Numbers	Percentage of All First Admissions	—	Numbers	Percentage of All First Admissions
1915	32	4.7	1947	534	30.6
1920	64	8.1	1948	578	33.8
1925	123	14.1	1949	576	33.4
1930	236	20.2	1950	595	33.1
1935	217	19.2	1951	653	33.7
1940	252	21.5	1952	771	35.2
1945	359	24.3

EXPENDITURE, ETC.—The total expenditure on maintenance of public mental hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during the last eleven financial years are shown in the next table. As from 1 April 1939 free maintenance and treatment have been provided in all public mental hospitals in accordance with the provisions of the Social Security Act 1938. The consequent loss of revenue through the operation of the Act was recoverable from the Social Security Fund, but as from 1 April 1945 such recoveries ceased, and from that date all maintenance expenditure has been borne by the Consolidated Fund. The amounts shown as receipts on account of patients' fees for the years subsequent to 1939–40 represent in part the recovery of accounts outstanding at 31 March 1939. The Mental Defectives Amendment Act 1950 provides that the cost of maintenance of any person who is not ordinarily resident in New Zealand and who is detained in any public institution shall be a debt due to the Crown. These provisions became effective on and after 23 November 1950.

Year Ended 31 March	Total Expenditure	Receipts			Net Expenditure	Gross Average Cost per Patient
Year Ended 31 March	Total Expenditure	Patients' Fees	Sale of Produce, etc.	Social Security Fund	Net Expenditure	Gross Average Cost per Patient
	£	£	£	£	£	£	s.	d.
1943	738,204	13,030	68,870	181,869	474,435	92	12	5
1944	766,530	13,218	66,198	183,199	503,915	95	4	2
1945	827,128	8,207	67,433	187,942	563,546	100	6	1
1946	940,167	5,859	70,500		863,808	113	8	2
1947	1,072,130	8,228	87,065		976,837	128	10	2
1948	1,243,332	8,958	88,397		1,145,977	147	12	3
1949	1,476,768	7,993	38,427		1,430,348	173	13	11
1950	1,766,659	1,602	177,152		1,587,905	203	0	0
1951	1,810,285	2,956	125,771		1,681,558	206	2	0
1952	2,288,589	4,983	138,465		2,145,141	257	6	0
1953	2,446,344	1,849	55,210		2,389,285	272	2	0

In the period covered by the foregoing table total expenditure increased by £1,708,140, or 231 per cent, while the gross average cost per patient rose by £179 9s. 7d. per annum, or 194 per cent.

As already stated the expenditure included in the foregoing table does not include amounts spent on new buildings, additions, etc., the cost of which is met by the Ministry of Works. The sums spent in this connection fell away considerably in the later war years. Expenditure for the last three financial years, however, has amounted to £234,085 in 1950–51, £259,289 in 1951–52, and £382,647 in 1952–53, while the aggregate expenditure from 1 July 1877 to 31 March 1953 was £4,767,184.

Chapter 6. SECTION 6—EDUCATION

Table of Contents

HISTORY AND ADMINISTRATION.—The education system of New Zealand can be understood only when it is seen against its historical background. The first settlements in the new colony were relatively isolated units each of which had to make its own provision for the education of its children. In some places the provision of schools was left to the churches, in some to private enterprise, and in others to public associations. When the provinces were established in 1852 the Provincial Councils took over education as one of their functions, but this brought no degree of uniformity to New Zealand schools, for each province tended to foster the type of school organization already established in its area. The provinces varied considerably in the efficiency of their school systems; but, in spite of some success in the face of difficulties in certain areas, at the end of the provincial period in 1876 not more than half the children between the ages of five and fifteen were attending school at all.

The present national system of free, secular, and compulsory^* education is based on the Education Act of 1877. This Act followed upon the abolition of the provinces, but the provinces, though dead as political units, left their mark upon the school system. A fierce struggle between the protagonists of central and of local control ended in a victory for the provincialists, and the public schools were placed under the control of District Education Boards, which were for the most part the same bodies as the old Provincial Education Boards. The Colonial Government, however, had to provide all the finance in the form of capitation grants, and a small Department of Education was set up in Wellington, very largely for the purpose of distributing the grants. For every school district constituted under the Act there was a School Committee, elected by householders, which, subject to the control of the Board, had “the management of educational matters within the school district.” The School Committees elected the members of the Education Board.

As far as mere structure is concerned, this still remains the pattern of the system of school administration in New Zealand, but there have been, in the intervening years, great changes in the relative functions of the three authorities. The general tendency has been for final power and responsibility to shift from the Committees to the Boards and from the Boards to the Department. The Committees, in fact, through lack of professional executive officers and independent sources of revenue, from the very beginning were unable to take over the full powers that the 1877 Act obviously intended them to have, and for the first twenty years of national education the Education Boards were the predominant authorities in the system.

The former number of nine Education Boards was increased by one in 1952, when the Auckland Education Board, comprising more than one-third of all schools, was subdivided and a new South Auckland Education Board formed from portion of the area.

From just before the beginning of this century the Education Department began to play an increasingly important part in educational administration, partly as a result of improved means of communication. Under the Act of 1877 the Boards had been given wide powers: to administer funds from endowments and departmental grants, to appoint and remove teachers, to pay teachers' salaries according to their own scales, to establish scholarships and provide for secondary education in district high schools, and to control the inspectorate. Legislation, beginning with the establishment of a national scale of primary school salaries and staffing in 1901 and culminating in the Education Act of 1914 (still the basic measure under which the education system is administered), concentrated these powers more and more in the hands of the Department, which began to take a more detailed interest in expenditure by the Boards. The original freedom of the Boards in the expenditure of building grants was taken away, and the present system, requiring special departmental authorization for each new building, gradually became established. From 1901 onwards the Department paid over to the Boards the exact sum required for teachers' salaries, thus leaving a much-reduced capitation grant to be used by the local authorities at their own discretion. In 1914 the Department took over the control of the primary-school inspectorate.

The centralization of the inspectorate made possible a further change affecting the powers of the Boards. In 1920 a New Zealand grading scheme was instituted under which all primary-school teachers were annually awarded grading marks by the Inspectors. A teacher's total marks give him a place on a numerically graded list. Since all ordinary appointments are decided on the basis of this list, the system of appointment is in effect a national one, and the Boards have very limited powers of discretion although they make the appointments and the teachers are servants of the Boards. In 1940 biennial grading was substituted for annual grading, thus freeing the inspectors of schools in alternate years to give more time to schools. The provision of an annual grading number for teachers was, however, retained.

* Every child (with certain statutory exemptions) between the ages of seven and fifteen years has to be enrolled as a pupil of either a public or a registered school.

It does not follow, however, since the Boards and the School Committees have lost many of their original powers, that they have ceased to play an important part in the system. The Committee's primary function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide in each district a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters. The Education Boards are still the initiating bodies on matters of buildings, sites, conveyance of pupils, consolidation, and provision of school facilities generally; and, although the final word often lies with the Minister of Education or the Department, the Boards have no small influence in the fixing of policy within their districts. The schools are legally their schools and the teachers their teachers, and, although in general the Boards' choices of applicants are limited by the grading system, they have much more discretion in the selection of applicants for special or key positions. The teachers' class-room activities are under the control of the Inspectors, but their general responsibility is to the Boards, and their professional life tends to centre on the Boards rather than on the Department. In spite of the apparent clumsiness of the administrative structure and of periods of strong feeling in the past, the system at present functions remarkably smoothly, and has achieved a balance, workable if not ideal, between the claims of local initiative and national efficiency. A certain degree of decentralization was achieved in 1948 when a branch of the Education Department was established at Auckland.

Post-primary education, with the exception of that given in the district high schools, was not brought by the Act of 1877 within the province of the Education Boards. Several secondary schools had been established in various ways before 1877, and these continued under their own Boards of Governors, which were in no v/way related to the Education Boards. The Education Reserves Act 1877 set aside one-fourth of the educational reserves for secondary education vesting the remainder in the Education Boards for primary-school purposes. Thus there was introduced into the colony that cleavage between elementary and secondary education that was characteristic of the English system. In the years immediately following the Act of 1877 a series of Acts set up a number of local High School Boards, each in control of its own land endowments. No effective provision was made for the inspection of these schools by any outside authority or for the co-ordination of their work with any other part of the school system.

Further secondary schools, and, from 1902 onwards, technical high schools, were from time to time established. Before 1901 fees had been charged even in district high schools. In that year free places were instituted in district high schools, and in 1902 secondary schools were offered special capitation grants if they would provide free places for deserving scholars. Under the Education Act of 1908 free places at the technical schools were granted on a more liberal basis, and by 1914 all State post-primary schools were obliged to give free places for two years at least to any pupil who had passed the Proficiency Examination. In 1936 the Proficiency Examination was abolished and free post-primary education to the end of the year in which he reached nineteen years of age became available to every child completing a primary-school course or on attaining fourteen years of age.

A direct effect of this movement towards free post-primary education was that the Department began to exercise an increasing degree of control over the schools. The Education Amendment Act 1920 authorized the establishment of New Zealand staffing and salary scales for post-primary schools, and instituted the system—already operative in the case of the Education Boards—of paying over to the schools the exact sum required for salaries plus a capitation grant for incidental expenses, less the amount received from local secondary-school endowments. This, in effect, nationalized these endowments, and spread more evenly the benefits resulting from the foresight of the early settlers. As from 1 April 1949 all revenue received by the schools was handed over to the Crown and the total cost of salaries and incidental expenses met from the Consolidated Fund. The endowment reserves themselves were vested in the Crown as from the beginning of 1950.

THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.—Perhaps the best method of sketching the outline of the school system as it now stands is to trace the career of a child as he passes through the system. He may at the age of three enter a Tree kindergarten under the control of the Free Kindergarten Association. At the age of five he may enter, and at seven he must enter, either a primary school under one of the ten Education Boards, or a registered private primary school, or, if living in an isolated area or physically handicapped, the primary department of the Education Department's Correspondence School. All state primary schools are co-educational. The child passes through the infant classes and Standards 1, 2, 3, and 4. This normally takes six years. The remaining two years of the primary course will be taken either in Forms I and II at the same primary school or, if there is one conveniently situated, at an intermediate school. The intermediate school is a comparatively recent development within the primary-school system, the first of these schools being established in 1922. It is a centrally situated school which pupils enter from the surrounding primary schools (called in these circumstances “contributing schools”) after they have completed the primary-school course as far as Standard 4. Because the intermediate school comprises a fairly large number of pupils (usually between 300 and 600) who are mainly between the ages of eleven and thirteen years it is possible to classify them into groups of approximately equal ability, provide a good range of optional courses, and utilize specialist teachers and advanced equipment to the full. As at this point in his school career the pupil's social and intellectual interests have developed, he is ready to take full advantage of the varied and enriched courses provided. Where the number of pupils in an area is not sufficient to justify the establishment of a separate intermediate school an intermediate department may be attached to the local post-primary school, and thus utilize the special facilities available at the senior school. In some intermediate schools a third-year course (Form III) is provided to give a rounded-off education to pupils who do not intend to proceed to a post-primary school.

On satisfying the requirements of his headmaster in Form II the child is granted a Primary School Certificate, on the receipt of which, or on reaching the age of fourteen, he becomes entitled to free post-primary education until the age of nineteen is reached. The Education Amendment Act 1920 made provision for the raising of the school-leaving age from fourteen to fifteen years, but this change was not brought into operation until February 1944, and all children are now required to attend school until the new leaving age is reached. This means, in effect, that some period of secondary education is now compulsory for nearly all children. The only provision for exemption is inability to profit from the further period of education.

When a country child leaves the primary stage he may have no alternative but to enter Form III of a district high school (which is really a secondary top to a primary school and is under the same control), or enrol in the Correspondence School. In more thickly populated areas there will be either a secondary school or a technical high school available. In some towns a secondary school and a technical high school have been amalgamated to form a combined school. To those not understanding the peculiar character of the New Zealand technical high school this may seem a strange union, but the differences between schools of the two types arc, except in the larger centres, relatively slight. The difference was further obscured when after 1944 secondary schools catered increasingly not only for “academic” pupils, but for those pupils as well who specialized after two years' core work in the more practical subjects (technical, agricultural, domestic, commercial). A number of secondary departments of district high schools that had grown very large were made separate post-primary schools. The result of these developments was that post-primary schools are now all more or less multilateral.

The School Certificate Examination conducted by the Education Department is now regarded as the accepted test of a completed post-primary education for the great bulk of the pupils who do not desire to proceed to University. The School Certificate Examination is taken at the end of the third or fourth year of the post-primary course. It offers a choice among some thirty subjects besides English, which is compulsory. The School Certificate is awarded to pupils who pass the examination and, in other respects, have complied with the regulations governing the award of the certificate.

Provision is contained in the Education (Post-primary Instruction) Regulations 1945 for endorsement of School Certificates on satisfactory completion of an advanced course of instruction for one year. The regulations also provide for the award of Higher School Certificates. In general this certificate is awarded after a five years' course to pupils who have been awarded a School Certificate and satisfactorily complete an advanced course of two years; and to pupils who have been accredited for or have passed the University Entrance Examination and satisfactorily complete an advanced course of one year.

The technical schools, combined schools, and a few of the secondary schools run evening classes, particularly in practical and vocational subjects, which an adolescent may attend after he leaves full-time day school. Apprentices in some trades are required to attend evening classes as a part of their trade training. In 1948 approval was given to the establishment of day classes for apprentices. Classes in motor engineering, plumbing, and baking were commenced in 1949. In some of the larger technical schools part-time students may take professional courses in engineering, architecture, accountancy, pharmacy, etc.

Prior to 1944 all pupils desiring to undertake a University course were required to sit and pass the University Entrance Examination conducted by the University of New Zealand. In 1944 a system of partial accrediting came into operation. Under this system pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' post-primary-school course. The University Entrance Examination is still conducted by the University of New Zealand, and pupils not accredited for entrance to University may qualify in this manner. The standard of the present entrance examination is somewhat higher than that maintained prior to the introduction of the accrediting system.

Pupils who have been accredited for, or who have passed the University Entrance Examination, may, without further post-primary education, receive tuition fees for a period of four years at a University college.

The University of New Zealand, whose controlling body is the University Senate, is constituted of the University colleges of Auckland, Wellington, and Canterbury, and the University of Otago (which does not itself grant degrees), Massey and Canterbury Agricultural Colleges, associated with the University of New Zealand, are open to students specializing in agricultural studies.

The five teachers' training colleges, although they work in conjunction with the four University colleges, are organically related to them only through their Boards of Studies. The Education Boards in the four main centres are the controlling authorities of the training colleges.

The State system also caters for the needs of certain special groups of children. Maori children may attend the public schools, but there are also public Maori village schools provided for their primary education. There are also a few private mission schools remaining from the pre-Maori War system established with the help of Government subsidies. For his post-primary education the Maori child may go free to any available public post-primary school or Maori district high school. If he lives in a remote area he may gain a Maori scholarship awarded by the Education Department which will enable him to attend a denominational Maori secondary school. These are boarding schools of which five are for boys and five for girls. Some of them are partly financed out of public endowments originally provided for the purpose of Maori education.

As mentioned earlier, children living in isolated areas or prevented in other ways from attending school may be enrolled in the Correspondence School for both primary and post-primary work.

For children who are mentally, emotionally, or physically handicapped there are provided special schools and classes. The mentally handicapped are grouped in special classes, and a portion is enrolled in two residential special schools. For children who are very backward there are special centres (occupation centres) in the four main cities, and a number of voluntary groups (occupational groups) which are given financial assistance by the Education Department have been formed in several smaller towns. Two residential schools cater for the needs of the deaf and those near-deaf children who cannot profit from teaching in an ordinary primary school. Children with speech defects attend regularly one of the speech clinics. More recently separate classes have been established for children with very poor eyesight (sight-saving classes), and several schools have been organized as separate units for cerebral-palsied children. Where a sufficient number of children in hospital justifies it, teachers are made available to conduct hospital classes which are attached to the local school. Finally, there are three special schools and homes to take care of children with the most serious and deep-seated problems of maladjustment or delinquency. These last-named institutions, the schools for the deaf, and the two special schools for the mentally backward are being administered for the Education Department by the Child Welfare Division, which, in educational matters, is under the control of the Minister of Education. All other special classes and centres are controlled by the Education Boards. The Boards also employ Visiting Teachers whose task it is to help problem children by acting as a link between the school, the home, and the community. The Education Department has a small psychological division which includes two psychologists, one assistant psychologist, and four area organizers of special classes, all of whom are available for psychological and educational testing of children with special problems.

In addition to the various State schools described, a parent may send his child to a private school, either primary or secondary, conducted by either religious bodies or private individuals. No Government free place is tenable at these schools,^* but a Secondary School Bursary (referred to on page 161) may be tenable at a private school, while assistance for transport by rail and road and a boarding allowance under certain conditions may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or post-primary. All private schools must be registered, and are subject to an annual inspection by the Department's Inspectors. The majority of the private schools are conducted by the Roman Catholic Church. Amongst the private schools are two endowed secondary schools modelled after the English public school.

* Except for Maori “Government pupils” in the denominational secondary schools.

To complete the above sketch it should be added that co-education exists in all stages of the system. At the primary stage, public, intermediate, and Maori schools and some private schools teach boys and girls together. At the teachers' training colleges and the University colleges, students of both sexes attend together. At the post-primary level all district high schools and technical colleges have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst just over two-thirds of the secondary and combined schools and all private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment at all post-primary schools (State as well as private) in 1952 with that sixteen years earlier shows that the ratio of single-sex to co-educational schools has changed from 54 to 46 in 1936 to 46 to 54 in 1952, whilst during that period the total number of pupils has almost doubled.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS.—The number of scholars and students receiving instruction in the educational institutions of New Zealand is shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers as at the end of the year (except in the case of technical classes, which are as at 1 July).

Class of Institution	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Pupils on roll at end of year. † There were also 1,227 students taking part-time courses. ‡ Part-time students, excluding 1,420 part-time students (1,337 in 1951) enrolled with the Technical Correspondence School. § Includes 614 students taking short courses at the agricultural colleges in 1952.
Preschool Education^*
Kindergartens	3,462	3,894	4,398	4,906	5,271
Primary Education
Public (State) schools	233,008	241,742	254,266	267,273	284,784
Intermediate schools and departments
Maori village schools	13,254	13,288	13,426	13,663	14,076
Maori mission schools	744	805	826	822	790
Registered private primary schools	32,616	34,155	35,922	37,690	39,654
Lower departments of secondary schools	199	187	172	160	150
Correspondence classes (primary)	1,784	1,749	1,673	1,673	1,596
Chatham Islands schools	97	109	95	108	106
Totals, primary	281,702	292,035	306,380	321,389	341,156
Post-primary Education
Secondary schools	17,972	18,400	19,352	20,341	21,872
Combined schools	3,401	3,510	3,472	3,579	3,813
Secondary departments of district high schools	6,895	7,320	6,992	7,195	7,946
Technical high schools	12,136	12,504	13,859	14,871	16,179
Maori secondary (boarding) schools	668	777	813	863	871
Registered private and endowed secondary schools	8,827	9,112	9,341	9,791	10,413
Correspondence classes (secondary)	601	533	494	457	435 ^†
Totals, post-primary	50,500	52,156	54,323	57,097	61,529
Technical Classes)excluding Technical High Schools and Technical Day Schools)
Conducted by Education, Secondary School, or High School Boards	7,745	8,120	8,467	8,538	9,690
Conducted by Technical School Boards	12,262	12,844	12,708	14,312	16,659
Conducted by University colleges	298	262
Totals, technical^‡	20,305	21,226	21,175	22,850	26,349
Higher Education
University colleges	9,906	9,682	9,809	9,466	9.323
Canterbury and Massey Agricultural Colleges	1,421	1,076	1,014	1,21.8	1,042^§
Students exempt from lectures	1,514	1,362	1,182	1,007	940
Teachers' training colleges	1,875	2,321	2,684	2,704	2,710
Totals, higher	14,716	14,441	14,689	14,395	14,015
Totals, scholars and students	370,685	383,752	400,965	420,637	448,320

The preceding table of enrolments shows that there have been steady increases of between 12,000 and 27,000 pupils and students in each of the last five years. These figures illustrate for this short period of five years what a significant expansion is taking place in the whole educational system. Between 1930 and 1944 primary-school rolls had remained almost stationary year after year, but they increased in 1945 by 5,000, in 1946 by 6,000, and in the following six years (1946 to 1952) by a total of 77,000. These enrolment increases were so marked that the Education Department and Education Boards began several years ago to pay urgent attention to the population changes that caused the expansion, which in turn was calling for proportionate increases in the supply of teachers and in the provision of classrooms, of teaching equipment, and other facilities such as transport. Even a short account of this expansion must stress the relevant change in the age composition of the population, and then illustrate its impact at the various levels of the school system.

The expansion was in the first instance due to the increase in the yearly number of births. This rose from some 28,000 in 1936 to almost 50,000 in 1947, remained nearly at that level from 1948 to 1951, and rose to nearly 52,000 in 1952.

A comparison between the Census years of 1936 and 1951 shows that in 1936 all children of age 0 to under 15 years represented 26.5 per cent of the total population, but fifteen years later, in 1951, the proportion was 29.7 per cent, whilst the total population had increased to 1,940,000, or by just over 23 per cent; the 23 per cent increase of total population compares with an increase of the child population alone of 38 per cent. The change in the age groups of school age is shown in more detail in the following table.

Age Group, in Years	1936	1951	Increase		Decrease
Age Group, in Years	1936	1951	Number	Per Cent	Number	Per Cent
5 and under 10	140,990	183,800	42,810	30
10 and under 14	115,670	127,400	11,730	10
14 and under 18	113,430	105,800			7,630	7
Totals, 5 and under 18	370,090	417,000	46,910	13

A special feature has been the increase during the same period in the Maori juvenile population. The increase in the Maori birth rate had begun earlier and coincided with a marked reduction in the Maori infant death rate. The corresponding figures for the Maori population are as follows.

Age Group, in Years	1936	1951	Increase
Age Group, in Years	1936	1951	Number	Per Cent
5 and under 10	12,605	16,000	3,395	27
10 and under 14	8,380	12,200	3,820	45
14 and under 18	6,640	10,600	3,960	60
Totals, 5 and under 18	27,625	38,800	11,175	40

The school enrolment increases were first felt in the primer classes (4,000 in 1944–45, 6,500 in 1945–46, 6,300 in 1946–47), then in the lower standards. They gradually spread to the upper primary classes, and are now reaching the post-primary schools. The increase in the total number of children enrolled between 1945 and 1951 was 37 per cent in Standard 2, 31 per cent in Standard 3, but only 13 per cent in Form II.

It has been estimated that rolls will continue to expand until at least the early 1960's, when the total school population will have increased by some 220,000 over and above the 1936 enrolment of approximately 280,000 full-time pupils at all public and private schools.

Concurrently with the recent rise in roll numbers due to the increasing child population, a further expansion of the education system took place at the post-primary level. The number of post-primary school pupils declined for a time during the earlier war years, but increased by 3,000 in 1943, and a further 6,000 in 1944. These increases were due to the raising of the school leaving age to 15 years, a measure which took effect at a moment when three-quarters of those in the age group 14 to 15 were attending school. The proportion had gradually increased to that figure in the preceding eight years. The proportion of primary school children entering upon a post-primary course has undergone considerable changes. While it was approximately 10 per cent at the beginning of the century, it had risen to 45 per cent at the end of the First World War and to 65 per cent before the Second World War. By 1952 the figure was 90 per cent. At the same time as the more recent increase from 65 to 90 per cent of the number of primary school children proceeding to post-primary schools took place, the average length of time spent at post-primary schools showed an increase. In 1936, approximately one-quarter of all pupils entering post-primary schools reached either Form V (Upper) or Form VI (Lower), the normal goal of a four-year course; by 1952 this figure had increased to approximately one-third of all entrants.

The changes in enrolment due to the varying size of the age groups of school age and to the extended schooling were accompanied by changes in the yearly number of school leavers entering occupations. The following table shows a decline in the total number of school leavers to a low point in 1948, some recovery in the following year, with approximately stable numbers in the last three years. At the same time, the proportion of school leavers entering upon their working life direct from a primary or intermediate school, without any full-time attendance at a post-primary school, has markedly declined. The following figures refer to pupils leaving public primary and intermediate schools who did not enter post-primary schools, and to post-primary school leavers who did not enter University, but exclude pupils from Maori schools and private schools.

	Number Leaving	Percentage From Primary Schools
1936	22,994	42
1941	21,014	36
1946	18,902	16
1948	18,080	15
1949	19,337	13
1950	19,586	12
1951	19,964	11
1952	19,947	10

The development since 1930 of the total enrolment at all public and private primary and post-primary schools (full-time pupils) is illustrated by the diagram below, which gives for the years 1953 to 1960 estimated rolls based on the probable increases in the school age population.

The number of part-time students attending day or evening-classes also shows a steady increase in recent years. The total increase between 1947 and 1952 was 7,999, or 37 per cent. An important factor in this increase is the development of apprentice training. The attendance at day classes for apprentices more than doubled in the last two years (1950, 1,492; 1952, 3,363), and the availability of training has been extended to several further trades. As the major trades (except printing) in which there are apprentices are now covered by day or evening classes, it is to be expected that developments will be in the nature of consolidation rather than of extension.

The enrolment at University colleges which reached a total of 11,305 in 1952 has nearly doubled since 1939. The enrolment figures in the immediate post-war years were still higher, as they included a number of ex-servicemen students. From about 1956 onwards the age groups born after the depression years will reach the institutions of higher education, and these will from then on have to be ready to accommodate increasing numbers of students. The intake at the five teachers' training colleges was increased from 1948, when the fifth college was opened and the number of students admitted raised to 1,050, in order to meet the expected higher demand for certificated teachers. The total rolls at the training colleges were 1,875 in 1948, 2,321 in 1949, 2,684 in 1950, 2,704 in 1951, and 2,710 in 1952.

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS.—The number of candidates who actually presented themselves for the various examinations conducted by the Education Department and also by the Trades Certification Board during the last five years is given below.

Examination	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Teachers' Certificate	260	257	279	308	256
School Certificate	8,592	9,352	9,479	9,763	10,468
Special Bursaries	263	260	296	337	350
London University	6	6	5	6	6
Handicraft Teachers' Certificate	34	37	28	40	45
Homecraft Teachers' Certificate	65	67	32	41	49
Technological	309	224	167	117	112
City and Guilds of London	107	68	84	124	118
Samoan Public Service					43
Engineers' and Surveyors' Assistants					26
Totals	9,636	10,271	10,370	10,736	11,473
Trades Certification		1,350	1,978	2,518	3,234

The University of New Zealand conducted examinations in 1952 in the faculties of arts, science, medicine, dentistry, home science, law, engineering, commerce, agriculture, music, architecture, and divinity; for diplomas in journalism, in banking, and in fine arts; and for admission to the legal and accountancy professions. There were 11,416 entrants for the degree and professional examinations in 1952, compared with 12,027 in 1951 and 13,813 in 1950.

The number of entries for the University Entrance Examination in 1943 was 5,152, but the introduction of the accrediting system in 1944 saw the number in that year reduced to 543. Comparative figures for the last five years are given in the following table.

Candidates	Accredited	By Examination
1948	1,872	1,839
1949	1,954	1,874
1950	1,987	1,766
1951	2,005	1,777
1952	2.055	1,944

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION.—The following table shows the expenditure (after recoveries have been deducted) from public funds on each branch or service of education for the three years ended 31 March 1953.

—	Expenditure Year Ended 31 March
—	1951	1952	1953
Expenditure from vote, Education—	£	£	£
General	1,331,131	1,624,569	1,765,930
Buildings, land, furniture, and equipment	1,565,648	2,011,166	2,930,202
Primary education	5,145,548	6,166,866	6,720,514
Post-primary education	2 276,896	2,645,207	2,991,839
Higher education	991,556	1,168,006	1,266,167
Training of teachers	880,500	950,149	1,002,637
Maori schools	311,969	347,662	370,339
Education of the blind	28,733	30,269	44,304
Special schools	87,957	106,754	126,255
Child welfare	369,417	412,063	420,395
Miscellaneous grants	117,666	149,863	162,167
National Library Service	132,015	154,465	149,024
Totals, vote Education	13,239,036	15,767,039	17,949,773
Expenditure from other sources—
Vote, Education Buildings	1,821,128	1,885,033	3,388,350
Revenue from reserves vested in post-primary schools — period, 1 April 1949 to 31 December 1949	29,963 Cr.	3,510 Cr.
Grand totals	15,030,201	17,648,562	21,338,123

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by University colleges from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes. By the Land Act 1948 all education reserves were declared Crown land, and the revenues received as from 1 April 1949 were paid into the Land Settlement Account. The reserves vested in post-primary schools were also declared by the Education Lands Act 1949 to be Crown land subject to the Land Act 1948.

The following figures show the cost of education during the period 1942–43 to 1952–53.

Year Ended 31 March	Expenditure from Public Funds	Expenditure Per Head of Mean Population
	£	£	s.	d.
1943	5,038,395	3	1	5
1944	5,221,389	3	3	9
1945	6,216,947	3	14	8
1946	7,853,049	4	11	10
1947	8,711,637	4	18	5
1948	9,950,818	5	10	1
1949	11,023,016	5	19	7
1950	13,744,960	7	6	1
1951	15,030,201	7	16	9
1952	17,648,562	9	0	3
1953	21,338,123	10	12	4

Education Buildings.—The increases in school population have led to an expansion of the school-building programme. The following numbers of classrooms were completed in recent years:

	Primary	Post-primary
1948	236	51
1949	336	63
1950	517	115
1951	476	141
1952	589	198

Pre-school Education.—Children below the age of five are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens controlled by local Free Kindergarten Associations. In 1947 a Supervisor of Pre-school Services was appointed to the Department of Education. In 1948 the Department undertook the payment of the salaries of kindergarten teachers, trainees, and full-time teachers at training centres, and the system of payment of capitation grants to the local Associations was discontinued. Subsidies on voluntary contributions raised for the purchase of land, erection of buildings, and purchase of initial equipment are paid by the Department. The number of trainees in 1952 was 152.

At the end of 1952 there were 5,271 children on the rolls of 137 free kindergartens. In 1951 the corresponding figures were 4,906 and 127 respectively. As yet the system is far from universal, although, besides those enumerated, there are also some private kindergartens and 71 Nursery Play Centres.

Nursery play centres which meet a required standard in equipment receive a small subsidy from the Government.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS.—The primary-school system at the end of 1952 consisted of 1,889 public schools (including district high schools and intermediate schools or departments), 162 Maori village schools, 306 registered private primary schools (which included 10 Maori mission schools), and 4 lower departments of secondary schools. There were also 137 free kindergarten schools.

Lower departments of secondary schools may be run for pupils who have not passed Form II, provided that no part of the cost of instruction or of the maintenance of the department is met from public moneys. At the end of 1952 the total number of pupils in the four departments mentioned in the preceding paragraph was 150 with 5 teachers.

The curriculum of the primary school, as set out in the syllabus of instruction, includes English arithmetic, geography and history, arts and crafts (including needlework), nature study and elementary science, physical education (including swimming), moral instruction and health, and music. Teachers are advised on the teaching of nature study, physical education, and arts and crafts by itinerant specialists. At the Forms I and II levels woodwork and metalwork instruction is given to boys at manual-training centres, and girls are taught domestic subjects, including cookery and hygiene.

The syllabus as a whole has been revised in recent years. Textbooks in English and arithmetic are issued free to pupils in all schools, both State and private. A series of basic primer readers and a considerable amount of equipment for primer classes are also provided by the Government.

Public (State) Schools.—The figures tabulated below refer to pupils in public schools—i.e., all pupils in primary schools and intermediate schools and departments. Pupils in the secondary departments of district high schools are not included.

Year	Number of Schools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)	Pupils at End of Year	Mean of Average Weekly Roll	Average Attendance, Whole Year	Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll
1948	1,932	233,008	223,565	202,914	90.8
1949	1,905	241,742	231,913	207,199	89.3
1950	1,908	254,266	246,869	224,277	90.8
1951	1,885	267,273	255,268	231,616	90.7
1952	1,889	284,784	270,835	244,480	90.3

While the number of schools has declined, mainly owing to the consolidation of small rural schools, the total rolls have increased by 51,000 since 1948. The changes which have taken place in the size of schools may be seen from the following table.

Number of Public Schools	1942	1952	Increase (+) or Decrease (−)
Roll 70 and under	1,488	1,095	−393
Roll 71 to 350	451	515	+ 64
Roll 351 and over	176	279	+ 103
Totals	2,115	1,889	−226

In each of the education districts are located Inspectors of Primary Schools who form part of the staff of the Education Department. The total number of Primary-school Inspectors at 31 March 1953 was 52, allocate as follows: Auckland, 12; South Auckland, 7; Hawke's Bay, 4; Taranaki, 3; Wanganui, 3; Wellington, 7; Nelson, 2; Canterbury, 6; Otago, 5; Southland, 3. These figures exclude two Chief Inspectors and three Inspectors in the Head Office of the Department.

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the public primary schools and Forms I and II only of intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age, in Years	1950: Total Pupils	1951: Total Pupils	1952			Percentage of Total Pupils
Age, in Years	1950: Total Pupils	1951: Total Pupils	Boys	Girls	Total Pupils	1950	1951	1952
5 and under 6	29,837	32,045	19,690	18,672	38,362	12.4	12.7	14.3
6 and under 7	30,565	32,125	17,622	16,731	34,353	12.7	12.8	12.8
7 and under 8	26,613	30,651	16,806	15,832	32,638	11.0	12.2	12.1
8 and under 9	30,610	26,731	15,932	14,951	30,883	12.7	10.6	11.5
9 and under 10	30,582	30,388	13,679	12,976	26,655	12.7	121	9.9
10 and under 11	27,369	30,521	15,726	15,026	30,752	11.4	12.1	11.4
11 and under 12	24,365	27,520	15,730	14,716	30,446	10.1	10.9	11.3
12 and under 13	22,820	23,190	13,599	12,694	26,293	9.5	9.2	9.8
13 and under 14	12,644	12,820	7,194	5,603	12,797	5.2	5.1	4.8
14 and under 15	4,746	4,741	2,927	1,818	4,745	2.0	1.9	1.8
15 and under 16	791	683	382	229	611	0.3	0.3	0.2
16 and over	108	131	58	35	93		0.1	0.1
Totals	241,050	251,546	139,345	129,283	268,628	100.0	100.0	100.0

In 1952 a total of 19,870 pupils (10,068 boys and 9,802 girls) left public primary schools, as compared with 17,787 (9,013 boys and 8,774 girls) in 1951. Of those leaving in 1952, 18,488, or 93.0 per cent, had gained the Primary School Certificate. The effect of the raising of the school leaving age in 1944 is reflected in the numbers who proceeded to full-time post-primary schooling. Of those leaving in 1952, 91.5 per cent (boys, 89.4 per cent, girls, 93.6 per cent) went on to post-primary schools, as compared with 76 per cent (boys, 74 per cent, girls,78 per cent) in 1943. Of the pupils who left intermediate schools and departments in 1952, 94 per cent went on to post-primary schools.

The next table gives the number of public primary schools in each education district as at 30 November 1952, classified according to roll numbers. The number of intermediate schools and departments is also shown.

Roll Numbers	Education District
Roll Numbers	Auckland	South Auckland	Taranaki	Wanganui	Hawke's Bay	Wellington	Nelson	Canterbury	Otago	Southland	Totals
1–8		1	1	2	5	5	7	3	5	3	34
9–24	31	43	21	55	53	45	18	87	34	36	423
25–30	25	16	9	7	12	19	7	12	11	12	130
31–70	80	90	41	40	32	33	18	87	42	45	508
71–110	32	41	13	17	12	14	8	24	19	11	191
111–150	23	22	7	9	13	11	2	15	9	8	119
151–190	8	14	9	6	5	7	4	4	4	6	67
191–230	11	11	2	3	3	5	3	4	4	2	48
231–270	5	3	2	1	3	6	2	5	4	2	33
271–310	4	1		3	2	4	3	6	2	1	26
311–350	6		2	4	1	5		6	5	1	31
351–390	9	5	2	1	7	6	2	5	2	3	42
391–430	2	3	1	1	3	5	2	7	4		28
431–470	4	1	1		4	5		6	2	1	24
471–510	5	7	1	2	1	3		3	3	1	26
511–550	11	1		3		5	2	3	4	1	30
551–590	5	4	2	3	1	4		2			21
591–630	3	2	2			3		2		2	14
631–670	4	2				2		3			11
671–710	5	4		2	1			1	1		15
711–750	3	3	1					1			9
751–790	4	1						2			7
791–830	2							1			4
831–870	1							1			2
871–910	1	1			1						4
911–950				1	1			1			4
951–990								1			1
Intermediate schools and departments	11	5		2	2	4	1	2	4	1	32
Normal schools	2					1		1	1		5
Totals	299	281	117	162	162	198	79	295	160	136	1,889

Primary Schools for Maoris.—Over 60 per cent of the Maori children in New Zealand are educated in the public schools. At the end of 1952 there were 19,697 attending public schools out of a total of 32,627 Maori children receiving primary education in State schools.

The language of instruction in the Maori schools is English, but the schools are not completely English in outlook, for Maori arts and crafts, song, legend, and history are taught.

Methods of teaching are practical, and objectives closely related to the special needs of the Maori people. In many of the Maori schools, such equipment as woodwork rooms, cookery rooms, model cottages, baths, hot and cold showers, and laundries is supplied. Elementary agriculture and health education feature in every Maori school.

The number of pupils on the rolls of the 162 Maori village schools at the end of 1952 was 14,076 (including 1,146 European children), while the total roll number of the ten Maori mission schools was 790.

The following table gives the principal statistics of Maori village schools during the last five years.

Year	Number of Schools at End of Year	Roll at 1 July		Average Attendance, Whole Year	Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll	Number of Teachers^*
Year	Number of Schools at End of Year	Maori	European	Average Attendance, Whole Year	Average Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll	Males	Females
* Includes Junior Assistants (12 males and 82 females in 1952).
1948	159	11,989	1,037	11,385	87.0	199	333
1949	160	11,951	1,089	11,488	87.1	214	306
1950	159	11,905	1,064	11,643	87.8	220	329
1951	159	11,858	1,126	11,439	88.0	227	311
1952	162	12,195	1,152	11,560	84.8	236	310

Four Inspectors of Schools attached to the Education Department are engaged in the inspection of Maori schools, mission schools, and secondary schools for Maoris.

Intermediate Schools.—Pupils on the rolls of the eighteen intermediate schools and fourteen intermediate departments at the end of 1952 numbered 13,557. The progress that is being made with the establishment of this type of school may be gauged from the fact that ten years earlier (1942), the number of pupils was 6,817. Of all children in Forms I and II of public (primary and intermediate) schools at the end of 1952, 24.4 per cent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The average attendance during the year was 12,779. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the last three years were as follows.

Age, in Years	1950			1951			1952
Age, in Years	Boys	Girls	Total	Boys	Girls	Total	Boys	Girls	Total
Under 11	115	138	253	93	131	224	72	135	207
11 and under 12	1,397	1,693	3,090	1,751	1,830	3,581	1,926	2,114	4,040
12 and under 13	2,389	2,301	4,690	2,513	2,595	5,108	2,902	2,639	5,541
13 and under 14	1,513	1,174	2,687	1,599	1,194	2,793	1,561	1,228	2,789
14 and under 15	578	434	1,012	640	463	1,103	607	399	1,006
15 and under 16	124	44	168	100	35	135	99	60	159
16 and over	17	10	27	24	7	31	31	3	34
Totals	6,133	5,794	11,927	6,720	6,255	12,975	7,198	6,578	13,776

Private Schools.—No private school may be established unless application is first made to the Department of Education for registration. Certain standards of efficiency and suitability of staff, premises, equipment, and curriculum have to be fulfilled.

The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools for each of the last five years. The figures include Maori mission schools which are also shown separately in the summary table on page 149.

Year	Number of Schools	Roll at End of Year			Average Yearly Attendance	Teachers
Year	Number of Schools	Boys	Girls	Total	Average Yearly Attendance	Males	Females	Total
1948	309	16,113	17,247	33,360	29,843	141	895	1,036
1949	306	17,017	17,943	34,960	30,969	150	906	1,056
1950	310	17,889	18,859	36,748	32,607	161	922	1,083
1951	308	18,828	19,684	38,512	34,235	167	931	1,098
1952	306	19,752	20,692	40,444	35,674	169	945	1,114

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 241 at the end of 1952 with 34,124 pupils (16,922 boys and 17,202 girls; and 853 teachers (79 males and 774 females). The average attendance was 29,919. The remaining private schools comprised 50 church schools of other denominations with 206 teachers and 5,299 pupils, and 15 undenominational schools with 55 teachers and 1,021 pupils.

POST-PRIMARY SCHOOLS.—One of the most striking features in the development of New Zealand education—i.e., the marked increase in the proportion of pupils who proceed to some form of post-primary education at the conclusion of the primary course—has already been mentioned (page 151). The raising of the school leaving age to fifteen years from 1944. which had been foreshadowed over twenty years earlier in the Education Amendment Act 1920, stimulated the movement towards secondary education for all. This movement began in 1901 when free places were introduced in district high schools. In 1903 it became obligatory on all State post-primary schools to provide some free places, and from 1914 every child who had passed the Proficiency Examination was entitled to free education for at least two years in any State post-primary school. In 1936 the Proficiency Examination was abolished, and every child gaining a Primary School Certificate or attaining the age of fourteen years became entitled to free post-primary education until the year in which he reached the age of nineteen years; extension beyond the age of nineteen is allowable in special cases approved by the Minister of Education. In 1945, when it became clear that secondary education for all was no longer a programme but had become a reality, the post-primary syllabus was revised. The whole course was based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialization within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of post-primary schools are required by regulations made in 1945 to give to all pupils during the first two years of post-primary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

Post-primary schools are either public (State) or private. The following table shows the number and types of post-primary schools in existence during each of the last five years.

Year	State Secondary Schools	Combined Schools	Secondary Departments of District High Schools	Technical High Schools	Maori Secondary Schools	Endowed and Private Secondary Schools	Totals
* In addition there was one farm training school classed as a Maori secondary school.
1948	40	7	108	28	10	73	266
1949	40	7	111	28	10	73	269
1950	40	7	110	29	10^*	73	269
1951	40	7	110	30	10^*	74	271
1952	40	7	112	30	10^*	79	278

A combined' school is an amalgamation of a secondary and a technical school under a single governing body. District high schools are public primary schools with a secondary “top” and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial work, and domestic science. Technical schools are described later in this section.

Until 1904 secondary schools were established by special (local) Acts of the General Assembly, and the majority of schools giving post-primary education have been established in this manner. At the present time the provisions of the 1914 Education Act allow the Minister of Education to establish such schools. State secondary schools and combined schools are controlled by Boards of Governors, and district high schools by the Education Boards.

The inspection of State post-primary schools is carried out by Inspectors of Post-primary Schools attached to the Department of Education. Commencing in 1947, these Inspectors took over the inspection of secondary departments of district high schools which were previously inspected by Primary-school Inspectors. There were (in 1953) 28 Inspectors and one Chief Inspector of Post-primary Schools.

The number of pupils at the end of each of the last five years is shown in the following table. No account is taken of lower departments of secondary schools, and in the case of district high schools only the secondary departments are included.

Year	State Secondary Schools	Combined Schools	District High Schools	Technical High Schools	Maori Secondary Schools	Endowed and Private Secondary Schools	Correspondence School	Total
1948	17,972	3,401	6,895	12,136	668	8,827	601	50,500
1949	18,400	3,510	7,320	12,504	777	9,112	533	52,156
1950	19,352	3,472	6,992	13,859	813	9,341	494	54,323
1951	20,341	3,579	7,195	14,871	863	9,791	457	57,097
1952	21,872	3,813	7,946	16,179	871	10,413	435	61,529

In addition to the foregoing, there were, in July 1952, 26,349 part-time students attending technical classes, 1,957 students receiving part-time tuition from the Correspondence School, and !,420 students receiving part-time instruction from the Technical Correspondence School.

The numbers of each sex attending post-primary schools at the end of 1952 were: State secondary schools, 10,823 boys and 11,049 girls; combined schools, 2,140 and 1,673; secondary departments of district high schools, 3,714 and 4,232; technical schools, 9,115 and 7,064; endowed and registered private secondary schools, 4,546 and 5,867; Maori secondary schools, 588 and 283; and full-time at correspondence school, 172 and 263.

Technical Schools.—The technical schools fall roughly into two types: (a) those in the small centres, which provide for all the post-primary needs and are distinguishable from secondary schools only by having in general a rather more strongly developed practical side; and (b) the large technical schools in the main centres, in which there is less evidence of the generalized academic curriculum, since this is adequately provided by the city secondary schools.

However, even in the latter type most of the courses in the day schools are still designedly pre-vocational and not genuinely “technical” in character. Technical schools are normally controlled either by a Board of Managers or by the Education Board of the district acting in a similar capacity.

There were thirty technical schools in 1952. The following table shows the number of pupils taking the different courses available (as at 1 July in each of the last five years).

Course	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Industrial	4,704	4,986	5,275	5,593	5,683
Commercial and general	5,300	5,345	6,190	7,058	7,731
Domestic	2,699	2,671	2,862	2,903	2,936
Agricultural	968	963	1,115	1,030	1,075
Fine arts	411	320	124	182	229
Totals	14,082	14,285	15,566	16,766	17,654

Technical Classes.—The number of centres at which technical classes for part-time day and evening students are provided was 145 in 1952.

The number of individual students including apprentices attending day classes in 1952 was—

Classes conducted by Education or High School Boards	9,690
Classes conducted by Technical School Boards or by Managers	16,659

Of the total of 26,349 students, 19,229 (11,344 males and 7,885 females) held free places.

The above figures do not include 3,377 part-time students at 1 July on the rolls of the Correspondence and Technical Correspondence Schools.

Technical Correspondence School.—In July 1946 the Department took over the responsibility for the study courses previously conducted by the Army Educational and Welfare Service. A Technical Correspondence School was established in Wellington to develop these courses for men in the Armed Services, and also to provide correspondence instruction in vocational and technical subjects for apprentices and advanced students unable to attend technical schools or classes.

The number of students on the roll at 1 July 1952 was 1,420. There were 28 full-time teachers besides the Principal on the staff at the end of the year 1952.

Probable Destination of Post-primary Pupils.—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils leaving public post-primary schools during 1952 is contained in the next table. Of the totals, 5.1 per cent of boys and 2.3 per cent of girls intended to proceed to full-time University studies, while a further 2.2 per cent of boys and 6.4 per cent of girls stated their intention of entering the teaching profession. Clerical occupations (including typing) claimed 12.4 per cent of boys and 29.9 per cent of girls; shops and warehouses, 7.7 per cent and 15.1 per cent; manual trades, 31.8 per cent and 3.1 per cent; farming 22.9 per cent and 1.2 per cent; 1.1 and 16.8 per cent intended to stay at home; various other occupations claimed 10.6 per cent and 19.6 per cent; while 6.2 per cent and 5.6 per cent of boys and girls respectively did not know their future vocations at the time.

Occupation	Secondary Schools		Combined Schools		Technical High and Day Schools		District High Schools		Totals
Occupation	Boys	Girls	Boys	Girls	Boys	Girls	Boys	Girls	Boys	Girls
University college	336	151	52	29	89	23	8	5	485	208
Teaching or training college	124	328	20	53	46	117	21	78	211	576
Professional engineering, surveying, architecture	61		5		42		10	4	118	4
Clerical (including typing)—
(a) Government and local body	184	228	34	47	126	162	93	145	437	582
(b) Banks, insurance, legal, commercial houses, shops, and warehouses	462	871	67	167	170	803	57	259	756	2,100
Shop and warehouse assistants	250	435	56	89	313	520	114	311	733	1,355
Manual trades—
(a) Government and local body	96	15	32		188	9	66	16	382	40
(b) Building	167		56		463		113		799
(c) Motor engineering	134		59		295		81		569
(d) General engineering	81		27		213		29		350
(e) Printing	29	1	6		66	3	2	1	103	5
(f) Other trades	228	95	45		442	119	126	18	841	232
Farming	557	45	180	3	811	28	654	28	2,202	104
Factory operatives	49	57	6	4	100	171	40	72	195	304
Other occupations	200	623	57	108	308	468	138	245	703	1,444
At home	34	432	2	101	25	459	44	508	105	1,500
Not known	225	190	12	6	277	203	86	103	600	502
Totals	3,217	3,471	716	607	3,974	3,085	1,682	1,793	9,589	8,956

Duration of Stay at Post-primary School.—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left public post-primary schools in 1952, classified according to years of attendance. The approximate average length of stay at the various types of school was: secondary schools, 3 years 2 months; combined schools, 3 years; technical high and day schools, 2 years 5 months; secondary departments of district high schools, 2 years 3 months; all post-primary schools, 2 years 8 months.

Year of Attendance	Secondary Schools		Combined Schools		Technical High and Day Schools		District High Schools		All Schools
Year of Attendance	Number	Per Cent	Number	Per Cent	Number	Per Cent	Number	Per Cent	Number	Per Cent
First	466	7.0	117	8.8	1,204	17.1	796	22.9	2,583	13.9
Second	1,868	27.9	429	32.4	3,105	44.0	1,417	40.8	6,819	36.8
Third	1,773	26.5	321	24.3	1,829	25.9	805	23.2	4,728	25.5
Fourth	1,510	22.6	252	19.1	682	9.7	375	10.8	2,819	15.2
Fifth	968	14.5	175	13.2	221	3.1	74	2.1	1,438	7.8
Sixth and over	103	1.5	29	2.2	18	0.2	8	0.2	158	0.8
Totals	6,688	100.0	1,323	100.0	7,059	100.0	3,475	1000	18,545	100.0

It has been mentioned earlier that, except in special circumstances, children are not permitted to leave school until they reach the age of fifteen years, and it would appear that many pupils entering post-primary schools remain there only as long as they are required to, as no less than 50 per cent do not proceed beyond the second year of attendance.

Secondary Schools for Maoris.—At the end of 1952, 831 Maori pupils were receiving post-primary education at the 11 Maori secondary schools, 242 of the total being Government scholarship holders. In addition, there were 41 scholarship holders enrolled in public post-primary schools.

A further step forward in the provision of post-primary education for Maoris was the approval of the establishment of Maori district high schools. These schools, unlike the private denominational schools, are controlled by the Education Department; they provide courses of a practical nature specially suited to the needs of the Maori pupils. There were 9 such schools at the end of 1952.

Secondary School Bursaries.—Under regulations made in 1943, bursaries, of a maximum annual value of £40 and tenable for a period of up to two years, may be granted to pupils obliged to live away from home in order to take a Sixth Form course at a post-primary school (public or private) which is approved for accrediting purposes. In order to qualify, applicants must be under eighteen years of age and must have passed either the School Certificate or the University Entrance Examinations or have been accredited for the latter.

Technical School Bursaries.—Bursaries of a maximum value of £40 may be awarded to pupils who have completed at any post-primary school a two years' course preparatory to a specialized course in agriculture, fine arts, engineering, building construction, commerce, or home science which can be completed only at some technical school. The bursaries are tenable at post-primary schools approved for that purpose and may be held for a maximum of two years. Applicants must be under the age of seventeen years at the commencement of the specialized course and must be obliged to live away from home in order to receive satisfactory instruction in the courses to be followed.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE.—Since 1938 full responsibility for the work of vocational guidance of pupils at post-primary schools, which for some years had been carried on almost entirely by voluntary organizations, has been taken by the Government. Eight vocational guidance officers (four men and four women) were appointed, two to each of the four chief centres; and educational guidance officers, known as “careers advisers,” were also selected at certain large post-primary schools to work in conjunction with the district vocational guidance officers. So far as the work of finding positions for children leaving school was concerned, the vocational guidance officers acted in collaboration during the war with the Man-power Officers of the National Service Department, and in each of the four main cities a “Youth Centre” was established where the work of guidance and placement was undertaken jointly by officers of the Education and National Service Departments.

The Education Department assumed the full control of the youth centres in 1943, and the staffs of the centres (now called Vocational Guidance Centres) have been greatly strengthened and their activities expanded. Offices have been opened in the four main centres and in Lower Hutt. At Invercargill there is a part-time centre. The Vocational Guidance Officers are, however, in close contact with the post-primary schools in other centres. The Vocational Guidance Officers, acting in conjunction with headmasters and special careers teachers in the schools, offer their services at any point in the child's career where a choice has to be made, whether of school course or of vocation. When a child has made his choice of career the Vocational Guidance Officer will if requested find suitable employment for him and endeavour to follow up his progress until he is finally and satisfactorily settled in his line of work. Working in conjunction with the Education Committee of the Rehabilitation Board, the Vocational Guidance Officers at the conclusion of the last war assisted in the rehabilitation of returned servicemen, particularly in the selection of suitable courses of study. This particular work has declined in recent years.

The centres are in frequent touch with a number of voluntary agencies such as “Heritage,” Crippled Children Society, and lay Tuberculosis Associations.

For the year ended 31 December 1952 the total callers at the centres numbered 14,915. In addition, 6,450 pupils were interviewed individually in post-primary schools. Group interviews were carried out with 411 groups of children (numbering in the aggregate several thousands) interested in discussing particular vocations. Other activities, apart from attention to numerous inquiries by letter and the preparation of information sheets covering over one hundred occupations, included 759 visits to schools, addresses at 239 meetings, and 1,187 follow-up visits to persons placed in employment.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools.—In order to give children in country districts the advantages of special equipment and more specialized teaching in larger schools the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been undertaken wherever practicable. The extent of this consolidation will be evident from the fact that, whereas in 1934 there were 2,532 public primary (excluding intermediate) schools, the number in 1952 had fallen to 1,857. The fall in numbers is also due in part to the exclusion since 1946 of part-time and side schools from the totals. There were approximately 80 such schools in 1934 and 40 in 1946.

Transport and Board.—A natural consequence of consolidation is the provision of adequate transport facilities to bring children into the centres. Free passes on the railway to the nearest public or private school are granted to children living near a railway line but out of reach of a primary school, and the same privilege is enjoyed by pupils having to travel to attend secondary schools, combined schools, district high schools, technical high schools, and private secondary schools, as well as to part-time pupils travelling to attend technical schools or classes, and pupils attending manual-training centres.

Where railway facilities are not available or sufficiently convenient, transport of pupils is by motor vehicle, horse, or ferry. Transport by buses operated either by the Education Department or by private operators under contract with the Department is free. Where neither a departmental nor contract bus service is available the cost of transport is met by payment of a conveyance or horseback allowance.

The expenditure on transport of pupils for the financial year 1952–53 was £1,059,489, as compared with £961,898 in 1951–52.

The expenditure on boarding-allowances of pupils attending schools for the last three years is given in the table below.

	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£	£
Public primary and intermediate	12,351	13,700	9,402
Private primary	4,444	7,730	7,018
State secondary	72,166	71,799	74,587
Maori	3,668	3,826	4,623
Private secondary	32,112	33,929	37,656
Totals	124,741	130,984	133,286

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowance as at 1 July 1952, according to the type of school attended. Totals for the two preceding years are also shown.

Type of School	Number of Pupils on Roll	Total Pupils Transported to School	Number Receiving Boarding-allowance
Public primary schools	255,133	42,417	239
Intermediate schools and departments	13,776	1,137	27
Secondary departments of district high schools	8,931	4,703	161
State secondary schools	22,889	4,894	1,579
Technical high schools	17,944	7,249	624
Combined schools	4,079	790	585
Maori village schools	13,347	4,291	60
Chatham Islands schools	112	79	3
Private primary schools	39,342	2,822	335
Private secondary schools	11,622	1,258	1,745
Totals, 1952	387,175	69,640	5,358
Totals, 1951	363,492	64,764	4,453
Totals, 1950	348,643	62,661	4,416

Correspondence School.—Since 1922 correspondence classes have been conducted for the primary education of children in very remote areas and of those unable to attend school on account of lengthy illness or other causes. In 1929 courses were extended to cover secondary education up to the stage of the University Entrance Examination. The usual subjects of the syllabus of instruction are taught at the school, and in addition pupils who require instruction which is usually available in a special class in a public school can receive instruction by correspondence. A corporate school spirit is developed through craft and club activities, weekly radio lessons, and personal visits from itinerant teachers. The work of the school has been greatly facilitated by the extension of the practice of visiting pupils in their homes. Vacation schools have been organized in various centres in order to give pupils the opportunity of doing practical work and of taking part in group activities.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small public schools, junior assistants in Maori schools, Post Office cadets, and others who are unable to attend post-primary schools for evening classes, also receive tuition as part-time pupils of the Correspondence School. One of the features of the school is the provision of instruction for pupils taking practical subjects, such as needlework, woodwork, practical agriculture, and science subjects.

At the end of 1952 there were 3,258 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,596 being in the primary department and 435 full-time and 1,227 part-time students in the secondary department. The teaching staff of the school consists of a headmaster, 83 secondary, and 50 primary assistant teachers.

Agricultural Clubs.—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are adjudged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and nature study specialists employed by the Education Boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organizations.

HEALTH SERVICES.—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Public Health) of this Year-Book.

Free Issue of Milk.—The milk-in-schools scheme, for the free issue of a half-pint daily ration of milk to children, commenced on 1 March 1937. Information concerning this scheme is also contained in Section 5A.

TEACHING PROFESSION: Training of Teachers.—There are five teachers' training colleges available to student who desire to enter the teaching profession, and at the end of 1952 there were 2,301 students in training. Of these, 2,167 were “Division A” students and 134 “Division C” students. The minimum academic qualification for “Division A” is the School Certificate Examination, while students of “Division C” must be University graduates.

The following table shows the number of students in training at the teachers' training colleges in December of each of the years 1948–1952.

Year	Males	Females	Totals
1948	784	1,063	1,847
1949	929	1,265	2,194
1950	943	1,359	2,302
1951	888	1,430	2,318
1952	818	1,483	2,301

The normal course of training for “Division A” students is a period of two years at a teachers' training college, followed by a further period of one year as a probationary assistant attached to a public school. Third-year studentships, which entitle holders to an extra year's training in lieu of a probationary year, are available to selected students who wish to specialize in nature study, music, physical education, or arts and crafts, or who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of the deaf. A limited number of selected students are permitted to spend most of the third year of training doing full-time study towards a university degree. There were 52 such students in December 1952. For students of “Division C” the course is for one year. These students are University graduates who train for service in post-primary schools. To enable students to qualify to teach homecraft subjects, bursaries providing training at a teachers' training college and at a technical high school were instituted in 1943. There were 79 homecraft trainees in the Auckland and Dunedin Training Colleges in 1952.

In order to meet future staffing requirements due to the rapidly increasing school population a special training scheme was started in September 1949 for selected trainees aged twenty-one years and over. In December 1952 the number of trainees taking the special one-year course at the training colleges was 268 (165 men and 103 women). The corresponding figure in December 1951 was 286 (178 men, 108 women). On completion of the special training-college course these trainees are required to serve for one year as probationary assistants before being granted trained teachers' certificates. These trainees are not included in the figures in the tabulation of students at training colleges shown above.

Post-primary Teachers' Bursaries are awarded annually to students who have reached a standard of education at least equivalent to University Entrance, to enable them to attend full time at University to complete approved degree courses in preparation for entry into the post-primary teaching profession. Candidates must have reached 17 years of age by 31 December of the year in which their application is submitted. The bursaries are of an annual value of £70, plus payment of tuition fees, with an additional £40 if students are obliged to live away from home to attend University. The tenure is for a maximum period of four years. On completing their University courses students may be required to attend a teachers' training college for one year as “Division C” students, and then to serve for a period of four to five years as teachers in post-primary schools. The number of these bursars attending University in 1952 was 346.

A maximum of twenty Physical Education Bursaries are awarded annually to students to enable them to attend the School of Physical Education at the University of Otago for a three-year diploma course in physical education. The bursaries are of the same value as the Post-primary Teachers' Bursaries, and the bursars may be required, on completion of the course, to undertake work for a period of four to five years either as teachers of physical education or in some other occupation approved by the Director of Education. The number of such bursars attending University in 1952 was 50.

Public Primary-school Teachers.—The following table shows the number of teachers in public primary schools in the various education districts as at 30 November 1952, together with totals for 1951, 1950, and 1940.

—	Sole Teachers		Heads of Schools		Assistant Teachers		Probationary Assistants		Total Number of Teachers	Percentage of Male to Female Teachers
—	M.	F.	M.	F.	M.	F.	M.	F.	Total Number of Teachers	Percentage of Male to Female Teachers
Education District—
Auckland	51	4	222	11	419	789	99	126	1,721	85.1
South Auckland	58	3	208	7	229	549	54	73	1,181	86.9
Taranaki	31	5	72	9	79	179	13	34	422	85.9
Wanganui	56	12	84	8	97	227	37	30	551	98.9
Hawke's Bay	60	12	82	6	118	225	19	43	565	97.6
Wellington	55	16	112	11	282	468	58	84	1.086	87.6
Nelson	27	9	40	2	49	101	13	15	256	101.6
Canterbury	88	21	169	15	284	534	76	75	1,262	95.7
Otago	46	11	95	4	158	235	53	46	648	118.9
Southland	45	11	75	4	86	132	22	31	406	128.1
Intermediate schools and departments			19		249	191			459	140.3
Totals, 1952	517	104	1,178	77	2,050	3,630	444	557	8,557	95.9
Totals, 1951	535	102	1,158	77	1,835	3,550	468	533	8.258	93.8
Totals, 1950	561	138	1,115	81	1,571	3,482	453	459	7,860	88.9
Totals, 1940	644	363	991	147	886	2,890	227	438	6,586	71.6

Between 1940 and 1952 the total number of teachers increased by 1,971, male teachers contributing 1,441 of this increase and female teachers 530. The average number of pupils per teacher was 27.3 in 1940, 28.0 in 1951, and 28.5 in 1952.

Post-primary-school Teachers.—The following table indicates the number of full-time teachers employed in the post-primary schools mentioned. The principals are included except in the case of district high schools, the figures for which apply to assistants in the secondary department only.

Year	Secondary Schools		District High Schools		Technical High Schools		Combined Schools		Grand Totals
Year	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females	Grand Totals
1948	474	396	257	132	479	246	97	69	2,150
1949	481	402	291	126	492	230	99	67	2,188
1950	511	421	286	110	535	251	102	68	2,284
1951	527	447	308	102	564	263	103	70	2,384
1952	572	461	334	116	632	273	114	72	2,574

Male teachers employed in post-primary schools fell from 908 in 1940 to 707 in 1942, this decrease being almost entirely due to enlistment in the Armed Forces. The position was slightly improved in 1943, and each succeeding year has shown a further advance, the number in 1952 being 1,652, an increase of 744 as compared with 1940. The number of female teachers rose from 630 in 1940 to 838 in 1945, this increase being partially due to the employment of women during the war period in positions normally occupied by men. There was a fall to 795 in 1946, but the number at the end of 1952 (922) was 292 in excess of the number employed in 1940. Teachers employed in private post-primary schools and Maori secondary schools are not included in the figures. In 1952, 561 full-time teachers (247 male, 314 female) were employed in these schools.

TEACHING AIDS.—Regular broadcasting programmes for schools were initiated in 1931. A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national stations. Special lessons are also broadcast for Correspondence School pupils.

Visual Aids.—The National Film Library, a branch of the Education Department, lends films free of charge to schools and to organizations having some educational purpose. More than 1,300 schools have 16 mm. sound projectors.

Film strips are also available on free loan from the film-strip libraries in the offices of Education Boards. They can also be purchased for a nominal sum from the National Film Library. About two-thirds of the schools are equipped with film-strip projectors.

Museums.—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers' training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

Publications.—The School Journal, an illustrated paper, is published regularly in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. It is supplemented by primary-school bulletins which deal with topics of New Zealand history, geography and nature study. These publications are prepared in the Education Department and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private. Vernacular Journals are also issued to schools in Western Samoa and the Cook and Niue Islands.

Post-primary bulletins are published fortnightly and issued free to all public and private post-primary schools. They provide background reading for subjects of the revised curriculum, particularly in social studies, science, literature, and music.

A bi-monthly Gazette, mainly for the information of teachers, is published by the Department. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State schools throughout New Zealand.

As stated under an earlier heading, textbooks, prepared in the Department of Education, are issued free to all pupils in public and private primary schools.

HIGHER EDUCATION: New Zealand University.—Control of higher education in New Zealand is vested in the New Zealand University, founded by the New Zealand University Acts of 1870, 1874, and 1875.

The University was formerly an examining, not a teaching, body with four teaching institutions affiliated to it—the Auckland University College, founded in 1882; Victoria University College, founded in 1897 at Wellington; Canterbury University College, founded in 1873 at Christchurch; and Otago University, founded in 1869 at Dunedin. By the New Zealand University Amendment Act 1926 the constitution of the University was altered so that it now actually consists of the four University colleges. Each of the colleges, besides providing the usual University courses, specializes in certain directions: Otago University has medical and dental schools, a school of mining and metallurgical engineering, a school of home science, and a school of physical education; Canterbury University College has a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, and chemical), and a school of fine arts; Auckland University College has a school of architecture, a school of fine arts, and a school of engineering (mechanical, electrical, and civil); and Victoria University College specializes in law, has a school of public administration, and a school of social work. There are also two agricultural colleges—viz., Massey and Canterbury—associated with the University (see page 169).

In 1930 a New Zealand University Amendment Act was passed to enable the University to discharge its functions under the Law Practitioners Amendment Act 1930. For this purpose a Council of Legal Education was established to make recommendations to the Academic Board of the University with respect to any matter relating to legal education. Further, the Senate of the University in making or altering statutes concerning legal education must first consider any recommendations made by the Academic Board or the Council of Legal Education.

By means of an amendment to its own statutes and with the consent of the colleges, the University has set up a University Grants Committee, through which applications for grants are placed before the Government.

In 1952 there were 10,365 students actually in attendance at the four University colleges and the two agricultural colleges. Of these, 1,073 were graduates, 7,725 undergraduates, and 1,567 unmatriculated students. Of the unmatriculated students, 614 were taking short courses at the agricultural colleges. A number of the unmatriculated students are returned servicemen, who are admitted under special terms. In addition, there were 940 students attached to the various University colleges, but exempt from lectures. Comparable figures for the five years quoted are given in the following table.

Year	Students Attending Lectures		Exempt Students		Totals
Year	Males	Females	Males	Females	Totals
1948	9,099	2,228	1,302	212	12,841
1949	8,490	2,268	1,184	178	12,120
1950	8,254	2,619	1,018	164	12,055
1951	8,162	2,522	882	125	11,691
1952	7,793	2,572	833	107	11,305

The numbers of male students attending lectures in the last five years are substantially above those of pre-war years, although there was a decrease of 1,384 between 1947 and 1952. The peak was reached in 1947, the number in that year being 5,052 or 124 per cent, above 1939. The numbers of female students attending lectures have also increased, the number in 1952 being 1,287, or 100 per cent, higher than in 1939. Students exempted from attendance at lectures increased in number during the post-war years, but their number declined after 1948, and in 1952 it represented 9.1 per cent of all students (11.8 per cent in 1948). The award of rehabilitation bursaries to ex-servicemen no doubt contributed to the high figures from 1946 to 1948. Holders of rehabilitation bursaries fell from approximately 3,400 in 1946 to 384 in 1952. Indications are therefore that an increased proportion of young people in the relevant age-groups is continuing education at the University level, so that the falling-off in numbers of ex-servicemen is being almost balanced by increases in numbers from other sources.

Professors attached to the various University colleges in 1952 numbered 90, of whom Auckland had 21; Victoria, 18; Canterbury, 17; Otago, 27; Massey, 5; Canterbury Agricultural, 2. In addition there was a considerably larger number of full-time lecturers, part-time lecturers, and assistants.

The following table gives particulars of students who were taking definite courses during 1952 and each of the preceding two years.

Course	1950			1951			1952
Course	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
Agriculture—
Degree	154	2	156	127	5	132	102	2	104
Diploma	283	7	290	276	5	281	267	2	269
Other	85		85	74	5	79	53	1	54
Architecture—
Degree	114	1	115	90		90	79		79
Diploma	50	4	54	37	2	39	46	3	49
Other	58		58	65		65	61		61
Arts	2,629	1,433	4,062	2,533	1,380	3,913	2,357	1,337	3,694
Commerce	1,573	95	1,668	1,483	77	1,560	1,416	84	1,500
Dentistry	200	4	204	189	4	193	160	4	164
Divinity	40	7	47	35	3	38	32	4	36
Education : Diploma	92	16	108	90	13	103	74	9	83
Fine Arts : Diploma	44	109	153	61	114	175	55	91	146
Engineering	414		414	369	1	370	376	1	377
Home Science—
Degree		37	37		42	42		34	34
Diploma		48	48		39	39	1	49	50
Horticulture : Diploma	35	13	48	25	11	36	25	14	39
Journalism : Diploma	31	11	42	19	13	32	19	17	36
Law	488	22	510	440	14	454	525	19	544
Massage : Diploma	4	45	49
Medical Science	3		3	2		2	4		4
Medicine	495	47	542	504	48	552	492	50	542
Mining : Diploma	55		55	13		13	7		7
Music	92	105	197	82	84	166	69	95	164
Physical Education : Diploma	30	37	67	23	41	64	21	36	57
Public Administration : Diploma	11		11	9		9	14		14
Science (including Medical, etc., intermediate)	1,674	291	1,965	1,656	307	1,963	1,647	310	1,957
Social Science : Diploma	8	8	16	12	13	25	9	10	19
Other courses	46	26	72	30	59	89	39	55	94
Totals	8,708	2,368	11,076	8,244	2,280	10,524	7,950	2,227	10,177

Free University Education.—Free University education was instituted in 1911 for all holders of University Scholarships and, in more recent years, increasing numbers of bursaries have been awarded. The most important awards for those entering the University are the ten University Junior Scholarships awarded by the University of New Zealand, and the twenty University National Scholarships for which funds are provided by Department of Education. Both are tenable for four years and provide full tuition fees, a scholarship allowance (£80 and £70 respectively), and an additional allowance (£60 for the former and £40 for the latter), for students who have to live away from home. These scholarships, together with the Taranaki Scholarship and certain privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the University of New Zealand.

Scholarships awarded during the degree course are the University Senior (£90 per annum) and John Tinline Scholarships (£90 per annum). The various colleges also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The chief scholarships awarded at the end of the University course are the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, the Post-graduate Scholarships in Arts and “Science, the Travelling Scholarships in Commerce, Law, Engineering, Architecture, Medicine, and Dentistry, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarship, the Shirtcliffe Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the Shell Post-graduate Scholarship, and the National Research Scholarships. All are tenable abroad. The University of New Zealand also awards Research Fellowships, the value of which is not fixed, but the normal grants have been approximately £300 per annum for a period of two years. Each University college may also award two Research Scholarships of an annual value of £200, tenable in New Zealand.

Several different kinds of bursaries, as distinct from scholarships, are awarded each year. For the most part these provide full tuition fees, while several provide also bursary or boarding allowances. Bursaries awarded by the Department of Education are University National (boarding and ordinary), Special, Post-primary Teachers' and Physical Education Bursaries. There are also bursaries awarded by other Government Departments.

National Boarding Bursaries to the number of 65 are available annually to candidates who, though not qualifying for scholarships, have performed creditably in the Entrance Scholarship examination. At least forty of these bursaries go each year to students who are required to live away from home in order to attend a University College; the remainder, however, may be held by students who, though living at home, are in need of financial assistance. In addition to full tuition fees, the bursary allowance (£70) is paid.

Ordinary National Bursaries are available to all students qualifying for University Entrance either by examination or by accrediting. These bursaries cover full tuition fees. Bursars who hold a Higher School Certificate receive-in addition a small bursary allowance of £30 if they attend as full-time students. Both forms of National Bursary are tenable for four years, or for five years in the case of medical, dental, and engineering students.

In order to assist qualified students to pursue University courses in agriculture, architecture, fine arts, engineering, science, and home science, approximately 110 Special Bursaries are awarded each year. They are tenable for five years for engineering and four years for other courses. They provide full tuition fees, a cash payment of £30, and (where appropriate) a boarding allowance of £40.

Full details of the amounts payable and other qualifying conditions for the various classes of bursaries are available in a vocational guidance pamphlet issued by the Department of Education annually entitled “Next Year”.

The total number of University National (ordinary and boarding) and Special Bursaries current in 1952 was 3,510.

Bursaries, etc., are also awarded annually by other Government Departments and include Medical and Dental Bursaries (Health Department), National Research Scholarships and National Research Fellowships (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), Rehabilitation Bursaries (Rehabilitation Department), Coal Mining Bursaries (Mines Department), Public Service Bursaries (Public Service Commission).

From the table given below will be seen the number of students, including those taking short courses at agricultural colleges, who received free University education during each of the last five years.

Year	Junior University, University National, and Taranaki Scholarships	Senior University Scholarships	University National (Ordinary and Boarding) and Special Bursaries	Training-college Studentships	Other	Totals
1948	115	31	3,301	789	3,342	7,578
1949	109	30	3,404	847	2,398	6,788
1950	107	25	3,661	715	1,820	6,328
1951	104	24	3,610	719	1,419	5,876
1952	124	22	3,510	719	1,192	5,567

Holders of rehabilitation bursaries numbered 384 in 1952, 572 in 1951, 907 in 1950, 1,727 in 1949, and 2,655 in 1948.

Agricultural Colleges.—There are two agricultural colleges specializing in higher agricultural education—Massey Agricultural College, near Palmerston North, and Canterbury Agricultural College, near Christchurch. The colleges are separately governed, though both are attached to the University of New Zealand. The staff of Massey College consisted in 1952 of 5 professors, 47 lecturers and assistant lecturers, while that of Canterbury was made up of 2 professors, 29 lecturers and assistant lecturers. The total number of students at Massey College in 1952 was 515 and at Canterbury 565. These numbers include 225 students at Massey and 389 at Canterbury Agricultural Colleges taking short courses.

Encouragement in the development of higher agricultural education is given through Government grants to the colleges, amounting to £150,317 in 1952–53. Various research projects at the colleges have been aided by expert assistance and grants from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

In addition, special bursaries in agriculture (referred to on the previous page) are awarded to qualified candidates to provide them with practical training for positions as teachers or instructors of agriculture. During 1952, 19 bursars were in attendance at Canterbury Agricultural College, 13 at Massey College, and 9 at the four University colleges.

CHILD WELFARE.—The Child Welfare Act of 1925 provided for the creation of a special branch of the Education Department, now known as the Child Welfare Division. The Act was passed to make better provision with respect to the maintenance, care, and control of children who are placed specially under the protection of the State, and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, and delinquent children.

An important section of the Act provided for the establishment of Children's Courts, to be presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices specially authorized to exercise jurisdiction in these Courts. Provision was also made for the appointment of honorary associates of either sex, whose function it is to consider all the facts concerning children brought before the Courts and to advise the presiding Magistrate or Justice as to what action should be taken. The appointment of Child Welfare Officers for the investigation of all cases coming before the Courts was also provided for. These investigations are carried out mainly by the regular officers employed by the Department, but in outlying districts the services of honorary child welfare officers are utilized for this important work. At 31 March 1953 there were 191 men and women serving as honorary child welfare officers.

The principle of dealing with children in the privacy of the Magistrate's room had been followed for many years throughout New Zealand, and the Child Welfare Act was designed to give legality to such a practice. Very wide discretionary powers are given to these special Courts in dealing with children. The ordinary procedure of requiring the child to plead, of taking evidence on oath, and, indeed, of hearing the particular charge may be dispensed with altogether. Wherever practicable the Children's Court is held in premises apart from the ordinary Police Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these Courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child was originally defined for purposes of the Act as one under sixteen years of age. This age was raised to seventeen in 1927.

Children's Courts deal with cases of children brought either (a) on a complaint under the Child Welfare Act that a child is neglected, indigent, delinquent, not under proper control, or living in a detrimental environment or (b) charged with an offence. After hearing the complaint or the charge and in the light of the Child Welfare Officer's report, the Court may, according to the needs of the case, commit the child to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare, or place him under supervision of a Child Welfare Officer for a period (usually one year or two years) or discharge him with an admonishment and, on occasion, an order for restitution or a fine.

The numbers of children appearing before the Children's Courts in the last three years (ended 31 March) were as follows.

	1951	1952	1953
On “complaints” (under the Child Welfare Act)	484	468	440
For offences (including offences against Acts, regulations, or by-laws)	1,469	1,791	1,820
Totals	1,953	2,259	2,260

On the basis of the total juvenile population of New Zealand at the time, the incidence of appearances for offences is shown as follows.

	1951	1952	1953
* Number of cases per 10,000 of the population aged seven to seventeen years.
Total Court appearances for offences	1,469	1,791	1,820
Rate^*	45	53	52
Court appearances for all more serious offences (excluding offences against special Acts, regulations, or by-laws)	1,102	1,286	1,274
Rate^*	33	38	36

The decisions made in the Children's Court during the year ended 31 March 1953 are shown in the summary below.

Decision	Year Ended 31 March 1953
Committed to the care of the Child Welfare Superintendent	395
Placed under supervision of Child Welfare Officers	824
Admonished and discharged with or without costs, restitution, or fine	826
All other decisions	215
Total	2,260

Most of the children who are committed to the care of the Superintendent of Child Welfare and who are thereby under his guardianship are placed by him and his officers either in foster-homes and at school, or in employment and at private board. Only those who require special care and training which cannot be provided in the ordinary life of the community are placed in institutions administered by the Superintendent. Some few reside in private institutions—e.g., in post-primary school hostels.

Of the total of 6,177 children under the control and supervision of the Child Welfare Superintendent and his officers at 31 March 1953, 3,009 were under the guardianship of the Superintendent and a further 41 were in effect his wards for the time being. These 3,050 children were at that date placed as shown in the following summary.

	Number	Percentage of Total
Residing in individual private homes (foster-homes, employers' or relatives' homes)	2,466	80.9
In institutions administered by the Child Welfare Division (including those temporarily admitted)	300	9.8
In mental hospitals	120	3.9
In residential schools and colleges (including schools for handicapped children)	118	3.9
In hospitals, convalescent homes, etc.	17	0.6
In children's homes (including orphanages, etc.)	29	0.9

For the children requiring institutional care and training the Child Welfare Division administers several different types of institutions. The Girls' Training Centre at Burwood, Christchurch, and the Boys' Training Centre at Levin each provide for the more difficult or disturbed girls or boys. The centres are open institutions providing full educational facilities with qualified and trained teachers and also a wide range of vocational training. Another small institution at Featherston provides specially for Maori girls who, while not seriously difficult, require some training before placement in the community. Two small hostels for girls at Wellington and at Christchurch and one for boys at Auckland provide for those who, while in ordinary employment, require for the time being the conditions of supervision and care obtainable in a hostel. Receiving homes and boys' homes in several of the main centres provide for temporary care and observation.

Children placed by the Courts under supervision of Child Welfare Officers are supervised in their own homes, except that in a few cases, with the approval of the parents or guardians, the Child Welfare Officer arranges placement elsewhere—e.g., in employment. For most children placed under supervision the methods available thereby prove sufficient for the needs; where it is not sufficient the child usually appears before the Court again and is committed to the care of the Superintendent. There were 963 children under supervision at 31 March 1953.

Preventive cases, numbering 799 at 31 March 1953, consist of children who, without any Court appearance, are being supervised and assisted by Child Welfare Officers under arrangements made voluntarily with the parents or guardians.

As provided for in the Child Welfare Act 1925, Child Welfare Officers, on receiving notification from the Registrars of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child.

Child Welfare Officers administer the provisions of the Infants Act 1908 by which young children living apart from their parents or guardians are required to be in licensed foster-homes. At 31 March 1953, 970 such children were being supervised.

Also under the provisions of the Infants Act 1908, on request by a Magistrate to whom an application for the adoption of a child has been made, a Child Welfare Officer investigates the proposal and reports to the Court accordingly.

The Child Welfare Superintendent, under the provisions of the Child Welfare Amendment Act 1948, assumes guardianship of unaccompanied immigrant children from Britain on their arrival in New Zealand, and similarly of refugee children from other countries. He also has administrative responsibility for the Polish refugee children who came to New Zealand during the war.

COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH.—In 1933 the Carnegie Corporation of New York set up a committee to report on the proposal to found in New Zealand a Council for Educational Research. This committee called a conference of representative educationists to consider the proposal, and approached educational authorities for their co-operation. In view of the unanimous support given to the proposal, the committee recommended the foundation of the Council, and in November 1933 the Carnegie Corporation appropriated a substantial grant for the purpose, payable in five yearly instalments, beginning in 1933–34. In 1938 the Corporation extended the grant to cover a second five-year period, from 1940 to 1944.

When the Corporation grants ceased in 1944 the Government passed legislation giving statutory existence to the Council, and since 1945 has made an annual grant of £3000 to it. In 1953 the Government grant was raised to £4,000. The Corporation has continued to show an interest in the work of the Council, and from time to time has made smaller grants for specific purposes.

The Council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications (34 research reports and 14 shorter studies in education) consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and of accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. The work done under the auspices of the Council has been carried out not only by its own permanent staff but also by part-time investigators.

In addition to its activities as a research organization, the Council acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters.

The Council's activities are under the control of a permanent officer (the Director), who is assisted by a staff of three. There are local Institutes for Educational Research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

ADULT EDUCATION: National Council of Adult Education.—In 1938 an Education Amendment Act provided for the establishment of a Council of Adult Education to co-ordinate activities of adult education, to make recommendations to the Minister of Education concerning the amount and distribution of the annual grant, and to receive reports from the bodies to whom grants were made.

The Adult Education Act 1947, which followed largely the recommendations of a Consultative Committee reporting in the same year, abolished the Council and set up a National Council of Adult Education with much wider powers. The functions of the National Council are—

To promote and foster adult education and the cultivation of the arts; and
To make recommendations to the Minister of Education as to the amount of the annual grant to be made to the National Council of Adult Education out of moneys appropriated by Parliament for the purpose, and to receive, administer, and control the expenditure of such moneys granted.

The National Council has power to appoint staff and to impose conditions on grants made by it. The full-time executive officer of the Council, the National Secretary of Adult Education, is located in Wellington. The National Council comprises the Director of Education, the Director of Broadcasting, the Director of the National Library Service, or their representatives; one member appointed by the Senate of the University of New Zealand; two members appointed by each of the four University Colleges; one member appointed by the Dominion Council of the Workers' Educational Association; one member appointed by the Minister of Education to represent the Maori race; and up to two members appointed by the Council itself.

Regional Councils of Adult Education.—Staff for field work in adult education is employed by the Councils of the four constituent colleges of the University of New Zealand. Each College Council has the advice of a Regional Council of Adult Education, to which certain of the powers of the College Council are delegated. The four Regional Councils are differently constituted, but the 1947 Act requires that at least one-half of the members shall be persons appointed on the nomination of voluntary associations or organizations engaged or interested in adult education in the district. In each region the teaching staff consists of a director, “general purpose” tutors, and specialist tutors. The work supervised by the Regional Councils covers a wide range of interests—lecture courses, discussion courses, and various forms of assistance to specially organized groups or groups formed originally for other purposes, in both town and country. An important recent development has been the establishment of the Community Arts Service, which arranges for visits of exhibitions, musicians, and drama and ballet groups to country centres. The Regional Councils also organize short term summer and winter schools in town and country.

Voluntary Agencies.—The tutors, working under the direction of the Regional Councils of Adult Education, offer assistance to a large number of voluntary agencies such as Parent-Teacher Associations, Home and School Societies, Play Centre Associations, and groups concerned with drama, music, and art.

The Country Women's Co-ordinating Committee, representing both the Women's Division of Federated Farmers and the Women's Institutes, organizes classes in rural areas and is supplied with tutors by the Regional Councils.

The Workers' Educational Association operates in conjunction with the University Colleges and organizes classes, mostly one-year classes, in the main cities and in a few of the larger towns. Tutors for these classes are provided by the Regional Councils of Adult Education. The Regional Councils also now conduct much of the country work formerly organized by the Workers' Educational Association. The Workers' Educational Association is financed by grants from the National Council of Adult Education and donations from local authorities, trade unions, and private individuals.

Education of New Settlers.—The large number of new settlers who have come to New Zealand from European countries in recent years has led to the establishment of evening classes for teaching English and what may broadly be called civics. During 1953 some 83 such classes, with an enrolment of over 1,600, were established in fifty-one centres. Special textbooks and other material are being prepared for use by teachers and students.

Community Centres.—In 1938 an experimental Community Centre was established at Feilding under the supervision of two experienced educationists specially appointed to the staff of the Feilding Agricultural High School. Classes have been conducted in drama, child care, literature, art appreciation, and physical welfare, both at the centre and in outlying areas. In 1944 a community centre was opened in a suburb of Christchurch. More recently experimental centres have been opened in Westport, Wakari, Mangakino, and in the coal-mining districts of the Buller. All these receive some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. There are, however, many other community centre schemes supported by voluntary effort.

The Adult Education Act 1947 gave the Minister of Education power to establish or recognize community centres and to make grants to them.

NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE.—The establishment of a National Library Service by the Minister of Education in 1945 followed a recommendation by the New Zealand Library Association. The National Library Service has four divisions—the Country Library Service, the School Library Service, the National Library Centre, and the Library School.

Country Library Service.—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938 under the control of the Minister of Education, has been extended through district offices for closer contact with participating libraries. It assists library authorities in country districts and towns with a population of less than 15,000 to give better service. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the four main centres, receive assistance under certain conditions. Free loans of books are made to libraries controlled by local authorities which operate a free service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. Subscription libraries in country districts—i.e., outside the area of boroughs and town districts—may hire books at the rate of £3 for 50. Seven specially equipped vans, each carrying 1,600–2,000 books covering a wide range, travel over the whole territory so that both free and subscription libraries can make their own exchanges every four months. In between visits books go by post from the headquarters and district offices to libraries requesting them. Hampers of books are sent to isolated groups of readers.

Free public libraries which extend their service to general hospitals in their area receive special collections of books for the use of patients. A library service is given to lighthouses, and a service to Ministry of Works, State Hydro-electric, and New Zealand Forest Service camps has been given since 1949. Tuberculosis patients in sanatoria and in tuberculosis wards of general hospitals are served from a special collection of books built up to meet their particular needs. Mental hospitals receive collections of books which are exchanged regularly. Prisons and borstal institutions receive books and change them on the four-monthly visits of the travelling book vans.

The number of libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1953 was as follows: free libraries, 95; subscription libraries, 737; groups, 49; Ministry of Works, State Hydro-electric, and New Zealand Forest Service camps, 51; tuberculosis sanatoria, 19 mental hospitals, 12; hospitals, 12; prisons and borstal institutions, 13. Lighthouse staff receiving a library service numbered 98.

School Library Service.—The launching of the School Library Service, operating on a circulating basis, has been a most important development. This service, which is financed by the Education Department and administered by the Country Library Service, aims at giving children access to the best literature.

At 31 March 1953 the School Library Service was circulating loans of children's books to 2,114 schools, representing 192,668 children. The schools served are primary, intermediate, and district high schools, public and private, outside the four main cities, and include the Education Department's Correspondence School. The public libraries of the main cities receive bulk loans from the Service for circulation to the schools in their area.

A service is also available through which all schools, including post-primary, receive additional books on request. Approximately 104,369 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1953.

National Library Centre.—The National Centre is responsible for various bibliographical projects, such as the maintenance of the Union Catalogue, the Union List of Serials and the Index to New Zealand Periodicals, and the development of a National Bibliography. Bibliographies and indexes on special subjects are furnished when required. The Centre's other main functions, developed in conjunction with the Book Resources Committee of the New Zealand Library Association, are concerned with problems of inter-library loan, and book and periodical coverage. The latter project is designed to guarantee that there will be available in the country at least one copy of all books of any consequence published in the English language and to maintain a continuous survey of holdings of books published in the past.

Library School.—The Library School was established in 1946, and at the end of 1952 one hundred and forty-eight students had taken the course.

The school offers professional training to those holding University degrees or with equivalent education. The course lasts from February to November.

Students receive allowances equal to those paid to students of Teachers' Training Colleges.

Short courses for Librarians of smaller libraries were held in 1947, 1948, and 1950. A short course for Librarians of Government Departments was held in 1949, and in the same year the Library School collaborated in holding a short course for teacher-librarians. Since 1952, Part Two of the New Zealand Library Association's General Training Course has been carried out by a five weeks' course at the school.

Chapter 7. SECTION 7—SOCIAL SECURITY, PENSIONS, SUPERANNUATION, ETC.

Table of Contents

7 A—SOCIAL SECURITY

7B—WAR PENSIONS, ETC.

7 C—SUPERANNUATION

7 D—NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND

7 E—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

7 A—SOCIAL SECURITY

DEVELOPMENT.—The Social Security Act 1938, which came into operation on 1 April 1939, may be said to have as its principal aim the provision for payment of superannuation and other benefits designed to safeguard the people of New Zealand from disabilities arising from age, invalidity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment, sickness, or other exceptional conditions. Its two main objectives were—

To substitute for the previous system of non-contributory civil pensions a system of monetary benefits on a contributory basis:
The inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits.

The various classes of pensions, etc., which were superseded by monetary benefits of similar application were old-age pensions, widows' pensions, Maori War pensions, miners' pensions, invalidity pensions, and family allowances, while the unemployment benefit replaced the system of sustenance payments previously in force. A brief history of the introduction of the principal classes of pensions superseded by the social security scheme, and of the former Pensions Department which administered them, is given on pages 451–452 of the 1947–49 issue of the Year-Book. In addition, four new classes of monetary benefits were inaugurated—the orphan's benefit, the sickness benefit, the emergency benefit (for cases of hardship), and the universal superannuation benefit.

The Social Security Amendment Act 1945 introduced a further important addition to the social legislation of New Zealand. It established the principle of universal family benefits, and from 1 April 1946 each mother receives a benefit in respect of each of her dependent children irrespective of the family income or property.

A further development in 1948 occurred with the passing of legislation providing for reciprocity of social security benefits with Australia, and reciprocity in relation to family benefits with Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The respective Acts were entitled the Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, the Family Benefits (Reciprocity with Great Britain) Act 1948, and the Family Benefits (Reciprocity with Northern Ireland) Act 1948.

The first mentioned of these three Acts repealed the Age Benefits and Invalids' Benefits (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1943, and came into force on 1 July 1949. In the 1948 Act the classes of benefits were extended and now cover the following: age-pensions and age benefits, invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits, widows' pensions and widows' benefits, child endowment and family benefits, unemployment benefits, and sickness benefits.

ADMINISTRATION.—The Social Security Act 1938 established a Department of State entitled the Social Security Department, under the control of a Commission consisting of not more than three members. The Department administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Security, Part II of the Act dealing with those monetary benefits to which reference has been made, while Part III of the Act, dealing with medical, hospital, and other related benefits, is administered by the Health Department under the direction of the Minister of Health. Provision was made in the Social Security Amendment Act 1947 for the Social Security Commission, with the written consent of the Minister of Social Security, to delegate to any Registrar or other officer of the Department any of its powers under Part II of the principal Act.

The War Pensions Act 1943 (which consolidated and amended the previously existing legislation on the subject) and the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act 1940 are also administered by the Social Security Department, one of whose officers is also designated Secretary for War Pensions. It should be noted, however, that, unlike the benefits under the Social Security Act which are paid from the Social Security Fund (referred to later), war pensions are paid through the Consolidated Fund from general taxation.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS.—Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out is provided for by the establishment within the Public Account of the Social Security Fund. The principal revenue of the Fund is derived from a charge (collected by the Inland Revenue Department) on salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies, but the Act also makes provision for the payment to the Fund of such other moneys as may be appropriated by Parliament from time to time, and a substantial amount has been received from the Consolidated Fund each year.

The social security charge, which had been at the rate of 1d. for every 1s. 8d. or part thereof of income since the inception of the scheme, was increased in 1946 to 1d. for every 13⅓d. or part thereof—i.e., 1s. 6d. in the pound. The increase, in the case of salaries and wages, became effective from and including 13 May 1946, while “other” income received during the year ended 31 March 1946 was subject to the increased rate.

A registration fee formerly payable (5s. per annum for females and males between sixteen and twenty years of age, and 5s. per quarter for males over twenty years of age) was abolished as from 1 April 1946.

In the case of salaries and wages the amount of the charge is deducted by the employer or other person by whom the wages or salaries are paid, while the charge on other income is payable by the recipient in equal instalments on 7 June and 7 November in the year following the financial year in which the income was derived.

Receipts.—Receipts of the fund for the financial years 1948–49 to 1952,-53 are given in the following table.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Includes for some years small amounts which are not chargeable against the amounts paid out under the heading of widows' benefits.
	£	£	£	£	£
Fees and fines	125	285	201	74	792
Charge on salaries and wages	16,744,529	18,766,780	20,650,975	24,318,138	26,650,922
Charge on company and other income	12,633,856	12,935,790	15,115,261	19,294,730	18,857,016
Grants from Consolidated Fund (Social Security Act)	15,000,000	12,000,000	14,000,000	14,000,000	14,000,000
Maintenance recoveries against defaulting husbands^*	64,104	65,273	66,900	73,555	78,429
Interest on investments	137	17,698	7,082	4,946	19,909
Reciprocity arrangements : Recoveries from Australian Government			1,860	3,428	3,414
Other receipts	57,714	52,357	40,110	86,795	17,754
Total revenue	44,500,465	43,838,183	49,882,389	57,781,666	59,628,236

Payments.—Particulars of payments during the same five financial years are contained in the next table.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Monetary benefits—	£	£	£	£	£
Superannuation	1,850,079	2,179,365	2,336,275	3,144,091	5,564,629
Age	13,790,971	15,133,751	17,150,839	19,235,326	19,091,303
Widows'	1,910,459	2,159,651	2,142,232	2,230,635	2,157,115
Orphans'	27,623	31,176	33,061	33,667	35,404
Family	14,242,203	14,850,959	15,289,346	16,110,297	16,854,261
Invalids'	1,348,616	1,397,713	1,429,276	1,476,281	1,416,561
Miners'	113,659	120,061	125,189	127,619	121,636
Maori War	10	2
Unemployment	8,947	10,402	5,355	3,914	3.187
Sickness	911,107	1,008,651	1,042,050	1,128,804	1,062,176
Emergency	251,409	280,155	292,069	365,181	340,625
Total, monetary benefits	34,455,083	37,171,886	39,845,692	43,855,815	46,646,897
Medical benefits—
Medical	2,306,881	2,524,290	2,661,166	2,760,583	3,047,202
Hospital	1,997,375	2,011,649	2,018,963	2,112,494	2,135,218
Maternity	916,120	871,386	885,316	884,781	919,422
Pharmaceutical	1,793,159	2,043,843	2,097,000	2,428,216	3,015,833
Supplementary	861,913	1,009,941	1,060,938	1,181,953	1,310,922
Total, medical benefits	7,875,448	8,461,109	8,723,383	9,368,027	10,428,597
Reciprocity benefits—
Australia		1,715	3,050	3,730	4,967
Great Britain			33	41	23
Balance of maintenance moneys	580	263	117	33
Other payments	95	6,641
Administration expenses	729,259	783,822	848,486	950,405	957,558
Special assistance				2,192	21,287
Bonus					767,115
Total payments	43,060,465	46,425,436	49,420,761	54,180,243	58,826,444
Balance of Fund at end of year	8,681,918	6,094,665	6,556,293	10,157,716	10,959,508

MONETARY BENEFITS.—A brief description of the main provisions relating to the various monetary benefits under Part II of the Act is now given. The rates prescribed for several of the benefits under the principal Act were increased by way of bonus to the extent of 5 per cent of the maximum rate payable in each case, as from 1 May 1942. The Social Security Amendment Act 1943, however, superseded these bonuses with permanent increases as from 1 July 1943, and further increases were granted in most benefits as from 1 October 1945. The Social Security Amendment Act 1947 provided for a further increase in the rate of benefits payable, the effective date being as from 1 October 1947. The same amendment gave the Commission power to continue superannuation, family, and miners' benefits without review for a period longer than the twelve months to which it was previously restricted. Other benefits subject to a means test may not be granted, or renewed for a period exceeding twelve months, without further investigation as to changes in circumstances. The Social Security Amendment Act 1949 also provided for an increase in the basic rates of monetary benefits as from 1 June 1949. On 2 June 1950 the Government announced that, in consideration of the effect of the removal of certain subsidies, it had been decided to increase social security benefits by a flat cost-of-living bonus representing a 5 per cent increase, or 2s. 6d. per week for single beneficiaries and 5s. per week for married couples, on existing rates. Benefits affected with retrospective payments as from 8 May 1950, were age, invalids', miners', orphans', widows', sickness, unemployment, and emergency benefits. An earlier announcement (22 December 1949) stated that the amount of allowable income that could be earned by a beneficiary without affecting the benefit was to be increased from £1 to £1 10s. per week. This concession applies to age, invalids', and sickness benefits. These increases were later incorporated in the Social Security Amendment Act 1950. This Act also provided that the reduction in the basic rates of benefit on account of accumulated property in those cases where it applied (age benefits and invalids' benefits) was to be £1 for every £15 of value instead of £1 for every £10 as formerly. Further increases ranging from 2s. 6d. to 5s. per week for recipients of social security benefits who are not generally in regular employment were made from 15 February 1951 and validated by the 1951 amendment to the Act, while from 15 September 1953 an increase of 10s. per week was made for all basic social security benefits. The rates quoted hereunder take recent increases into account and are those at present in force (January 1954).

The following payments, authorized by the Finance Act 1951, were made by way of cash bonus to certain social security beneficiaries and others during the year 1951. An amount of £2,045.273 was paid in accordance with the proposal of the Government announced on 16 December 1950 to pay a Christmas bonus of £10 to certain social security beneficiaries and war pensioners. For superannuitants and others of that class whose income during the year ended 31 December 1950 did not exceed £226 for a single person or £374 for married persons, payments of £10 and £20 respectively were also made, with proportionately lesser amounts as the gross income increased until at £236 and £394 the bonus payments ceased. The amount paid out under the latter arrangement totalled £148,669. A family bonus of £5 per child was paid in respect of children for whom the family benefit (or a pension benefit in lieu of family benefit) was payable at 30 June 1951. The amount involved under this heading was £3,078,910.

A special bonus of £5 to unmarried persons and £10 to married couples was paid to certain social security beneficiaries and war pensioners for Christmas 1952. Expenditure on this bonus to 31 March 1953 totalled £859,905, of which £767,115 was paid to social security beneficiaries. A further bonus of £10 for unmarried persons and £20 for married couples was paid at Christmas 1953.

Payments of benefits, other than invalids' or miners' benefits for which separate provision had been made earlier, during temporary absence from New Zealand was made permissible at the Commission's discretion by the Finance Act (No. 2) 1948.

Persons employed outside New Zealand will be deemed to be resident in New Zealand if employed on Government business, and may be so deemed at the Commission's discretion if employed otherwise, for the purposes of Part II of the principal Act, where liable for the payment of social security charge on their earnings. In each case the wife and children are also included. The 1950 amendment provided that persons employed by the Governments of Western Samoa and the Cook Islands are exempted from payment of the social security charge unless they remain ordinarily resident in New Zealand.

A person who is in receipt of a war disablement pension or a basic war widows' pension may be granted any social security benefit.

Superannuation Benefits.—Every person over the age of sixty-five years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualifications is entitled to a superannuation benefit without conditions as to income or property. The universal superannuation benefit is, however, regarded as assessable income for income-tax purposes but is exempt from the social security charge. The residential qualifications are contained in section 12 of the Act, which reads as follows:—

(No person shall be entitled to a superannuation benefit under this Part of this Act unless he satisfies the following conditions, namely,—
1. In the case of a person who was resident in New Zealand on the fifteenth day of March, nineteen hundred and thirty-eight (being the date of the passing of the Pensions Amendment Act 1937), that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than ten years immediately preceding the date of his application for a superannuation benefit:
2. In any case to which the last preceding paragraph does not apply, that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twenty years immediately preceding the date of his application for a superannuation benefit.
For the purposes of the last preceding subsection, continuous residence in New Zealand shall not be deemed to have been interrupted by absence therefrom—
1. In any case to which paragraph (a) of the last preceding subsection applies—
  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed one year; or
  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds one year but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of ten years, and the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application:
2. In any case to which paragraph (6) of the last preceding subsection applies—
  1. If the total period of absence from New Zealand does not exceed two years; or
  2. If the total period of absence from New Zealand exceeds two years but does not exceed that period by more than six months for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of a period of twenty years, and the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application.
    Provision is also made to cover absence by a seaman serving on board any ship registered or owned in New Zealand and absence in any capacity as a member of any of Her Majesty's Forces.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other benefit or war pension. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age benefit are not payable to the one person. If a beneficiary in receipt of a superannuation benefit is later granted an age benefit, the maximum benefit payable is £175 10s., the amount of the superannuation benefit being merged in the amount of the age benefit granted.

At the date of commencement on 1 April 1940, and for the remainder of the year, the rate of benefit was £10 per annum, thereafter being increased by £2 10s. per annum. As from 1 October 1951, however, the amount payable for the balance of the year 1951–52 was raised from £37 10s. to £75 per annum, this amount increasing by £5 per annum on 1 April of each succeeding year until the amount equals the full rate payable under the Act.

The number of superannuation benefits in force at 31 March 1953 was 71,961, an increase of 2,828 above the total for the previous year. Expenditure on these benefits rose from £3,144,091 in 1951–52 to £5,564,629 in 1952–53.

Age Benefits.—Every person who has attained the age of sixty years is entitled to receive an age benefit, subject to satisfying certain qualifications in regard to residence and character. The residential qualifications are the same as those set out under the preceding heading in regard to superannuation benefits. The character qualifications mainly relate to desertion of wife or husband or wilful failure in the case of a married man or widower to provide adequate maintenance for wife or for children under sixteen years of age.

The basic rate of the benefit is £175 10s. per annum, subject to certain deductions on account of income or accumulated property, etc. Particulars of additions to and deductions from the basic rate are as follows:—

Unmarried applicants: The basic rate is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income in excess of £78 per annum.
Married applicants: Where husband and wife are both entitled to the benefit the basic rate is reduced by 10s. for every complete £1 of their combined incomes in excess of £78 per annum. In cases where only one of them is entitled to the benefit the reduction is at the rate of £1 for every complete £1 of their total income (excluding a family benefit) in excess of £253 10s. per annum. A further provision allows of an extra payment, not exceeding £175 10s. per annum, to a male recipient when his wife is ineligible for any benefit under the Act. This is payable only up to a limit of the total income of the couple plus benefit of £429 per annum.

For the above purposes, income is deemed not to include amounts received by way of war disablement pension or basic war widow's pension.

Age beneficiaries are entitled to surrender their benefits while their earnings are excessive and to apply for reinstatement immediately the employment ceases. The earnings received during the period that both husband and wife were not in receipt of age benefits are not taken into account.

An age beneficiary on attaining the age of sixty-five years is entitled to an increase in his allowable income of £6 10s. per annum for each complete year after attaining the age of sixty years during which he did not receive the benefit but was otherwise eligible so to do. The maximum allowable income under this provision is £110 10s. per annum. Appropriate adjustments are made to apply the same provision to a beneficiary whose benefit is reduced by reason of accumulated property, so as to place him in an equivalent position—i.e., the amount of reduction may be diminished by £6 10s. for each year of deferment.

During 1952–53, 3,376 beneficiaries received additional benefit on account of the deferment concession. The periods of deferment were: one year, 334; two years, 324; three years, 390; four years, 397; and five or more years, 1,931.

In computing the allowable income of any woman no account is to be taken of her personal earnings from domestic service in a private home up to £78 per year, provided that such earnings together with other allowable personal income does not exceed £156 per annum.

In addition to the foregoing, a special allowance not exceeding £13 13s. per annum may be paid to any person in receipt of an age benefit who served as a member of a New Zealand contingent in connection with the South African War or in any of Her Majesty's Forces in that war if he had been born in New Zealand or was domiciled therein at the commencement of the war: Provided that an allowance shall not be granted under this section of such an amount that the total amount from all sources (including the value of any benefits in kind) received by the beneficiary in any year shall exceed the sum of £253 10s.

The Commission may also, in its discretion, increase by an amount not exceeding £26 per annum the rate of any benefit under Part II of the Act (including the age benefit) payable to any beneficiary who was one of the parents of a deceased member of any of Her Majesty's Forces established in New Zealand whose death was attributable to service with the Forces. Similar powers exist in respect of a parent of a deceased member of the New Zealand Mercantile Marine within the meaning of the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act 1940 whose death was attributable to the Second World War. The provision also covers from 1 April 1949 the case of a deceased member of any Force or of the Mercantile Marine of any part of the British Commonwealth other than New Zealand who was domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of the Second World War and whose death was directly attributable to that war. At 31 March 1953 there were 2,093 of these allowances in force, a decrease of 34 over the corresponding 1952 total.

In addition to the deductions on account of income set out above, the rate of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every £15 (this amount was raised from £10 by the 1950 amendment to the Act) of net capital value of accumulated property in excess of £500. The net accumulated property of a husband or wife for this purpose is half of the total net accumulated property of both.

In computing the net capital value of property no account is taken of the following, but any income derived therefrom is charged as income:—

Any interest in land or house property, or mortgage or other encumbrance over such property:
Any interest in any annuity or in any policy of life assurance:
Any furniture used in the home of the applicant or any personal effects belonging to the applicant.

Income from a property and the value of the same property are not both charged to reduce the age benefit—e.g., if shares worth £600 produce an income of £30 per annum, either the value of the shares or the income therefrom may be charged, whichever method provides for the greater reduction.

Where an applicant for an age benefit is totally blind the rate of the benefit together with any benefits and allowances payable to or in respect of the wife or husband of the applicant, is not to be less than the total of benefits and allowances that would have been paid if the applicant had been eligible for an invalid's benefit.

The number of age benefits in force at 31 March 1953 was 123,104, a decrease of 2,671 over the figure at the end of March 1952. The 1953 total was inclusive of 6,941 husbands receiving benefits on account of dependent wives who were not eligible for benefits in their own right, and of 376 males receiving the additional allowance of £13 13s. per annum paid to veterans of the South African War. Expenditure on age benefits decreased from £19,235,326 in 1951–52 to £19,091,303 in 1952–53.

The following table shows the estimated age distribution of (a) persons who were granted new age benefits during the calendar year 1952 (including transfers from widows' and invalids' benefits), and (b) total age beneficiaries at 31 December 1952.

Age, in Years	Persons Granted New Age Benefits During 1952			Total Age Beneficiaries at 31 December 1952
Age, in Years	Males	Females	Total	Males	Females	Total
* The majority of persons granted new age benefits at age sixty have attained the age of sixty-one years by the following 31 December, this serving to account for the smaller numbers in the second portion of the table for age sixty.
60^*	770	2,470	3,240	432	1,403	1,835
61	390	430	820	1,034	2,763	3,797
62	240	380	620	1,476	3,375	4.851
63	210	220	430	1,666	3,386	5,052
64	220	210	430	1,856	4,249	6,105
Totals, 60–64	1,830	3,710	5,540	6,464	15,176	21,640
65–69	900	640	1,540	14,102	19,984	34,086
70–74	520	300	820	13,731	18,341	32,072
75 and over	230	170	400	15,259	21,166	36,425
Totals	3,480	4,820	8,300	49,556	74,667	124,223

Widows' Benefits.—Every widow who is the mother of one or more children under sixteen years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of children under sixteen years of age who satisfies the following conditions is also entitled to the benefit:—

A widow who has had one or more children, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than fifteen years or, in the alternative, that the aggregate of the period of the duration of her marriage and any subsequent period during which she had the care of at least one of her children under sixteen years of age was not less than fifteen years:
A widow who, on the expiration of not less than five years after the date of her marriage, became a widow after she attained the age of fifty years:
A widow of not less than fifty years of age who became a widow after she had attained the age of forty years, provided that the duration of her marriage was not less than ten years and that not less than fifteen years have expired since the date of her marriage.

It will be noted that no widow under fifty years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit.

Provision is also made for other classes of women (not being widows) to receive benefits as if they were widows. Particulars are as follows:—

Any married woman who satisfies the Commission that she has been deserted by her husband and that she has taken proceedings against him for a maintenance order under the Destitute Persons Act 1910. Either the beneficiary or the Commission may institute and prosecute proceedings for the enforcement of the order, or for an order cancelling, varying, or suspending the maintenance order. Any moneys paid by a husband, whether by way of maintenance order or otherwise, are set off against any benefit so granted:
Any married woman in respect of whose husband a reception order is in force under the

Mental Defectives Act 1911 (whether or not he is detained in an institution under the Act), or whose husband is for the time being detained in an institution under that Act, whether as a voluntary boarder or otherwise.

The two paragraphs which follow also apply in such cases, reference to the date of death being deemed to be reference to date of desertion by the husband or to the making of a reception order

Except in the case of widows with one or more children under sixteen years of age, no widow is entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless she and her husband were both resident in New Zealand for not less than three years immediately preceding the death of the husband or, unless either of them, being ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of the husband's death, has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years.

The term “children” does not include any child born out of New Zealand unless at least one of the following conditions is satisfied—namely, that—

The mother of the child was only temporarily out of New Zealand at the time of its birth; or
Both parents were resident in New Zealand for the three years immediately preceding the date of the death of the husband of the applicant; or
One of the parents, being ordinarily resident in New Zealand at the date of the husband's death, has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than five years.

The term “child” includes a step-child or a child adopted during the lifetime of the husband of the applicant (in cases where the husband is dead) or adopted while the husband and wife were living together (in cases of desertion, etc.). It may also (at the discretion of the Commission) include any child who is being maintained by the applicant or was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

No woman shall be entitled to receive a widow's benefit unless the Commission is satisfied that she is of good moral character and sober habits.

The rates of widows' benefits payable are—

Widows with a child or children under sixteen years of age, £175 10s. per annum:
Widows without dependent children, £175 10s. per annum.

In addition to the benefit payable to a widow with dependent children under sixteen years of age, she is entitled to receive a mother's allowance at the rate of £117 per annum.

Any income received, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widow's pension, is taken into account in computing the benefit payable, and where such income exceeds £78 the annual rate of benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of such excess. The maximum of income plus benefit in the case of a widow with dependent children is £370 10s. per annum, and in the case of a widow without dependent children £253 10s. per annum. A widow with dependent children will, of course, receive in addition the universal family benefit of 10s. per week for each child.

The provision relating to the allowable income of £78 per year gained from domestic service in a private home without affecting the amount of the benefit payable to women age-beneficiaries also applies to widows' benefits.

Where there are no dependent children, the benefit of widows attaining the age of sixty years is also reducible by £1 for every complete £15 of the accumulated property in excess of £500 computed as if she were an applicant for age benefit. Widows' benefits cease on remarriage.

At 31 March 1953 there were 12,026 benefits in force, a decrease of 341 during the year. Expenditure totalled £2,157,115 in 1952–53, compared with £2,230,635 in 1951–52. Offset against these amounts were the sums of £78,429 and £73,522 respectively, being recoveries of maintenance from defaulting husbands.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1953.

—	With Dependent Children	Without Dependent Children	Total
Widows	4,014	6,932	10,946
Deserted wives	628	359	987
Wives of mental hospital patients	57	36	93
Totals	4,699	7,327	12,026

Orphans' Benefits.—A benefit in respect of complete orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under sixteen years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than three years preceding the date of his or her death. A step-child or an adopted child comes within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organizations.

The amount payable as an orphan's benefit is limited to a maximum of £78 per annum less any income received by or for the benefit of the orphan, but a lesser amount may be granted if it is considered that the circumstances of the case warrant it. In any case where the income of the orphan falls below £26 per annum application may be made for a family benefit of 10s. a week in lieu of orphan's benefit. For the purpose of assisting in the further education of any child, the Commission may continue or grant the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of eighteen years.

The number of benefits in force at the end of March 1953 was 314 (in respect of 417 children), a decline of 10 during the year. Expenditure increased from £33,667 in 1951–52 to £35,404 in 1952–53.

Family Benefits.—As from 1 April 1946 the father or mother of any child or children under sixteen years of age may apply for a family benefit, irrespective of the income or property of the parents or children. Prior to 1 April 1946 family benefits were payable subject to a means test.

The rate of the benefit is 10s. per week for each child, and in every case is paid to the mother of the children, unless in special circumstances the Commission considers that it should be paid to the father or to some other person for the benefit of the children.

If a beneficiary in receipt of an age or other monetary benefit is the parent of dependent children, payment in respect of the children is made by way of a separate family benefit.

The term “children” includes step-children and adopted children, but does not include—

Any child who has attained the age of sixteen years unless such child is continuing its education as a full-time day pupil at a school or college, in which case the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until it reaches the age of eighteen years.
Any child who is not in fact maintained as a member of the family of the applicant.
Any child in respect of whom any other benefit is payable under the Act.

The Commission may regard as a member of the applicant's family any child who, although not a child of the applicant, is being maintained as a member of the family. A benefit may also be continued beyond the age of sixteen years in respect of any child who is totally incapacitated from earning a living by reason of some physical or mental defect.

In order to qualify for a family benefit at least one of the following conditions must be satisfied, namely—

The child was born in New Zealand.
The mother of the child was only temporarily absent from New Zealand at the time of its birth.
The Commission is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand.
The child has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twelve months.

A benefit is not payable in respect of any child committed to the care of the Child Welfare Department nor in respect of any child residing in an institution under the care of the Division of Mental Hygiene of the Health Department. Family benefits are, however, paid to children of a member of any of Her Majesty's Naval, Military, or Air Forces.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother, or to the Commissioner of Inland Revenue to meet the income tax payments of the mother or father. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts increased from 91,455 at 31 March 1952 to 91,772 at 31 March 1953, and the amount lodged increased from £4,988,472 to £5,140.816. The number of benefits wholly or partly diverted in payment of income tax continued to fall, from 3,507 in 1952 to 3,434 at March 1953, the amount paid in the earlier year being £153,378, as compared with £148,393 during 1952–53.

The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1953 was 280,747, covering 643,557 children, compared with the corresponding figures of 272,084 and 616,327 at 31 March 1952. Included in the 1952–53 total of children were 10,452 pupils and 86 incapacitated minors over the age of sixteen years. Expenditure increased from £16,110,297 in 1951–52 to £16,854,261 in 1952–53.

The next table gives the number of family benefits in force at the end of March 1952 and 1953, classified according to the number of children receiving the benefit in each case.

Number of Children Receiving Benefit in Each Case	Number of Benefits at 31 March 1952	Number of Benefits at 31 March 1953
1	95,156	95,087
2	86,712	89,461
3	48,803	52,316
4	22,970	24,482
5	9,584	10,196
6	4,457	4,610
7	2,192	2,334
8	1,209	1,188
9	592	619
10 or over	409	454
Totals	272,084	280,747

The average number of children per family in respect of whom benefit was paid was 2.13 in 1946–47, 2.22 in 1949–50, 2.25 in 1950–51, 2.27 in 1951–52, and 2.30 in 1952–53.

Invalids' Benefits.—Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the age of sixteen years and upwards who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he—

Is totally blind; or
Is permanently incapacitated for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

The other qualifications referred to are as follows:—

That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for a period of not less than ten years immediately preceding the date of his application. Continuity of residence is not deemed to be interrupted where the total period of absence does not exceed twelve months, or does not exceed twelve, months by more than one month for every year of residence in New Zealand in excess of ten years, if the applicant has been actually resident in New Zealand for the twelve months immediately preceding the date of his application. In the case of a totally blind person continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by absence for the purpose of vocational training or for treatment in respect of the eyes, or in other cases by any period of absence for the purpose of obtaining any special surgical treatment, if the Commission is satisfied that there were good and sufficient reasons for leaving New Zealand to obtain such special treatment.
In the case of an applicant in respect of blindness, that he was born in New Zealand or became blind while permanently resident in New Zealand. In the case of every other applicant, that he was born in New Zealand with the condition to which his incapacity for work is attributable, or that he became incapacitated for work by reason of an accident happening in New Zealand or by reason of illness contracted in New Zealand. These restrictions do not apply to any applicant who was actually resident in New Zealand on 4 September 1936 (the date of the passing of the Pensions Amendment Act 1936, which first made provision for invalidity pensions other than for blindness), or to any person becoming resident in New Zealand after that date, who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twenty years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit.
That incapacity for work was not self-induced or in any way brought about with a view to qualifying for an invalidity benefit.
Applicant must be of good moral character and sober habits.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. In the event of an application being declined on medical grounds, the applicant has the right of appeal, within three months after the decision of the Commission has been communicated to him, to a Board of three medical practitioners nominated by the Department. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate, if the Commission is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment, or in the case of blindness, for the purpose of undertaking vocational training or treatment in respect of the eyes.

The prescribed rates for invalids' benefits, together with the amounts of allowable income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pensions, are as follows.

Class of Person	Rate of Benefit						Allowable Income
Class of Person	Weekly			Yearly			Weekly			Yearly
	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.
Single, under twenty years	2	15	0	143	0	0	1	10	0	78	0	0
Widower with dependent children	3	7	6	175	10	0	1	10	0	78	0	0
Married man	3	7	6	175	10	0	1	10	0	78	0	0
Wife	3	7	6	175	10	0	1	10	0	78	0	0
Married woman	3	7	6	175	10	0	4	17	6	253	10	0
All other persons	3	7	6	175	10	0	1	10	0	78	0	0

As in the case of other benefits, dependent children are paid for by way of the family benefit at 10s. per week each.

In each case the amount of the benefit is reduced by £1 for every complete £1 of income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widow's pension, in excess of the amounts stated as allowable. Deductions on account of property are the same as for age benefits, which are described under a previous heading. In computing the income for any blind person no account is taken of personal earnings up to £156 per annum. In addition, personal earnings of such blind persons are subsidized to the extent of 25 per cent so long as the total income, including any benefit received, does not exceed £357 10s. per annum. The maximum invalid benefit payable plus allowable income is £429 per annum.

Where an applicant is a married woman and, by reason of incapacity, necessary nursing or domestic assistance is required to be paid for, the Commission may increase the rate of any benefit which may have been reduced on account of income or property to an amount not in excess of £175 10s. a year, but so that the total income of applicant and husband, inclusive of the benefit, does not exceed £10 5s. per week.

Any person in receipt of an invalid's benefit who, on the attainment of age sixty, becomes entitled to receive an age benefit is required to relinquish his invalid's benefit and is granted an age benefit in lieu thereof, but the aggregate amount payable for a blind beneficiary and his wife (if any) is not altered by this transfer.

Of the 764 new benefits granted in 1952–53, the marital status of the recipients was—single 398, married 251, widowed 33, and divorced, separated, etc., 82. By far the greatest number were aged 50 or over, 370; the numbers for other age groups being as follows: under 20 years, 94; 20 and under 40 years, 140; and 40 years and under 50, 160.

Invalids' benefits in force at 31 March 1953 numbered 8,257, a decrease of 271 on the March 1952 figure, while expenditure fell from £1,476,281 in 1951–52 to £1,416,561 in 1952–53.

Miners' Benefits.—Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted miner's phthisis and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, or to any person who contracted, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby

permanently and totally incapacitated for work. The term “miner's phthisis” means pneumoconiosis and includes tuberculosis of the lungs or any other disease of the respiratory organs commonly associated with, or a sequel to, pneumoconiosis. The necessary qualifications are—

Employment as a miner in New Zealand for not less than two and a half years:
Continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than five years immediately preceding the date of his application for a benefit. Continuity of residence is not deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absences aggregating not more than six months:
Good moral character and sober habits and must not have deserted or wilfully failed to provide for his wife and children during the period of five years immediately preceding the date of application:
That compensation under the Workers' Compensation Act in respect of the same disability is not being received.

The rates of miners' benefits are £3 7s. 6d. per week or £175 10s. per annum, increased by £3 7s. 6d. per week, or £175 10s. per annum, for a wife. Dependent children under sixteen years are paid for by way of family benefit at the rate of 10s. per week each.

There is no reduction in the benefit on account of the income or property of the applicant and/or his wife.

Provision is made for medical examination where necessary to determine whether the applicant is permanently incapacitated for work, or the extent of his incapacity.

A special provision is made for the payment from the Social Security Fund of a reasonable contribution towards the funeral expenses of any person who dies while in receipt of a miner's benefit. The amount to be paid is at the discretion of the Commission.

If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit of £2 15s. per week, or £143 per annum, during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow, her income or property not being considered in the granting of a benefit.

Payment of benefits is not affected by a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding two years in the aggregate.

Miners' benefits in force at 31 March 1953 numbered 528, 34 fewer than at the corresponding date in 1952. During 1952–53 the expenditure on this class of benefit was £121,636, compared with £127,619 in 1951–52.

Unemployment Benefits.—Subject to the conditions set out below, every person over the age of sixteen years who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to a benefit in respect of unemployment. An applicant is required to satisfy the Commission in respect of the following:—

That he is unemployed:
That he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work:
That he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment:
That he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twelve months.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first seven days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. In addition, the Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding six weeks, the commencement of the benefit, or it may terminate the benefit in any of the following circumstances:—

If the applicant has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason:
If the applicant has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker:
If the applicant or beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment:
In the case of a seasonal worker, if his earnings for the season are sufficient for the maintenance of himself and his family notwithstanding a period of temporary unemployment.

Unemployment benefits are payable in accordance with the following scale.

	Weekly Benefit
	£	s.	d.
To applicants sixteen and under twenty years without dependants	2	5	0
To all other applicants	3	7	6
In respect of the applicant's wife	3	7	6

Dependent children are paid for by way of family benefit at the rate of 10s. per week each.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., an age benefit.

A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be made in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The foregoing rates of benefits may be reduced, having regard to the income received or the property owned by the applicant or his wife.

The number of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1952 and 1953 were 176 and 199 respectively, 81 persons being granted a benefit in 1951–52, and 125 in 1952–53. At the end of March 1953, 8 benefits were in force, compared with 2 at the end of the previous year. Expenditure for the year 1952–53 amounted to £3,187, as against £3,914 in 1951–52.

Sickness Benefits.—Every person over the age of sixteen years who has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than twelve months and who satisfies the Commission that he is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and that by reason thereof he has suffered a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, is entitled to a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity or to a maximum of £6 15s. a week payable to a man and his wife. Where a person is engaged in business on his own account and by reason of sickness or accident is obliged to employ a substitute during the period of incapacity, the remuneration paid to the substitute is regarded as loss of earnings. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first seven days of incapacity except under special circumstances.

A married woman shall be entitled to receive a benefit under this section only if the Commission is satisfied that her husband is unable to maintain her.

Subject to the foregoing remarks concerning amount of benefit, the rates of sickness benefits shall be computed as follows:—

In the case of an applicant under twenty years of age without dependants, the benefit shall be at the rate of £2 5s. a week.
In every other case the benefit shall be at the rate of £3 7s. 6d. a week, increased (in the case of an applicant with a wife) by £3 7s. 6d. a week in respect of his wife.

Any applicant who is maintaining a home and who is not drawing a benefit in respect of a wife, may receive a benefit at a rate not exceeding that for a wife, in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Dependent children are paid for by way of family benefit.

The rate of benefit computed as aforesaid is reduced by 1s. for every complete shilling of the total income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war widows' pensions, of the applicant and of his wife or her husband, as the case may be, in excess of £1 10s. a week or, in any case where the applicant or his wife or her husband, as the case may be, is in receipt of a sick benefit From a friendly society or a like benefit from any other source, in excess of £2 10s. a week.

The number of applications for sickness benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1952 and 1953 were 29,293 and 29,350 respectively. The number of persons granted sickness benefits were 26,820 in 1951–52 and 26,741 in 1952–53. Benefits in force at 31 March 1953 totalled 4,376, compared with 4,569 at the end of March 1952. Total expenditure for 1952–53 amounted to £1,062,176, a decrease of £66,628 on the 1951–52 figure.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the year ended 31 March 1953 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit.

Duration of Sickness Benefit (Weeks)	Number of Benefits
Duration of Sickness Benefit (Weeks)	Males	Females	Total
1–4	10,529	2,272	12,801
5–12	6,431	1,759	8,190
13–25	2,310	874	3,184
26–52	1,174	443	1,617
53 and over	667	302	969
Totals	21,111	5,650	26,761

The following table gives a classification of sickness benefits according to the disease suffered by the beneficiary. The data are estimates based on 92 per cent of the benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1952.

Disease or Injury	Males	Females
Infective and Parasitic Diseases—
Tuberculosis of the respiratory system	600	267
Tuberculosis, other forms	102	45
Mumps	904	132
Infectious hepatitis	208	37
Other	556	163
Neoplasms—
Malignant neoplasms	106	29
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissues	34	5
Benign neoplasms	143	110
Neoplasms of unspecified nature	117	35
Allergic, Endocrine System, Metabolic, and Nutritional Diseases—
Asthma	213	65
Other allergic disorders	19	7
Diseases of the thyroid gland	47	69
Diabetes mellitus	72	17
Diseases of other endocrine glands	3	8
Avitaminoses and other metabolic diseases	53	8
Diseases of the Blood and Blood-forming Organs—
Anaemia	50	76
Other diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs.	14	3
Mental, Psychoneurotic, and Personality Disorders—
Psychoses	71	51
Psychoneurotic disorders	623	493
Disorders of character, behaviour, and intelligence	26	9
Diseases of the Nervous System and Sense Organs—
Vascular lesions affecting, and inflammatory and other diseases of, the central nervous system	273	69
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia, excluding sciatica	137	29
Sciatica	201	20
Diseases of the eye	208	35
Diseases of ear and mastoid process	125	40
Diseases of the Circulatory System—
Rheumatic fever	96	44
Chronic rheumatic, arteriosclerotic, degenerative, and other diseases of the heart	703	69
Hypertensive disease	147	62
Varicose veins and haemorrhoids	522	60
Other diseases of the circulatory system	163	41
Diseases of the Respiratory System—
Acute upper respiratory infections	262	89
Influenza	1,158	229
Pneumonia	786	92
Bronchitis	637	128
Other diseases of the respiratory system	704	163
Diseases of the Digestive System—
Diseases of buccal cavity and oesophagus	77	16
Diseases of stomach and duodenum	859	74
Appendicitis	866	394
Hernia of abdominal cavity	735	17
Other diseases of intestines and peritoneum	332	98
Diseases of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas	196	99
Diseases of the Genito-urinary System—
Nephritis and nephrosis	142	28
Other diseases of urinary system	212	90
Diseases of the genital organs	299	231
Deliveries and Complications of Pregnancy—
Childbirth and puerperium		454
Diseases of the Skin and Cellular Tissue—
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue	374	71
Other diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue	539	135
Diseases of Bones and Organs of Movement—
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever	959	213
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bones and joints	555	77
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system	229	116
Congenital Malformations—
Congenital malformations	70	19
Symptoms, Senility, and Ill-defined Conditions—
Symptoms referable to systems and organs	525	97
Senility and ill-defined diseases	229	168
Accidents, Poisonings, and Violence (Nature of Injury)—
Fractures	1,746	190
Dislocation without fracture	221	27
Sprains and strains	370	71
Burns	107	20
Poisonings	3
Other unspecified injuries and reactions	1,383	146
Totals	21,111	5,650

Emergency Benefits.—An emergency benefit may be granted by the Commission on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, domestic circumstances, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit.

The amount of the emergency benefit is at the discretion of the Commission, which fixes as nearly as possible an amount equal to that payable for the type of benefit for which the applicant most closely qualifies.

Emergency benefits in force at 31 March 1953 numbered 2,248, compared with last year's figure of 2,306. Expenditure in the 1952–53 year amounted to £340,625 and in 1951–52 to £365,181.

Special Assistance.—In November 1951 the Social Security Special Assistance Fund was established to provide special financial assistance to social security beneficiaries and others in need. Assistance is granted where applicants have special commitments which cannot be met out of current income, have insufficient other means available to them, and where there is no possibility of their helping themselves. Welfare and other organizations have been encouraged to assist in bringing these funds to the knowledge of persons who might qualify, and departmental literature has included information on the purpose of the Fund.

In the 1952–53 year, 1,708 applications for assistance were granted, expenditure totalling £21,287. There were 1,127 grants in force at 31 March 1953.

Domestic Concession.—From 1 October 1950, female social security beneficiaries or the wives of social security beneficiaries have been allowed, in addition to the ordinary income exemption of £78 per annum an income from domestic employment in a private home without reduction in their benefits of up to £78 per annum. During the year 1952–53, 357 applications were received, of which 349 were granted, while at 31 March 1953 there were 527 benefits in force, compared with 339 at the end of March 1952.

Reciprocal Benefits.—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, which repealed the Age Benefits and Invalids' Benefits (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1943, is designed to provide for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.

Part II of the Act covers the case of former residents of Australia and applies to any person who, having at any time resided in Australia, is permanently resident in New Zealand inasmuch as he either satisfies the Commission that he is so permanently resident or has been in continuous residence in New Zealand for not less than six months (unless in this case the appropriate authorities in both countries agree that the residence is not to be regarded as permanent).

For the purpose of any application for a benefit in respect of a person covered by this Act, residence in Australia or birth in Australia will be regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids', or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Consolidation Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age benefit unless he has attained the age of sixty-five years. The Act also provides that the Commission shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Part III of the Act deals with persons who, although ordinarily resident in New Zealand, are temporarily resident in Australia. Such residence is not a disqualification for a benefit. Benefits may be applied for and paid in Australia, although the Commission may, in its discretion, postpone payment of the whole or any part of the benefit until the return of the beneficiary to New Zealand.

The appropriate reciprocal provisions made in respect of Australia are contained in the Schedule to the Act.

Reciprocity exists in respect of the following classes of pensions, allowances, endowments, and benefits under the respective Acts governing social security provisions:—

Age pensions and age benefits.
Invalid pensions (including wives' and children's allowances) and invalids' benefits.
Widows' pensions and widows' benefits.
Child endowment and family benefits.
Unemployment and sickness benefits.

The total reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand as at 31 March 1953 numbered 414, as compared with 418 at 31 March 1952.

As mentioned earlier, reciprocity in respect of family benefits between New Zealand and Great Britain and Northern Ireland was provided for by legislation during 1948, reciprocal family benefits in force at 31 March 1953 numbering 13, compared with the 1952 figure of 787. The Social Security Amendment Act 1951 contained a provision that a family benefit may be paid in respect of a child immediately on arrival in New Zealand if the Commission is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand. The fall in reciprocal family benefits is therefore accounted for by the substitution in most cases of ordinary family benefits.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS.—The part of the Act dealing with medical and like benefits is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits. The Act provided that the various benefits should be available on and after 1 April 1939 or, if for any reason arrangements for the effective administration of benefits of any of the prescribed classes could not be completed before that date, such benefits should be available on or after such later date as might be determined by the Minister (being the earliest possible date on which arrangements for their effective administration could be brought into operation).

The Act also gives authority for the inauguration of supplementary benefits as and when the occasion for providing such benefits arises. Among the supplementary benefits contemplated were specialist and consultant services, radiological services, dental services, home nursing services, and domestic assistance. All of these benefits have been introduced and are referred to under their respective headings.

Medical Benefits.—Under the provisions contained in the Act every person is entitled to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, the principal of these being as follows:—

The administration of anaesthetics:
Medical services afforded in relation to maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading):
Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate:
Medical services involved in the treatment of any venereal disease in a communicable form. (Treatment in this connection is provided for under the Health Act 1920):
Medical services involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner:
Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946—see later headings:
Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health, and medical services not afforded by a medical practitioner in person.

The principal Act provided that a registered medical practitioner who wished to come within the scope of the scheme was required to enter into a contract with the Minister, and regulations issued on 19 February 1941 prescribed the procedure in connection with the initiation of the scheme, the classes of benefits that were to be provided, the obligations of practitioners who undertook to operate the scheme, and the rates of remuneration payable to them. A person entitled to receive medical benefits was required to make application on the prescribed form, which he then presented to the medical practitioner of his choice. If the practitioner was willing to provide the necessary services for the person named in the form, he completed an agreement as between the applicant and himself by attaching his signature thereto. These completed agreements formed the basis of the practitioner's fist of patients, for each of whom he was entitled to receive from the Social Security Fund a capitation fee at the rate of 15s. per annum, plus mileage fees in certain circumstances. This scheme came into operation on 1 March 1941.

An important change in principle was made by the Social Security Amendment Act 1941, which provided an alternative to the capitation scheme. This amendment, which came into force on 1 November 1941, and which was subsequently modified by the 1949 amendment to the principal Act, provides that every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services shall be entitled to receive from the Social Security Fund a reasonable fee not exceeding 7s. 6d. for every occasion on which any such service is provided. Mileage fees are also provided for in certain cases. Regulations which came into force from 1 September 1950, and revoked the Social Security (General Medical Services) Regulations 1941, stipulate that where the practitioner is called upon to provide, in response to an urgent request, services on a Sunday or holiday, or between the hours of 8 p.m. and 8 a.m., the appropriate fee shall be a reasonable one not exceeding 12s. 6d. The Act also provides that the practitioner, instead of claiming from the Fund the amount to which he is entitled under the Act, may receive payment from the patient. This refund system, by virtue of the 1949 amendment, is not to apply unless authority is given by the Council of the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association after consultation with the Minister or where the amount is recovered from a registered friendly society. In such cases the patient is entitled to recover from the Fund (such recovery being limited to the prescribed fee), and the practitioner is required to provide the necessary receipt to enable this to be done.

The 1949 amendment to the Social Security Act prohibited practice under the capitation system and fee for service system at the same time. This amendment also laid down conditions in respect of the right to recover fees from patients and for reference of accounts to the Divisional Disciplinary Committee appointed under the Medical Practitioners Amendment Act 1949. These provisions came into force as from 1 April 1950.

Pharmaceutical Benefits.—Persons claiming medical benefits are entitled to receive, without cost to themselves, all such medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials as are prescribed for their use by a medical practitioner in the course of providing any medical services under the Act. This class of benefits was introduced on 5 May 1941, regulations providing for them having been issued on 22 April 1941. Under these regulations the proprietor of any pharmacy within the meaning of the Pharmacy Act 1939, or any other person entitled to sell any drugs or pharmaceutical requirements, may be permitted to become a contractor under the scheme. The regulations stipulate that the Minister shall prepare a drug tariff, which shall contain particulars of maximum quantities, standards of quality, and prices of medicines, drugs, appliances, etc., that may be supplied and charged against the Fund. Hospital Boards are entitled to receive payment for pharmaceutical requirements supplied to outpatients, but not in respect of inpatients.

Hospital Benefits.—The Act provides for the payment to Hospital Boards and to the proprietors of licensed hospitals and other approved institutions (who have entered into contracts under the Act) of prescribed amounts in respect of hospital treatment afforded by them. The amount paid to a Hospital Board is in full satisfaction of its claim for the treatment of patients; in the case of licensed hospitals and other institutions the amount paid is in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients or other persons liable for the hospital charges.

These benefits came into force on 1 July 1939, and the present rates (as from 1 April 1943) are as follows:—

Where treatment has been afforded on not more than two days, the sum of 18s.:
In every other case, the sum of 9s. for every day on which any treatment is afforded:

Provided that the day of admission to hospital and day of discharge therefrom shall together be counted as one day.

Prior to 1 April 1943 the rates were 12s. and 6s. for (a) and (b) respectively.

The Act also provides that in lieu of payment being made in respect of individual hospital patients the Minister may from time to time authorize the payment of a grant in respect of hospital treatment afforded in any private hospital or other approved institution.

In addition to the public hospitals and licensed private hospitals, there is another limited class of semi-public hospitals which, in accordance with the Act, has been approved for the purposes of hospital benefits. This class includes the Karitane Baby Hospitals (six), conducted by the Royal New Zealand Society for the Protection of Women and Children, more commonly known as the Plunket Society, and in addition a home for incurables operated under a charitable trust. Special rates were determined for these classes of hospital, and such payments must be accepted in full satisfaction of the claim of the institution authorities.

Hospital benefits are also available in respect of maintenance and treatment afforded to any inpatient of Queen Mary Neurological Hospital, Hanmer Springs, or of the Rotorua Sanatorium, The fees chargeable to patients of these institutions are reduced by 9s. per day, and corresponding payment is made from the Social Security Fund to the credit of the Departments controlling the institutions.

Regulations issued on 19 March 1941 (since replaced by the Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947) made provision for free treatment of outpatients at public hospitals. “Hospital treatment” in relation to an outpatient of any public hospital covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses (introduced 1 June 1947), hearing aids (1 November 1947), and artificial limbs (1 April 1948), and all medical, surgical, or other treatment afforded by the staff of the hospital; but does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. The amounts to be paid to Hospital Boards from the Social Security Fund for providing outpatient treatment are determined by the Minister and may not be less than one-half of the expenditure or liability incurred in providing the services.

Mental Hospitals.—The principal Act made provision for the treatment of patients in public mental hospitals without charge as from 1 April 1939. By section 10 of the Social Security Amendment Act 1939 a licensed (private) mental hospital may be recognized and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment therein are payable accordingly.

All expenditure since 1 April 1945 in connection with public mental hospitals has been borne by the Consolidated Fund.

Maternity Benefits.—Maternity benefits include ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere.

These benefits came into force on 15 May 1939, but the maternity medical practitioner service was not in full operation until 1 October of that year. The principal Act required that medical practitioners, licensees of private hospitals, etc., and midwives and maternity nurses who wished to come within the scope of the scheme should enter into a contract with the Minister. While this provision remains in force in regard to hospitals and midwives and maternity nurses, the Social Security Amendment Act 1939 provides that any medical practitioner who renders medical services to a woman entitled to a maternity benefit is thereby entitled to receive certain prescribed fees from the Social Security Fund. The scale of fees, which may be fixed by agreement between the Minister and the New Zealand Branch of the British Medical Association, or in default of such agreement by a special tribunal, is intended to cover the usual services performed in maternity cases. The amount calculated in accordance with the scale of fees for the time being in force shall be accepted by the medical practitioner in full satisfaction of his claims in respect of the services for which payment is made, except in the case of a practitioner who is recognized as an obstetric specialist in accordance with the terms of the Act. Such a practitioner, in addition to the fees payable from the Social Security Fund, may recover additional fees from the patient.

The main provisions in regard to maternity benefits apart from the medical practitioner service are as follows:—

State maternity (St. Helens) hospitals: No charge is made for any services in the St. Helens Hospitals.
Public maternity hospitals or maternity wards under the control of Hospital Boards: Payment from Social Security Fund to Hospital Board—
1. £1 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding fourteen days:
2. A fee of £2 where any patient is actually attended during labour and at delivery by a medical officer employed by the Board.
  These amounts are to be regarded as in full settlement of all claims in respect of the maternity benefits afforded by the Board.
Licensed (private) maternity hospitals: Licensees of licensed maternity hospitals who have entered into contracts under the Act are entitled to receive fees from the Social Security Fund at the same rates as stated in (2) (a) and (b) in regard to Hospital Boards. In some cases the licensee's contract requires him to accept such payment in full satisfaction of his claim in respect of the prescribed period, and in other cases he is permitted under his particular contract to make a specified additional charge on the patient.
Midwives and maternity nurses: Approved midwives and maternity nurses who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital are entitled to receive from the Fund fees at the rate of £1 for the day or days of labour (£2 in the case of midwives) and 13s. per day for each of the fourteen days succeeding the birth of the child or 5s. per day if a visiting obstetric nurse only. These amounts are to be regarded as in full satisfaction of a nurse's claims in respect of the nursing services.

X-ray Diagnostic Services.—The first of the supplementary benefits was introduced by the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, which came into operation on 11 August 1941. The benefits provided for by these regulations comprise the following:—

The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen:
The taking of X-ray photographs:
The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph:
The provision of medical services incidental to any such examination or photograph, except medical services of a kind not ordinarily performed by radiologists as such:
The provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of any such examinations or photographs.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance are not included in the services that may be provided.

In order to be recognized as a radiologist for the purpose of the regulations a medical practitioner is required to make application to the Minister specifying his academic qualifications and professional experience, and also the nature of the apparatus or equipment in his possession or available for his use in the performance of radiological work. The Minister may give absolute or limited recognition or may refuse recognition. Absolute recognition covers all classes of X-ray diagnostic services, whereas limited recognition may exclude any specified class or classes of service, or may be restricted to certain specified classes of service. An amended scale of fees payable from the fund in respect of services rendered by recognized radiologists is prescribed in a schedule to the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Amendment No. 1, issued on 28 January 1942. Where the service is rendered by a medical practitioner employed or engaged by a Hospital Board the prescribed fees are to be accepted by the Board in full settlement, but in other cases the amount of such fees is deducted from the amount charged to the patient, who is responsible for the balance, if any.

Physiotherapy Benefits.—The second supplementary benefit introduced concerns physiotherapy treatment by private physiotherapists, and commenced on 1 September 1942, the current regulations being the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with registered physiotherapists under which they are paid from the Social Security Fund a fee of 3s. 6d. for each treatment and undertake not to charge the patient any additional fees in excess of 6s. 6d. for treatment afforded in their rooms or 11s. 6d. for treatment afforded elsewhere.

No physiotherapy treatment is recognized for the purpose of the benefits unless it is given on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, and not more than six weeks' treatment may be given on a single recommendation.

Specialist Services.—The Finance Act (No. 2) 1942 brought specialist services within the scope of the medical benefits. Specialist services are defined as “medical services that involve the application of special skill and experience of a degree or kind that general practitioners as a class cannot reasonably be expected to possess”. An amount not exceeding 7s. 6d. is payable from the Fund (by way of refund to the patient) in respect of every occasion on which any such services have been provided. The Social Security Amendment Act 1949 authorizes the making of regulations providing for benefits in respect of any class or classes of specialist medical services and for conditions governing the determination of a scale of fees.

Home-nursing Services.—Home-nursing services free of cost to the recipients were introduced by the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, which stipulate that no charge may be made for district nursing services provided by any Department of State, Hospital Board, or subsidized association elsewhere than in a hospital or other institution. Provision is made for payment from the Social Security Fund to the Department of State, Hospital Board, or association providing district nursing services, of such amounts as the Minister of Health may determine, having regard to the costs incurred in providing such services. The commencement date was 1 September 1944.

Domestic Assistance.—The provision of monetary assistance to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic assistance in homes, or whose objects include the provision of such assistance, is made by the Social Security (Domestic Assistance) Regulations 1944. Assistance in this connection (commenced 20 December 1944) is restricted by the regulations to the following classes:—

Cases where there are one or more children under twelve years of age permanently residing in a home and the mother or other woman in charge of the home is wholly or partially incapacitated from undertaking her ordinary domestic duties by reason of pregnancy or maternity, or by reason of accident, sickness, etc.:
Cases where there are three or more children under twelve years of age permanently residing in the home, and any member of the household requires special care and attention by reason of sickness or infirmity:
Cases where all members of the household of an age or condition to help in the home are wholly or partially incapacitated from work by sickness or otherwise:
Cases where lack of domestic assistance in the home is a cause of undue hardship.

The terms on which the services of a domestic assistant are provided are to be determined by agreement between the association and the householder, and the association is deemed to be the employer.

In fixing the amounts to be paid from the Social Security Fund to any association the Minister shall have regard to the expenses incurred in providing the services of domestic assistants, including expenditure incurred in the organization of any scheme of registration or enrolment or in the training of the assistants, and to the amounts recovered from the householders to whom assistance has been rendered.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services.—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services came into operation on 1 April 1946, and comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and the provision of medical services incidental to any laboratory diagnostic service, except medical services of a kind that are not ordinarily performed by pathologists as such, and the provision of any other incidental services for the purposes of laboratory diagnostic services.

The following services are not included:—

Examination of specimens for public health.
Post-mortem examinations.
Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.
The preparation of sera and vaccines.

The schedule of fees payable from the Fund provides for two scales, one covering fees payable to Hospital Boards and the other covering fees payable to recognized pathologists. In each case the prescribed fee shall be accepted in full satisfaction in respect of the services provided.

Dental Services.—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1946 made provision for the introduction of free dental treatment as from a date to be appointed by the Minister. The regulations restricted the application of dental benefits to persons under nineteen years of age, and provided that they were to be introduced according to such age groups as the Minister may determine. These benefits commenced on 1 February 1947, and at present are confined to persons who, for the time being, are under sixteen years of age or were, in the last term of the immediately preceding calendar year, enrolled in a primary or intermediate school or department.

The regulations provide that the services may be provided—

By a registered dentist or a State dental nurse in a State dental clinic; or
By a contracting dentist pursuant to a contract under the regulations; or
By a contracting authority in a dental department of a public hospital or in a dental school pursuant to a contract under the regulations.

A schedule to the regulations prescribes the nature of the benefits that may be provided and a scale of fees payable to contracting dentists and authorities in respect thereof.

Artificial Aids.—As stated earlier (page 191), the Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, which term includes artificial limbs, hearing aids, contact lenses, and other appliances for the physical aid or relief of persons as the Minister may from time to time prescribe, either wholly or partly at the cost of the Social Security Fund. Artificial aids at present prescribed for the purposes of the regulations, are—

Contact Lenses.—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) gas keratitis, (c) certain forms of irregular astigmatism and any other conditions which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacle lenses and which show marked improvement with contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an ophthalmologist employed or engaged by a Hospital Board and approved by the Director-General of Health, acting upon the advice of a medical referee appointed for this purpose.
Hearing Aids.—Individual valve type hearing aids may be supplied subject to the following conditions:—
1. The patient possesses a hearing loss of at least 35 decibels in the better ear over the significant frequencies of speech or such other loss of a lesser degree as, in the opinion of an otologist employed or engaged by a Hospital Board, renders the use of an aid necessary.
2. The patient's hearing loss is such that in the opinion of the otologist it is capable of correction or marked improvement by the use of the type of hearing aid supplied or approved for the purpose of the benefit.
  It is provided that in respect of patients who satisfy all of the above conditions but who do not wish to avail themselves of the hearing aid issued free of charge by Hospital Boards there may be paid a sum not exceeding £13 towards the purchase of any aid approved for the purposes of these benefits. If a patient has received a benefit for a hearing aid within the preceding five years, the Hospital Board may pay half (or up to a maximum of £6 10s.) of the cost of replacement, provided that the replacement aid will assist hearing more than the existing aid and that the patient is otherwise eligible.
Artificial Limbs.—The supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:—
1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1945 or under the provisions of section 46 of the Workers' Compensation Amendment Act 1947:
2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an orthopaedic surgeon employed or engaged by a Hospital Board:
3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted:
4. Not more than 80 per cent of the cost of the limb shall be borne by the Social Security Fund.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes an initial supply of not more than six pairs of limb socks for such limbs.

Benefits and Pensions in Force.—A summary showing particulars of the various social security benefits and the various pensions in force in each of the last three financial years is as follows.

Class of Benefit or Pension	Number in Force at 31 March			Annual Value at 31 March 1953	Payments During
Class of Benefit or Pension	1951	1952	1953	Annual Value at 31 March 1953	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* The expenditure figures given under this heading are gross—i.e., not reduced by the amounts recovered under maintenance orders, widows' benefits.
Social security benefits—
Monetary—				£	£	£	£
Superannuation	70,304	69,133	71,961	5,756,880	2,336,275	3,144,091	5,564,629
Age	122,187	125,775	123,104	18,918,377	17,150,839	19,235,326	19,091,303
Widows' ^*	12,909	12,367	12,026	2,093,231	2,142,232	2,230,635	2,157,115
Orphans'	334	324	314	31,532	33,061	33,667	35,404
Family	263,493	272,084	280,747	16,387,651	15,289,346	16,110,297	16,854,261
Invalids'	8,992	8,528	8,257	1,383,886	1,429,276	1,476,281	1,416,561
Miners'	592	562	528	115,157	125,189	127,619	121,636
Unemployment	10	2	15		5,355	3,914	3,187
Sickness	4,504	4,569	4,376		1,042,050	1,128,804	1,062,176
Emergency	2,260	2,306	2,248		292,069	365,181	340,625
Special assistance		57	1,127	44,384		2,192	21,287
Totals	485,585	495,707	504,703		39,845,692	43,858,007	46,668,184
Medical, etc.—
Medical					2,661,166	2,760,583	3,047,202
Hospital					2,018,963	2,112,494	2,135,218
Maternity					885,316	884,781	919,422
Pharmaceutical					2,097,000	2,428,216	3,015,833
Supplementary					1,060,938	1,181,953	1,310,922
Totals					8,723,383	9,368,027	10,428,597
War pensions, etc.—
First World War (1914–18)	18,573	18,135	17,786	2,668,370	2,311,606	2,711,710	2,747,298
Second World War (1939–45)	25,901	25,356	25,141	2,007,519	1,970,236	2,071,829	2,072,429
Kay Force		13	85	6,712		671	4,478
South African War	37	34	32	4,457	3,726	4,429	4,315
War Veterans' Allowances	4,776	5,468	5,964	1,569,161	964,882	1,282,094	1,471,405
Mercantile Marine	26	24	24	2,327	2,359	2,872	2,957
Emergency Reserve Corps	11	10	9	1,577	1,628	1,973	1,764
War Pensions Emergency Fund			41				1,081
Totals	49,324	49,040	49,082	6,260,123	5,254,437	6,075,578	6,305,727
Other: Sundry pensions and annuities	205	236	295	46,984	35,641	42,550	46,913
Grand totals	535,114	544,983	554,080		53,859,153	59,344,162	63,449,421

The total number of persons in respect of whom social security benefits (including dependent wives and children) were payable at 31 March 1953 was 877,323, or 4,306 per 10,000 of population. For the previous year the corresponding figures were 851,421 and 4,290 respectively.

During the year ended 31 March 1953, £22,540,525, or 48 per cent of the total expenditure (£46,668,183) on monetary benefits including, special assistance but excluding bonuses, was paid without a means test, the remaining amount being subject to a means test.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of medical benefits during the last five financial years.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Mainly on account of hospital benefits.
Maternity benefits—	£	£	£	£	£
Public hospital fees	389,416	400,334	414,175	417,058	443,094
Private hospital fees	221,061	188,739	178,739	168,085	157,782
Medical practitioners' fees	291,246	268,166	279,191	281,351	298,222
Mileage fees	7,715	7,986	7,851	8,397	9,585
Obstetric nurses' fees	6,682	6,161	5,127	4,066	4,123
Other			233	5,824	6,616
Totals	916,120	871,386	885,316	884,781	919,422
Medical benefits—
Capitation fees	16,818	12,002	6,622	4,519	5,170
Mileage fees	123,768	131,995	145,396	155,626	171,716
General medical services	2,112,304	2,328,154	2,453,516	2,529,906	2,784,051
Special arrangements	45,286	47,406	42,499	57,223	65,818
Purchase of sites and erection of residences for medical officers	8,660	4,733	13,133	13,309	20,447
Other	45
Totals	2,306,881	2,524,290	2,661,166	2,760,583	3,047,202
Hospital benefits—
Public hospitals—
Inpatients	1,560,483	1,566,824	1,557,830	1,562,716	1,566,320
Outpatients	141,530	147,505	164,508	152,930	163,719
Private hospitals	245,000	249,085	246,199	269,142	261,878
Approved institutions	50,362	48,235	43,477	49,264	50,240
Other			6,949	78,442	93,061
Totals	1,997,375	2,011,649	2,018,963	2,112,494	2,135,218
Pharmaceutical benefits—
Chemists	1,727,556	1,991,350	2,036,990	2,371,769	2,952,773
Medical practitioners	8,262	11,266	6,803	8,287	9,143
Institutions	57,341	41,227	53,207	48,160	53,917
Totals	1,793,159	2,043,843	2,097,000	2,428,216	3,015,833
Supplementary benefits—
Radiological services	249,461	276,999	294,883	310,189	350,120
Laboratory services	117,173	118,447	128,546	149,917	178,892
Physiotherapy services	57,088	63,840	67,388	62,572	62,249
Specialist services (neuro-surgery)	4,072	6,553	4,089	3,019	4,654
District nursing services	111,289	116,007	113,571	124,250	114,931
Dental services	223,186	324,933	385,612	469,989	545,002
Domestic assistance	3,258	3,082	3,520	4,699	5,943
Artificial-aids benefits	96,062	99,777	62,534	55,322	46,981
Other	324	303	795	1,996	2,150
Totals	861,913	1,009,941	1,060,938	1,181,953	1,310,932
Grand totals	7,875,448	8,461,109	8,723,383	9,368,027	10,428,597
Recoveries^*	31,814	35,411	31,190	4,250	4,033
Net totals	7,843,634	8,425,698	8,692,193	9,363,777	10,424,564

A summary of social security and war and other pension payments during each of the last eleven years, together with the amount per head of mean population, is now given.

Year Ended 31 March	Payments During Year
Year Ended 31 March	Total	Per Head of Mean Population
Social Security and Pensions
	£	£	s.	d.
1943	17,736,066	10	16	3
1944	20,261,879	12	7	6
1945	22,489,250	13	10	3
1946	26,198,248	15	6	3
1947	40,660,622	22	19	4
1948	44,331,510	24	10	6
1949	46,939,365	25	9	2
1950	50,696,783	26	18	11
1951	53,859,153	28	1	8
1952	59,344,162	30	5	11
1953	63,449,421	31	11	6

MISCELLANEOUS PENSIONS, ETC.—In addition to the various classes of benefits enumerated in the foregoing part of this section there were 295 pensions at 31 March 1953 classed as “sundry pensions and annuities”. This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, ex-members of the Police, Defence, and Naval Forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, etc.

7B—WAR PENSIONS, ETC.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY.—All pensions payable to or on account of members of the Forces are now governed by the War Pensions Act 1943 and subsequent amendments, with the exception of pensions under the War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act 1940. The principal features of earlier legislation which was consolidated and amended by the 1943 Act are given in the following summary. The War Pensions Act 1915 provided for the payment of pensions on certain conditions to disabled members of the New Zealand Forces of the First World War 1914–18 (as defined by the Act) and to dependants of disabled, deceased, or missing members of such Forces. The object of the War Veterans' Allowances Act 1935, which was deemed part of the War Pensions Act 1915, was to make provision for returned servicemen who, apart from any wounds or other disability not directly attributable to war service, were ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unemployable by reason of mental or physical disability. The War Pensions Extension Act 1940 extended the provisions of the 1915 Act to cover overseas service in the Second World War, overseas service in any other war in which Her Majesty was or is engaged, and service within New Zealand. This brought Territorials and members of the Permanent Forces within the scope of the war pensions legislation. Pensions to veterans of the South African War were granted prior to 1940 under the authority of the Defence Act 1909, but the Finance Act 1940 transferred this authority to the War Pensions Extension Act 1940.

ADMINISTRATION.—The Secretary for War Pensions, who under the Act must be an officer of the Social Security Department, is charged with the administration of war pensions under the general direction and control of the Minister of Defence. The Act also provides for the appointment of a War Pensions Board, which has the responsibility of granting or declining claims for pensions and allowances. This Board consists of not less than three and not more than four members, one of whom must be a registered medical practitioner and one a representative of returned servicemen. Claimants have the right of appeal to the War Pensions Appeal Board, also appointed under the Act. The Appeal Board consists of three members, two of whom must be registered medical practitioners and the third a representative of returned servicemen. The War Pensions Emergency Regulations 1944 made provision for the appointment of such number of additional War Pensions Boards and War Pensions Appeal Boards as the Minister deems advisable. For some years two War Pensions Boards were operating but, with the diminution of the work in the later part of the 1952–53 year, the second War Pensions Board became no longer necessary, and it ceased operations after 31 March 1953.

From 1 January 1953 the administration of war bursaries under the War Bursaries Regulations 1941 was taken over from the Education Department. These are available to children of war veterans, seriously and permanently disabled ex-servicemen, and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose death a war pension is paid. The bursaries are £25 a year for full-time post-primary pupils, £30 a year for full-time University students, and £1 10s. a year for part-time students at technical classes. Up to 31 March 1953, 308 war bursaries had been granted.

GROUNDS FOR PAYMENT OF WAR PENSIONS.—Pensions in respect of the death or disablement of any member of the New Zealand Forces are payable to the dependants of the member (in the case of death) and to the member and his dependants (in the case of disablement) in any of the following cases:—

Where death or disablement occurred while on service overseas as a member of the Forces in connection with any war in which Her Majesty was engaged, or is attributable to such service:
Where death or disablement is attributable to service in New Zealand, or is attributable to service overseas otherwise than in connection with any war:
In any case where the condition which resulted in the death or disablement was aggravated by any service to which either of the last two preceding paragraphs relates.

Special provision is also made for pensions and allowances to members of the Emergency Reserve Corps and their dependants in respect of death or disablement attributable to their duties as members.

The provisions in regard to attributability were considerably liberalized by the later Act, which lays down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the Forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first two months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The Act also states that the Boards are not to be bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but shall determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES OF WAR PENSIONS.—The 1943 Act provided for the general rates of disablement pensions being increased by 50 per cent, and for increases in dependants' and economic pensions. Amendments passed in 1946, 1947, 1949, 1950, and 1951 further increased the rates of pensions for various categories. The Prime Minister announced in December 1953 that war pensioners and war veterans would receive increases from 15 September 1953 of 10s. per week.

War Pensions in Respect of Death of Member.—The following table sets out the maximum weekly rates of pension at present payable (January 1954) in respect of the death of a male member of the Forces.

Rank or Rating	To Widow		To Widow With Dependent Child or Children: Mother's Allowance		To Each Child
	£	s.	£	s.	s.
Ranks and ratings below commissioned rank	3	0	2	5	10
Lieutenant (Army); Sub-Lieutenant (Navy); Pilot Officer (Air Force)	3	0	2	5	10
Captain (Army); Lieutenant (Navy); Flying Officer, Flight Lieutenant (Air Force)	3	0	2	5	10
Major (Army); Lieut.-Commander (Navy); Squadron Leader (Air Force)	3	7	2	5	10
Lieut.-Colonel (Army); Commander (Navy); Wing Commander (Air Force)	3	16	2	5	10
Colonel (Army); Captain (Navy); Group Captain (Air Force)	3	18	2	5	10
Brigadier and upwards (Army); Commodore and upwards (Navy); Air Commodore and upwards (Air Force)	4	0	2	5	10

War Pensions in Respect of Disablement of Member.—In the case of total disablement of a male member of the Forces the maximum weekly rate is £4 to the member, plus £3 7s. 6d. to a wife, together with 10s. for each dependent child.

The weekly rate for total disablement of a female member is £4, while 10s. per week is payable in respect of each dependent child in the case of death or disablement.

The 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child may be paid either by way of family benefit or, alternatively, by way of war pension.

These rates may be increased by an amount not exceeding £2 10s. per week if the member is suffering from total blindness, or where the member has suffered two or more serious disabilities, or suffers from one extremely severe disability causing him to be bed-ridden or preventing normal social and recreational activities.

A schedule to the Act prescribes the rates of pensions payable in respect of partial disablement resulting from certain major disabilities. In other cases of partial disablement the rates are decided by the War Pensions Board or the Appeal Board, regard being had in every case to the nature and probable duration of the disablement.

If a member, while in receipt of a permanent pension of an amount of not less than 70 per cent of the maximum pension that would be payable in respect of total disablement, dies from any cause not attributable to service as a member of the Forces, a pension may be granted to his widow or dependent children as if death was attributable to service.

Other grants and concessions which may be made to disabled servicemen include the following:—

An allowance not exceeding £7 5s. per week where a pensioner is so disabled as to require the services of a paid attendant:
Additional pensions by way of clothing allowances of from £22 to £24 per annum to amputees and up to £16 to others who are obliged to use any mechanical or other appliance:
A free pass on the New Zealand railways to members in receipt of full permanent pensions:
A permit to travel first class at second-class rates on the New Zealand railways to amputees and others suffering locomotive disabilities to a degree of over 50 per cent for which they receive permanent pensions:
Free medical and surgical treatment in respect of pensionable disabilities. Surgical appliances such as artificial limbs, etc., are also supplied free and kept in good order and repair:
Payment of an annual travelling-allowance of up to £26 to totally disabled pensioners who are unfit to travel alone:
Payment of up to £100 towards the cost of structural alterations to provide special accommodation for a pensioner suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis:
Payment may be made to a service patient of £1 10s. per week while he is maintained in a hospital or other institution:
An accommodation allowance of £1 10s. per day is payable to war pensioners reporting for medical examination or treatment, while compensation in respect of loss of earnings is 15s. per half-day.

During the 1952–53 year the administration of interest-free loans granted to war pensioners in receipt of permanent war pensions for locomotive disabilities (£200 to those with 85 per cent or more pension for locomotive disability and £500 to those with a minimum of 100 per cent pension with certain locomotive disabilities) was transferred to the Secretary for War Pensions from the Director of Rehabilitation. In the 1952–53 year, 24 interest-free loans to purchase motor cars were granted, with a total value of £7,537.

Pensions to Dependants (other than Wives or Children).—In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family who was in fact wholly or partially supported by him at any time within the period of twelve months immediately preceding the date on which the serviceman became a member of the Forces. “A member of the family” includes a parent, grandparent, step-parent, grandchild, step-child, brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, and mother-in-law. “Child,” in relation to any member of the Forces, means a child under the age of sixteen years, and includes an adopted child (subject to certain conditions as regards date of adoption) and an ex-nuptial child (also subject to certain conditions).

The amount of pension payable to a dependant other than a wife or child is governed by the value of the benefits received from the member of the Forces on whose case the claim is based during the period of twelve months immediately preceding the date upon which he became a member of the Forces. The rate, however, is limited to the maximum prescribed for the wife of a member or, in the case of the death of a member, to that prescribed for a widow without children.

The pension payable to a widowed mother, if wholly dependent on the member, is not to be less that the rate granted if the dependant were the wife of the member, or, if partially dependent, the rate is £1 10s. a week.

South African Veterans' War Pensions.—The original authority for the payment of pensions in respect of service in the South African War was the Defence Act 1909, but the Finance Act (No. 4) 1940 provided that pensions might be granted under Part III of the War Pensions Extension Act 1940 in respect of death or disablement suffered by members of any New Zealand Contingent who served in South Africa in connection with the South African War. The War Pensions Extension Act 1940 was repealed by the War Pensions Act 1943, and pensions to veterans of the South African War are now payable under the general authority of the latter with its amendments. The provisions of the Act have been extended to include a member who served in any of Her Majesty's Forces in the South African War if he had been born in New Zealand or was domiciled therein at the commencement of the war.

In addition to war pensions, a South African veteran who is in receipt of an age-benefit under the Social Security Act may receive an additional benefit of £13 13s. per annum, provided that his total income, including pension, does not exceed £253 10s. per annum. Such payments are included with social security benefits and not with war pensions.

Economic Pensions.—An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension the Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

The maximum weekly rates of economic pensions are £3 7s. 6d. to a member £3 7s 6d to a widow with a dependent child or children (the mother's allowance of £2 5s. a week is also payable of course, in addition to the basic war widow's pension), and £3 7s. 6d. to any other war widow (the basic war widow's pension is also payable). A partially dependent widowed mother of a deceased member may be granted an economic pension of an amount not exceeding £2 7s 6d. a week in addition to her ordinary pension. In the case of total dependency on one son or partial dependency on two or more deceased sons, the maximum economic pension is increased to £3 7s 6d a week An allowable income of £1 10s. a week is permitted without reduction of the amount of economic pension to which entitled. The provisions fixing the maximum allowable income of the widowed mother of a deceased member of the Forces were repealed by the 1950 amendment.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disabilities do not receive economic pensions.

WAR VETERANS' ALLOWANCES.—The object of the War Veterans' Allowances Act 1935 which is now incorporated in the War Pensions Act 1943, was to make provision for members of the Forces who, apart from any wounds or other injuries received during war service were ageing prematurely or otherwise becoming unemployable by reason of mental or physical incapacity. The term “veteran” includes—

Any male member of the New Zealand Forces who has served as such in actual engagement with the enemy or, by reason of his period of overseas service and the arduous and dangerous nature of it, is considered a proper person for the grant of such:
Any female member who has served overseas as a member of the New Zealand Forces:
Any other person who, being domiciled in New Zealand at the commencement of any war in which members of the New Zealand Forces have served as such, has served in that war as a member of any of Her Majesty's Forces, other than the New Zealand Forces with a unit in actual engagement with the enemy.

A condition precedent to the granting of a war veteran's allowance is a minimum of five years' continuous residence in New Zealand immediately preceding the date of the claim. Continuous residence is not deemed to be interrupted by occasional absences not exceeding six months in the aggregate increased by one month for each year in excess of five that the veteran has resided in New Zealand; any absences as a member of the Commonwealth Forces are also disregarded.

Whether or not a claimant for an allowance is unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical infirmity is a question of fact to be determined by the War Pensions Board Claimants have the right of appeal to the War Pensions Appeal Board.

The War Pensions Amendment Acts 1945, 1947, 1949, 1950, and 1951 provided for increases in war veterans' allowances, and the rates at present payable (January 1954) inclusive of the 15 September 1953 increase, are as follows:—

Male veteran without a wife: £175 10s. per annum, diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of his annual income (exclusive of this allowance) in excess of £78:
Male veteran with a wife: £175 10s. per annum in respect of the veteran's personal claim £175 10s. in respect of his wife, diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of their combined annual income (exclusive of this allowance) in excess of £78:
Female veteran without a husband: £175 10s. per annum, diminished as in (1) above:
Other female veteran: £175 10s. in respect of her personal claim, diminished by £1 for every complete £1 of the combined annual income (exclusive of this allowance) of the veteran and her husband, in excess of £130.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pensions in the determination of the war veterans' allowances. A supplementary allowance of up to £78 per annum may be granted where both veteran and wife are aged sixty-five, or £39 where only one has attained that age.

The 1950 amendment authorizes the War Pensions Board in computing any war veteran's allowance to take no account of the personal earnings of any woman from domestic service in a private home up to £78 per year.

Where a veteran in receipt of an allowance dies leaving a widow in respect of whom an allowance is also being paid, a gratuity not exceeding twice the total annual allowance in force (in respect of the veteran and his wife) at date of death may, at the discretion of the Board, be granted.

In conformity with the policy of granting family benefits under the Social Security Act, the War Pensions Amendment Act 1945 abolished war veterans' allowances in respect of dependent children, and from 1 October 1945 these allowances have been paid by way of family benefit.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS.—The War Pensions Act 1943 incorporates that part of the Finance Act 1940 which made provision for pensions to members of the Emergency Reserve Corps, established under the Emergency Reserve Corps Regulations 1940. These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered in the course of service, including training, as a member or was directly attributable to such service.

The rates of pension in respect of the death of a male member are the same as those prescribed for a private in the Army—viz., £3 per week to the widow, plus a mother's allowance of £2 5s. per week to a widow with a dependent child or children, together with 20s. per week in respect of each dependent child. In respect of total disablement, the maximum weekly rates are £2 5s. for an unmarried member under twenty-one years of age and £4 per week for other members, £3 7s. 6d. a week to a wife with or without dependent children, plus 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child. Pensions in respect of partial disablement are determined in each case by the War Pensions Board. An economic pension may also be granted.

As in the case of war pensions, the amount payable to a dependant other than a wife or child is limited to the average weekly value of the benefits received from the member during the period of twelve months immediately preceding the date of death or disablement, as the case may be. The 10s. per child may be paid either as a family benefit or, if so desired, as a pension.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS.—The War Pensions and Allowances (Mercantile Marine) Act 1940 made provision for the payment of pensions and allowances to members of the New Zealand mercantile marine and their dependants in respect of death, disablement, or detention suffered as a result of the Second World War, this being a new departure as far as New Zealand's war-pension legislation is concerned. An amendment passed in 1943 extended the scope of the Act to permit of pensions being paid to members of any mercantile marine who are in receipt of similar pensions or allowances from any other Government within the British Commonwealth, provided that such members were, immediately prior to the commencement of the war, bona fide residents of New Zealand. A claimant under this new provision must be actually resident in New Zealand, and the amount of pension or allowance that may be granted is limited to a sum which, together with the amount granted out of New Zealand, will not exceed the pension or allowance that would have been payable had the claimant been a member of the New Zealand mercantile marine.

The maximum rates at present in force in respect of the death of a member range from £3 to £3 7s. per week (according to the member's rank or rating and the tonnage of the vessel in which he was serving) for a widow without dependent children, and in the case of a widow with a dependent child or children there are additional payments of £2 5s. per week by way of mother's allowance and 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child under sixteen years of age. In the case of total disablement, the maximum weekly rates are £4 to the member, £3 7s. 6d. to a wife, plus 10s. per week in respect of each dependent child under sixteen years of age. The amounts payable in respect of partial disablement are determined by the War Pensions Board in each case. There are no distinctions as regards rank or rating or the tonnage of the vessel in which the member was serving in the case of disablement pensions and allowances.

Where a member suffered detention as a result of his capture or the capture of his ship, the rates of allowances payable corresponded to the pensions payable in respect of total disablement.

In all cases pensions and allowances to dependants other than to a wife or a child are limited to the value of the benefits actually received by the claimant from the member during the twelve months immediately preceding his death, disablement, or detention, as the case may be. As stated elsewhere in regard to war pensions, allowances for dependent children may be paid either by way of family benefits or by way of war pension.

WAR PENSIONS EMERGENCY FUND.—This Fund was established in November 1951 to provide for similar cases to those set out under the Social Security Special Assistance Fund (see page 188). Experience over the 1952–53 year would seem to indicate that few have found it necessary to make claims, 73 of which were granted during 1952–53.

WAR PENSIONS APPEAL BOARD.—A claimant may appeal to the War Pensions Appeal Board from a decision of the War Pensions Board within six months of the date on which the decision of the latter was communicated to him. Such an appeal can only be made in so far as it consists of—

The rejection of any claim for a pension in respect of the death or disablement of a member of the Forces on the ground that the death or disablement was not attributable to his service as a member of the Forces or that the condition that resulted in his death or disablement was not aggravated by such service.
The assessment of a pension granted to any member of the Forces in so far as the assessment is based on medical grounds.

The Appeal Board may confirm the decision of the War Pensions Board or may grant a pension, or, within the limits prescribed by the Act, may increase or reduce the amount of any pension. The number of appeals lodged each year has fallen steadily from the peak of 2,661 in 1944–45 to 295 in 1952–53. Of the 313 appeals dealt with during the year ended 31 March 1953, 153 or 49 per cent were upheld, 134 dismissed, and 26 struck out or withdrawn.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1953 the Department received 3,210 applications for war pensions. Of these, 665 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, and war veterans' allowances. The total for the previous year was 4,551, of these 814 being in respect of the applicants' own disability. In addition there were 45 claims received during the year in respect of disablement arising from Compulsory Military Training, 36 of which were granted.

Summary of Disabilities for which Pensions Granted, 1939–53.—The following is a summary of the disabilities attributed to war service from 1939 onwards and for which ex-service personnel had been granted pensions up to 31 March 1953.

Class of Disability or Disease	Type of Service			Total	Percentage of Total
Class of Disability or Disease	Overseas, 1939–45 War	Kayforce	New Zealand	Total	Percentage of Total
Infections and infestations	1,747	16	116	1,879	3.4
Nervous system	9,190	21	1,661	10,872	19.7
Eye, ear, and nose	6,535	18	1,337	7,890	14.3
Circulatory and blood system	1,992	2	1,001	2,995	5.4
Metabolism and endrocrine system	394	1	172	567	10
Lungs	3,370	3	1,118	4,491	8.3
Diseases of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments	5,116	12	1,836	6,964	12.6
Digestive system	3,980	10	1,147	5,137	9.3
Generative system	334		124	458	0.8
Gunshot wounds and accidental injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissues	7,194	19	1,204	8,417	15.3
Skin	2,443	6	543	2,992	5.4
Tumours and neoplastic growths	154	1	53	208	0.4
Malformations	300		131	431	0.8
Amputations	477	2	67	546	1.0
Urinary tract	559	1	140	700	1.3
Debility	443		109	552	1.0
Totals	44,228	112	10,759	55,099	100.0

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the year for the eleven years 1943–53.

Year Ended 31 March	First World War (1914–18)	Second World War (1939–45)	Kayforce	War Veterans	South African War	Mercantile Marine	Emergency Reserve Corps	Total
Number in Force
1943	22,161	7,666		1,807	42	6	19	31,701
1944	21,038	13,037		1,791	44	12	10	35,932
1945	20,849	20,584		1,892	45	18	12	43,400
1946	20,460	26,926		2,029	46	26	11	49,498
1947	20,081	30,028		2,277	42	27	10	52,465
1948	19,715	28,249		2,617	42	24	11	50,658
1949	19,320	27,187		3,367	41	23	10	49,948
1950	18,976	26,537		3,997	39	24	11	49,584
1951	18,573	25,901		4,776	37	26	11	49,324
1952	18,135	25,356	13	5,468	34	24	10	49,040
1953	17,786	25,141	85	5,964	32	24	9	49,041
Expenditure
1943	£ 1,574,062	£ 479,477	£	£ 224,942	£ 1,504	£ 350	£ 1,985	£ 2,282,320
1944	1,973,069	917,855		224,705	2,550	719	1,404	3,120,302
1945	2,046,005	1,407,460		242,501	3,243	1,652	1,228	3,702,089
1946	1,997,390	1,662,227		275,029	3,547	1,879	1,351	3,941,423
1947	2,036,825	2,080,952		346,694	3,502	2,985	1,336	4,472,294
1948	2,049,391	2,031,194		422,275	3,689	2,727	1,368	4,510,644
1949	2,104,627	1,906,232		562,634	3,892	2,700	1,447	4,581,532
1950	2,271,371	2,010,852		743,999	3,826	2,403	1,588	5,034,039
1951	2,311,606	1,970,236		964,882	3,726	2,359	1,628	5,254,437
1952	2,711,710	2,071,829	671	1,282,094	4,429	2,872	1,973	6,075,578
1953	2,747,298	2,072,429	4,478	1,471,405	4,315	2,957	1,764	6,304,646

The foregoing figures do not include the following: (a) costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security amounting to £70,750 in 1952–53; (b) railway and bus concessions to pensioners for total and permanent disablement and for locomotive disabilities for which a permanent pension of over 50 per cent disablement had been granted, costing £13,852 in 1952–53 and £11,380 in the previous year; and (c) loading on life assurance policies where the loading is due to war disabilities, expenditure under this heading being £1,570 in 1952–53 and £1,453 in 1951–52.

Administrative costs for 1952–53 in respect of war pensions and allowances amounted to £15,719, as against £12,212 in 1951–52.

Particulars of First and Second World War and Kayforce pensions in force as at 31 March of each of the last five years are given below.

At 31 March	Disablement Pensions		Dependants of Disabled Ex-members (No.)	On Account of Death		Total (No.)
At 31 March	Permanent (No.)	Temporary (No.)	Dependants of Disabled Ex-members (No.)	Widows (No.)	Parents and Other Dependants (No.)	Total (No.)
First World War, 1914–18
1949	13,812	277	2,546	2,347	338	19,320
1950	13,585	230	2,509	2,377	275	18,976
1951	13,385	126	2,385	2,443	234	18,573
1952	12,758	360	2,378	2,457	182	18,135
1953	12,517	308	2,298	2,492	171	17,786
Second World War, 1939–45
1949	8,310	15,317	987	1,629	944	27,187
1950	10,065	13,011	923	1,582	956	26,537
1951	11,344	11,211	896	1,466	984	25,901
1952	11,799	10,359	808	1,422	968	25,356
1953	12,342	9,625	778	1,423	973	25,141
Kayforce
1952	3	10				13
1953	4	80	1			85

Mothers' allowances were paid to 773 widows of deceased ex-servicemen during the year ended 31 March 1953. The number of children for whom payments were made during 1952–53 but who were not included in the preceding table totalled 2,851, being 685 in respect of First World War pensions and 2,166 for Second World War pensions.

The next table shows the number of pensions in force at 31 March 1953, classified according to percentage of disability.

Percentage of Disability	First World War		Second World War		Kayforce		Totals
Percentage of Disability	Permanent	Temporary	Permanent	Temporary	Permanent	Temporary	Totals
100	1,950	84	727	858	2	11	3,632
90–99	141	0	78	15			240
80–89	376	17	247	98			739
70–79	779	31	318	211			1,340
60–69	714	29	326	225			1,295
50–59	1,763	43	726	537			3,070
40–49	850	20	733	546	1	3	2,153
Under 10 to 39	5,944	78	9,187	7,135	1	62	22,407
Totals	12,517	308	12,342	9,625	4	80	34,876

Details of economic pensions payable at 31 March 1953 are now given, together with the totals as at 31 March 1952. The figures contained therein are included in the tables shown under the preceding subheading.

Class of Pension	First World War, 1914–18		Second World War, 1939–45		Kayforce
Class of Pension	Number	Annual Value	Number	Annual Value	Number	Annual Value
		£		£		£
Ex-members with permanent pensions	3,167	466,587	481	69,408	1	150
Ex-members with temporary pensions	76	10,795	527	76,614	8	1,196
Widows	1,698	247,353	798	109,886
Widowed mothers	13	1,427	63	6,687
Totals, as at 31 March 1953	4,954	726,162	1,869	262,595	9	1,346
Totals, as at 31 March 1952	5,018	737,695	1,899	266,960	1	149

7 C—SUPERANNUATION

General.—Superannuation for Government employees is provided for under the authority of the Superannuation Act 1947, which replaced the earlier separate provisions. Members of the Armed Forces, Police, Post and Telegraph, Public Service, Railways, and teachers, are now contributing to the one Fund, slightly differing terms and conditions being made to meet the requirements of the various Services.

Local government employees and the permanent employees of all statutory bodies are provided for under the National Provident Fund Act 1950. There are now no schemes operative under the authority of the Local Authorities Superannuation Act 1908. For the operations of the National Provident Fund, see Section 7D.

There are also a number of private superannuation funds in existence. Information respecting these is given at the end of this subsection.

The Government Superannuation Fund.—The Government Superannuation Fund, which came into being on 1 April 1948, replaced (and absorbed the moneys belonging to) the former Public Service Superannuation Fund, the Teachers' Superannuation Fund, and the Government Railways Superannuation Fund. Its revenues comprise contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated and other Funds, interest accruing from the investment of moneys in the Fund, fines, all moneys that would have been paid into the three Funds mentioned if the 1947 Act had not been passed, and all other moneys that may be payable into the Fund.

The Fund is administered by a Board consisting of the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the chairman of the Public Service Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Director of Education, the Director-General of the Post and Telegraph Department, the Commissioner of Police, and six staff members appointed on the nomination of the various service organizations.

Superannuation benefits are available for a greater number of persons in receipt of State emoluments than was the case under the 1927 Act. Members of the Government Service, including in this term the Education Service, Police, the Cook Islands Public Service, the Samoan Public Service, and the State Advances Corporation, in addition to the Departments of State under the control of the Public Service Commission, the Railways Department, and the Post and Telegraph Department, may all become contributors to the Fund. Separate parts of the Act relate to the provision of superannuation for members of Parliament, permanent members of the regular Armed Forces, and for Magistrates and Maori Land Court Judges. Members of the Judicature—i.e., Judges of the Supreme and Arbitration Courts—are provided for elsewhere.

Contributions in the case of the Government Service range from 5 per cent of annual salary if under thirty years of age at commencement of contributory service to 10 per cent where the age exceeds fifty years, the increase being at the rate of 1 per cent per year for each five-year increase in age category at commencement date. Retiring allowances are computed at the rate of a one hundred and twentieth part of the annual salary for each year of contributory service, this amount being increased by a sum equal thereto, but in no case is the added amount to exceed £300, or be less than £3 15s. per year of contributory service. The annual salary for the purpose of this computation is deemed to be the average of that paid in each of the five years immediately preceding retirement. The 1953 amendment to the Act also enabled retiring allowances under £300 a year to be computed on the average salary for the last three years instead of the last five years where this procedure will result in increasing the allowance, the effective date being made retrospective to 1 April 1948. When a married contributor dies, whether before or after becoming entitled to a retiring allowance, his widow may elect to receive a refund of the amount of his contributions less any sums received by him during his lifetime, or to receive an annuity at one-half of the rate of his retiring allowance at the date of his retirement, or if he died before then, to which he would have been entitled if he had retired on the date of his death on the ground of being medically unfit for further duty, disregarding any election to take a variable allowance or to surrender part of the allowance to an approved dependant. The amount of the widow's annuity is not to be less than £104 or greater than £300 per annum. In addition, £26 per annum is payable in respect of each child under sixteen years of age left by a deceased contributor. The above are general provisions only and for a complete survey need to be supplemented by reference to other provisions in respect of age, length of service, sex, sickness, withdrawals, refunds, subsidiary benefits, etc., contained in the Act. Contributory membership and retiring allowances as outlined apply generally to permanent members of the Regular Armed Forces. Magistrates and Judges of the Maori Land Court are also entitled to retiring allowances, subject to age and length of service qualifications, one-fortieth of the annual salary at the date of retirement being allowed for each year of service, but in no case is the retiring allowance to exceed two-thirds of that salary. Members of Parliament contribute at the rate of £50 a year, but if at the date of commencement of the retiring allowance contributions are less than £250 the deficiency must be paid into the Consolidated Fund within such time and in such manner as the Minister of Finance may allow. Retiring allowances subject to nine years of service and attainment of the age of fifty years are at the rate of £250 a year for the first nine-year period of service, and for each additional year of service an increase of £25, with a maximum rate of allowance of not more than £400 a year.

The following statistics present a review of the operations of the Fund during its five years in operation.

At 31 March 1953 there were 59,351 contributors, paying £2,040,519 per annum into the Fund. The pensioners at the same date numbered 16,567, and were entitled to £3,673,089 per annum, made up as follows.

—	Number			Pensions
—	Males	Females	Total	Pensions
				£
Retired for age or length of service	6,778	2,505	9,283	2,800,388
Retired for ill health	1,550	285	1,835	304,568
Police injured on duty	25		25	5,173
Widows		4,372	4,372	535,504
Children	517	535	1,052	27,456
Totals	8,870	7,697	16,567	3,673,089

Accumulated funds at 31 March 1953 amounted to £13,924,218. Total assets, which amounted to £14,024,983, included: Investments, £12,104,294; interest, due and accrued, £109,929; contributions in course of transmission, etc., £119,493; and cash in hand and at bank, £1,626,902.

Subsidies paid to the Fund from 1 April 1948 to 31 March 1953 amounted to £13,065,390.

The average effective interest earnings (per cent) of the Fund for the five years ended 31 March 1953 was £3 0s. 5d.

The total revenue of the Fund for the year ended 31 March 1953 was £6,127,799, including members' contributions £2,040,519, interest on investments and on contributions £374,684, and subsidy £3,702,781. The total amount expended during the year was £4,012,101, including retiring and other allowances £3,597,606, refunds of contributions £394,361, transfers to National Provident Fund £18,734, and other expenditure £1,400.

A table is now given showing the progress of the Fund for the last five years.

Year Ended 31 March	Number of Contributors	Annual Contributions	Interest Receivable From Investments	Contributions From Government	Annual Value of Allowances	Accumulated Fund
* The accounts for the 1950, 1951, and 1952 years were consolidated and individual figures for these items are not available.
		£	£	£	£	£
1949	53,622	1,294,013	175,560	2,530,000	2,850,494	6,305,507
1950	^*	1,509,357	160,720	2,590,000	^*	^*
1951	^*	1,628,124	259,185	2,850,000	^*	^*
1952	58,931	2,002,877	377,265	2,915,000	3,409,538	11,808,520
1953	59,351	2,040,519	352,816	2,998,000	3,673,089	13,924,218

Private Superannuation Funds.—Most large and many small employers have established their own staff superannuation funds. Certain taxation concessions are available to an employer and his employees in respect of their contributions to a superannuation fund provided the fund is approved by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue, and it is probable that there are no funds being administered which have not been approved.

NUMBER OF APPROVED FUNDS

As at 31 March	Number to Date	As at 31 March	Number to Date
1950	1,450	1952	2,123
1951	1,726	1953	2,587

A few funds, particularly those of banks, oil companies, insurance companies, and large companies engaged in international trade, provide pensions on retirement, but approximately 95 per cent of all approved funds provide lump-sum payments on retirement.

Of every 95 lump-sum funds approximately 2 are invested in shares, debentures, and trustee securities, and the remaining 93 are invested in life-insurance policies taken out on the lives of the various employees.

The life-insurance companies regard superannuation funds as an important part of their business, and they have been responsible for a great increase in the number of approved funds in recent years.

7 D—NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND

THE National Provident Fund established by Act in 1910 came, into operation on 1 March 1911. The Fund is administered by a Board comprising the Minister of finance as Chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and two other members appointed by and holding tenure of office during the pleasure of the Governor-General. The present legislative authority is contained in the National Provident Fund Act 1950, which consolidated and amended previous legislation on this subject.

In addition to guaranteeing the benefits payable under the Act, the State provides a subsidy to the extent of one-fourth of the contributions paid into the Fund, and also meets all the administrative expenses.

The Fund provides two distinct services:—

Public Fund Branch.—Pensions and subsidiary benefits for members of the general public, with extensions for members of approved friendly societies and employees of firms, trade unions, etc.
Superannuation Branch.—Superannuation for employees of all local authorities and other statutory bodies.

Membership of the public portion of the Fund is open to any resident of New Zealand over the age of sixteen. Parents, guardians, or relatives of children may make advance deposits to secure the entry of the child to full membership when he attains the age of sixteen. No medical examination is required on entry. The method of joining is extremely simple: the applicant fills in a form at any money order post office, or local office of the Fund, and pays a first contribution. Subsequent contributions may be met by deduction from salary, wages, or a savings-bank account. A liberal discount is allowed where contributions are paid 157 weeks or more in advance.

Contributions for each 10s. step of weekly pension range from 9d. per week for persons joining the Fund at age sixteen to 9s. 4d. per week for persons joining at age forty-nine; full subsidiary benefits attach to the first step pension. Any contributor may elect to increase the rate of contribution in accordance with attained age at date of election, so as to increase the rate of his prospective pension.

The following benefits are payable:—

^*(1) On Incapacity of Contributor.—After five years' membership, for the fourth and subsequent months of total incapacity for work, an allowance of 10s. per week for each child under sixteen years of age. Contributions in respect of the first 40s. weekly pension are remitted during the receipt of this allowance, which abates in respect of other income in excess of £6 per week.
^*(2) On Death of a Contributor.—After five years' membership, an allowance of 10s. per week for each child under sixteen years of age, and 10s. for the widow so long as any child is under sixteen years of age.
On reaching age sixty (or sixty-five, subject to reduced contributions or increased pension rates), pensions ranging from 10s. to 120s. per week according to the scale of contributions; options as to joint and survivorship pensions and for refund of contributions in lieu of pensions are provided.
On withdrawal, lapse, or death leaving no children under age sixteen, a refund to contributor or to personal representative of all contributions paid, less any benefits theretofore received.

The scope of the Fund was extended in 1914, the Board being empowered to entertain applications by local authorities for superannuation on behalf of their employees. In 1926 Hospital Boards became contributors on behalf of their nursing and clerical employees. With the consent of the Minister of Finance, State Departments contribute for nurses and other specialist officers, thus facilitating their transfer anywhere within the Government services without loss of pension rights.

To achieve uniformity in benefits and to make improved conditions of superannuation available to permanent employees of all local authorities, the Board was empowered in 1946 to vary the conditions and benefits in the original schemes and to issue a notice to all local authorities containing conditions and benefits under which any permanent employee might elect to become a contributing employee. Funds earlier established under the Local Authorities Superannuation Act 1908 have been merged with the National Provident Fund, and there is now operating one uniform superannuation scheme to which all local authorities in New Zealand contribute; employees may move freely from employment in one local authority to another without sacrifice of accrued superannuation benefits.

The principle of voluntary membership introduced into State schemes extends to the National Provident Fund schemes and provision is made for the recognition, by agreement with the employing local authority, of General or Local Government service within the British Commonwealth or within New Zealand.

The Fund is the approved superannuation vehicle for statutory corporations and also provides facilities whereby registered educational institutions may provide superannuation for teachers, thus removing another artificial barrier to the free interchange of teachers in the educational services.

The benefits and contributions are similar to those operating in the Government Superannuation Fund, and there is provision whereby employees may transfer from local authority to State employment, and vice versa, without loss of accrued rights.

On retirement there are several options as to joint and survivorship or variable pensions which enable the income payable after retirement to be arranged to meet individual needs.

Since the inauguration of the Fund in 1911, 143,380 persons (99,536 males, 43,844 females) have joined the Fund, and of these 120,490 (80,994 males and 39,496 females) have discontinued for one reason or another, leaving 22,890 (18,542 males and 4,348 females) contributors at 31 December 1952. Of the 2,813 discontinuances in 1952, 1,837 were on account of withdrawal, 481 on account of lapse or cancellation, 73 on account of death, 301 on account of attainment of pension age, and 121 on account of transfer.

* If the child remains at school, these allowances may be continued up to attainment of age eighteen years.

The numbers of contributors for the various pension rates as at 31 December 1952 were as follows.

Pensions	Males	Females	Total
10s. per week	9,297	431	9,728
20s. per week	2,284	277	2,561
30s. per week	288	56	344
40s. per week	672	110	782
Superannuation	6,001	3,474	9,475
Totals	18,542	4,348	22,890

Summarized figures set out below for the years ended 31 December 1942, 1947, and 1952 form a useful basis for comparative analysis. Increased contributions and total income figures are attributable mainly to expansion in the superannuation branch.

—	Year Ended 31 December
—	1942	1947	1952
New contributors	2,687	2,614	3,012
Total of contributors	28,508	25,722	22,890
Pensioners	1,229	1,983	2,860
Income—	£	£	£
Contributions	342,234	622,859	864,198
Interest (including fines)	248,416	306,023	419,425
Total income (including State subsidy)	695,648	1,099,777	1,500,948
Outgo—
Pension payments	104,379	168,376	289,619
Other benefits	158,043	295,488	203,476
Total payments	266,149	467,425	494,737
Funds at end of year	6,862,358	9,586,611	13,644,892
Rate of interest per cent earned on invested funds	£3 15s. 9d.	£3 7s. 0d.	£3 4s. 7d.

The amount of the subsidy paid by the State on contributions paid to the Fund during 1952 was £196,011.

The next table presents an alternative comparison, the period covered on this occasion being the five years ended 31 December 1952.

Year	Number of Contributors	Annual Rate of Contributions Payable	Total Amount of Fund	Pensions and Allowances Paid During Year
Year	Number of Contributors	Annual Rate of Contributions Payable	Total Amount of Fund	Incapacity	Retiring	Widows' and Children's
		£	£	£	£	£
1948	24,456	468,565	10,181,854	13,806	203,004	45,348
1949	23,815	528,520	10,877,619	13,285	226,173	50,616
1950	22,796	577,967	11,713,561	13,158	246,032	50,927
1951	22,570	602,925	12,638,681	13,514	267,302	52,224
1952	22,890	705,303	13,644,892	12,677	289,619	53,975

Of the accumulated fund of £13,644,892 at 31 December 1952, £13,344,588 was invested, the principal classes of investment being Government securities, £5,659,186; local authority securities, £7,089,709; and mortgages, £584,201.

The following table sets forth the extent to which the facilities of the Fund are being utilized by local authority employees at 31 December 1952.

Class of Contributing Authority	Number in Each Class	Number Contributing in Each Class	Employees			Annual Contributions
Class of Contributing Authority	Number in Each Class	Number Contributing in Each Class	Males	Females	Totals	Annual Contributions
						£
Cities and boroughs	138	92	1,870	204	2,074	149,605
Counties	125	95	314	36	350	28,513
Electric-power Boards	43	38	641	40	681	54,555
Fire Boards	24	19	170	2	172	18,768
Harbour Boards	24	13	753	6	759	64,039
Hospital Boards	43	43	658	2,873	3,531	184,696
Sundry local authorities	316	40	373	9	382	27,588
Schools		27	86	56	142	10,495
Others		79	821	217	1,038	84,862
Totals		446	5,686	3,443	9,129	623,121

7 E—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

THE legislation dealing with friendly societies is contained in the Friendly Societies Act 1909 and its amendments. Provision is made for the registration of all societies and branches with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also for the general superintendence by the Government of the administration of the funds of the societies.

LODGES AND MEMBERS.—The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, etc., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31 December of the years shown.

Name of Order	Registrations			Lodge Members
Name of Order	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
* Membership figures relate to “actuarial” societies only.
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows	252	251	250	28,207	28,166	28,183
Independent Order of Oddfellows	193	192	191	8,695	8,693	8,418
National Independent Order of Oddfellows	1	1	1	94	91	83
Ancient Order of Foresters	143	142	138	12,421	12,201	11,919
United Ancient Order of Druids	143	143	142	16,324	16,070	15,825
Independent Order of Rechabites	57	54	54	3,462	3,350	3,228
Order of Sons of Temperance	8	8	8	430	428	425
Sons and Daughters of Temperance	1	1	1	93	93	92
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society	80	80	80	3,791	3,823	3,775
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australasia	12	12	12	580	565	537
Grand United Order of Oddfellows	10	10	10	259	248	251
Isolated friendly societies	70	69	68	635^*	635^*	643^*
Working-men's clubs	23	24	24
International Order of Good Templars	11	11	11
Specially authorized societies	19	18	17
Totals	1,023	1,016	1,007	74,991	74,363	73,379

Annual returns of receipts, expenditure, etc., of lodges are required by law. For the year 1952 the Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns from 845 lodges, with an aggregate membership of 73,379 at the end of the year, as compared with 852 lodges and 74,363 members for 1951. During the year 2,240 members were admitted by initiation, etc., and 483 by clearance; 1,243 died, 522 left by clearance, and 1,942 by arrears, etc.

The aggregate membership of lodges increased year by year, reaching a peak in 1930, when the total was 107,167. The economic depression probably accounted for the decrease in each of the following three years, the number at the end of 1933 being 100,237. A series of increases then commenced, the 1930 level being passed in 1936, and by 31 December 1938 a total of 113,709 had been reached. Each of the succeeding years, however, has witnessed a fall in membership, although the decrease in 1952 was comparatively slight. The number at the end of that year (73,379) was, however. 40,330, or 35 per cent less than in 1938. The various benefits under the social security scheme, particularly medical and hospital benefits (see Section 7A), have no doubt had a considerable effect on the membership of friendly societies. Circumstances arising from the late war may also have been a contributing factor.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (845 in 1952) for which returns were received and tabulated.

MORTALITY AND SICKNESS.—In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last five years no account has been taken of age incidence.

Year	Deaths or Members	Per 1,000 Members at Risk	Deaths of Members' Wives	Per 1,000 Members at Risk
1948	1,192	15.20	320	4.08
1949	1,147	14.87	356	4.61
1950	1,159	15.23	313	4.11
1951	1,202	15.97	357	4.74
1952	1,243	16.69	358	4.80

The number of members sick during 1952 was 13,616, equal to 18.9 per 100 members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1952 was 308,024 weeks, equal to 22 weeks 4 days per sick member and 4 weeks 2 days for each member at risk.

FUNDS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.—The total funds of the societies and branches as at 31 December 1952 amounted to £7,331,341, made up as follows.

Funds	Amount	Assets	Amount
	£		£
Sick and Funeral Funds	5,653,716	Investments at interest	6,833,138
Surplus Appropriation Funds, etc.	920,058	Value of land and buildings	302,091
Management Funds, goods, etc.	349,121	Cash not bearing interest	154,653
Distress, Benevolent Funds, etc.	408,446	Value of goods	21,504
		Other assets	15,609
		Owing by Management Funds	4,346
Total	£7,331,341	Total	£7,331,341

The net income from investments credited to the Sick and Funeral Funds for 1952 amounted to £242,155, the average rate being £4 8s. 9d. per cent, as against £4 7s. 11d. in 1951.

There has been over many years a continuous increase in the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies, the increase in the last ten years amounting to £1,540,820, or 27 per cent. The average capital per member has also appreciably increased, the gain in the last ten years amounting to £36 12s. 10d. (58 per cent). The substantial fall in membership over the last ten years has resulted in outstanding increases being shown for the average capital per member.

Year	Total Funds	Average Capital Per Member
	£	£	s.	d.
1942	5,790,521	63	5	5
1943	5,897,959	67	0	4
1944	6,018,831	70	14	8
1945	6,135,413	73	18	0
1946	6,278,409	78	0	11
1947	6,419,523	81	15	5
1948	6,568,039	85	3	0
1949	6,706,713	88	4	5
1950	6,858,062	91	9	0
1951	7,126,449	95	16	8
1952	7,331,341	99	18	3

The contributions and entrance fees paid to Sick and Funeral Funds in 1952 amounted to £170,413. Divided by the mean number of members, the average for 1952 was £2 6s. 2d., as against £2 4s. 2d. for 1951.

The interest and rent received by the lodges and central bodies amounted to £242,155 in 1952, equal to £3 5s. 7d. per member, as against £3 2s. 8d. for 1951.

The amount of sickness benefit paid was £161,342 in 1952, equal to £11 17s. 0d. per member sick and £2 3s. 8d. per member, as against £11 16s. 11d. and £2 2s. 8d. respectively for 1951. Viewing the amount paid in relation to the weeks of sickness, the average benefit per week is found to be 10s. 6d. in 1952, as against 10s. 4d. for 1951.

The funeral benefit paid amounted to £74,843 in 1952, equal to £1 0s. 3d. per member, as compared with 18s. 9d. for 1951.

The total worth of the Sick and Funeral Funds at the beginning of 1952 was £5,505,949, and at the end of the year, £5,653,716.

Chapter 8. SECTION 8—JUSTICE

Table of Contents

LAW OF NEW ZEALAND.—The law applied in the Courts of New Zealand has three principal sources—the common law of England, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament enacted prior to 1947, and statutes of the New Zealand Parliament.

The initial law of New Zealand when it became a British colony was the law of England as it existed on 14 January 1840—that is, the common law—together with those statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date. Subsequent law consists of those enactments of the United Kingdom Parliament between 1840 and 1947 which extended expressly or by necessary implication to New Zealand, and the enactments of the New Zealand Legislature.

In interpreting the common law the Courts have been concerned to preserve uniformity with the common law as it has developed in England. This unity is ensured not only by the existence of the Privy Council as the final Court of appeal for New Zealand, but by the practice of the Judges of following English decisions even though they are in theory not bound by them.

The New Zealand Parliament is now the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country, and there are no constitutional restrictions on the law which it can pass. Before the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 the powers of Parliament were limited in two respects. First, there was a somewhat uncertain and ill-defined incapacity to make laws having extra-territorial application, and, secondly, there was an incapacity to make laws conflicting with a statute of the United Kingdom Parliament extending to New Zealand. Since 1947, however, both these limitations have disappeared, although the United Kingdom Parliament still has the power to make laws extending to New Zealand at the request and with the consent of the New Zealand Legislature.

COURTS.—The hierarchy of Courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Court.

The Court of Appeal, unlike other Courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1913 it comprises two divisions, a First and Second Division. Each division consists of five Judges of the Supreme Court appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Chief Justice and two other Judges, there being no separate Judges of Appeal in New Zealand. The jurisdiction of the Court is exercised by each division at alternate sittings, but in important cases of special difficulty a joint sitting of both divisions may be authorized. The Judicature Act provides that the Court of Appeal shall sit at times and places appointed by the Governor-General in Council. In practice it almost invariably sits at Wellington. The decision of the Court is that of the majority of the Judges present, but if these are equally divided in opinion the decision appealed from is deemed to be affirmed.

An amendment of 1933 allows the Court of Appeal to hold special sittings at times and places appointed by Order in Council. This authority may be exercised only on a certificate of at least three Judges (including the Chief Justice) that it is not expedient to delay the hearing of the appeal. At a special sitting three or more Judges may exercise the jurisdiction of the Court whether or not they are members of the same division.

In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court certain other proceedings in inferior Courts may on an order of the Supreme Court be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. It may be noted that the Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Criminal Appeal Act 1945, which is discussed later in the section.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final unless leave is granted to appeal to the Privy Council. This leave may be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final Court of appeal in all civil cases and also occasionally hears appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which has existed since New Zealand became a British colony in 1840, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The Members of the Court are a Chief Justice and ten other Judges, the number being fixed by statute. The 1953 amendment provides, however, that an additional Judge or Judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the Judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. This, together with the provision that the salary of a Judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who retire at seventy-two, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives. The Governor-General may suspend a Judge upon a like Address.

Magistrates' Courts are now set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. The jurisdiction of the Court is exercised by Stipendiary Magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to thirty-five, there being twenty-nine at present holding office. Justices of the Peace, however, still sit as a Magistrates' Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges.

Stipendiary Magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least seven years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at sixty-eight years of age.

Apart from these Courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several Courts with specialist functions. These include the Court of Arbitration, which makes awards governing pay and working conditions in industry, and also makes general wage orders; the Compensation Court, which determines claims under the Workers' Compensation Act; and the Land Valuation Court, which determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes.

JURIES.—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every male British subject (other than a Maori) between twenty-one and sixty-five years resident within a certain distance of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. A new list of exempted persons was enacted by the Juries Amendment Act 1951, the principal change being the removal of most Government servants from the class of exempted persons.

The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; Judges of the Supreme Court and of the Compensation Court; Judges and Members of the Court of Arbitration and of the Land Valuation Court; Judges and Commissioners of the Maori Land Court; Magistrates; Visiting Prison Justices; Coroners; the Chairman of the Local Government Commission; the Chairman and Members of the Licensing Control Commission; Officers of Parliament; clergymen; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners and dentists; registered chemists; members of the Armed Forces; members of the Police Force and Traffic Officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; and certain officers of the Justice Department, including those engaged in Court or prison work.

Provision was made by the Women Jurors Act 1942 for women to serve on juries. Women between the ages of twenty-five and sixty who would be liable for jury service if they were men may have their names placed on the jury list, but there is no obligation for them to do so. In fact, very few women have volunteered for jury service.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the Court or a Judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the Court or a Judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

New Zealand still retains the Grand Jury as part of its legal system, although it has been abolished in most other countries outside the United States of America, where it performs a different function.

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts.—From the beginning of settlement in New Zealand there has existed a speedy and inexpensive forum for determining every-day disputes between citizens. From 1846 to 1925 there were two types of Lower Court, as well as the Supreme Court. Resident Magistrates' Courts (from 1893 called Magistrates' Courts) dealt with the smallest claims while larger minor claims were determined first by Courts of Requests, and from 1858 by District Courts.

The most important feature of this period was the gradual replacement of the three-tier structure by a two-tier structure as the jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts became more extensive and the District Courts fell gradually into disuse. The jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts was considerably extended in 1893, but the main reason for the increasing importance of these Courts was the requirement, first introduced in 1913, that every Magistrate should be a qualified barrister and solicitor. In 1925, District Courts were formally abolished, leaving the Magistrates' Courts and the Supreme Court as the sole Courts with general jurisdiction.

Before 1947 the jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts was limited (a) as to amount, the maximum sum which could be claimed being £300, and (b) as to remedies, which virtually limited jurisdiction to claims for debt or damages.

The Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 revised the whole framework of Magistrates' Courts procedure which had been substantially unchanged for eighty years and brought it into line with present day jurisdiction and requirements. The jurisdiction of the Court was also widened. It may now hear all claims up to £500, but if the parties agree in writing that the Court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may now grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the last eleven years.

Year	Plaints Entered		Cases Disposed of
Year	Number	Total Amount Sued for	Number	Total Amount Claimed	Total Amount for Which Judgment Entered
		£		£	£
1942	32,484	495,038	21,582	306,926	253,296
1943	22,337	353,736	15,027	215,764	175,315
1944	20,800	395,946	14,016	228,428	181,262
1945	20,184	412,327	12,890	277,579	193,785
1946	24,407	544,084	14,507	311,505	241,523
1947	28,332	694,873	16,724	422,046	345,472
1948	34,927	911,321	20,218	546,026	437,240
1949	34,403	994,291	17,694	550,362	463,995
1950	35,747	1,209,988	18,090	553,021	460,910
1951	38,966	1,331,375	20,111	733,562	588,300
1952	46,836	1,701,963	24,753	880,840	743,680

The average amount claimed in each plaint has risen from £15 in 1942 to over £36 in 1952.

Supreme Court.—The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a Lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrates' Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court from 1942 onwards.

Year	Number of Actions Commenced	Cases Tried		Judgments Recorded
Year	Number of Actions Commenced	With Jury	Without Jury	Number	Amount
					£
1942	598	65	176	192	77,634
1943	555	51	182	158	48,400
1944	713	77	199	166	65,067
1945	779	86	209	159	116,739
1946	889	70	255	231	109,252
1947	1,055	84	225	197	110,595
1948	1,342	104	301	299	136,857
1949	1,208	108	293	241	158,202
1950	1,059	90	268	202	108,132
1951	1,135	91	224	218	169,440
1952	1,451	125	302	242	182,036

Court of Appeal.—During the five years 1948 to 1952 there were 118 civil appeals, of which 50 were allowed, and also 20 cases removed to the Appeal Court, resulting in 11 judgments for the plaintiffs and 9 for the defendants.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Magistrates' Courts.—The criminal jurisdiction of Magistrates' Courts has gradually grown out of the general jurisdiction enjoyed in respect of minor offences by Justices of the Peace. The Court previously had power to deal with all summary cases—that is, cases where a statute provides that an offence shall be dealt with summarily. Magistrates have, however, now acquired by the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1952 (which came into force on 1 January 1953) jurisdiction to deal with the majority of indictable offences. This Act gives a Magistrate jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, and rape. If the Magistrate deals summarily with an indictable offence, he may impose a sentence of imprisonment of up to three years or a fine of up to £200. A Magistrate may however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any indictable offence punishable by imprisonment for more than three months.

Justices of the Peace now hear only a small number of summary charges and charges of theft up to £20. The tendency is to have all criminal cases dealt with by Stipendiary Magistrates, except in country districts.

The following table shows the number of criminal charges dealt with in Magistrates' Courts from 1942. These figures and all the figures relating to Magistrates' Courts, Supreme Court, and prisons include Maoris, but Children's Court cases are excluded and will be found under the section relating to juvenile offences.

Year	Number			Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	Against Males	Against Females	Totals	Against Males	Against Females	Totals
1942	35,353	2,714	38,067	44.10	3.24	23.22
1943	34,247	2,921	37,168	43.41	3.45	22.72
1944	36,880	3,168	40,048	46.16	3.70	24.19
1945	39,552	2,922	42,474	47.83	3.37	25.06
1946	44,863	2,699	47,562	51.06	3.06	27.03
1947	46,337	2,425	48,762	51.50	2.70	27.12
1948	50,006	2,756	52,762	54.43	3.01	28.76
1949	54,768	2,883	57,651	58.35	3.09	30.80
1950	55,536	2,915	58,451	58.18	3.05	30.62
1951	60,106	3,002	63,108	61.46	3.09	32.40
1952	78,536	3,666	82,202	78.26	3.69	41.18

As may be expected the great majority of these charges are for comparatively minor offences, particularly against the traffic laws, which alone account for three-fifths of the convictions in the Magistrates' Courts. Of the 73,960 convictions in the Magistrates' Courts in 1952, 45,060 were for minor traffic offences, 3,346 for offences against the liquor laws, and 5,740 for drunkenness.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the years 1948 to 1952. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year. Until the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1952 became effective the more serious cases, such as those of a sexual nature or those involving grave bodily injury, were not tried summarily, but were sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence, and consequently do not appear in this table.

Type of Offence	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.
Common assault	558	617	653	700	635
Other offences against the person	52	76	62	83	83
Theft	2,664	2,540	2,404	2,230	2,487
Wilful damage	404	426	405	392	365
Other offences against property (including forgery)	1,061	1,102	1,238	1,125	1,235
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)	3,314	3,828	4,112	4,716	5,740
Application for prohibition order	771	814	749	783	835
Offensive conduct or language, obstruction, etc., of police, and vagrancy	2,707	2,764	2,538	2,810	2,998
Minor traffic offences	20,582	26,316	28,951	32,015	45,060
Other offences against good order	1,200	1,312	1,441	1,463	1,495
Breach of probation	160	133	167	126	138
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing Act	2,912	2,415	2,281	2,768	3,346
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income	293	319	283	1,063	2,241
Failing to pay maintenance	1,483	1,371	1,212	1,092	1,221
Deserting merchant ships	618	568	677	438	399
Breaches of price control orders	649	740	596	443	693
Other offences	4,691	4,659	3,838	3,881	4,989
Totals	44,119	50,000	51,607	56,128	73,960
Distinct cases^*	36,858	42,092	43,909	47,460	62,434

The total convictions (73,960) for 1952 represent a rate of 37.0 per thousand of mean population. The rise of 17,832 in the number of convictions for 1952 is made up mainly of the following increases:

Minor traffic offences	13,045
Failure to furnish income-tax returns	1,178
Drunkenness	1,024
Unlawfully on licensed premises, etc.	578
Theft	257
Breaches of price control orders	250

On the other hand, the convictions for common assault, wilful damage, and ship desertion showed decreases.

The next table classifies the result of hearing and punishment inflicted on summary conviction for all cases during 1952.

Result of Hearing	Offences Against the Person	Offences Against Property	Offences Against Good Order	Other Offences	Totals
Dismissed or withdrawn	201	529	2,278	3,403	6,411
Admonished and discharged	2	4	3	1	10
Committed for trial	220	376	31	18	645
Committed for sentence	210	949	5	12	1,176
Released under Offenders Probation Act	70	1,051	128	201	1,450
Convicted and discharged	43	651	1,457	315	2,466
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence	41	137	94	40	312
Committed to Borstal Institution, etc.	2	143	35	87	267
Fined	408	1,066	51,805	9,662	62,941
Imprisonment in lieu of fine	3	5	49	6	63
Peremptory imprisonment	142	959	695	369	2,165
Bound over	1	1	8	2	12
Order made		3	854	1,020	1,877
Convicted and ordered to pay costs	8	71	1,002	343	1,424
Suspended imprisonment			1	982	983
Totals	1,351	5,945	58,445	16,461	82,202
Distinct cases	1,091	3,233	51,067	12,307	67,698

Traffic Offences.—Traffic offences form so large a proportion of summary convictions that a further analysis is of interest. The most frequent traffic offences are excessive speeding and breaches of parking regulations. This is a feature common to many countries and is associated with the temptation provided by modern high-powered vehicles and with the congested streets of the main cities and towns.

The following table analyses convictions in Magistrates' Courts for traffic offences for the years 1948–52 inclusive.

Offence	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Negligent driving causing injury	2	3	1	14	18
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury	5	4		1	3
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use	315	336	459	419	496
Drunk in charge of motor vehicle	394	416	464	603	704
Drunk in charge of other vehicle	7	12	6	8	7
Excessive speed in motor vehicle	3,087	5,312	6,398	6,165	9,945
Negligent or dangerous driving of motor vehicle	3,273	3,593	4,085	4,915	6,963
Negligent or dangerous driving of other vehicle	395	339	186	236	188
Breaches of regulations for the lighting of vehicles	2,315	3,040	2,314	2,395	3,154
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles	1,503	2,238	2,636	3,252	4,683
Offences relating to driver's licence	1,310	1,669	1,837	2,192	3,213
Breaches of parking regulations	4,664	5,719	7,139	8,716	11,339
Other traffic offences	4,035	4,400	4,354	4,144	5,575
Totals	21,305	27,081	29,879	33,060	46,288
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population	11.61	14.47	15.65	16.97	23.19

This table does not include the more serious cases involving death or injury which are sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1952, 21 such cases were sent forward and there were 20 sentences, comprising 8 for negligent or drunken driving causing death, 4 for negligent or drunken driving causing injury, and 8 for failing to stop after an accident involving injury.

Drunkenness.—The following table shows the number of convictions for drunkenness, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population for each of the years 1948 to 1952.

Year	Convictions for Drunkenness			Per 1,000 of Mean Population
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
1948	3,174	140	3,314	3.45	0.15	1.81
1949	3,701	127	3,828	3.94	0.14	2.05
1950	3,944	168	4,112	412	0.18	2.15
1951	4,527	189	4,716	4.63	0.19	2.42
1952	5,553	187	5,740	5.53	0.19	2.87

Repeated charges against the same person are included in the totals shown in the preceding table, but the figures do not include technical convictions in cases of application for the issue of prohibition orders, of which there were 835 in 1952. After dropping to a record low rate of 1.54 convictions per 1,000 mean population in 1947, the convictions for drunkenness have been rising over the last few years, but are still lower than the figures for most years before 1940. In 1895 the proportion was 6.52.

Supreme Court.—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Lower Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

Year	Tried in Supreme Court				Sentences in Case of Committal for Sentence		Total Sentences
	Indictments and Informations		Convictions		Sentences in Case of Committal for Sentence		Total Sentences
	M	F	M	F	M	F	M	F	Totals
(a) Total Cases
1948	1,346	30	706	14	1,549	54	2,255	68	2,323
1949	983	35	476	20	1,201	21	1,677	41	1,718
1950	759	49	371	8	1,178	26	1,549	34	1,583
1951	746	33	291	10	1,235	38	1,526	48	1,574
1952	804	57	382	36	1,252	36	1,634	72	1,706
(b) Distinct Persons
1948	344	15	225	7	461	24	686	31	717
1949	324	16	217	11	437	11	654	22	676
1950	315	16	195	7	425	15	620	22	642
1951	313	15	175	7	447	15	622	22	644
1952	311	19	207	16	455	26	662	42	704

Of the 330 distinct persons indicted during 1952, 223 were convicted and 96 acquitted, and no bill was returned or the prosecution was not otherwise proceeded with in the remaining 11 cases.

The next table summarizes the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the last five years.

Year	Total Convictions and Sentences					Distinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Year	Offences Against the Person	Offences Against Property	Forgery and Offences Against the Currency	Other Offences	Totals	Offences Against the Person	Offences Against Property	Forgery and Offences Against the Currency	Other Offences	Totals
1948	319	1,692	239	73	2,323	200	475	16	26	717
1949	355	1,242	88	33	1,718	232	397	25	22	676
1950	409	1,083	75	16	1,583	279	328	25	10	642
1951	376	1,110	60	28	1,574	253	356	20	15	644
1952	409	1,202	53	42	1,706	270	395	20	19	704

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the years 1942 to 1952, classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence	1942	1943	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Murder	2	2		4	3	3	6	6	11	7	2
Attempted murder	1		3		2	1				1
Manslaughter	3	2	3	5	2	3	1	2	4	5	2
Traffic offences involving death or injury	6	7	9	17	24	37	22	19	30	19	20
Assaults and wounding	37	19	21	21	29	30	29	34	25	31	26
Sexual offences	126	106	113	122	124	149	119	155	186	177	198
Other offences against the person	24	24	23	25	22	27	23	16	23	13	22
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering	137	153	200	231	263	229	234	196	183	194	186
Theft, receiving, and fraud	64	130	125	140	135	214	232	177	129	147	191
Other offences against property	5	8	13	18	9	9	9	24	16	15	18
Forgery and uttering	22	25	16	17	25	14	16	25	25	20	20
Other offences	30	18	34	19	17	24	26	22	10	15	19
Totals	457	494	560	619	655	740	717	676	642	644	704
Per 10,000 mean population	2.79	3.02	3.38	3.65	3.72	4.12	3.91	3.61	3.36	3.30	3.52

From 1943 to 1947 there was a considerable increase in serious crime, an experience not by any means confined to New Zealand. Most other countries reported a similar trend, which might be regarded at least partly as a result of war conditions. With the exception of offences such as murder and sexual offences, the general tendency has been for the number of serious offences to fall since 1947.

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during 1952 were as follows:

Released under Offenders Probation Act	205
Convicted and discharged	3
Ordered to come up for sentence	8
Fined	47
Imprisoned	251
Sentenced to reformative detention	136
Ordered to be detained in Borstal institution	52
Death (one commuted to life imprisonment)	2

Seven of those sentenced to imprisonment received in addition a term of reformative detention and 16 were declared habitual criminals.

In 1941 the death sentence for murder was abolished, life imprisonment with hard labour being substituted therefor, but was restored in 1950 by the Capital Punishment Act. On conviction for murder a sentence of death must be imposed except in the case of an expectant mother, who is to be sentenced to imprisonment for life, and a person under eighteen, who is to be sentenced to detention during Her Majesty's pleasure.

Flogging and whipping were also abolished in 1941 and have not been restored.

CRIMINAL APPEALS.—The law relating to criminal appeals was substantially changed by the Criminal Appeal Act 1945. Previously an appeal lay only on a point of law and was available both to the prosecution and to the accused. These provisions have been retained, but the Act for the first time gave a convicted person a general right of appeal to the Court of Appeal against conviction or sentence. The Act provides that any person convicted on indictment or committed for sentence may appeal to the Court—

Against his conviction on any ground involving a question of law;
With the leave of the Court or on the certificate of the Judge who tried the case, on any ground involving a question of fact or on any other ground deemed sufficient by the Court;
With the leave of the Court against the sentence passed unless it is one fixed by law.

The Court may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

The Act does not affect the Crown's prerogative of mercy, but contains a provision enabling the Governor-General to refer to the Court of Appeal any application for the exercise of the prerogative.

OFFENCES BY WOMEN.—Of the 82,202 criminal charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Court in 1952, 3,666, or 4.5 per cent, were against females. This figure showed a substantial increase on the 1951 total of 3,002. The comparable figure for 1947 was 2,425, which was the lowest recorded since 1933.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Of the convictions for more serious offences during 1952, the most common were—

Attempted suicide	5
Common assault	19
Drunkenness	173
Theft	342
Fraud and false pretences	22
Offensive conduct or language	28
Vagrancy	58

Supreme Court statistics also showed that women in general are of a law-abiding disposition, only 42 females (5.97 per cent of the total) being sentenced in 1952 for criminal offences.

During 1952, 81 women were received into prison under sentence. The principal offences concerned were vagrancy, 22; theft, 31; receiving stolen property, 4; cruelty to children, 3; and breach of probation, 3. Corresponding figures for 1951 were 71, the principal offences being vagrancy, 18; theft, 24; and breach of probation, 6.

OFFENCES BY MAORIS.—As previously mentioned, Maoris are included in the statistical tables presented elsewhere in this section, the data given here being for purposes of comparison. According to the population estimate of 31 December 1952, 4.63 per cent of the total population of New Zealand aged fifteen and over were Maoris.

In recent years it has become increasingly difficult to classify, with any degree of accuracy, Maoris and non-Maoris in Magistrates' Court summons cases, and this classification has now been discontinued. However, an accurate classification can be arrived at in the case of arrests, and the following summary shows total charges for arrest cases in 1952. Figures for Europeans are quoted for comparative purposes.

—	Class of Offence					Total Charges for Arrest Cases
	Against the Person	Against Property	Against Good Order		Other Offences	Total Charges for Arrest Cases
	Against the Person	Against Property	Drunkenness	Other	Other Offences	Males	Females	Totals
Maoris	130	729	570	277	66	1,639	133	1,772
Non-Maoris	722	3,762	5,201	1,569	1,021	11,719	556	12,275
Totals	852	4,491	5,771	1,846	1,087	13,358	689	14,047

Of the total number of arrests and convictions 12.6 per cent and 13.1 per cent respectively were Maoris.

The total number of Maoris convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during the five years 1948 to 1952 was 588, or 17.4 per cent, of the total of 3,383. Of the 136 Maoris (including 5 females) sentenced during 1952, 106 were committed from Magistrates' Courts and 30 were tried and convicted in the Supreme Court. The following table shows the number of Maoris sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the last eleven years, together with the percentage of Maori offenders to total persons sentenced in each case.

Year	Offences Against the Person				Offences Against Property^*		Total Offences^†
	Sexual Offences		Other		Offences Against Property^*		Total Offences^†
	Maoris Sentenced	Percentage of Total Sentences	Maoris Sentenced	Percentage or Total Sentences	Maoris Sentenced	Percentage of Total Sentences	Maoris Sentenced	Percentage of Total Sentences
* Including forgery and uttering. † Includes other offences.
1942	22	17.5	17	23.3	30	13.2	70	15.3
1943	26	24.5	9	16.7	41	13.4	78	15.8
1944	25	22.1	7	11.9	45	12.7	78	13.9
1945	39	32.0	13	18.1	89	21.9	143	231
1946	34	27.4	15	18.3	69	16.0	124	18.9
1947	32	21.5	19	18.8	87	18.7	140	18.9
1948	24	20.2	14	17.3	84	17.1	127	17.7
1949	32	20.6	15	19.5	57	13.5	104	15.4
1950	41	22.0	11	11.8	56	15.9	108	16.8
1951	43	24.3	12	15.8	57	15.2	113	17.5
1952	53	26.8	14	19.4	67	16.1	136	19.3

During 1952, 431 Maoris (including 33 females) were received into prison under sentence, this being 19.0 per cent of the total committals. Of the 1,113 persons held in custody on 31 December 1952, 260, or 23.3 per cent, were Maoris. Corresponding figures for 1951 were 354 received under sentence (including 20 females), 17.9 per cent of the total committals, and 1,076 held in custody on 31 December 1951, of which 228, or 21.2 per cent, were Maoris.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS.—Children's Courts were established in New Zealand under Part IV of the Child Welfare Act 1925, and are expressly designed to separate youthful offenders and children in need of protection from the atmosphere and associations of the regular Courts. All offences, except murder or manslaughter, committed by children under seventeen years are dealt with in Children's Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary Courts. In addition, when an offender between seventeen and eighteen years comes before a regular Court the Court may order his case to be heard in the Children's Court.

To fulfil the object for which Children's Courts were set up, the legislation prescribes that as far as possible persons attending a Children's Court shall not be brought into contact with persons attending any other Court. Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children's Court are not held in a courtroom, and where a Children's Court is in the same building as any other Court it does not sit when that other Court is in session. Proceedings in Children's Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding Magistrate.

When a child was brought before a Children's Court and charged with any offence the Court was formerly not required to hear the charge against him. The law was changed in 1948, and all charges must now be heard and determined. It is not necessary, however, to record a conviction even if the charge is proved, and in practice convictions are not entered. The Court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction had been recorded.

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in the Children's Court during each of the years 1942 to 1952 and (except for the years 1942 to 1946) the number of distinct cases—that is, excluding multiple charges against the same person.

Year	Total Cases			Distinct Cases
Year	Males	Females	Totals	Males	Females	Totals
* Not available.
1942	4,357	617	4,974	^*	^*	^*
1943	4,262	578	4,840	^*	^*	^*
1944	3,850	526	4,376	^*	^*	^*
1945	3,732	495	4,227	^*	^*	^*
1946	3,175	458	3,633	^*	^*	^*
1947	2,941	365	3,306	1,620	285	1,905
1948	2,948	424	3,372	1,650	343	1,993
1949	2,675	393	3,068	1,537	321	1,858
1950	3,185	477	3,662	1,772	364	2,136
1951	3,315	508	3,823	1,816	405	2,221
1952	3,910	453	4,363	2,118	345	2,463

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the years 1947 to 1952 are as follows. The figures shown refer to total cases.

Type of Offence	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Includes forgery and uttering.
Sexual offences	70	77	43	61	55	85
Assaults	31	38	40	36	28	33
Other offences against the person	7	4	4	6	9	6
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering	374	223	331	288	394	650
Theft, receiving, and fraud	1,425	1,566	1,361	1,703	1,564	1,715
Unlawful conversion of vehicles	283	222	167	227	299	360
Wilful damage	232	305	258	329	339	255
Other offences against property^*	51	31	10	1	21	10
Offences against good order	266	233	251	297	351	505
Indigent or delinquent child	490	506	519	606	652	593
Other offences	77	127	84	108	111	151
Totals	3,306	3,372	3,068	3,662	3,823	4,363

The 4,363 cases heard during 1952 resulted as follows:—

Dismissed or withdrawn	153
Admonished and discharged	1,217
Committed to care of Child Welfare Branch of the Education Department	770
Placed under supervision	1,791
Committed to an institution	79
Fined	250
Otherwise dealt with	103

PROBATION.—By passing the First Offenders' Probation Act in 1886 New Zealand introduced the second Probation Act in the world. Originally it was intended that probation should only be used for first offenders guilty of trivial offences, but its scope was gradually widened. The present legislation, the Offenders Probation Act 1920, applies to any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily.

An offender may be released on probation for a period not exceeding five years, and during this time he must observe certain statutory conditions governing his behaviour and must accept the supervision of a Probation Officer. The statutory conditions of probation relate to such matters as reporting to a Probation Officer, employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. In addition, the Court may impose particular conditions designed to assist his rehabilitation and to prevent further crime. At the end of his period of probation he is deemed to be a free man, but if at any time during the period he breaks any of the conditions on which probation has been granted to him he may be brought back to Court and becomes liable to a term of imprisonment or to a fine. In addition, he may be sentenced for the original offence for which he was placed on probation.

The probation method has come to be accepted as an integral part of the penal system and is widely used in New Zealand. The following figures show the number of persons released on probation during each of the past eleven years.

Year	Number Admitted to Probation	Year	Number Admitted to Probation
1942	637	1948	1,036
1943	896	1949	1,104
1944	920	1950	1,098
1945	886	1951	1,071
1946	919	1952	1,176
1947	972

The next table gives the ages of offenders placed on probation during 1952, together with the period of their probation.

Age, in Years	6 Months or Under	1 Year	18 Months	2 Years	3 Years	5 Years	Totals
Under 20	14	114	15	185	43		371
20 and under 25	13	114	14	175	23		339
25 and under 30	7	62	9	94	16		188
30 and under 40	4	68	11	78	15	1	177
40 and under 50	1	21		24	7		53
50 and under 60	1	12	4	11	4		32
60 and under 70		3		7	2		12
70 and over		2		2			4
Totals	40	396	53	576	110	1	1,176

Probation is not punishment. It is intended to be and is a conditional suspension of punishment and provides the opportunity whereby the offender may, with the assistance and supervision of a Probation Officer, rehabilitate himself. The real purpose of probation is to prevent further offences, and it is more freely used in the case of first offenders and young offenders.

INQUESTS.—The law relating to inquests, which had previously been partly common law and partly contained in the Coroners Act 1908, was consolidated into a single code by the Coroners Act 1951. This Act provides for the appointment by the Governor-General of Coroners for New Zealand and defines their powers and duties.

An inquest may be held for the purpose of establishing—

The fact that a person has died;
The identity of the deceased person;
When, where, and how the death occurred.

All inquests are held in public, but the Coroners Act 1951 repeated a common-law power to exclude persons from an inquest and to prohibit the publication of any part of the evidence. The power to prohibit publication has now been made subject to review by a Magistrate, unless the Coroner is himself a Magistrate.

The following is a table of inquests held during each of the eleven years from 1942 to 1952.

Year	Males	Females	Totals	Maoris (Included in Totals)
1942	1,183	516	1,699	126
1943	1,046	386	1,432	121
1944	1,010	379	1,389	131
1945	975	416	1,391	138
1946	1,071	401	1,472	154
1947	1,115	367	1,482	136
1948	1,085	427	1,512	112
1949	1,086	429	1,515	146
1950	1,150	382	1,532	173
1951	1,316	446	1,762	160
1952	1,031	357	1,388	106

The next table classifies inquests for the same period according to the verdict returned.

Year	Disease and Natural Causes		Accident		Homicide		Suicide		Violent Deaths, Nature Unknown
Year	M	F	M	F	M	F	M	F	M	F
1942	464	331	561	121	19	6	112	57	27	1
1943	350	176	566	165	9	6	93	36	28	3
1944	396	184	458	133	7	9	108	42	41	11
1945	390	233	414	103	16	10	112	51	43	19
1946	436	220	482	115	7	5	97	44	49	17
1947	486	183	498	132	5	6	103	29	23	17
1948	424	197	493	165	3	4	125	44	40	17
1949	407	216	524	141	2	9	112	56	41	7
1950	490	214	509	123	11	3	106	32	34	10
1951	529	249	612	131	8	8	131	50	36	8
1952	283	148	576	147	2	8	139	35	31	19

It will be noticed that in the case of disease and natural causes there are over twice as many inquests on males as on females. An even more arresting fact is that the incidence of suicide among men is from two to three times greater than among women, although in 1952 the number of male suicides was four times greater than among women. The small proportion of women among those whose death is due to accident is perhaps more to be expected.

Fire Inquests.—Coroners formerly had power to hold an inquiry into the cause of any fire destroying any building, ship, or merchandise, or any stack of grain, pulse or hay, or any growing crop. They have not possessed this power since the passing of the Coroners Act 1951, and fire inquiries may now be held under the Forest and Rural Fires Act 1947 or the Fire Services Act 1950.

PRISONS: Historical Development.—As is to be expected, New Zealand penological thought and practice in their origins reflected closely the ideas held and the system gradually evolved in Great Britain.

Early records are meagre. The first recorded prison was the result of difficulties which arose prior to the British assumption of sovereignty over this country. The white population at that time included many of the lowest types of man, and lawlessness and crime flourished. In 1838 an association of citizens was formed at Kororareka (now Russell) to provide for the administration of justice, and it is recorded that an old sea-chest ventilated by means of gimlet holes served as the first place of confinement for offenders.

In 1841 an ordinance provided for the institution of Courts of Justice and, as the colony developed, local gaols were established, though prisoners found guilty of the more serious offences were transported to Tasmania.

The first statutory provision dealing with prisons was passed in 1846. All buildings used at the time as public gaols were declared to be public gaols, and power was given to the Governor to declare other buildings public gaols. The Governor might make regulations prescribing the duties of officers, and the classification, diet, and treatment of prisoners. The appointment of Visiting Justices was also provided for. In 1854 the Secondary Punishment Act abolished the punishment of transportation and substituted penal servitude within the colony. Penal servitude was itself abolished in 1893.

Inconsistencies arose in the conduct of the prisons, and the state of affairs became so unsatisfactory that in 1868 a Royal Commission was set up to inquire into conditions. Although the Commission was extremely critical of what it found, little improvement or alteration was apparently made. In 1878 a special parliamentary committee was set up to inquire into prison conditions. The committee reported that the Government exercised no real control over the gaols or gaol officers in the country, and that the actual punishment varied from one district to another. Little or nothing had been done towards the classification of prisoners.

As the result of the committee's report the Government decided to reorganize the prison system and brought out one Captain Hume from England (Dartmoor Prison) to undertake the work. When he retired in 1909 much had been done to improve the prison system and to pave the way for its development on lines at once more reformative and more appropriate to New Zealand conditions.

The first experiment in the direction of a roadmaking camp was made before the end of the century. At about the same time the first tree-planting camp was begun at Waiotapu, and was followed by others a few years later. For a variety of reasons the tree-planting camps later gave way to prison-farm camps. In their annual report for 1912 the then Inspector of Prisons and his deputy stated, “The undoubted advantage from all points of view of employing prison labour 'in the open' has been thoroughly demonstrated by the successful work of tree-planting operations since the initiation of the scheme, and for some time past it has been felt that an extension of the scheme to include all classes of agricultural work should be attempted. It is considered that in a country like New Zealand the natural outlet is in the country and not in the towns. From a public point of view it has a very important bearing as it tends to prevent the aggregation of prisoners in the towns where, partly for lack of adequate equipment for earning their living, and partly owing to their return to their former environment, they often revert to crime”.

There has since been gradual extension of the work in other directions. More prison farms have been opened. In 1914 Rotoaira prison camp was established, and a start made with the work of road building, which has continued until the present day. The year 1921 saw the beginnings of land-development camps, the object of which is to utilize prison labour for the development of the land for settlement purposes.

Outdoor occupations are obviously not suitable for every prisoner, and various industries have therefore been commenced at different times, though some which have been tried have had to be abandoned later.

A milestone in the history of prisons in New Zealand was the Crimes Amendment Act 1910, sponsored by Sir John Findlay. This Act provided for sentences of reformative detention for periods of up to ten years in the case of the Supreme Court and up to three years in the case of the Magistrates' Courts. It also set up a Prisons Board charged with the responsibility of inquiring into the case of every prisoner at least once a year and of making recommendations whether he should be released on probation or discharged. The reason prompting the institution of the sentence of reformative detention was the lack of opportunity for any reformation or training during the short sentence that might be the maximum for a particular offence.

New Zealand in 1924 followed the example of Great Britain by providing for the establishment of Borstal institutions for the training of young offenders. These institutions, too, reflect the agricultural policy of the Prisons Department.

Present-day Administration.—The Prisons Amendment Act 1919 provides for the appointment of a Controller-General of Prisons who is charged with the administration of the Prisons Act 1908 and consequently has the general management of the prisons established under it. He is also responsible for the administration and general management of the Borstal institutions. In both cases he is subject to the control of the Minister of Justice in matters of policy.

The sentences of detention which the Courts may impose are as follows:

Imprisonment for a stated term of years or for life.
Reformative detention for a period up to a maximum of ten years where the sentence is imposed by a Judge, and up to three years where it is imposed by a Magistrate. The sentence may be reviewed at any time after its commencement and a recommendation made for the offender's discharge or for his release on probation.
Declaration of habitual criminal or habitual offender. This is in addition to a fixed term of imprisonment. After the end of the fixed term the prisoner so sentenced is detained in prison during the pleasure of the Governor-General. When he is released it is always on probationary licence, and a breach of that licence or a fresh offence while it exists makes him liable to recall to prison to continue serving the sentence.
Borstal detention where the offender is not less than fifteen or more than twenty-one, or in some cases twenty-three years of age. The minimum and the maximum terms are two years and five years where the order of detention is made by the Supreme Court, and one year and three years where it is made by a Magistrate. At any time after the commencement of detention a Borstal inmate's case may be reviewed and he may be released on licence, which normally remains in force until the end of the term for which he was ordered to be detained.

There are sixteen prisons, reformatories, and Borstal institutions in New Zealand, and twenty-one police gaols. Any person serving a sentence of not more than seven days may be detained at any police station, which is deemed to be a prison for that period.

A summary of receptions and discharges during the year 1952 is given below.

—	Males	Females	Totals
* Further analysis in next table.
In confinement 1 January 1952	1,012	64	1,076
Distinct prisoners received during year	2,187	81	2,268
Transfers between institutions, etc.^*	2,048	152	2,200
Discharged during the year—
Transferred to other prisons or to police	1,389	102	1,491
On expiration of sentence	1,784	48	1,832
Released on bail	187	7	194
Released on recommendation of Prisons Board	466	22	488
Released on special remission	249	14	263
Debtors	44		44
Mental defectives	12	2	14
Other	71	31	102
In confinement at 31 December 1952	1,042	71	1,113
Daily average number in confinement during year	1,047	73	1,120

The total of 4,468 receptions during 1952 shown in the above table was arrived at by counting each person once every time received, whether by the same prison or not.

The total of receptions is further analysed in the following table.

Debtors and mental defectives	53
Transfers between institutions	1,106
Acquitted, fined, placed on probation, etc.	691
Multiple receptions of same prisoner	356
Distinct prisoners received under sentence	2,268
Totals	4,474
Less difference between number held on remand at beginning and end of year	6
Totals	4,468

Of the different classes of receptions into prison shown above the important figure is that of distinct persons received under sentence—that is, counting each sentenced person once only during the year, irrespective of the number of separate terms served. Of the 2,268 distinct persons received during 1952, 2,187 were males and 81 females. Corresponding figures for 195 were 1,975 distinct persons, 1,904 being males and 71 females.

An analysis is given below of distinct persons received into prison according to the nature of sentence for each of the years 1948–52.

Nature of Sentence	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Includes 4 prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment in 1949 and 7 in 1950; also prisoners declared habitual offenders, 1 in 1951 and 3 in 1952. † Sentence commuted to imprisonment for life.
Hard labour or simple imprisonment^*	1,826	1,412	1,665	1,601	1,916
Reformative detention	204	237	251	218	199
Borstal detention	105	109	113	131	128
Hard labour and reformative detention	37	27	39	14	12
Declared habitual criminal and sentenced to hard labour	7	3	12	10	12
Reformative detention and declared habitual criminal	1
Hard labour, reformative detention, and declared habitual criminal	1
Death				1^†	1
Totals	2,181	1,788	2,080	1,975	2,268

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the last eleven years.

At 31 December	Persons in Gaol			Proportion Per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December
At 31 December	Undergoing Sentence	On Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.	Total	Undergoing Sentence	Total in Confinement
1942	1,034	30	1,064	6.32	6.50
1943	1,024	53	1,077	6.24	6.56
1944	945	48	993	5.64	5.92
1945	998	42	1,040	5.78	6.02
1946	992	40	1,032	5.57	5.79
1947	1,088	49	1,137	5.99	6.26
1948	986	39	1,025	5.32	5.53
1949	941	50	991	4.97	5.23
1950	1,043	40	1,083	5.41	5.62
1951	1,040	36	1,076	5.28	5.46
1952	1,083	30	1,113	5.35	5.50

The number of distinct persons received into prison under sentence of imprisonment during the last eleven years, with the proportion per 10,000 of mean population, is given in the next table. Debtors received into goal are excluded.

Year	Number	Per 10,000 of Mean Population	Year	Number	Per 10,000 of Mean Population
1942	3,029	18.47	1948	2,181	11.89
1943	2,482	15.17	1949	1,788	9.55
1944	2,099	12.68	1950	2,080	10.90
1945	2,065	12.19	1951	1,975	10.14
1946	2,213	12.58	1952	2,268	11.36
1947	2,351	13.07

The large increase in the number of persons sent to prison during 1942 was accounted for by the committal or transfer of over 500 military defaulters to prison, and about 400 persons involved in industrial disputes. None of these latter actually served any sentence, a remission being granted immediately after reception. The changes in the totals of receptions since 1946 are largely due to sentences imposed on ship deserters, the tables for 1949, 1951, and 1952 showing some falling off in the number in this category.

The Aim of the Prisons Administration.—The object of imprisonment is protection of society: this object may be achieved by the processes of deterrence and reformation. Offenders are sent to prison as a punishment, but not to be punished in prison. The principal task of the prisons administration is to attempt reformation in every case offering any hope of success. It is also necessary to balance the demands of reformative training and security. The interests of the community as well as of the offender demand that so far as possible the time spent in prison should be so used as to bring about the greatest likelihood that the prisoner will lead a law-abiding and socially purposeful life on his discharge.

Classification of Prisoners.—The classification of prisoners in New Zealand has been, and for the most part still is, based mainly on the age of the offender and the extent of his criminal experience, but account is also taken of his character and of the nature of the offence. The aim has been to prevent contamination of young and first offenders by more hardened criminals and undesirables.

However desirable it may be to have a more elaborate system of classification, the practical effect of this would be severely limited so long as there are a number of widely separated prison institutions, each holding a comparatively few prisoners. Government approval in principle has been given to a proposal for the establishment on one site of a group of graded institutions to hold all types of offenders from every part of New Zealand. When this proposal can be brought to fruition there will be an opportunity to provide whatever classification scheme is thought desirable.

In the meantime experimental classification committees have been set up at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch Prisons, which are the three main reception centres. The committees consist of the Superintendent of the institution, the Probation Officer for the district, a Vocational Guidance Officer, and a psychologist. It is intended that the prison welfare officer and a psychiatrist shall be added to each of the committees as has been done in Auckland. The function of the committee is to consider individual reports of members on a prisoner and to advise the prisons administration as to location, employment, educational and recreational activities, eventual release plans, and any other matters concerning the individual prisoner.

The following table analyses the ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1952.

Age, in Years	Offences Against the Person			Burglary, Theft, and Fraud	Conversion, Wilful Damage, etc.	Vagrancy and Drunkenness	Other Offences	Totals
Age, in Years	Sexual Offences	Assaults	Other	Burglary, Theft, and Fraud	Conversion, Wilful Damage, etc.	Vagrancy and Drunkenness	Other Offences	Totals
Under 20	9	7		72	20	11	87	206
20 and under 25	24	49	4	154	49	78	163	521
25 and under 30	17	26	9	146	37	69	142	446
30 and under 40	42	26	6	159	19	110	141	503
40 and under 50	23	12	3	78	1	117	86	320
50 and over	18	10	3	60	4	113	64	272
Totals	133	130	25	669	130	498	683	2,268
Maoris (included above)	37	44	4	160	44	74	68	431

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of persons received into prison under sentence during 1952.

Age, in Years	Length of Sentence
Age, in Years	Under 1 Month	1 Month and Under 3 Months	3 Months and Under 12 Months	1 Year and Under 3 Years	3 Years and Under 5 Years	Over 5 Years	Other	Totals
* Sentenced to death and executed.
Under 21	26	130	14	104	27			301
21 and under 25	116	172	54	69	15			426
25 and under 30	126	164	70	67	15	3	1^*	446
30 and under 40	167	128	88	99	19	2		503
40 and under 50	128	87	53	42	9	1		320
50 and under 60	79	60	35	17	5	2		198
60 and over	43	15	8	7	1			74
Totals	685	756	322	405	91	8	1	2,268

Of the total of distinct persons received into prison in 1952 no less than 57.9 per cent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 24.3 per cent of these had been convicted more than six times.

Measures Employed in Treatment.—This section may conveniently be dealt with under five heads—education and training; system of earnings; amenities and recreations; punishments; and aftercare.

Education and Training.—Attendance at educational classes is compulsory for all prisoners whose standard of education is considered insufficient. Full-time teachers have been appointed in two institutions and a qualified part-time teacher attends other major institutions. Inmates are grouped according to their educational standards. Where it is not possible for a teacher to visit an institution the work is done through the Correspondence School, and the services of that school are usually availed of if a prisoner wishes to do more advanced scholastic work or to undertake a course of study in a technical subject. In many cases the work done in prison provides an occupational training for an offender, but trade training and instruction in the various aspects of the primary industries and in other callings for which some may be fitted can be developed further. Education for leisure is being increasingly provided. The object of the Department in this aspect of penal work is the development in as many inmates as possible of—

Skills which will enable them to return to civilian life better equipped to make a living;
Interests which will enable them on release to enter more fully into the life of the community; and
A better attitude towards society and a greater appreciation of their place in the community and their responsibility towards it.

Earnings.—All prisoners are credited with industry earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to industry and good conduct. The present system has been in operation for several years, and is proving itself beneficial. Volume and quality of production have increased and a better spirit has been engendered in the prisoners themselves and in the institutions as a whole.

Amenities and Recreations.—A canteen system is now in operation in each institution, and prisoners are allowed to spend a proportion of their earnings on a small range of goods. A certain amount is put into the canteen account for each person and accumulates there if the full sum is not spent every week, though the Superintendent may have some transferred to the prisoner's earnings account if too much is being accumulated.

Visits and letters are allowed regularly, and visiting is mostly unsupervised.

At present the National Library Service is largely responsible for library books. Each institution has a certain number of books which are replaced every three or four months. In addition, a request service enables prisoners to obtain any particular books they require or books on any particular subject in which they are interested.

Punishments.—(a) PRISONS: The general rule is that prison officers are not permitted to inflict punishment. The Superintendent has power to curtail certain privileges and to place a prisoner in isolation for not more than a day. In cases of urgent necessity he may place a prisoner under mechanical restraint, but not as a punishment.

The power to hear complaints of offences by prisoners is given to the Visiting Justices appointed under the Prisons Act 1908 to visit and inspect the prisons. They have power to inflict certain punishments for minor offences, and to bring the prisoner before a Magistrate in open Court for major offences. Corporal punishment is not permitted.

(b) BORSTALS: The Superintendent has power to punish an offender by depriving him for any period not exceeding one month of any privileges or of one or more items of the diet, provided in the latter case that it does not materially reduce the food allowance. If he considers that the offence warrants the infliction of more severe punishment, he may report the offender to the Chairman of the Visiting Committee appointed for the institution. The Chairman may refer the case back to the Superintendent or may himself inflict certain punishments.

Aftercare.—Prisoners serving a term of Borstal training, reformative detention, or twelve months or more imprisonment may be released on licence. For a period of time, usually the unexpired portion of their sentence, they will be under the supervision of probation officers and are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is unsatisfactory.

This period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is a protection to the community against further offending, and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and discipline during this period.

Prisons Board.—Cases of all prisoners undergoing sentence are reviewed from time to time by the Prisons Board, which consists of a Judge of the Supreme Court, and six other members, all being appointed by the Governor-General for three years and eligible for reappointment.

The main duty of the Board is to consider whether there is reasonable ground for thinking that any prisoner under sentence is sufficiently reformed either to be released on probation or discharged. The Board is required to take into consideration at least once a year the case of every habitual criminal, habitual offender, or person under sentence of reformative detention. Other classes of prisoners are not entitled to consideration until they have served at least half the sentence (or five years in the case of those sentenced to terms exceeding ten years), and no case is considered until six months after the prisoner is received into prison.

The cases considered by the Board during each of the years 1948 to 1952 are as follows.

Year	Borstal Detention	Reformative Detention	Hard Labour	Habitual Criminals	Probationers		Totals
Year	Borstal Detention	Reformative Detention	Hard Labour	Habitual Criminals	Crimes Amendment Act	Offenders Probation Act	Totals
1948	251	496	248	37	14	10	1,056
1949	231	461	238	36	11	28	1,005
1950	285	502	225	34	11	20	1,077
1951	237	499	237	47	13	14	1,047
1952	282	445	245	42	8	23	1,045

Of the cases considered in 1952, recommendations were made for release on probation in 543 cases. Sixteen probationers under the Offenders Probation Act were ordered to be discharged, and 4 were granted modifications of the conditions of probation. Three under the Crimes Amendment Act were recommended for discharge, and three were granted modified treatment. Eight petitions were declined, while the remaining 468 cases were deferred.

POLICE FORCE.—The Police Force in New Zealand is a national body maintained wholly by the General Government. It was established under the provisions of the Police Force Act 1886, which came into operation on 1 September of that year. Prior to that date police duty in New Zealand had been carried out by members of the Armed Constabulary, which was then disbanded, some of its members being transferred to the newly constituted Police Force and others to the Permanent Militia. The Police Force Act 1886, consolidated in 1908, was revised and brought up to date by the Police Force Act 1913, and minor amendments were enacted in certain subsequent years. In 1947 an Act to consolidate and amend the law relating to the establishment and regulation of the Force was passed, and the Police Force Act 1947, as amended in 1951 and 1952, is the statute under which the Force now functions.

Organization and Duties.—The Commissioner of Police, with headquarters at Wellington, has, subject to the directions of the Minister in Charge of the Police Department, the general superintendence and control of the Police Force. The Commissioner is assisted by an Assistant Commissioner, provision for this appointment having been made in the 1951 amending Act. New Zealand is divided into fifteen districts, each under the charge of a Superintendent or Inspector of Police, who is responsible to the Commissioner for the maintenance of good order and the proper execution of police duty therein. Districts are divided into sub-districts under the charge of sergeants or constables, and cities and towns where regular beat duty is performed are divided into beats, patrolled by constables under the supervision of sergeants.

The principal duty of the Police Force as defined by the Police Force Act is “the preservation of peace and order, the prevention of crime, and the apprehension of offenders against the peace”. In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the provisions of the Police Offences and the Official Secrets Acts, there are several statutes of a regulatory nature which the police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Licensing Act, Gaming Act, Dangerous Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Secondhand Dealers Act, etc. They also undertake inquiries and other duties on behalf of other Departments of the Government Service, principally the Social Security Department, Registrar-General's Office, Internal Affairs Department, and Education Department (Child Welfare Branch).

Police in country districts in many cases hold such additional appointments as Clerks and Bailiffs of Magistrates' Courts, Inspectors of Factories, Probation Officers, Inspectors of Sea-fishing, and Kauri-gum Rangers.

Recruiting.—In general, recruits for the Police Force must be between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-two years, be not less than 5 ft. 9 in. in height, and have a normal chest measurement of not less than 38 in. There is provision, however, to accept suitable recruits from the age of nineteen years, and men with previous police experience up to forty years of age may also be admitted to the Force. Recruits must be the holders of a certificate of school attainment for Form II, or possess educational qualifications of an equal or higher standard. They must be of good moral character, smart, active, intelligent, and free from bodily complaint or infirmity. The selection of recruits is made by the Commissioner after exhaustive inquiries have been made into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. Before appointment they undergo a course of training in the Training Depot, in which they are drilled and receive instruction in the duties they will be called upon to perform.

Appointments to vacancies in the higher ranks of the Force are made from those members of the next lower rank who have qualified by examination, efficiency, and seniority for such promotion.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Criminal Investigation Branch which is attached to each district headquarters and undertakes the investigation and detection of the more serious crimes.

Strength of Force.—In addition to the Commissioner, the strength of the Police Force on 31 March 1953, was 1,601, being an increase of 13 during the year. The total was made up as follows: 1 Assistant Commissioner, 10 Superintendents, 20 Inspectors, 12 Sub-Inspectors, 59 Senior Sergeants, 169 Sergeants, 1,059 Constables, 144 Temporary Constables, 18 Senior Detectives, 52 Detective Sergeants, and 57 Detectives. There were also 47 Police-women, 7 Matrons, 11 Police Surgeons, and 1 District Constable.

The following table shows the strength of the Police Force during the last eleven years.

As at 31 March	All Officers	Non-commissioned Officers (Uniform Branch)	Criminal Investigation Branch (excluding Officers)	Constables	Totals^*
* Not including surgeons, police-women, matrons, etc.
1943	30	175	112	1,324	1,641
1944	32	173	116	1,314	1,635
1945	38	168	110	1,250	1,566
1946	35	174	103	1,164	1,476
1947	39	208	97	1,154	1,498
1948	37	212	94	1,178	1,521
1949	36	224	103	1,179	1,542
1950	36	220	106	1,177	1,539
1951	41	222	110	1,195	1,568
1952	37	230	119	1,203	1,589
1953	44	228	127	1,203	1,602

The proportion of police to population at 31 March 1953 was 1 to 1,273, and the expenditure during 1952–53 per head of population 14s. 11d.

Women Police.—By the Statutes Amendment Act 1938 provision was made for the appointment of women police, it being enacted that the terms of the Police Force Act shall apply to women appointees. The Police Force Act 1947, which repealed the relevant section of the earlier legislation mentioned above, provided that the term Police Force was to include all members of either sex appointed under the Act. The first 10 appointees completed their training and commenced duty in October 1941. The present strength is 47, all of whom are stationed in Auckland, Wellington, Palmerston North, Christchurch, or Dunedin. Their duties consist mainly of investigating complaints in respect of women and children, and their work is confined largely to their own sex.

Chapter 9. SECTION 9—DEFENCE AND REHABILITATION

Table of Contents

9 A—DEFENCE

9 B—REHABILITATION

9 A—DEFENCE

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE.—In New Zealand control and co-ordination of defence activities are obtained through the Defence Council, the appointment of one Minister of Defence in charge of the three Services, and through a series of inter-Service committees. The comparative simplicity of defence problems in New Zealand has required neither the appointment of a Minister of Defence directing subordinate Ministers in charge of each Service nor the establishment of a Department of Defence superior to the Navy, Army, and Air Departments. Co-ordination is facilitated by the presence in the Prime Minister's Department of a Defence Secretariat serving the main policy-forming committees and performing some of the functions which in other countries are handled by Departments of Defence.

Defence Council.—The Defence Council consists of the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defence, and other Ministers concerned with various aspects of national security. The Chiefs of the Naval, General, and Air Staffs, and the Secretaries of the Treasury and of External Affairs, attend meetings of the Council in a consultative capacity. The purpose of the Council is to keep defence policy and organization constantly under review, including questions of co-operation on defence with other countries of the British Commonwealth and military questions arising as a result of New Zealand membership of the United Nations.

Chiefs of Staff Committee.—The Chiefs of Staff Committee, comprising the Chiefs of the Naval, General, and Air Staffs, is responsible for advising the Government on defence policy and strategic questions. It is served by several inter-Service committees dealing with various subjects such as strategic and operational plans, intelligence, and communications.

Principal Administrative Officers' Committee.—This Committee consists of the Senior Personnel, Supply, and Finance Officers of each of the Services and a representative of the Treasury. For the convenient exercise of its functions the Committee normally divides into separate Supply and Personnel Committees, each of which is assisted by subordinate committees considering particular problems such as medical arrangements, recruiting, and the design and provision of clothing and other stores.

Co-operation With Other Countries.—In order that contact might be maintained with other countries, New Zealand Joint Service Liaison Staffs are stationed in London, Melbourne, and Washington. Similarly, both United Kingdom and Australia have Service Representatives in Wellington attached to the Offices of their respective High Commissioners, and there is a Military Attaché on the staff of the United States Embassy in Wellington.

Industrial War Potential.—Planning in respect of the demands which in war or on the threat of war the Services would make on industry is the task of the Joint War Production Committee. This Committee, which reports to the Government through the Minister of Industries and Commerce, is centred in the Department of Industries and Commerce. It consists of the Secretary of the Department of Industries and Commerce (Chairman), and representatives of the Treasury, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Prime Minister's Department, and the Senior Supply Officers of the Services.

Defence Science.—Defence science activities in New Zealand are guided by an executive committee, comprising the Chiefs of Staff and the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and known as the Defence Science (Policy) Committee. Research projects approved by the Defence Science (Policy) Committee are carried out by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, usually within its existing laboratories, but, if necessary, a special organization may be brought into being. To foster basic research in fields having defence implications the University colleges are assisted in a limited number of approved projects by grants from defence science funds. Defence research expenditure is wholly provided on the vote of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, with the exception of the Defence Scientific Corps, which is provided on the votes of the respective Services.

The Defence Science (Policy) Committee is served by the Joint Plans Committee (Science), comprising senior Service and Department of Scientific and Industrial Research officers and technical sub-committees of Service and scientific composition. It is aided by a group of advisory members consisting of non-Government scientists and experts. The Policy Committee with its supporting groups is known as the Defence Research Organization.

In order to build up a group of scientific workers with an insight into Service requirements the Defence Scientific Corps of the New Zealand Military Forces was established in 1948. The purpose of the Corps is to aid New Zealand and Commonwealth defence research. These men are recruited (approximately six per annum) at Master of Science level to one of the Services on a short-term commission basis of five or six years. After an initial Service training period of up to six months they undertake post-graduate training at Universities and/or research establishments, either in New Zealand or the United Kingdom, for two to three years. For the remaining period of their commission they are employed in New Zealand, or wherever is most appropriate within the Commonwealth, on problems related to defence requirements.

The Defence Science programme is co-ordinated with Commonwealth requirements through the Commonwealth Advisory Committee on Defence Science or by direct negotiation with other Commonwealth Governments. A number of scientists have been seconded to work on projects in other Commonwealth countries.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED SERVICES.—The principal statutes now governing the Armed Services are as follows: Army, the New Zealand Army Act 1950, the Military Manoeuvres Act 1915; Navy, the Naval Defence Act 1913, the Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908; and Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950.

Two other Acts of general application, though the first affects the Army to a greater extent, are the Military Training Act 1949 and the Courts-Martial Appeals Act 1953. The latter provides for the establishment of a special Court of Appeal for the Navy, Army, and Air Force, to which persons convicted by a Court-martial may appeal against conviction.

The Court is to consist of an uneven number of Judges (not fewer than three), of whom one is a Judge of the Supreme Court and the others either Judges, barristers, or former Judges of the Supreme Court.

The Courts-Martial Appeal Court is empowered to allow an appeal if it thinks that the finding of the Court-martial is unreasonable, or cannot be supported having regard to the evidence, or involves a wrong decision on a question of law, or that on any other ground there was a miscarriage of justice. The Court may dismiss any appeal if it considers that no substantial miscarriage of justice has actually occurred. When the Court allows an appeal it may direct either an acquittal or a new trial.

The Court may also substitute what it regards as another lawful conviction for the conviction appealed from, and it is empowered to substitute where necessary an appropriate sentence for the sentence of the Court-martial without increasing the sentence.

The decision of the Court on any appeal is to be final unless the Attorney-General grants a certificate that a point of law of exceptional public importance is involved and that another appeal is desirable in the public interest, in which case it may be made to the Court of Appeal.

The Military Training Act 1949.—Under the Military Training Act 1949 every British male subject ordinarily resident in New Zealand is liable to be called upon to serve three terms of service on attaining the age of eighteen years. Provision is made for exemptions, principally in the case of conscientious objectors, and also for deferment in the cases of students and others.

The service is as follows:

A period of whole-time service of fourteen weeks, which is served in a training camp. This period has been temporarily reduced to 10 ½ weeks with the aim of building up establishments more quickly.
A period of part-time service of three years during which a total of sixty days, made up of fourteen days in-camp and six days out-of-camp training each year, must be served.
A six-year term of service in the Reserve, involving no training liabilities.

The 1951 amendment to the Military Training Act extended its operation to men who were over the age of eighteen years but under the age of twenty years on 1 November 1949. Those over eighteen but under nineteen on that date were made liable for service in the normal way (except that the period of part-time service has now been reduced to one year's duration), and those over nineteen but under twenty years were liable to register and be medically examined and to serve four years in the Reserve. The 1953 amendment extended liability to male British subjects becoming resident in New Zealand after the age of eighteen and under twenty-one years.

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY.—Since 1877 the New Zealand Government has made a financial contribution towards maintaining Royal Navy ships in New Zealand waters. The Naval Defence Act was passed in 1913 to provide for the maintenance of a sea-going Naval Force and a training centre under the immediate control of the New Zealand Government. The First World War intervened, but in 1921 this policy was implemented and the Naval Force was given the designation “The New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy.” In 1941 His late Majesty King George VI graciously approved the proposal that the New Zealand Naval Forces should be designated “The Royal New Zealand Navy.”

Command and Administration.—The Royal New Zealand Navy is controlled by the New Zealand Naval Board, which consists of—

The Minister of Defence as Chairman.
A Commodore, 2nd Class, as First Naval Member and Chief of the Naval Staff.
A Captain as Second Naval Member and Member for Personnel.
A Captain (S) as Third Naval Member and Member for Supply.
An officer of the New Zealand Public Service as Navy Secretary and Member of the Board for Finance and Secretariat, and as Permanent Head of Navy Department.

The base for the Royal New Zealand Navy is at Devonport, Auckland, where H.M.N.Z. Dockyard is situated. The Dockyard undertakes the repair and maintenance of all ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Since 1936 the Dockyard has been considerably enlarged and modernized, and during the Second World War was able to operate as a repair base for ships of the Allied Forces in the South Pacific. The Dockyard has been organized on the same lines as Royal Navy Dockyards, with modifications to suit New Zealand conditions. In addition to its primary commitment of maintaining ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy, the Dockyard undertakes work for other Government Departments and for private firms where this involves the use of specialized equipment not available elsewhere in New Zealand.

Role of the Royal New Zealand Navy.—At present the Royal New Zealand Navy is mainly concerned with the defence of New Zealand, but, in addition, it contributes where possible to the over-all defence of the Commonwealth. In time of war this includes the defence of trade routes to the United Kingdom, Australia, and North America, and the defence of certain Pacific island groups which are under the jurisdiction of the United Kingdom or New Zealand. Peacetime activities of the Royal New Zealand Navy include tours of the island territories for the purposes of “showing the flag,” assisting the local administrators, rendering medical assistance, transporting stores and mails, and helping to improve navigational facilities by the blasting of coral reefs and the recording of soundings.

Nearer home the Royal New Zealand Navy carries out fishery protection patrols and assists in servicing lighthouses and meteorological stations. One New Zealand frigate is permanently engaged on survey duties.

Exercises are carried out regularly in home waters, and with units of the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Navy elsewhere in the world. Since 1950 the Royal New Zealand Navy has continuously maintained two frigates in Korean waters as a contribution to the United Nations Naval Forces.

State of the Navy.—Her Majesty's New Zealand ships are at present:

Cruisers	Bellona.
	Black Prince.
Frigates	Rotoiti	Two being maintained with the United Nations Forces in Korea; the others in reserve.
	Taupo
	Hawea
	Kaniere
	Tutira
	Pukaki
	Lachlan	Survey ship.
Ocean minesweepers	Kiama	In reserve.
	Stawell
	Inverell
	Echuca
Anti-submarine mine-sweeping vessels	Kiwi	Training ships.
	Tui	Training ships.
	Inchkeith	In reserve.
	Killegray
	Sanda
	Scarba
Motor launches	Twelve	Fishery protection. Training. Harbour duties. Survey work. R.N.Z.N.V.R. Divisions.

Shore Establishments.—The New Zealand Naval Board is the controlling authority of the Royal New Zealand Navy, and is situated in Navy Office, Wellington, together with Naval Staff Officers and administrative departments of the Navy.

The Naval Base, situated at Devonport, includes the Dockyard, the Naval Barracks (H.M.N.Z.S. Philomel), and the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital. The Naval Officer in Charge, Auckland (a Captain R.N.), is responsible for general organization and administration. The Dockyard, which is administered by a Captain Superintendent, includes the Naval Store Depot and the Naval Armament Depot, and provides facilities for repair of all ships up to a light cruiser standard.

H.M.N.Z.S. Tamaki is situated at Motuihe Island, Auckland, and is the Navy's Basic Training Establishment.

H.M.N.Z.S. Irirangi, situated at Waiouru, in the centre of the North Island, is the Royal New Zealand Naval Wireless Telegraphy Station.

Personnel.—Entry into the Royal New Zealand Navy is open to young New Zealanders through the following channels:

Boys	Ages 15 years 3 months to 16 years 7 months.
Artificer apprentices	Ages 15 years to 17 years.
Youths	Ages 16 years 7 months to 17 years 6 months.
Adult entries	Ages 17 years 6 months to 25 years (28 years for tradesmen).

With the exception of the artificer apprentices who carry out their initial training in Philomel before proceeding to the United Kingdom for trade training, all new entries receive their basic training in Tamaki. Technical and specialist training is, as far as possible, carried out in New Zealand, but where no facilities exist, ratings attend courses in naval establishments in Australia and the United Kingdom.

Suitable ratings who qualify educationally and professionally are eligible for promotion to commissioned rank or branch rank, dependent on age and experience.

There are also two schemes for direct entry as officer cadets. Candidates between the ages of 15 years and 16 years 3 months are eligible for selection as Cadet Midshipmen, and these cadets carry out two years' training in the Royal Australian Naval College, Flinders, Victoria, before proceeding to the Royal Navy, where the remainder of their training is carried out. Candidates between the ages of 17 years and 18 years 8 months are eligible for selection as Special Entry Cadets. These cadets proceed to the United Kingdom on entry, and serve one term in the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, before joining the fleet for further training. All officers return to New Zealand for service in the Royal New Zealand Navy when they have completed the necessary courses for promotion to Lieutenant.

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service.—The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service, being disbanded at the end of 1946 upon conclusion of hostilities. It was reinstituted in April 1947 as a temporary measure to offset the manning shortage (at that time) in the Royal New Zealand Navy. In 1949 the W.R.N.Z.N.S. became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Employment of members of the W.R.N.Z.N.S. is varied and includes duties as cooks, stewards, writers, shorthand-typists, chart correctors, motor-transport drivers, and teleprinter operators. These duties are supplemented or amended as necessary to meet the requirements of the Navy.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve.—The post-war R.N.Z.N.V.R. has been reestablished with Divisions in the four main centres, and training of officers and ratings is being carried out. The implementation of the Military Training Act 1949 affects the R.N.Z.N.V.R. to the extent of about three hundred ratings annually. Compulsory Naval reservists undergo fourteen weeks' basic training in H.M.N.Z.S. Tamaki, after which they join up with their local R.N.Z.N.V.R. Division for four years' further part-time training.

Strength of the Navy.-–The strength of the Navy as at 31 December 1953 is shown below.

	Officers	Ratings	Total
Regular Forces (incl. W.R.N.Z.N.S.)	311	2,563	2,874
Active reserves—
Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve	27		27
Royal Fleet Reserve		12	12
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve	145	1,080	1,225
Totals	172	092	1,264
Inactive reserve—
Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve		857	857
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Supplementary Reserve	300		300
Royal New Zealand Naval Emergency Reserve		569	569
Retired officers and pensioners	133	169	302
Totals	433	1,595	2,028

These figures include 81 officers and 23 ratings on loan from the Royal Navy.

Naval Expenditure.—During the year ended 31 March 1953 the sum of £6,148,829 was expended on the Royal New Zealand Navy. Of this sum, £5,666,108 was expended from vote “Navy” and £482,721 from vote “Defence: Construction and Maintenance—Subdivision I—Navy.” The total expenditure for the previous financial year was £4,744,374.

Activities in 1953.—The Royal New Zealand Navy has continued to maintain two frigates in Korean waters.

H.M.N.Z.S. Kaniere, while serving in Korea, paid a ceremonial visit to Tokyo. This was the first New Zealand post war official visit to Japan.

H.M.N.Z.S. Pukaki, en route to Korea, represented New Zealand at the centennial celebrations at Noumea.

Following an extensive refit in H.M.N.Z. Dockyard, Devonport, H.M.N.Z.S. Black Prince recommissioned on 16 January 1953. She sailed on 17 March 1953 carrying the Naval contingent to the coronation of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. In Australian waters she joined H.M.A.S. Sydney, with the New Zealand Army coronation contingent embarked, and the two ships proceeded to the United Kingdom in company, calling at Tobruk en route, where a combined commemoration service was held. While in the United Kingdom Black Prince represented New Zealand at the Coronation Review, and members of her ship's company, along with the special contingent, took part in the coronation procession. Before returning to New Zealand, ten weeks were spent attached to the British Mediterranean Fleet, where extensive exercises were carried out. During this period calls were paid to Greece. Turkey, and Gallipoli: wreaths were laid on behalf of the Government and people of New Zealand, and the New Zealand Returned Services' Association, on the Anzac Memorial in Athens and on the New Zealand and Turkish memorials at Gallipoli. Before leaving the Mediterranean an emergency call was made to the Ionian Islands, which had suffered a severe earthquake, and valuable assistance was given the inhabitants. On the return voyage a call was paid to Djakarta, this being the first official call paid by a New Zealand warship to the Republic of Indonesia. The latter part of the year saw Black Prince acting as escort to the Royal Yacht Gothic during the visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II to New Zealand. Black Prince had the distinction of being the first to welcome Her Majesty to New Zealand when she relieved H.M.S. Sheffield at the limits of the New Zealand Station, some 3,000 miles from Auckland.

H.M.N.Z.S. Lachlan continued surveying the New Zealand coast and again assisted the Government of Fiji in charting approaches to the islands. At the end of December 1953 nine charts were completed and published, with a further two charts ready for publication.

H.M.N.Z. ships Kiwi and Tui have been continuously employed training naval reservists.

THE ARMY.—The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained, and organized under the authority of the New Zealand Army Act 1950.

The Army consists of the Regular Force, the Territorial Force, the Army Reserve, the Cadet Corps, and military forces raised in time of war or other like emergency.

The Force for service in Korea in fulfilment of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand in the Charter of the United Nations was raised originally under the authority of the Emergency Act 1950, but as the power to raise and maintain such a force is now contained in the New Zealand Army Act the relevant provisions of the Emergency Forces Act were repealed.

The New Zealand Army comprises the following Corps:

The Royal New Zealand Artillery.
The Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.
The Royal New Zealand Engineers.
The Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.
The Royal New Zealand Infantry Corps.
The Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.
The Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.
The Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.
The Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.
The Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.
The Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.
The New Zealand Army Pay Corps.
The New Zealand Army Legal Department.
The Royal New Zealand Provost Corps.
The Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.
The New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.
The New Zealand Cadet Corps.

The New Zealand Army Act as far as possible places the officers and soldiers of the Regular and Territorial Forces on the same footing.

Command and Organization.—The Army Board consists of—

The Minister of Defence, as President;
The Chief of the General Staff (First Military Member);
The Adjutant-General (Second Military Member);
The Quartermaster-General (Third Military Member);
The Army Secretary; and
A Territorial Officer (Associate Member).

The Board is charged with the administration and, through the officers appointed for that purpose, the command of the Army.

The Army in peace is so organized, trained, and equipped that, in the event of war, it can undertake rapidly and efficiently the tasks which will fall to it. Based on this principle, the higher grouping within the Army is—

Army Troops, which include Army Headquarters, the Army Schools, and base units. In general, Army Troops contain the machinery for the higher command and administration of the Army.
District Troops, which include District and Area Headquarters, District Training Camps, and such other units as are placed under command. These comprise the home defence and training elements of the Army.
New Zealand Division, which is a formation for employment within or outside New Zealand as the situation may demand.

Liability for Periods and Conditions of Service.—The liability for and conditions of service are given briefly in the following paragraphs.

Regular Force.—All officers and soldiers of the Regular Force are liable at all times for service within New Zealand and, with the exception of minors, overseas.

Enlistment in the Regular Force, which is voluntary, is until retiring age for officers, with provision for special short-term engagements, and for soldiers as follows:

Men: Eight years, of which the first five years are served on the Active List and the remaining three on the Reserve. There is also provision for short-term engagements.

Women: Two years.

Territorial Force.—In time of war or other like emergency the Governor-General may, by Proclamation, transfer the Army Reserve or any specified portion thereof to the Regular Force or to the Territorial Force, and declare the Territorial Force liable for continuous service within New Zealand or overseas during the continuance of such state of war or emergency.

Territorial soldiers on completing their obligations for whole-time and part-time training under the Military Training Act 1949 are posted to the Army Reserve, which will provide the trained manpower if and when, in any future war, an Expeditionary Force is required.

The New Zealand Army Act also empowers the Governor-General to accept the offer of any officers or soldiers of the Territorial Force or the Army Reserve, or of any other persons, to render themselves liable, or to enlist in the Army, as the case may be, for service within or outside New Zealand.

Training.—Regular Force: Except in cases of special entry from the Universities, a limited number of suitable Regular other ranks, and of personnel who have had active service experience, Regular officers are commissioned, in the rank of Lieutenant, on graduation from the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Australia. They receive specialist and refresher training in New Zealand, while in certain cases their advanced training is carried out at British and Australian Army schools. Promotion to Captain and Major is gained after six and thirteen years commissioned service respectively, providing that the prescribed promotion examinations and courses are passed. Candidates for Staff College must pass the same entrance examinations as officers of the British Regular Army.

Regular other ranks are trained at the Army Schools in New Zealand. In certain cases advanced training is received in the United Kingdom and Australia. Before promotion to Corporal and Sergeant other ranks must pass the prescribed promotion examinations.

Territorial Force: The annual obligatory training prescribed for Territorial personnel consists of—

Annual training camp: Fourteen days.
Out-of-camp training: Six days, made up of whole-day or week-end parades, plus a proportion of evening parades in the form of instructional classes.

Attendance for a further twenty days' training annually, including courses at Army or District Schools, is authorized for officers and non-commissioned officers.

Before promotion officers are required to qualify at the prescribed courses and examinations for the next higher rank.

Compulsory Military Service Under the Military Training Act 1949: This service is as follows: (a) a period of whole-time service of fourteen weeks in a training camp (at present the period is 10 ½ weeks), (b) a period of part-time service of three years during which the soldier must serve for a total of sixty days, made up of fourteen days in-camp and six days out-of-camp training each year, (c) service for six years in the Army Reserve, with no training liabilities.

Training Establishments.—Army Schools: Headquarters, Army Schools, commands and administers a group of Army Schools situated at the one centre, which provide courses for all ranks of the Regular Force as well as officers and specialist non-commissioned officers of the Territorial Force.

The group consists of the Tactical School, Regular Force Depot, School of Army Administration, School of Artillery, Armoured School, School of Signals, School of Infantry, Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps School, Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineering School, the Regular Force Cadet Unit, and the Regular Force Cadet School.

The Regular Force Depot provides basic recruit and instructor courses for all arms of the Regular Force, including Regular Force Cadets.

The Regular Force Cadet School provides academic training for cadets between the ages of sixteen and eighteen years.

Two other training establishments, the School of Military Engineering and the Medical Corps Depot, are situated apart from the central Army Schools organization but fulfil similar functions. In addition, each military district from time to time holds courses for Territorial officers and soldiers, and for personnel of the New Zealand Cadet Corps.

New Zealand Division.—On 1 May 1951 the headquarters of the New Zealand Division was established at Linton Military Camp, and as from 1 June assumed normal functions of command and administration of the formations and units of the Division. Both Regular and Territorial officers have been appointed to the headquarters staff.

Since the introduction of compulsory military training the formation of Divisional Headquarters is an important move in the furtherance of the policy of having a New Zealand Army organized and trained in peace so that it can efficiently take over its tasks and responsibilities in time of war.

New Zealand Armed Forces Serving in Korea.—As a signatory of the Charter of the United Nations New Zealand has a general obligation to co-operate with other members in the prevention of aggression and the restoration and maintenance of peace.

New Zealand is currently discharging this obligation by providing Naval and Army forces to participate under United Nations command in Korea. The New Zealand Army “Kayforce,” enlisted from special volunteers and comprising a field regiment of artillery and auxiliary units, has been serving in Korea since January 1951.

Since the despatch of the original force, successive reinforcements have been trained for service in Korea. In addition, a replacement scheme has been introduced whereby personnel serve in the theatre of operations from eighteen to twenty-one months and are thereafter eligible for return to New Zealand. Provision has also been made for those who wish to serve a further term to be granted one month's leave in New Zealand.

New Zealand Cadet Corps.—One hundred and twenty-nine secondary schools have Cadet units. These units are designated by the name of the school. Service is voluntary, and annual training approximates thirty drills, each of one and one-half hours. All units are basically infantry, but provision is made in the larger units for such specialist activities as Sea Scouts, Artillery Troops, Signal Troops, and Air Training Corps Flights. All units can take part in certain Empire shooting competitions, and have had marked success in this respect. Courses for officers and noncommissioned officers are held at District Schools, and units may hold camps or barracks annually.

Activities During 1952–53.—The Territorial Force continued to grow in numbers and efficiency, white Kayforce was maintained at full strength. Assistance was continued to the Fiji Military Forces, including the regiment engaged in operations in Malaya. The Army also assisted the community during the serious floods in part of New Zealand early in 1953.

All units of the Territorial Force completed their annual obligatory training. Realistic training exercises, held during annual camps, were generally well done. Some units were set exercises by Brigade Commanders, while all Brigades held tactical exercises without troops for officers of all arms. In addition a three day Divisional tactical exercise without troops was held during the year.

Rifle Clubs and Associations.—All rifle clubs and associations (including the parent body, the National Rifle Association of New Zealand) must be formally recognized by the Army Board. There are 157 rifle clubs and 13 rifle associations in New Zealand.

The planning, construction, and maintenance of rifle, ranges, and safety precautions to be observed in conducting rifle practices and competitions, are governed by orders issued by the Army Board.

Army Expenditure.—The following table shows Army expenditure for the financial years 1951–52 and 1952–53.

Year Ended 31 March		£
1952	Consolidated Fund—Vote “Army”	8,660,445
1953	Consolidated Fund—Vote “Army”	11,005,104

Strength of the Army.—The strength of the Army as at 31 August 1953 was as follows.

	Officers	Other Ranks	Total
* Includes 338 women. † Excluding 24 Regular officers and 97 Regular other ranks included under Regular Force.
Regular Force (incl. seconded from British Army)	529	3,581	4,110^*
Territorial Force (Active)	1,233	29,031	30,264
Reserve of Officers (Regimental List)	491		491
Class C Reserve		5,387	5,387
Cadet Corps	630	31,281	31,911
Kayforce	99	2,684	2,783^†

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE.—The Royal New Zealand Air Force is raised, maintained, and organized under the authority of the Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950 (replacing the earlier New Zealand legislation—namely, the Air Force Act 1937 and its later amendments), and provides for the following:

The Regular Air Force.
The Territorial Air Force.
The Air Force Reserve.
The Air Training Corps.
The Women's Auxiliary Air Force.

Command and Administration.—The R.N.Z.A.F. is administered by the Air Board, which consists of—

The Minister of Defence, as President.
The Chief of the Air Staff.
The Air Member for Personnel.
The Air Member for Supply.
The Air Secretary.

The Regular Air Force.—This force provides commanders and staffs at Headquarters, liaison offices overseas, an operational fighter squadron in the Middle Fast, stations in New Zealand and Fiji, and instructional staffs for all elements of the R.N.Z.A.F.

Service in the Regular Air Force and normal entry to the ranks for males is through an initial engagement of eight years (for skilled and semi-skilled trades) or five years (for unskilled trades), plus a reserve liability of four years in each case. Opportunities exist for re-engagement to qualify for pension; normally total service for pension is twenty-four years, but may be reduced to twenty years in certain cases, or extended to permit service until fifty-five years of age. For females the initial term of service is normally for two years, with no Reserve obligation; opportunities exist for re-engagement and females may qualify for pension. Recruitment for the Regular Air Force is effected through three Area Recruiting and Reserve Centres in New Zealand, and through R.N.Z.A.F. Headquarters in London for those ex-servicemen and ex-servicewomen in the Unit d Kingdom who are to be enlisted and embarked for service with the R.N.Z.A.F.

Candidates for commissions, in branches other than General Duties, are drawn largely from the ranks, and some with higher educational and specialist qualifications are commissioned on joining the service. Commissions are either permanent or short-service, the latter of from two to eight years' duration and carrying an obligation for service with the Air Force Reserve. Candidates for commissions in the General Duties Branch, however, are drawn mainly from civil life and appointed to short-service commissions of six or eight years.

Retiring ages for officers holding permanent commissions in the General Duties Branch are: Squadron Leader and below, forty-five years; Wing Commander, forty-eight years; Group Captain and above, fifty-three years; while those for other branches are forty-nine, fifty-one, and fifty-three years respectively.

R.N.Z.A.F. Non-Regular Air Force.—During 1948 the non-Regular Forces of the R.N.Z.A.F. were combined for administrative and directive purposes. The non-Regular Air Force consists, in the main, of airmen enlisted under the provisions of the Military Training Act, supplemented by volunteer officers and airmen with wartime service in the R.N.Z.A.F. and by personnel who have completed short-service commissions or engagements in the Regular Air Force.

The Territorial Air Force, Active Reserve, General Reserve, and Air Training Corps are coordinated by the Deputy Director of Training (Reserves) at Air Force Headquarters. The detailed administration of all non-Regular activities in their areas is the responsibility of Area Recruiting and Reserve Centres which have been established at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

The Territorial Air Force consists of four fighter squadrons, which form part of the Fighter Ground Attack Wing of the R.N.Z.A.F., and a Maritime Squadron established at R.N.Z.A.F. Station, Hobsonville. In addition, ancillary units of the Task Force are manned largely by airmen of the Territorial Air Force Supplement.

The following non-regular units, formed to support the R.N.Z.A.F. Task Force, are established on various stations in the North Island.

M.T. Light Repair Unit.
Repair and Salvage Unit.
Aviation Fuel and Ammunition Park.
Air Stores Park.
Casualty Air Evacuation Section.
Mobile Field Hospital.
Light Anti-Aircraft Squadrons.

Under the Compulsory Military Training Scheme young men are selected for training as pilots and ground staff to meet the requirements of the Territorial Air Force and Reserve. Pilots trained under this scheme are given further flying at aero clubs during a period of three years. Facilities and training are also made available to University students to qualify for their “wings,” and for others to qualify as Technical and Administrative Officers, in the Territorial Air Force, by doing further training in the Regular Air Force during University long vacations.

The Air Force Reserve is divided into two components—the General Reserve, which is a non-training list of officers and airmen, and the Active Reserve. Officers and airmen of the latter undertake annual training at R.N.Z.A.F. stations and fill most of the key posts in the Task Force Units. Pilots enrolled in this Reserve and in the T.A.F. Supplement are given refresher flying training at Aero Clubs.

The Air Training Corps continues to provide a valuable source of recruits for the Regular Air Force, and the training provided is a sound basis for further training under the Military Training Act. An annual scholarship system provides flying training al: Aero Clubs for selected cadets.

Training Establishments.—Regular Air Force flying training activities are centred at Wigram in the following units.

No. 1 Flying Training School (for the training of pilots to “wings” standard).
Air Navigation School (for the training of navigators).
Central Flying School (for the training of flying instructors). This school also provides refresher flying courses, instrument/weather courses, and, at present, multi-engine conversion courses.

At Taieri the Initial Training School is responsible for the initial training of all aircrew, both Regular and non-Regular, as well as the compulsory military training of aircrew trainees. At this school all pilots are flight graded for further training at F.T.S. if they are Regulars or Territorial pilots, and at aero clubs if they are non-Regular trainees.

Recruit and general service training is also centred at Wigram in the Aircraftmen and Aircraftwomen Recruit Training School and the N.C.O.s' School of Instruction. Boy entrants receive their early training at the Boy Entrants' School at Woodbourne.

Officer training is done at the Officers' School at Whenuapai, and training in the administrative trades is also given at Whenuapai in the School of Administration.

Technical Training is carried out at No. 1 T.T.S. Hobsonville, No. 2 T.T.S. Wigram, No. 3 T.T.S. Whenuapai, No. 4 T.T.S. Woodbourne, No. 5 T.T.S. Taieri, and No. 6 T.T.S. Ohakea, according to trade.

Initial trade training courses provide for the training of both Regular Air Force recruits and trainees under the Compulsory Military Training Scheme.

Strength of the Air Force.—The strength of the R.N.Z.A.F. as at 31 March 1953 was—

Regular Air Force	4,133
Women's Auxiliary Air Force	491
Territorial Air Force (Squadrons)	392
Territorial Air Force (Supplement)	2,479
Active Reserve	589
General Reserve	3,020
Air Training Corps	5,308

Air Force Activities During the Year Ended 31 March 1953.—During the past year liaison has been maintained with the Royal Air Force and the Royal Australian Air Force by the exchange of officers, and by the posting of R.N.Z.A.F. officers to various staff college and specialist courses. A number of visits have been made also by aircraft and crews from R.A.F. and R.A.A.F. operational schools.

During the year progress has been particularly directed to the implementation of the re-equipment programme and to the building-up of the non-Regular Air Force. Emphasis has been placed on the development of the units formed to support operational squadrons, and these units absorb a considerable number of trainees obtained under the Military Training Act 1949.

The Task Force Administrative Headquarters established in the Auckland area administers the ancillary units' and the regular squadron at present stationed overseas.

Operational Units.—All operational squadrons have been engaged in training appropriate to their respective roles.

No. 41 (Transport) Squadron consists of two flights, one long range and one medium range, equipped with aircraft appropriate to these roles.

No. 14 (Fighter Ground/Attack Squadron) is employed on garrison duties in the Middle East.

No. 75 (Fighter Ground/Attack) Squadron is under training at Ohakea.

A Fighter Wing Headquarters controls the training of No. 75 Squadron and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 Territorial Fighter Squadrons. These latter are based at the four main centres.

No. 5 (Maritime Squadron) is based in Fiji, and No. 6 (Territorial Maritime) Squadron is based at Auckland.

Air Force Expenditure.—The total expenditure of the Air Force for the year ended 31 March 1953 was £8,386,103. The comparable figure for 1951–52 was £10,103,656.

POST-WAR ARMED FORCES EMPLOYED OVERSEAS.—A brief summary of forces raised after the termination of hostilities in the Second World War and employed overseas is now given.

New Zealand Contingent of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan.—After the capitulation of Japan in August 1945 New Zealand agreed to join with the United Kingdom, India, and Australia in the despatch of a British Commonwealth Force to take part in the occupation of Japan. The objects of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (B.C.O.F.) were to represent worthily the British Commonwealth in the occupation of Japan; to maintain and enhance British Commonwealth prestige and influence in the eyes of the Japanese; and to illustrate to, and impress on, the Japanese people, as far as was possible, the democratic way and purpose of life. The military role of B.C.O.F., under the direction of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers and within its allotted area, was; the safeguarding of all Allied installations, and of all Japanese installations awaiting demilitarization; the demilitarization and disposal of Japanese installations and armaments; and military control (which did not include military government).

The Army Component of the New Zealand Contingent was constituted as the Japan Section of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force. It was formed in Italy late in 1945 from the 9th Infantry Brigade and other units of the Second New Zealand Division, some 4,239 personnel being found from the single members of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Reinforcements, which were already in the Mediterranean theatre. The New Zealand Force sailed from Naples in February and arrived in Kure, Japan on 19 March 1946. Its allotted area of occupation included the Hiroshima Prefecture.

The original members of the Force were repatriated to New Zealand in July 1946, their places being taken by volunteers from New Zealand who had enlisted for twelve months' service in Japan. In 1947 a further relief of personnel took place, enlistments again being on a voluntary basis, and for reasons which included the diminishing nature of the military tasks connected with the occupation, the strength of the Force was reduced to 2,400.

Early in 1948, by agreement with the other Commonwealth Governments concerned and with the concurrence of the Government of the United States of America, the New Zealand Government decided to withdraw the Force, without relief, between July and October of that year.

The Air Component of the New Zealand Contingent comprised No. 14 (Fighter) Squadron, R.N.Z.A.F. This Squadron, which initially comprised 33 officers and 239 other ranks, was formed on 1 December 1945, and together with its Corsair aircraft was transported to Japan in March 1946. In Japan it formed part of the British Commonwealth Air Group (B.C. AIR) and was stationed initially at Iwakuni and later at Bofu. Operational flying began early in May 1946 and included surveillance patrols over the B.C.O.F. occupation area, searches for shipping bringing Koreans illicitly to Japan, and on occasion operational exercises with other units of B.C. AIR. The tour of duty for personnel was planned to be not more than one year, and reliefs were carried out progressively.

Air Courier Service: In addition to the provision of the Army and Air components of the New Zealand Contingent of B.C.O.F., an air courier service was maintained between New Zealand and Japan from March 1946 to June 1948. This service was undertaken by No. 41 Squadron, R.N.Z.A.F., and carried mail for the New Zealand Contingent together with freight and personnel for the relief of No. 14 Squadron. A number of Army personnel were also carried.

New Zealand Armed Forces for Service in Korea.—As a result of an appeal from the Secretary-General, United Nations, for assistance in the operations in Korea, the Prime Minister announced on 29. June 1950 that units of the Royal New Zealand Navy would be made available for service in that area. Two frigates, the H.M.N.Z.S. Tutira and H.M.N.Z.S. Pukaki, accordingly left New Zealand waters on 3 July 1950.

As a result of a further appeal from the United Nations for each member country to examine its capacity to provide more fighting forces, particularly ground troops, the Prime Minister announced on 26 July 1950 that New Zealand was offering to the United Nations a special volunteer combat force for service with other ground forces in Korea, the first force, comprising a regiment of artillery and ancillary units, leaving New Zealand in November-December 1950. Up to June 1953 more than 3,000 New Zealand soldiers had served in Korea.

The history of the raising of the Force is summarized in earlier issues of the Year-Book.

Originally men were enlisted in Kayforce for the period of the emergency and six months thereafter. In the latter half of 1951, however, the Government decided to proceed with a scheme to replace personnel of the Force after they had served from eighteen to twenty-one months in the Korean theatre of operations. Those who complete their original term of service may re-engage for a further term of twelve months, in which case they are granted twenty-eight days furlough in New Zealand with free travel privileges on the New Zealand Railways. Recruiting of volunteers for the Force is now continuous, and about one hundred and fifty men are called up at six-weekly intervals to undergo three months' training before proceeding overseas. Drafts leave for Korea by air at approximately fortnightly intervals.

Since the cease fire in Korea, Kayforce personnel have been engaged in the construction of defensive positions on the Armistice Line and on the erection of new winter quarters. Their future employment has not yet been decided.

New Zealand Frigates in Korea.—New Zealand's first contribution to the United Nations Naval Forces in the Korean area, the frigates H.M.N.Z.S. Tutira and Pukaki, sailed from Auckland on 3 July 1950, almost immediately after the outbreak of hostilities. Since then two New Zealand frigates have been maintained on active service, each ship serving approximately twelve months in the area before returning to New Zealand. Their duties at first consisted of patrolling and escorting troops and supplies from Japan to Pusan. The New Zealand frigates also acted as escorts for the Inchon landing. Subsequently the duties of the Naval Forces were extended. A steady blockade patrol was kept up on the west coast of Korea and junk traffic was controlled, such vessels often being stopped and searched for enemy troops or supplies. New Zealand frigates controlled Republic of Korea minesweepers, and assisted in their activities.

After June 1951 the monotony of routine blockade patrols was varied by bombardments of enemy gun positions, supply columns, troop concentrations, and lines of communications. The frigates also provided gun-fire support for raids against the mainland or enemy-held islands by friendly forces. The navigationally treacherous Han River was negotiated to enable the enemy well inland to be harassed. H.M.N.Z.S. Rotoiti personnel took part in three commando landings when they destroyed enemy positions and took prisoners. H.M.N.Z.S. Taupo played an important part in repelling a landing on a friendly-held island off the east coast of Korea and sank the majority of the junks carrying enemy troops.

On the average three-quarters of the New Zealand frigates' time was spent at sea, often for three or four weeks, and occasionally longer, without a respite. A brief visit to a Japanese port for fuel and stores was then made before taking up patrol duties again.

From 3 July 1950 until the cease fire on 28 July 1953 New Zealand frigates steamed 339,584 miles and expended 71,625 rounds of ammunition. There were eight tours of duty involving all six of the Royal New Zealand Navy's frigates, and more than half the Navy's strength (over 1,200 naval personnel) during this period saw Korean War Service. Three casualties were suffered due to operations in Korea.

Since the cease fire two frigates have continued to operate with the United Nations Forces in Korea.

STRENGTHS OF THE ARMED SERVICES, 1939–53.—Approximately 60,000 men volunteered for service in the New Zealand Forces in the Second World War before conscription was introduced in July 1940.

The net intake of men to the Armed Forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the Services and of re-entries—was 194,000, equivalent to 67 per cent of the male population between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the Forces.

The following table shows the approximate strength of each of the Services from the outbreak of war in September 1939 at yearly intervals until March 1953 and also in August 1945, when hostilities ceased. The figures at July 1942 are also shown, as that month marked the peak for mobilization, there being 151,073 men in the Armed Forces at that time, representing approximately 43 per cent of the male population of military age.

As at 31 March	Navy	Army	Air Force	All Services		Total	Female Personnel (Included in Previous Columns)
As at 31 March	Navy	Army	Air Force	In New Zealand	Overseas	Total	Female Personnel (Included in Previous Columns)
* Exclusive of Territorial Force (or service equivalent) and Reserves. † Not available.
1939 (September)	1,320	18,000	1,486	20,392	414	20,806
1940	1,791	29,300	3,808	27,628	7,271	34,899	18
1941	3,579	75,148	10,213	54,997	33,943	88,940	202
1942	5,605	109,389	18,228	82,201	51,021	133,222	2,356
1942 (July)	6,110	124,773	23,666	104,490	50,059	154,549	3,476
1943	7,657	104,087	33,777	82,740	62,781	145,521	7,302
1944	10,018	72,662	41,595	55,039	69,236	124,275	7,942
1945	10,412	46,698	35,004	42,731	49,383	92,114	5,609
1945 (August)	10,466	40,942	31,578	36,962	46,024	82,986	4,632
1946	4,528	14,129	6,918	19,214	6,361	25,575	1,838
1947	1,632	7,164	3,657	7,410	5,043	12,453	577
1948^*	1,657	4,746	2,896	6,465	2,834	9,299	' 435
1949^*	2,267	2,568	3,049	^†	^†	7,884	498
1950^*	2,511	3,096	3,495	^†	^†	9,102	684
1951^*	2,669	4,402	3,500	^†	^†	10,571	645
1952^*	2,525	5,995	3,985	^†	^†	12,505	846
1953^*	2,823	6,558	4,624	^†	^†	14,005	957

The establishment of the Emergency Reserve Corps in August 1940, consisting of (1) the Home Guard, (2) the Emergency Precautions Services, and (3) the Women's War Service Auxiliary, provided for the effective utilization of civilian personnel in the case of emergency. The Home Guard, which was constituted a part of the Defence Forces on 30 July 1941, reached its peak in April 1943 with a total strength of 124,194 men, while the total numbers involved in the Emergency Precautions Services at one stage reached 150,000. The New Zealand Naval Auxiliary Patrol Service commenced operations in December 1941, and attained its maximum strength of 463 ratings in August 1942. None of these figures is included in the table given.

CASUALTIES ON ACTIVE SERVICE.—The following table gives particulars of casualties suffered on active service by members of the New Zealand Armed Forces and Mercantile Marine from the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 up to 31 December 1946. The figures shown for the Navy and Air Force include New Zealand personnel serving with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. Deaths and injuries due to accidental causes while on active service are included in the figures of deaths and wounded respectively. The number shown as “missing” refers to the number classified as at 31 December 1946.

—	Deaths (Including Died as Prisoner of War)	Wounded and Injured	Prisoners of War	Wounded and Taken Prisoner of War	Interned	Missing	Totals
Navy	573	170	54		3		800
Army	6,793	15,324	6,644	1,219		46	30,026
Air Force	4,149	255	520	32	23		4,979
Mercantile Marine	110				123		233
Totals	11,625	15,749	7,218	1,251	149	46	36,038

In addition to the above figures there were 11 deaths reported in the 2nd N.Z.E.F. (Japan) up to 31 December 1948.

New Zealand casualties recorded as a result of service with the United Nations Forces in Korea from the commencement of service up to 31 December 1953 are as follows.

Class of Casualty	Casualties in Korean Theatre to 31 December 1953
Class of Casualty	Royal New Zealand Navy	Army	Total
Killed in action	1	14	15
Died of wounds		6	6
Drowned	1	1	2
Died of sickness		7	7
Died on active service		5	5
Total deaths	2	33	35
Wounded	1	78	79
Prisoner of war (now released)		1	1
Total casualties	3	112	115

HONOURS AND AWARDS.—A number of honours, decorations, etc., have been made to personnel for service in Korea or Korean waters, and the following list shows the number of each class awarded up to 31 December 1953.

Navy
Distinguished Service Cross	7
Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire	1
Distinguished Service Medal	2
Mentioned in Despatches	16
Posthumously Mentioned in Despatches	1
Army
Companion of the Bath	1
Distinguished Service Order	3
Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire	10
Military Cross	10
Distinguished Conduct Medal	1
Military Medal	7
British Empire Medal	4
Mentioned in Despatches	45

SUMMARY OF WARTIME ACTIVITIES OF ARMED FORCES.—In the following pages a condensed account of the wartime activities of the three armed services is given. A more detailed account is given on pages 203–206 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book. Post-war armed forces raised for duties overseas are given earlier in this section.

Army Expeditionary Forces.—South African War: New Zealand supplied ten contingents for service during the South African War, comprising a total of 6,500 officers and men.

First World War 1914–18: Immediately the First World War of 1914–18 broke out an Expeditionary Force was despatched to Western Samoa and occupied those islands, while a larger force in the form of a mixed brigade was despatched to Europe. The latter force was, however, landed in Egypt, and took part in the defence of the Suez Canal. It gave a good account of itself in the desperate campaign on Gallipoli, and after being withdrawn to Egypt was expanded into a Division and a Mounted Brigade. The Division then went to the Western Front, while the Mounted Brigade continued to operate in Palestine. Both forces became famous for their military qualities, and took part in practically all the great actions of their respective theatres up to the Armistice.

A total of 98,950 troops left New Zealand for service with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, and, of these, 16,697 lost their lives on active service. In addition to the 98,950 of all ranks of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces, 944 British Army Reservists, British Naval Reservists, and others left New Zealand to rejoin their units in the United Kingdom or in a theatre of war. It is also known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand during the period of the war and joined units of the British Forces or the Expeditionary Forces of other Commonwealth Countries.

On the Armistice being declared in November 1918 New Zealand had 52,000 troops in the field, while 10,000 more were ready to embark or were under training.

The tremendous amount of transport work involved in the conveyance of these forces to Egypt, France, Britain, Gallipoli, and Samoa was carried out with extraordinary success, not one New Zealand transport having been lost while conveying troops.

The troops provided for foreign service represented nearly 10 per cent of the total population of New Zealand in 1914, and over 40 per cent of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five years. These percentages do not take into account New Zealanders who served in the British or Australian Naval or Military Forces.

Second World War 1939–45—Middle East Theatre: Shortly after the outbreak of war with Germany on 3 September 1939 the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force, consisting of an Infantry Division with numerous auxiliary units and its own base and hospital services, was formed.

This Force, which was commanded by Major-General B. C. Freyberg, V.C., left New Zealand in three Echelons, the First Echelon sailing on 5 January 1940 and proceeding to Egypt. The Second Echelon was diverted to England in May, and the 2nd Division was first concentrated in Greece in March 1941, a few days before the German invasion. In the Greece Campaign the Division fought severe rearguard actions at the Servia Pass, Katerini Pass, Platamon, and Peneios Gorge. The 6th Brigade was evacuated to Egypt, 4th and 5th Brigades to Crete. General Freyberg took command of all the forces in Crete, which included 7,150 New Zealanders when the German airborne invasion began on 20 May. After a week of hard fighting, especially at Maleme and Galatos, the ill-equipped troops were forced to retreat across the mountains to Sphakia, where most were evacuated.

After reorganization and a period of training the Division took part in the campaign in Cyrenaica and the relief of Tobruk, in which it played a prominent part. Severe actions were fought at Sidi Rezegh, Belhamed, Capuzzo, and Gazala. Early in 1942 the Division moved to Syria. It returned to Egypt by a notable move of 900 miles in the height of summer to meet the German invasion of Egypt after the fall of Tobruk. During the summer of 1942 it fought costly actions at Minqar Qaim, Ruweisat, El Mreir, and Alam Halfa, and made an important contribution to the defence of Egypt.

On 23 October it was one of the assaulting Divisions in the decisive battle of Alamein. It then took part in the pursuit to Tripoli, fighting several actions en route, in the defensive battle of Medenine, and in the subsequent advance to Tunis, fighting severe actions at Tebaga Gap and Takrouna-Enfidaville. The campaign in Africa ended on 13 May 1943, with the surrender of all the Axis forces, and the Division returned to Egypt.

In September 1943 the Division moved to Italy and was constantly and heavily engaged until the end of the war. The most notable battles in which it took part were: Orsonga (Nov.-Dec. 1943), Cassino (Feb.-May 1944), the advance to Florence (July-Aug. 1944), Rimini (Oct.-Nov. 1944), Faenza (Dec. 1944), and the final Battle of the Senio and pursuit to Trieste (Apr.-May 1945). The German armies in Italy surrendered on 2 May 1945.

Total casualties in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force, Middle East and Pacific, were 6,793 deaths from all causes, 16,543 wounded, 7,863 prisoners of war (including 1,219 wounded), and 46 missing: total 30,026.

Pacific Theatre: A detachment of 2 officers and 30 other ranks occupied Fanning Island, to protect the cable station there, immediately on the outbreak of war and until relieved by United States troops in May 1942.

The 8th Brigade Group was despatched to Fiji in November 1940. It was reinforced by the 14th Brigade Group in January 1942, and became the 3rd New Zealand Division, which was relieved by United States troops and returned to New Zealand in July 1942. New Zealand officers and noncommissioned officers trained, and to a large extent commanded, the three Fijian Battalions and two Commandos which had distinguished service with American troops in Bougainville and other Pacific islands.

One New Zealand battalion garrisoned Tonga and a second one Norfolk Island.

The 3rd Division, under command of Major-General H. E. Barrowclough, moved to New Caledonia in November 1942, and in August 1943 to Guadalcanal. Under United States command it carried out successful amphibious operations on Vella Lavella, the Treasury Islands, and Nissan. Owing to man-power difficulties it was withdrawn to New Zealand in 1944 and disbanded in October, the personnel returning to industry or going to the Middle East to reinforce the 2nd Division. Casualties in the Pacific operations were 111 killed in action, 213 wounded, and 26 taken prisoner.

Royal New Zealand Navy.—Second World War 1939–45: H.M.N.Z.S. Achilles, a light cruiser, took part in the Battle of the River Plate, the first occasion on which the New Zealand ensign was flown in action.

Achilles was thereafter employed in patrol and escort duties in New Zealand waters and in the Pacific under United States command. She was severely hit by a bomb off Guadalcanal on 5 January 1943, and sustained 21 casualties. She was paid off at Portsmouth on 21 September 1943, and recommissioned on 23 May 1944. In the last months of the war she served in the British Pacific Fleet and took part in several bombardments of Japanese island positions.

H.M.N.Z.S. Leander, a light cruiser, was employed on patrol and escort duties in New Zealand waters until May 1940, when she sailed for the Middle East for escort duty in the Red Sea. While operating later in the Indian Ocean she sank the Italian raider Ramb I after a short action. Between June and September 1941 she took part in several actions off the Syrian coast. After Japan came into the war she was employed in the Pacific, and in the Battle of Kolombangara on 13 July 1943 was severely damaged, with 43 casualties.

H.M.N.Z.S. Monowai, armed merchant cruiser, was employed in patrol and escort duties in the Pacific and in New Zealand waters.

H.M.N.Z.S. Gambia, a light cruiser, was commissioned as a unit of the Royal New Zealand Navy by the officers and ship's company of the Achilles on 22 September 1943. After service in the North Atlantic she joined the British Eastern Fleet on 19 February 1944, and took part in all the major operations of that Fleet and of the British Pacific Fleet. She was present at the signing of the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay.

25th Minesweeping Flotilla was organized in April 1941. On 14 May 1941, while the flotilla was clearing a minefield in the Hauraki Gulf, the Puriri struck a mine and sank with 5 casualties. In December 1942 this flotilla came under American command. On 29–30 January 1943 the Kiwi and Moa sank a large Japanese submarine off Guadalcanal after a sharp action. The Moa was later sunk by air attack, with 21 casualties. In August 1943 the Tui took part in the sinking of another big submarine.

Forty minesweeping and anti-submarine vessels, 12 Fairmile launches, 16 harbour defence motor launches, and about 100 other motor boats served in the Royal New Zealand Navy in New Zealand waters, doing much arduous service.

New Zealanders in the Royal Navy: Approximately 7,000 New Zealanders served in the Royal Navy, the peak of 1,242 officers and 3,659 ratings being recorded in September 1944. They saw service in every type of ship from battleships and aircraft carriers to submarines and motor torpedo oats, and took part in notable actions and operations in every theatre of war. Deaths totalled 458, the heaviest casualty list being 148 New Zealand ratings and two officers lost when the cruiser Neptune was sunk in the Mediterranean on 18–19 December 1941.

Total casualties among New Zealand personnel (Royal Navy and Royal New Zealand Navy) were 800, including 573 deaths.

Royal New Zealand Air Force.—Second World War 1939–45: Until Japan came into the war the R.N.Z.A.F. was mainly concerned with escort and convoy duties in New Zealand waters and with training aircrews for service in the R.A.F.

Operational aircraft began to arrive from the United States in 1942, and eventually 26 squadrons were formed and saw service in the Pacific, under American command. They took part in offensive operations in the Solomons, on Bougainville, New Ireland, and against Rabaul, and carried out much supply dropping and convoy escort work and many anti-submarine patrols and survivor searches.

Ninety-nine enemy aircraft were shot down by R.N.ZA.F. fighter squadrons and four by bomber squadrons. One submarine was sunk, many barges and small craft were destroyed, and 10,700 tons of bombs dropped.

Casualties in the R.N.Z.A.F. in the Pacific were 345 killed, 58 seriously injured, and 4 taken prisoner, 3 of whom died. In New Zealand 335 were killed, 100 died from natural causes, and 44 were injured.

New Zealanders in the Royal Air Force: Seven squadrons with a New Zealand identity and a majority of New Zealand personnel served with and as part of the Royal Air Force. They were 75 and 487 Bomber Squadrons, 489 Torpedo Bomber Squadron, 485, 486, and 488 Fighter Squadrons, and 490 Flying-boat Squadron.

All took part in very numerous operations and sustained and inflicted heavy losses.

The great majority of the 9,000 New Zealanders who served in the Royal Air Force were scattered in Royal Air Force squadrons, and there were some in every important operation carried out by the Royal Air Force. Their casualties were extremely heavy—3,267 killed, 128 seriously injured, and 571 taken prisoner. Of the 500 New Zealanders serving in the Royal Air Force on the outbreak of war in September 1939, 327 were killed and 8 died while prisoners of war.

New Zealand Mercantile Marine.—Five New Zealand merchant ships were lost by enemy action—the Awatea, 13,482 tons; Limerick, 8,724 tons; Hauraki, 7,113 tons; Komata, 3,900 tons; Holmwood. 546 tons.

110 seamen were killed and 123 interned.

9 B—REHABILITATION

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY AND ADMINISTRATION.—The Rehabilitation Act 1941 and its amendments made provision for the re-establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen and for the reconstitution of wartime industries on a peacetime basis. The Rehabilitation Department, controlled by the Minister of Rehabilitation, was set up under the authority of the Act, which also provides for the constitution of a Rehabilitation Board and a National Rehabilitation Council. The principal function of the Council is to make recommendations to the Minister (after investigation) in relation to the re-establishment of discharged servicemen in civil life. Particular matters mentioned in the Act in this regard include the following:

The reinstatement of discharged servicemen in civil employment or occupation:
The necessary training required to qualify them for entry into civil employment and the granting of financial assistance during such training:
The making of special arrangements concerning the passing of examinations, the completion of apprenticeships, or the obtaining of practical experience, etc.:
The granting of financial assistance to discharged servicemen and to servicemen's widows to enable them to acquire homes and furniture, or to acquire land, stock, implements, tools of trade, etc., to commence any employment or occupation.

The Council consists of the Minister of Rehabilitation as Chairman, the members of the Board, and such other persons as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. At 31 March 1953 the total number of members was twenty-one. The Board consists of the Minister as Chairman, the Director of Rehabilitation, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Managing Director of the State Advances Corporation, the Director-General of Lands, the Secretary of Maori Affairs, the Commissioner of Works, and five other persons appointed by the Governor-General. The general functions of the Board are to organize the establishment in civil life of discharged servicemen or servicemen's widows, and to co-ordinate and use the services available in Departments of State and elsewhere for the carrying-out of its functions. The Board also determines the nature and extent of the assistance that may be granted to any class or classes of servicemen, and approves the granting of such assistance.

The Board has the assistance of district Rehabilitation Committees, which keep in touch with discharged servicemen and act in an advisory capacity concerning rehabilitation matters in their respective districts. These Committees investigate and make recommendations in regard to applications for financial assistance or loans, report on the suitability of the applicant for the trade or business for which the assistance is required, and other relevant matters. The Committees also have limited powers in regard to making grants of small sums for immediate assistance. They also allocate State rental houses to discharged servicemen in those areas where Combined Housing Allocation Committees have not been established, 50 per cent of all houses becoming available under the Government's housing scheme being allotted for this purpose. The number of Committees operating at 31 March 1953 was 111.

Other legislative measures for the purpose of rehabilitating discharged servicemen are the Land Act 1948 and its amendments. The Land Amendment Act 1948 contains provisions which enable the Land Settlement Board to give preference at ballots to discharged servicemen of the Second World War, and also to sell or grant a lease or licence to such a serviceman without public notice and without competition.

The Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953, re-enacting Part III of the Emergency Forces Act 1950 in an extended form, enables regulations to be made for the rehabilitation and protection of servicemen who have served overseas in connection with any emergency, whether a United Nations one or otherwise—i.e., includes service in Malaya as well as in Korea.

The Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Regulations 1953, made under the 1953 Act, extend to the widows, widowed mothers, and children of servicemen, and also make provision for the financial assistance of servicemen while serving.

The Rehabilitation Board is to determine the nature and extent of the assistance to be granted in each case, within the limits prescribed in the regulations.

The general provisions of Part I of the Rehabilitation Act 1941 and its amendments as to the Board and its powers are to apply except so far as they are inconsistent with the regulations.

The Emergency Forces Occupational Re-establishment Regulations 1951 safeguard the rights of a worker in relation to his civil employment in the event of his serving as a member of an emergency force raised in New Zealand or elsewhere in the Commonwealth in connection with a United Nations emergency.

Future of Rehabilitation Assistance and of the Organization.—Since 1947 the Rehabilitation Board has closely watched the demand for rehabilitation assistance, and as this demand has lessened steps have been taken by the Department to reduce and adjust the organization as at present constituted. These adjustments have resulted in the closing of a number of departmental offices and practical cessation of operations at the Board's full-time training centres, with a consequent reduction of staff.

In 1953 the Government made certain decisions on the future of rehabilitation generally.

It was considered that the present minimum service requirements constituting eligibility for the various forms of rehabilitation assistance met any real need arising from service and that further lowering of these requirements would not be justified.

The provision of initial rehabilitation assistance has been substantially completed in all fields except land settlement and housing. Because of the numbers still requiring assistance in these two fields, it was considered that, at this stage, it would be both unreasonable and impracticable to set a time limit. This applies also to those who, for special reasons and in accordance with the policy of the Board, may be accepted in the future as eligible for land-settlement assistance either generally or for a specific property or class of property. Similarly, no time limit is to be fixed at this stage for applications for housing loans, or preferences for sections. These decisions are to be reviewed in July 1955.

The need for the 50 per cent preferential quota of State houses for ex-servicemen has, in some districts, diminished considerably. It was considered that no new applications be received after 31 March 1954.

The present policy for business loans provides that, in general, and having regard to the time elapsed since discharge, loan assistance for establishment in business will be confined to cases where the proposition involved has been within the contemplation of the applicant and he has demonstrated his interest by gaining suitable experience and by saving to make a reasonable contribution to his establishment in the particular business field. It has been decided that the present policy be confirmed but that no time limit be fixed at this stage. This decision, also, will be reviewed in July 1955.

The close relationship of furniture loans to housing warrants similar treatment, and it was accordingly decided that here also no time limit would be fixed for receipt of applications at this stage, but that this decision would be reviewed in July 1955.

In view of the very pronounced reduction in the demand for education and trade training, and the opportunity to apply which has been offered over a long period, it has been decided that, except in special circumstances, new applications will not be accepted after 31 March 1954.

Notwithstanding the continued lessening of the demand for rehabilitation assistance, the work of attending to post-settlement problems of some ex-servicemen will continue for a considerable time. Under the reorganization proposed the Board therefore intends to retain control of post-settlement questions. It will provide relief in those cases where, through no fault of the individual concerned, help is justified.

None of these decisions will have any force in respect of:

Members or ex-members of emergency or similar forces;
Children of deceased and totally incapacitated ex-servicemen;
Ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be retarded or interrupted or become necessary from war disability.

Appropriate forms of assistance for these groups will continue under such terms and conditions as may be considered appropriate by the Rehabilitation Board from time to time.

The following components of the present organization are to be retained: Portfolio of Rehabilitation, Rehabilitation Board, and the Rehabilitation Council (subject to later review). Farming Sub-committees are to be retained until 31 March 1954.

The present Rehabilitation Committee organization is to be replaced by one consisting of a limited number of district Rehabilitation Committees comprised of representatives of town or communities within the respective district.

The Rehabilitation Department is to continue as a separate organization until 31 March 1954 when, providing that circumstances in the meantime do not warrant a review, it is to take the form of a Board Secretariat with regional representation at Auckland, Napier, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. As from 1 April 1954 the Rehabilitation Department is to become a division of the Department of Internal Affairs.

TRADE TRAINING.—The “A” Class training scheme has provided in a number of the building trades full-time intensive theoretical and practical indoor classes, followed by full-time advanced practical work under the supervision of the Board's Instructors. At 31 March 1953 carpentry schools were still operating on a reduced basis at Auckland, Hamilton, Rotorua, Gisborne, Hastings, and Dunedin. At the peak of the scheme full-time training in carpentry was in operation at twenty-one centres, and at some of these also in painting, bricklaying, and plastering. As the needs of ex-servicemen were substantially met it was decided that no further applications for training in the building trades in the full-time centres operated by the Board would be received after 31 January 1951 and that centres would cease to operate as the final classes of trainees undergoing training completed their courses. The scheme has tapered off to the extent that the Kaikohe, Whangarei, Thames, Napier, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Masterton, Wellington, Nelson, Westport, Christchurch, Timaru, Oamaru, and Invercargill centres have been closed.

The recession in the number of men under training can be gauged by comparing the figure of 2,998 at 31 March 1948 with 47 at 31 March 1953, these being then in the concluding stages of their training. The number of men who completed “A” Class training from the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1953 was 7,299.

During their period of advanced practical training, trainees were engaged on the construction of houses under the Government's housing scheme, and from a modest beginning in 1942 the output increased to the extent that the Rehabilitation Department became one of the biggest contractors for State houses.

In the earlier stages of the “A” Class training scheme provision was also made for the training of ex-servicemen in general engineering, welding, and the footwear-manufacturing industry.

The “B” Class scheme of training provides for contracts between employers and trainees and the Board for engagement and training over suitable periods in the employer's own workshop. The wages are subsidized by the Board at a gradually decreasing amount as the training progresses and the trainee's skill and productive value increases. With the gradual closing down of the “A” Class training centres, “B” Class facilities are available to ex-servicemen who wish to learn a skilled trade.

Certain trades such as boot repairing, watchmaking, jewellery manufacturing, etc., are particularly suited to the needs of disabled men, and, so far as is reasonably possible, training in such vocations is reserved for ex-servicemen suffering from major disabilities.

Arrangements similar to those in regard to trade training have been made for the training of ex-servicemen with suitable educational background as clerical workers, and in a number of professions such as law, accountancy, surveying, architecture, and journalism.

The following table summarizes the result of the “B” Class training scheme up to 31 March 1953.

Trade	Under Training	Completed Training	Total
Carpentry	29	248	277
Joinery	3	78	81
Plumbing	42	208	250
Bricklaying	2	31	33
Painting and paperhanging	11	182	193
Plastering	9	69	78
Other building trades	1	39	40
Clerical and professional	3	433	436
Engineering and metal trades	5	571	576
Electrical trades	18	243	261
Foodstuffs	3	111	114
Footwear and leather trades	3	173	176
Furniture trades	6	372	378
Motor trades	12	439	451
Other mechanical trades	6	45	51
Printing	2	97	99
Retail trades	4	366	370
Roof-tiling		6	6
Textile and clothing trades	2	174	176
Miscellaneous trades	10	157	167
Totals	171	4,042	4,213

The “C” Class training scheme caters for the resumption of apprenticeships interrupted by war service. The Suspension of Apprenticeship Emergency Regulations 1944 and the Emergency Forces Occupational Re-establishment Regulations 1951 provided that an apprentice on reviving his contract should receive at least the apprenticeship rate of wages that he would then be receiving had his employment been continuous. If the expiry date of the contract (calculated on the basis of an apprenticeship of not more than five years) has passed, the employer is called upon to pay to the apprentice the final contract rate, and similar payment must be made if the apprentice has reached the age of twenty-one years and had at least twelve months' home service or has rendered military service overseas. Where a contract is revived after the original expiry date (five-year basis) has passed, or where the contract expires after revival, the wage is appreciably less than the journeyman's rate which would have been payable had the full contract term been served. As this is an obvious financial hardship arising directly from military service, the Board makes available a subsidy over and above the amount which the regulations require the employer to pay in order to bring the apprentice's wage up to the journeyman's rate. Generally, in the case of twenty-one-year-old apprentices the expiry date of whose contract has not been reached, the Rehabilitation Board makes available a limited subsidy, provided they have had any overseas service. This limited subsidy will normally continue until the apprentice becomes eligible for the full subsidy at the expiry date of the contract. Although the Suspension of Apprenticeship Emergency Regulations were revoked, the rights and privileges of apprentices who had revived their apprenticeships under those regulations were preserved by the Military Training Act 1949. At 31 March 1953, 3 ex-servicemen were undergoing training under this scheme, 3,398 had completed their training, and 371 had discontinued for various reasons.

DISABLED SERVICEMEN.—Apart from the Board's general forms of assistance which are available to these men, special training assistance continues to be provided on behalf of the Board by the Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League and the Blinded Servicemen's Trust Board.

The League provides training in trades particularly suited to seriously disabled men, and the Rehabilitation Board is prepared to subsidize wages of any such disabled men whose disabilities make institutional treatment necessary or preferable to training within industry. This assistance is valuable for the ex-serviceman whose disability prevents him from following his normal occupation.

The League also provides employment under sheltered conditions for ex-servicemen whose disabilities make them unemployable in the ordinary industrial life of the community. Here again the Rehabilitation Board is prepared to assist by subsidizing wages.

Since the League undertook this work on behalf of the Rehabilitation Board 570 men had completed their training by 31 March 1953. Fifty-six men were receiving training at that date.

The Blinded Servicemen's Trust Board was constituted in 1945 to provide training facilities for the wholly or partially blinded ex-servicemen and to promote their welfare. One man commenced regular training during the year ended 31 March 1953, but many men have attended the training centre, “St. Dunstan's,” for instruction in additional techniques and new methods. The bulk of training has now been accomplished, and the Trust Board's activity is mainly concentrated on after-care of over 50 men located throughout New Zealand, and the co-ordination of assistance available through State and private channels.

FARM TRAINING AND SETTLEMENT.—In its approach to the task of settling the servicemen on the land the Rehabilitation Board had the benefit of the experience gained from the operations of the Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Act 1915, and in framing its policy it has endeavoured, as far as possible, to avoid the pitfalls of the past.

The Board decided that the following basic principles should be applied in its land-settlement scheme for ex-servicemen from the Second World War:

To make settlement facilities available only to fully experienced applicants.
To give adequate training to those eligible applicants who were not fully experienced
To settle ex-servicemen on farms which should, under reasonable conditions, be capable

of producing sufficient to maintain the property, provide a reasonable standard of living, and pay all other outgoings, including mortgage charges.

The Grading System.—The Board, in consequence of the above, decided that the qualifications of every farming applicant should be subjected to the closest scrutiny and that eligible applicants should be classified according to their ability.

Grade “A”: Experienced men qualified for immediate settlement on farms of their own.
Grade “B”: Partly experienced men in need of further training to fit them to take up and manage farms of their own.
Grade “C”: Inexperienced men considered suitable for training with the intention that they should ultimately be established on farms of their own.
Grade “D”: Not suitable for farm training or settlement.

The grading of applicants is the responsibility of Farming Sub-committees, twenty-seven of which are now operating throughout New Zealand, each comprising experienced private farmers as Chairman and Deputy Chairman, and representatives of the Lands and Survey Department and the State Advances Corporation. By virtue of the Land Amendment Act 1953 it is intended to transfer to Land Settlement Committees the functions previously exercised by the Farming Sub-committees under the Rehabilitation Act 1941. Provision is made for discharged servicemen from the Emergency Forces who were engaged continuously in farm employment prior to service, but otherwise only in special circumstances have new applications for farm gradings been accepted since 31 March 1951.

The Training Scheme.—For those eligible applicants who did not measure up to “A” Grade standard every facility and encouragement was given to them to obtain the experience necessary to enable them to operate farms on their own account successfully. The Rehabilitation Board made provision for subsidizing the wages of trainees in special circumstances.

Full-time tuition has been provided for student-trainees placed at Canterbury and Massey Agricultural Colleges. The majority of the men selected for these courses have had a background of practical experience, and short courses at the colleges have served a very useful purpose in giving the men an insight into the most up-to-date farming methods.

Full-time training on a special farm was provided for physically disabled ex-servicemen who have a rural background and in respect of whom there are prospects of ultimate successful settlement as farmers, although possibly in a different class of farming from that previously followed. The administration of the farm was in the hands of the Disabled Servicemen's Re-establishment League, while the wages paid to the trainees were subsidized by the Board. The farm ceased operations on 28 February 1953.

The following table shows the number of ex-servicemen settled and the number of ex-servicemen graded “A” awaiting settlement as at 31 March 1953.

Class of Settlement	Number
Settled on single units by Rehabilitation Loans Committee	7,453
Settled on land settlement blocks by Rehabilitation Loans Committee	1,996
Settled on land settlement blocks, financial adjustments yet to be made	554
Employed by Lands and Survey Department with promise of titles	77
Settled on single units and blocks through Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee	102
Employed by Department of Maori Affairs on single units and blocks with promise of title	16
Settled without rehabilitation assistance on freehold, Crown, and private leasehold properties	1,031
Maori ex-servicemen assisted by Department of Maori Affairs under Maori Land Amendment Act 1936	89
Total settled	11,318
Number of “A” Grade ex-servicemen awaiting settlement	1,705

The area of land acquired for the settlement of ex-servicemen up to 31 March 1953 was 1,577,729 acres. This area does not include particulars relating to those who have purchased established farms on their own account with rehabilitation assistance. Further particulars are contained in Section 18a. Particulars of financial assistance will be found under a later heading.

EDUCATION.—Educational facilities are provided by the Rehabilitation Board for ex-servicemen in the way of bursaries, payment of fees, book allowance, etc.

Full-time bursaries for study at New Zealand University Colleges and some private institutions and colleges include all tuition and examination fees, together with a book allowance limited to £5 per annum. Subsistence allowances for the academic period are also granted at the rate of £7 per week for married men and £4 0s. 6d. per week for single bursars. For some courses at the agricultural colleges students are required to live at the colleges. In such cases their board and lodgings are paid, and in addition allowances of £4 17s. 6d. and £2 per week are paid to married and single men respectively.

Assistance for part-time study at University Colleges, State institutions, and private institutions is also given, and consists of tuition and examination fees, plus an allowance for books.

It should be noted that these forms of assistance are granted in relation to career training only and not for purely cultural studies. In deciding the type of bursary and the period for which assistance will be granted, factors such as interruption to study through service, length and type of service in the Armed Forces, relation to pre-service career, and prospects upon qualification and suitability for the particular course of study are all taken into account.

In certain cases bursaries are granted to enable an ex-serviceman to pursue a course of study overseas. These are only granted to men with long military service overseas and a serious interruption to study or career, or for courses of study which are not available in New Zealand. A full overseas bursary usually includes subsistence allowance at the rate of £328 per annum sterling for married bursars and £250 per annum for single bursars, payable from the time of arrival in the United Kingdom until the earliest date a bursar can obtain a return passage to New Zealand after the completion of his course. Tuition and examination fees, refund for textbooks purchased up to £5 per academic year, tourist-class passages from and to New Zealand, voyage allowances at the rate of 16s. 5d. per day for married men and 5s. 3d. per day for single men, and reasonable travelling expenses in New Zealand and the United Kingdom (from home address in New Zealand to port of embarkation and port of disembarkation to place of study, with similar assistance on the return journey) are also payable.

Particulars of educational facilities granted to 31 March 1953 are contained in the following table.

Facilities	Ex-Overseas	Ex-Home Service	Total
Full-time assistance—
(a) In New Zealand	3,253	227	3,480
(b) Overseas	727	5	732
Part-time assistance	13,754	2,641	16,395
Renewals—
(a) Full-time	4,055	228	4,283
(b) Part-time	21,311	2,870	24,181
Miscellaneous facilities	2,893	350	3,243
Totals	45,993	6,321	52,314

Education and Career-assistance to Children of Deceased or Totally Incapacitated Servicemen.—In conjunction with the War Pensions Office, the Rehabilitation Board is also concerned with the education of the children of deceased servicemen whose deaths have been the result of war injuries, and of the children of ex-servicemen who through war disability are totally incapacitated for work. The responsibility for the education of these children through the primary and post-primary school stages is undertaken by the War Pensions Office. A bursary up to £25 per annum is available to eligible children attending post-primary schools. Assistance for education and career trailing after post-primary schooling is completed may be granted by the Rehabilitation Board, the assistance taking the form of tuition and examination fees and a contribution towards the cost of books. Where full-time study is approved, a subsistence allowance is payable, varying from £2 17s. 6d. per week to £4 0s. 6d. per week at the age of twenty-one years.

So that due encouragement is given to any children wishing to train for a worth-while trade or career the Board will, where necessary, consider a payment to bring their wages up to £3 10s. 6d. net per week where required to live away from home or £2 17s. 6d. per week when living at home. Those twenty-one years of age and over, whether living at or away from home while engaged in career occupations not covered by apprenticeships, may be considered for a grant sufficient to bring their net wages up to £4 13s. per week.

FINANCIAL.—The following is a summary of loan limits and interest rates applicable to the various types of loan granted by the Rehabilitation Board.

Type of Loan	Maximum Amount	Rate of Interest
	£	Per Cent
(a) Tools of trade	50	Free
(b) Furniture	100	Free
(c) Business	500	4
(d) Farms—
Going concerns—
Dairy	5,000	3
Sheep	6,250	3
Stock and plant only—
Dairy	1,500	4
Sheep or mixed	2,500	4
(e) House—
New	2,000	3
Existing	1,800	3

In the case of business, farm, and housing loans the interest rate for the first year is reduced to 2 per cent per annum. Supplementary and suspensory interest-free loans are available in the case of housing loans in appropriate cases. Both classes of loan are on a percentage basis. Supplementary loans, which are interest-free and repayable only in the event of the sale of the security, amount to 5 per cent of the reasonable cost with a maximum of £100 in the case of new houses, and for existing dwellings are 5 per cent of the approved value with a maximum of £90. Suspensory loans, also interest-free, relate to new houses only and are cancelled after a period of seven years provided the owner fulfils the required occupancy conditions. They are limited to 10 per cent of the approved cost with a maximum of £200.

Supplementary loans have also been made available in a number of farm loans, and the Land Amendment Act 1950 extended the “suspensory” loan principle to cases where ex-servicemen are settled, under the Rehabilitation Act, on Crown land after 1 November 1950. The suspensory loan in such cases is for an amount not exceeding the difference between the 1942 value and the current market value. Such a loan will not be enforceable as long as the purchaser resides personally on the land and farms it for his own use and benefit and fulfils the conditions of any prior mortgage to the Crown or to the State Advances Corporation.

Provided the purchaser fulfils these conditions the loan is discharged at the end of ten years. These suspensory loans were introduced consequent upon the passing of the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950, which provided that the value of land for the purposes of that Act was to be the current market value instead of the 1942 value.

Particulars of the various classes of loan authorized during the year ended 31 March 1953, and the totals to 31 March 1953, are as follows.

Class of Loan	Year Ended 31 March 1953		Totals to 31 March 1953
Class of Loan	Number	Amount	Number	Amount
		£		£
Purchase of farms, etc.	853	6,425,840	9,449	46,823,342
Housing loans	3,860	6,627,777	43,288	56,429,717
Tools of trade	14	532	1,459	48,135
Furniture	3,298	331,489	57,103	5,330,235
Business	428	326,360	10,699	6,857,419
Miscellaneous	29	3,848	633	128,668
Totals	8,482	13,715,846	122,631	115,617,516

Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorizations) for the year ended 31 March 1953, together with the totals to 31 March 1953, was as follows.

Item	Year Ended 31 March 1953	To 31 March 1953 From Outset
	£	£
Administration expenses	182,495	2,877,846
Advertising and publicity		21,263
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance	39,286	1,686,708
Farm training and settlement (excluding loans)—
Farm training, including fees and subsistence allowance at approved agricultural colleges and training farms and subsidy to approved employers	5,332	481,262
Purchase of lands for settlement, development, and other expenses in connection therewith (excluding £12,757,298 recovered from Rehabilitation Loans Committee and appearing under “Loans”)	2,885,172	25,441,918
	2,890,504	25,923,180
Trade training: Centres operated by Rehabilitation Department (includes establishment and operational charges, trainees' wages, separation allowances, and travelling expenses, tools, plant, and equipment)	116,817	5,856,378
Training of blinded ex-servicemen	3,534	95,893
Other, including grants, subsidies to employers, etc.	43,978	2,224,236
	164,329	8,176,507
Loans—
Interest concessions	783,442	3,807,709
Loans authorized (Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee)	317,960	1,582,830
Loans authorized (Rehabilitation Loans Committee)	13,715,846	115,617,516
Reserve Fund Contributions	184,475	1,575,335
Small Farms Act leases: Losses and interest concessions		55,327
Suspensory loans (Maori Rehabilitation Finance Committee)	25,193	44,119
Suspensory loans (Rehabilitation Loans Committee)	801,145	2,181,875
	15,828,061	124,864,711
Grants—
Rehabilitation allowances		431,885
Special grants to ex-servicemen	17,561	105,234
Special grants to Returned Services' Associations	1,550	44,386
Travelling expenses of ex-servicemen, including fares, furniture removals, and loss of earnings	37	42,202
	19,148	623,707
Plans and specifications, including plan service		4,039
Other items		5,670
Totals	19,123,823	164,183,631

Business Assistance for Ex-servicemen.—In addition to the loan facilities available to assist ex-servicemen in purchasing existing businesses, or in establishing new businesses, special assistance is given to ex-servicemen requiring licences for licensed industries and trades, and also in obtaining stocks, plant, and equipment which may be in short supply or subject to control.

The following table shows the main classes of business for which loans have been granted up to 31 March 1953.

Class	Number Granted	Amount
		£
Butchery	235	199,897
Grocery, general store	727	626,586
Bakery, dairy, refreshment rooms	454	314,195
Stationery, fancy goods	129	97,294
Radio dealer, electrician	256	141,736
Hairdresser, tobacconist	131	68,490
Bootmaker	166	56,809
Chemist	35	38,180
Manufacturing business	324	215,224
Eggs, poultry, etc.	43	27,073
Milk rounds	344	286,730
Hotels, guesthouses	42	44,788
Fishing ventures	118	76,684
Agricultural contractors	444	319,786
Taxi, service car	2,294	1,253,874
Transport (general) and mail contractors	1,387	1,047,621
Building trades	929	490,351
Painter and paperhanger	331	121,004
Mechanical trades	490	333,390
Professional services	958	470,093
Miscellaneous	862	612,392
Totals	10,699	6,842,197

Housing.—Owing to the prevailing housing shortage, the housing of ex-servicemen has been one of the Rehabilitation Board's main problems. Assistance in this connection consists of a certain priority in the allocation of State rental houses, and provision of finance for the erection of new, and the purchase of existing, dwellings.

During the year ended 31 March 1953, 995 State rental houses and flats were allocated to ex-servicemen, making a total allocation to 31 March 1953 of 16,208.

The number of loan authorizations for the erection of new homes during the year ended 31 March 1953 was 1,349, making a total of 19,130 to 31 March 1953.

Loans for the purchase of existing dwellings were authorized in 2,511 cases in 1952–53, while the total up to the end of that period was 24,158.

MAORI REHABILITATION.—The following table gives particulars of assistance afforded to Maori ex-servicemen up to 31 March 1953. Maoris are entitled to the same assistance under the same genera! conditions as Europeans, although special measures have been provided to meet their particular needs.

At 31 March 1953, 5,214 Maori ex-servicemen had been demobilized, of whom 3,861 had served overseas.

Type of Assistance	Number of Ex-servicemen	Amount Authorized
		£
Farm land purchased		73,230
Loans—
Farm loans	146	671,359
Housing loans	786	1,052,169
Furniture loans	1,222	120,739
Business loans	225	103,118
Tools of trade loans	60	1,941
Miscellaneous loans and grants	58	8,292
Totals, loans	2,497	1,957,618
Educational assistance	147
Trade training—
“A” Class	673
“B” Class	51
“C” Class	8
“D” Class	58
“F” Class	3
Total, trade training	793
Farm training	251
Total number assisted	3,688

In addition 89 ex-servicemen have been settled on farms under the Maori Land Amendment Act 1936 and 36 ex-servicemen have received housing assistance under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

DEMOBILIZATION.—Demobilizations as recorded by the Rehabilitation Department for the year 1952–53 totalled 783, the total to date being 213,096.

Chapter 10. SECTION 10—EXTERNAL TRADE

Table of Contents

10 A—GENERAL

10 B—EXPORTS

10 C—IMPORTS

10 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

10 A—GENERAL

DATA regarding the overseas trade of New Zealand have special significance in view of the country's particularly high degree of dependence upon its external trade. If a few entrepôt and similar trading centres are excluded, New Zealand's total international trade per head is higher than that of any other country. However, in making use of the external trade statistics their limitations for balance of payments studies should be clearly recognized.

In the first place these trade statistics do not relate to the whole of the New Zealand currency area, the Cook Islands, Niue Island, and the Trust Territory of Western Samoa not being included, while vessels transferred to or from New Zealand ownership travelling on their own bottoms are excluded from the statistics, so also are ships' stores (other than bunker fuel and goods on which drawback of duty is claimed).

Of greater significance is the basis of valuation used in recording exports and imports. Exports generally are recorded at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, but in the case of goods exported by a New Zealand national to be sold in an overseas market (e.g., some wool) the actual net f.o.b. price realized could differ from the value estimated at time of shipment. Wool acquired under the wartime appraisal scheme and exported to be auctioned overseas was valued on export at appraisal prices. Since the prices realized at auction were higher, and New Zealand shared in this profit, export values for the years concerned are consequently understated.

Up to the end of 1951 imports were recorded on the basis of their value for Customs purposes, this being their current domestic value (c.d.v.) in the country of export at the time of shipment plus 10 per cent. For several years the limitations of this basis of valuation for economic studies, particularly those relating to balances of trade and of payments, had been apparent. There was a tendency generally to regard the Customs value of imports as being equivalent to at least a conventional c.i.f. value. In fact the Customs value of all imports probably fell short of the actual c.i.f. cost by varying amounts ranging up to 10 per cent. The domestic and export price levels in the exporting country may differ on account of price controls, subsidies, etc., while external packing, railway freights, etc., generally tend to raise the f.o.b. cost of goods above the current domestic price. For some few types of commodities the 10 per cent allowance is more than adequate to cover insurance and freight charges. For a larger proportion of imports, particularly those where the value relative to weight or bulk is low, the allowance is inadequate to cover these costs. As from 1 January 1952 a change was made in that imports were recorded in the trade statistics without the additional 10 per cent required for duty purposes—i.e., at current domestic value, generally, as indicated above, equivalent to but not identical with the f.o.b. cost. Provision was also made to record by class and grand totals the actual c.i.f. costs of imports.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available—viz., c.d.v. and c.i.f.—will vary from period to period depending on (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential charges in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchase and of shipping. The relatively high freight rates and insurance charges in wartime resulted in c.i.f. costs rising considerably above Customs values. The high charter freights of 1951–52 had a similar effect. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The exports recorded in the trade statistics relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period named, save that, in order to facilitate the flow of work through the Customs accounting machines, the figures for each month are in fact closed off some time prior to the end of the month. However, the omissions at the end of any month are balanced by the carry-forward from the end of the previous month. Since the whole of the end of the year holiday period falls in the January accounting period the figures for this month are typically low. Depending on the length of time a vessel is in New Zealand waters, goods could have been actually loaded several weeks before they are recorded in the export statistics.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the import entries, either for home consumption or into bonded warehouse, passed by the Customs Department. Under the system in use it is possible for an importer to pay the duty involved, if any, and have the import entry passed very shortly after he receives the shipping documents; this enables him to take delivery of the goods on arrival. Thus the import may be recorded before the carrying vessel has reached New Zealand. Generally, however, the import entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf. On the other hand, it may sometimes occur that goods may have been unloaded and in the custody of a Harbour Board for some time before the importer has the entry passed (and the import is recorded) and takes delivery.

In the official annual statistics of the trade of New Zealand the twelve-monthly period adopted is the calendar year. Summarized trade statistics over a long period of years are included in the Statistical Summary towards the end of this volume. The latest figures covering the principal items of export and import are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, so that summarized figures are available for any twelve-monthly period ending in March, June, September, or December. As the farm production year ends about June and the financial year on 31 March, it is desirable to record trade for years ended 30 June and 31 March as well as for calendar years.

The following table relates to merchandise only—i.e., it excludes specie, particulars of which will be found on page 274. Up to the end of 1929 New Zealand currency and sterling were at virtual parity, but thenceforward New Zealand currency was at a discount with sterling until 20 August 1948, from when it was restored to parity with sterling (see Section 32—Banking and Currency). Consequently figures of total merchandise trade have been converted to a sterling basis, and a summary covering the last eleven years follows.

Year	Exports f.o.b.	Imports			Exports f.o.b.	Imports
Year	Exports f.o.b.	c.d.v. + 10 Per Cent	c.d.v.	c.i.f.	Exports f.o.b.	c.d.v. + 10 Per Cent	c.d.v.	c.i.f.
* Provisional.
	£(N.Z.)000	£(N.Z.)000	£(N.Z.)000	£(N.Z.)000	£(Stg.)000	£(Stg.)000	£(Stg.)000	£(Stg.)000
YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER
1943	71,863	95,242	86,584		57,490	76,194	69,267
1944	77,787	86,397	78,543		62,230	69,118	62,835
1945	81,631	55,088	50,080		65,305	44,071	40,065
1946	101,302	71,571	65,065		81,042	57,257	52,052
1947	129,420	128,641	116,946		103,536	102,913	93,557
1948	147,821	128,534	116,849		125,375	110,926	100,842
1949	147,281	120,033	109,121		147,281	120,033	109,121
1950	183,752	157,943	143,585		183,752	157,943	143,585
1951	248,127	206,534	187,758		248,127	206,534	187,758
1952	240,561		229,447	276,215	240,561		229,447	276,215
1953^*	235,596		163,446	192,143	235,596		163,446	192,143
YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH
1943	76,112	60,968	55,425		60,890	48,774	44,340
1944	75,252	95,850	87,136		60,202	76,680	69,709
1945	79,352	81,611	74,192		63,482	65,289	59,354
1946	88,976	57,003	51,821		71,181	45,603	41,457
1947	107,518	81,733	74,303		86,014	65,386	59,442
1948	140,139	138,306	125,733		112,112	110,645	100,586
1949	148,288	119,435	108,577		134,819	108,841	98,946
1950	154,603	134,825	122,569		154,603	134,825	122,568
1951	197,173	152,358	138,508		197,173	152,358	138,507
1952	248,820	246,901	224,456		248,820	246,901	224,455
1953^*	238,413		198,713	240,725	238,413		198,713	240,725
YEAR ENDED 30 JUNE
1943	71,712	71,958	65,416		57,370	57,566	52,333
1944	73,235	97,490	88,628		58,588	77,992	70,902
1945	86,923	67,735	61,577		60,538	54,188	49,262
1946	91,004	62,662	66,966		72,803	50,130	45,573
1947	122,875	90,960	82,691		97,660	72,768	66,153
1948	146,634	146,843	133,494		117,307	117,474	106,795
1949	149,069	110,492	100,447		144,926	107,107	97,370
1950	162,040	140,743	127,953		162,040	140,748	127,953
1951	207,708	164,902	149,911		207,708	164,902	149,911
1952	253,802	272,303	247,548		253,802	272,303	247,548
1953^*	243,883		171,592	208,224	243,883		171,592	208,224

TRADE PER HEAD.—The next table shows the total merchandise trade, exports, and imports per head of the population. Values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency.

Year	Exports			Imports			Total Trade			Year	Exports			Imports			Total Trade
* From 1952 valuation of imports at c.d.v. In previous years these were valued at c.d.v. plus 10 per cent. † Provisional.
	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.		£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.
1933	26	12	8	16	12	4	43	5	0	1944	46	19	7	52	3	7	99	3	2
1934	30	10	3	20	4	0	50	14	3	1945	48	3	5	32	10	2	80	13	7
1935	29	15	9	23	4	11	53	0	8	1946	57	11	6	40	13	6	98	5	0
1936	36	0	7	28	1	11	64	2	6	1947	71	19	5	71	10	9	143	10	2
1937	41	19	2	35	6	5	77	5	7	1948	80	11	5	70	1	2	150	12	7
1938	36	6	8	34	9	10	70	16	6	1949	78	13	9	64	2	7	142	16	4
1939	35	12	11	30	6	6	65	19	5	1950	96	5	0	82	14	8	178	19	8
1940	45	0	9	29	18	6	74	19	3	1951	127	8	1	106	1	0	233	9	1
1941	41	7	6	30	2	11	71	10	5	1952	120	10	3	114	18	11^*	235	9	2
1942	49	11	6	32	16	11	82	8	5	1953^†	114	19	9	79	15	7	194	15	4
1943	43	18	9	58	4	7	102	3	4

The import figures for the years 1942 to 1945 did not represent purely commercial imports, but included large figures for munitions and war stores, especially in 1943 and 1944. Except for 1949, each of the last seven years has successively produced a figure for total trade per head higher than that of the preceding year. The reduction in 1949 was due to the appreciation of New Zealand currency to parity with sterling, with its concomitant drop in the export and import price levels.

The table following shows comparative figures of total trade per head in 1952 for New Zealand and certain other countries. The European countries shown are those with particularly high figures in this respect. The figures for the United Kingdom are from official publications, those for the other countries from a United Nations publication.

—	Total External Trade Per Head
	£(Stg.)
New Zealand	235
Canada	212
Belgium–Luxemburg	194
Hong Kong	186
Switzerland	171
Sweden	165
Australia	155
Venezuela	154
Denmark	149
Netherlands	149
Malaya and Singapore	133
United Kingdom	117
France	70
United States of America	59

The above figures are the best indicators readily available of the relative importance of its overseas trade to the economy of each country concerned.

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE.—As a debtor country New Zealand has normally a substantial excess of exports over imports, imports having exceeded exports in only six (calendar) years since 1885—viz., in 1908, 1920, 1926, 1943, 1944, and 1952. The figures for the last twenty years-merchandise only—are as follows. Imports are here valued as for Customs purposes (c.d.v. plus 10 per cent).

Year	Visible Excess of Exports
* Excess of imports. † As from 20 August 1948 New Zealand currency was appreciated to parity with sterling.
	£(N.Z.)	£(Stg.)
1933	15,424,553	12,340,000
1934	16,003,295	12,803,000
1935	10,221,114	8,210,000
1936	12,493,054	10,035,000
1937	10,552,684	8,476,000
1938	2,954,094	2,373,000
1939	8,662,133	6,929,000
1940	24,743,464	19,795,000
1941	18,312,403	14,650,000
1942	27,428,625	21,943,000
1943	−23,379,732^*	−18,704,000^*
1944	−8,610,266^*	−6,888,000^*
1945	26,543,096	21,234,000
1946	29,730,933	23,785,000
1947	778,821	623,000
1948	19,286,773	14,449,000^†
1949	27,247,479	27,247,000
1950	25,809,415	25,809,000
1951	41,593,657	41,594,000
1952	−11,831,335^*	−11,831,000^*

NOTE.—The 1942–45 figures included imports of lend-lease supplies which did not involve normal transactions in monetary exchange (being cancelled by reciprocal aid provided in New Zealand). To show the true balance of trade they should be eliminated, giving approximate export surpluses for the four years as follows (New Zealand currency): 1942, £38,000,000; 1943, £4,000,000; 1944, £13,000,000; 1945, £34,000,000.

A pronounced fall in exports from the previous year's level was responsible for the low excess of exports in 1938. The improvement in 1939 was effected by a reduction in imports under the policy of import selection and control inaugurated at the beginning of that year. Extremely large import totals, mainly as the result of the huge expansion of the importation of defence materials and supplies under lend-lease arrangements (which to a large extent invalidates comparisons with earlier years), were responsible for the excess of imports in 1943 and 1944. At the conclusion of the war the fall in imports of defence materials and lend-lease supplies and increases in exports combined to produce large favourable balances, that for 1946 being a new record. The value of exports in 1947 was 28 per cent higher than in 1946, but imports increased in value between the two years by 80 per cent, so that the excess of exports fell away to only £778,821. Continuing substantial increases in the values of exports (partly disguised in the New Zealand currency figures by the appreciation of the £N.Z. to parity with sterling), accompanied by less marked increases (except in 1950) in the values of imports, resulted in the 1948, 1949, 1950, and 1951 figures for the visible excess of exports being of a high order. The particularly high wool prices of the 1950–51 selling season were reflected more fully in the 1951 export figures, the favourable balance for that year at £41,594,000 being 40 per cent higher than the previous record in 1946.

The high export values were maintained in 1952, but owing to several factors imports in this year rose to an unexpectedly high figure: the strong demand for imported goods was accentuated by buoyant export prices; import controls had been progressively lifted and some importers (after the experience of many years of limited imports) were over-sanguine both of the market demand and of the share of his market which they could expect to obtain; orders placed overseas in expectation of long delays in delivery were unexpectedly fulfilled when manufacturers' alternative markets were closed.

Some measures to control and discourage the flow of imports were taken at the beginning of 1952, primarily in the interests of the balances of the sterling area as a whole, and these were followed by more stringent measures when the danger to New Zealand's own overseas balances became apparent. (See note on Import and Export Control—page 272.)

The visible balance of trade—i.e., the excess of exports over imports or vice versa—is an essential record valuable for numerous purposes, but with very definite limitations to which attention has been drawn in the opening paragraphs of this section. For year-to-year comparisons of the values of exports and imports the inevitable errors in the figures are of no statistical significance, but they do result in significant errors in the residual visible balances of exports or imports, especially so when these balances are small.

There are additional difficulties where trade with individual countries is concerned. The ultimate destination of goods exported is sometimes not known at the time of export. In particular, it is evident from the United Kingdom trade statistics that a considerable proportion of New Zealand's exports to continental countries in normal times is recorded in the New Zealand statistics among exports to the United Kingdom. Such produce may be sold on the United Kingdom markets to continental purchasers; while, again, goods may be diverted to continental markets after arrival in the United Kingdom.

Various factors arising out of the war further obscured the position in those years, particularly during the period that the Lend-Lease and the Canadian Mutual Aid Agreements were operating. In considering the 1942–45 balances the effect of the inclusion in imports of lend-lease supplies should be noted. With the mutual cancellation of any obligations under lend-lease and reciprocalaid arrangements as announced in the final settlement it will be apparent that lend-lease imports were not the subject of ordinary transactions in monetary exchange, and their inclusion in imports conveys a false impression in so far as balances of payments are concerned. A further complication in this connection arose during the war period in connection with exports. Considerable quantities of foodstuffs and equipment were exported for the use of Allied Forces, etc., at the direction of the United Kingdom Government. In accordance with the general practice, such exports were credited to the country of final destination—e.g., Egypt, Algeria, Iraq, Italy, India, etc.—although the responsibility for payment rested with the United Kingdom Government.

This position, goods exported to one country being paid for by the nationals of another country, arises also where operators deal internationally in commodities. Thus a national of one country may purchase, say, wool, but consign it to another country for processing. In the trade statistics the wool would be shown as exported to the country of consignment, not that of the national who purchased it. Similarly, the import of a commodity, say, motor spirits, from one country will not necessarily involve any direct payment to a national, or in the currency, of that country.

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries. Debt services, capital transfers, charitable and other personal remittances, freight payments, insurances, tourist expenditure, and the like, are vitally important factors which frequently reverse a credit visible balance of trade into a debit balance of payments. A statement of New Zealand's overseas receipts and payments is given later in this Section.

The following table shows for the year 1952 the amount of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand. Exports are valued f.o.b. New Zealand ports, and imports at current domestic value in country of shipment. The New Zealand trade statistics will yield different results, in respect of its trade with any given country, from those obtained from the trade statistics of that country, since in the latter New Zealand's exports will normally be valued c.i.f. in the given country and New Zealand's imports f.o.b. in that country.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, 1952

Country	Exports		Imports
Country	New Zealand Produce	Total	By Country of Purchase	By Country of Origin
	£(N.Z.)	£(N.Z.)	£(N.Z.)	£(N.Z.)
United Kingdom	156,237,501	156,485,253	129,213,357	125,990,760
Bahrein Island			2,663,231	2,678,096
British Borneo	2,487	2,497	625,420	998,818
Ceylon	17,988	18,045	1,351,528	1,359,731
Hong Kong	66,701	67,943	353,247	282,218
Republic of India	1,502,182	1,503,994	2,298,620	2,335,243
Federation of Malaya	420,326	428,965	3,661,363	1,783,036
Pakistan	197,678	197,678	12,612	12,612
British West Africa	142,065	142,065	517,703	540,174
Kenya and Uganda	15,302	15,516	299,284	307,036
Tanganyika	355	355	257,923	259,081
Union of South Africa	551,329	557,847	1,205,894	1,251,663
British West Indies	1,531,628	1,531,868	935,186	1,004,185
Canada	5,209,211	5,212,478	8,277,165	8,070,631
Australia	3,470,802	3,930,237	24,887,193	24,364,530
Fiji	640,363	839,005	2,359,728	2,332,015
Nauru	28,558	40,519	618,776	622,665
Tonga	203,907	239,398	28,129	25,180
Western Samoa	326,485	395,180	191,723	186,773
Other British Commonwealth countries	930,288	971,720	310,783	320,699
Totals, British Commonwealth countries	171,495,156	172,580,563	180,068,865	174,725,146
Republic of Ireland	3,367,202	3,367,346	43,973	38,625
Austria	34,583	34,583	665,573	682,454
Belgium	2,982,238	2,983,281	4,287,152	4,625,189
Czechoslovakia	602,780	604,292	315,754	352,342
Denmark	642,368	642,368	215,329	217,732
Finland	49,484	49,484	470,229	503,733
France	10,557,781	10,558,649	3,009,367	3,621,742
Germany (Federal Republic)	5,220,055	5,227,023	2,127,214	2,279,999
Greece	380,059	380,059	18,912	21,485
Italy	4,362,342	4,362,418	1,277,931	1,488,372
Netherlands	2,035,380	2,036,368	2,172,041	2,270,021
Norway.	40,769	40,790	608,996	637,924
Poland	2,960,692	2,960,692	4,618	6,815
Russia (U.S.S.R.)			9,497	60,166
Sweden	485,439	486,492	2,973,853	3,110,269
Switzerland	53,444	56,447	986,045	1,027,620
Yugoslavia	55,074	55,086	86	107
China			91,991	236,022
Indonesia	9	9	3,418,716	4,879,760
Iran			163,713	208,009
Japan	3,493,505	3,505,334	3,743,668	3,758,903
Egypt	136,418	136,418	3,485	3,871
Tunisia			183,719	189,085
Mexico	266,615	267,005	154,480	156,342
Netherlands Antilles	322,195	322,195	787,872	1,258,539
Panama Republic	202,961	202,961
United States of America	27,195,172	27,267,434	20,054,135	21,249,321
Society Islands	291,547	306,007	4,414	2,533
Remaining countries	1,081,926	1,106,672	1,585,681	1,835,183
Totals, other countries	66,820,038	66,959,413	49,378,444	54,722,163
Ships' stores	103,530	1,020,728
Grand totals	238,418,724	240,560,704	229,447,309	229,447,309

The progress of, and the trends in the direction of New Zealand's overseas trade, are illustrated by the following diagram. Among the features portrayed are New Zealand's dependence on the United Kingdom as a market for its exports, and the huge expansion in the values of both exports and imports in the post-war years, despite the deflationary effect of the appreciation of New Zealand urrency in 1948.

OVERSEAS RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—Since the institution of exchange control in New Zealand it is possible through the records of the Reserve Bank, which administers exchange control, to give a detailed statement of the foreign exchange transactions of the country.

The first table shows, in summary form, figures relating to overseas receipts and payments for the last nine years, and for each of the quarters of the two latest years. The figures relate to the whole of the New Zealand currency area, which includes the island territories and Western Samoa.

—	Receipts		Payments					Surplus (+) or Deficit (−)
	Exports	Total (Including Other)	Imports		Government Debt and Other Services	Other Payments	Total
	Exports	Total (Including Other)	Private	Government	Government Debt and Other Services	Other Payments	Total
NOTE.—New Zealand currency was raised to parity with sterling on 20 August 1948.
£N.Z.(000)
Calendar year—
1945	97,574	129,152	31,745	40,195		14,057	85,997	+43,155
1946	112,054	148,133	60,118	78,941		15,634	154,693	−6,560
1947	129,045	164,521	115,190	56,398		18,881	190,469	−25,948
1948	145,270	174,808	108,189	46,579		25,232	180,000	−5,192
1949	139,203	158,734	109,657	28,426		27,140	165,223	−6,489
1950	194,786	213,576	140,816	22,038	6,406	29,861	199,121	+14,455
1951	254,135	276,134	201,293	18,916	11,078	28,790	260,077	+16,057
1952	216,133	245,362	200,060	30,290	8,213	30,240	268,803	−23,441
1953	243,469	266,318	170,473	27,064	14,315	28,297	240,149	+26,169
Quarter ended—
1952—March	69,470	78,848	68,074	9,279	2,800	6,915	87,068	−8,220
June	54,418	62,164	54,206	6,707	1,538	8,013	70,464	−8,300
Sept.	40,948	47,452	43,162	7,362	1,703	7,278	59,505	−12,053
Dec.	51,297	56,898	34,618	6,942	2,172	8,034	51,766	+5,132
1953—March	80,625	86,702	40,050	8,142	5,924	6,263	60,380	+ 26,323
June	61,925	67,071	37,174	5,653	2,157	6,808	51,791	+ 15,280
Sept.	41,874	47,972	42,887	6,620	3,529	7,854	60,891	−12,919
Dec.	59,045	64,573	50,361	6,649	2,704	7,374	67,088	−3,515

It is not practicable to give comparable figures for earlier years in respect of the items listed in 1950 and subsequent years owing to the adoption of a revised classification from October 1949. The next table, also drawn from Reserve Bank statistics, gives summarized foreign exchange transactions with the United Kingdom and with the principal currency areas for recent periods.

Transactions With	1952		1953
Transactions With	Six Months Jan.-June	Six Months July-Dec.	Six Months Jan.-June	Six Months July-Dec.
United Kingdom—	£N.Z.(Million)
Receipts—
Exports	78.0	67.7	92.1	75.6
Total	90.1	75.8	98.8	82.2
Payments—
Imports	96.0	62.6	65.4	72.7
Total	107.8	75.2	77.9	84.5
Surplus (+) or deficit (—)—
On trade transactions	−18.0	+5.1	+26.7	+ 3.0
On all transactions	−17.8	+0.6	+20.9	−2.3
Sterling Area—
Receipts—
Exports	84.3	71.1	98.8	80.2
Total	100.2	82.1	109.1	90.9
Payments—
Imports	114.5	77.2	80.3	91.6
Total	131.4	94.1	98.8	109.8
Surplus (+) or deficit (—)—
On trade transactions	−30.1	−6.2	+ 18.5	−11.4
On all transactions	−31.2	−12.0	+ 10.3	−18.9
Dollar Area—
Receipts—
Exports	20.5	8.0	18.0	6.2
Total	21.5	8.9	18.6	7.0
Payments—
Imports	15.6	11.2	7.2	10.8
Total	17.3	12.9	9.1	13.5
Surplus (+) or deficit (—) on all transactions	+4.2	−4.0	+9.5	−6.5
Non-Sterling European Payments Union countries and possessions—
Receipts—
Exports	16.5	9.2	22.3	10.1
Total	16.7	9.4	22.6	10.2
Payments—
Imports	5.7	2.8	3.0	3.6
Total	6.0	3.2	3.4	4.0
Surplus (+) or deficit (—) on all transactions	+ 10.7	+ 6.2	+ 19.2	+ 6.2

The export receipts and import payments figures recorded in these tables differ from the corresponding external trade figures as a result of (1) the different territorial coverage of the two sets of figures, (2) the lack of uniformity in the basis of valuation, particularly in imports, (3) the inclusion in the trade figures of “no-remittance” imports and similar movements of goods with no corresponding monetary transactions, and (4) the actual movements of goods and the corresponding monetary transactions occurring in different recording periods.

These exchange figures, like the trade figures on page 262, show the development and subsequent curbing of the import boom. They bring out, too, New Zealand's heavy annual deficit on “invisibles” with the sterling area, mainly United Kingdom and Australia, which has to be made good by a surplus on commodity trade. The nature of these “invisibles” is apparent in the next table giving detailed figures for the 1952 and 1953 calendar years.

Item	Year Ended 31 December
	1952		1953
	Receipts	Payments	Receipts	Payments
Merchandise-	£N.Z.(000)	£N.Z.(000)	£N.Z.(000)	£N.Z.(000)
Exports	216,133		243,469
Licensed imports		56,495		38,561
Decontrolled imports		139,172		128,327
Government imports		30,290		27,064
Other imports		4,393		3,585
Totals, merchandise	216,133	230,350	243,469	197,536
Transport—
Freights, fares, ships' charters	1,788	4,196	1,510	1,557
Travel—
Private and business (exclusive of fares)	1,685	5,086	1,574	4,673
Insurance—
Insurance	622	709	830	1,311
Reinsurance		622		624
Totals, insurance	622	1,331	830	1,935
International investment income—
Interest, dividends, and other private investment income	5,432	5,702	5,900	5,113
Interest on Government and local authority loans		2,715		2,691
Totals, international investment income	5,432	8,417	5,900	7,804
Government transactions—
Current expenditure by New Zealand Government overseas		5,136		11,049
Current receipts by New Zealand	1,140		1,825
Government and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand
Totals, Government transactions	1,140	5,136	1,825	11,049
Miscellaneous current transactions—
Commissions, royalties, rebates, etc.	1,281	1,817	484	1,363
Films and entertainments		720		849
Unilateral transfers (migrants' transfers, personal remittances, charitable, legacies, etc.)	7,439	4,713	5,822	5,803
Expenses of business firms	753	2,304	392	3,022
Other current transactions	1,383	419	875	645
Totals, miscellaneous current transactions	10,855	9,972	7,573	11,682
Capital transfers—
Private	7,699	3,642	2,772	3,233
Government		596	782	526
Local authority		76		154
Totals, capital transfers	7,699	4,315	3,554	3,913
Unidentified	8		83
Grand totals	245,362	268,803	266,318	240,149

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF EXTERNAL TRADE.—Annual index numbers of the volume of total exports, imports, and total trade have been regularly shown in the Year-Book, but the publication of the series for the three major export groups and for all New Zealand produce is a new departure. Quarterly indices on this same basis are also now published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The series for exports of New Zealand produce are linked chain series. Up to the year 1949 the exports of each year were revalued at the unit-values of the immediately preceding year and the aggregate so obtained (after imputing to the 2 per cent of items, for which quantities and consequently unit-values were not available, similar price movements to the priced items) was compared with the recorded value in that (preceding) year. Each year's index was, therefore, a Laspeyre type index on base previous year. From 1950 on, aggregates were also calculated for immediately preceding years at the unit-values of the latest year, which, compared with the recorded value in the latest year, gave a Paasche type index. The final index for the year was then obtained as the geometric mean of these two—i.e., a Fisher “Ideal” index. In the table the successive annual movements are linked into a chain. The quarterly indices are similarly calculated on base previous year, but only a limited number of the more important commodity headings are used in the calculation. When the final indices for the year become available the quarterly indices are adjusted to accord with these; consequently, the indices for quarters are provisional.

Apparent discrepancies in the table between the indices for the three major groups and that for all exports of New Zealand produce, in particular for the years 1944 and 1951, arise partly from disparate movements in commodities outside the three major groups and partly from the methodology of the index.

The series for total exports includes an allowance for re-exports of imported goods. Since these are normally less than 1 per cent of total exports and only became significant during the war years, the approximate volume movements were obtained by “deflating” the recorded values by the import price index as the best indicator available of price movements for these commodities. The two indices, exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports, were then combined by weighting by their relative values in the base period. This is a change from the method previously used and has resulted in some slight alterations in the indices' from those previously published in the Year-Book.

The import volume index up to 1946 was calculated by revaluing each year's imports at 1937 unit-values, assuming comparable price movements in the unpriced items as in the priced items. Thereafter a change was made to the calculation of each year on base previous year and the linking of these annual movements. Anterior year weights were used up to 1949 to give a Laspeyre type index. From 1950 on, a Fisher “Ideal” index has been obtained as the geometric mean of both anterior year and current year weighted indices. The quarterly indices, too, are calculated on base previous year, and, like the export series, are provisional until the calculation of the annual index. Currently, the items for which quantities are recorded (and consequently unit-values obtained) represent approximately two-thirds of the total value of imports. Price movements are imputed to the remaining third on the basis of the price movements of items in the same statistical class.

The total exports and imports series are combined into the total trade series by weighting by their relative values in the base period.

VOLUME INDEX NUMBERS OF EXTERNAL TRADE. Base: 1936–38 (= 100)

Calendar Year	Exports					Imports	Total Trade
	New Zealand Produce				Total Exports
	Dairy Produce	Meat	Wool	Total	Total Exports
1942	105	121	110	114	113	74	95
1943	85	100	73	95	96	128	110
1944	84	81	68	92	97	105	101
1945	83	104	62	92	94	64	80
1946	79	126	131	111	111	75	94
1947	97	127	135	118	118	116	117
1948	99	128	148	122	122	114	118
1949	113	130	151	128	128	117	123
1950	111	128	138	122	122	141	131
1951	119	110	110	109	109	157	131
1952	138	153	153	143	143	176	158

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE.—The following table provides index numbers for the value of New Zealand's external trade on the basis of New Zealand currency for the years 1942–52.

VALUE INDEX NUMBERS OF EXTERNAL TRADE. Base 1936–38 (=100)

Year	Exports	Imports	Total Trade
1942	134	104	120
1943	119	183	149
1944	128	166	146
1945	135	106	121
1946	167	138	154
1947	214	248	229
1948	244	247	246
1949	243	231	237
1950	303	304	304
1951	409	398	404
1952	397	486	438

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE.—Descriptions of the index numbers of export and import prices compiled in New Zealand are given in Section 36. The table below shows, for the years 1936 to 1952, index numbers of import prices and of export prices and terms of trade for major commodity groups and total exports. The terms of trade indices relate the movements in export prices from the base period in relation to the movements in import prices over the same periods. If export prices rise by a greater percentage, or fall by a lesser percentage, than do import prices (either of these relative movements would be favourable to New Zealand, enabling more imports to be purchased than hitherto for the same exports), the terms of trade index rises above 100. Conversely, if the relative movement of export and import prices is unfavourable the terms of trade index falls below 100. The relatively higher freight charges during the war years have been allowed for in the import price index, used in this table, but the high charter freight rates of 1951–52 have not been allowed for. No allowance has been made for the lump sum payments received from the United Kingdom during the later war and early post-war years.

INDEX NUMBERS OF PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE OF EXPORT COMMODITIES, 1936–38 (= 100)

Year	Import Prices	Butter		Cheese		Meat		Wool		All Exports
Year	Import Prices	Price	Terms of Trade	Price	Terms of Trade	Price	Terms of Trade	Price	Terms of Trade	Price	Terms of Trade
1936–38	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
1936	96	94	98	92	96	96	100	82	85	93	97
1937	102	98	96	97	95	99	97	131	128	107	105
1938	102	108	106	110	108	105	103	87	85	101	99
1939	102	113	111	105	103	98	96	81	79	98	96
1940	123	118	96	121	98	108	88	112	91	113	92
1941	138	119	86	124	90	108	78	112	81	115	83
1942	154	120	78	132	86	108	70	112	73	117	76
1943	176	124	70	136	77	110	62	124	70	122	69
1944	176	138	78	143	81	115	65	127	72	128	73
1945	174	160	92	163	94	122	70	127	73	138	79
1946	190	167	88	167	88	135	71	141	74	151	79
1947	226	194	86	200	88	164	73	182	81	189	84
1948	230	213	93	221	96	162	70	232	101	209	91
1949	210	206	98	201	96	152	72	247	118	203	97
1950	230	222	97	217	94	165	72	512	223	284	123
1951	269	241	90	232	86	184	68	622	231	333	124
1952	293	261	89	253	86	213	73	350	119	265	90

The series show that throughout the war and early post-war years New Zealand's terms of trade were less favourable than they were immediately prior to the war. The rise in wool prices following the outbreak of the Korean war reversed this position for wool and for exports as a whole, although the terms for the other major commodities were still less favourable than in the base period.

It should perhaps be emphasized that the base period used, 1936–38, has been adopted purely as a convenient pre-war period. It is not suggested that the period represented one in which export and import prices were at an essentially “normal” parity. Consequently, the deterioration in the terms of trade in the war and early post-war years could be as easily due to particularly favourable terms in the base period as to particularly unfavourable terms in the later years. Owing also to the difficulties of constructing long-term price indices for exports and imports, with their ever-changing commodity patterns, the series should be regarded more as indicative of, rather than as precise measures of, the movements. During the war years, and again following the outbreak of the Korean war, sea freight and insurance costs rose relatively more than commodity prices, so that an import price index based on c.i.f. costs in New Zealand would have been higher in those years than the existing index based on values in the exporting countries, and the terms of trade indices would have been still more unfavourable.

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION.—A decline in overseas assets commenced during 1936–37 and, allowing for seasonal fluctuations, continued steadily until 28 November 1938, when the net overseas assets of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks were under £(N.Z.)8,000,000.

With a view to conserving overseas assets, so as to ensure that overseas debt services would be met and that sufficient funds would be available for essential imports, regulations—effective from 7 December 1938, and known respectively as the Import Control Regulations 1938 and the Export Licences Regulations 1938—were made by Orders in Council of 5 December 1938.

The Import Control Regulations prohibited the importation of goods except in pursuance of a licence under the regulations or of an exemption granted by the Minister. Under the Export Licences Regulations, goods (with certain minor exceptions) could not be exported except under licence.

Three classes of export licences are provided for—viz., particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment; the general licence is issuable to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments; and the purchaser's licence is for cases where goods have been purchased for export by means of credits made available from overseas. A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas credits arising from the sale of the goods (or used to finance their purchase) must be sold to a New Zealand bank in exchange for New Zealand currency.

For imports the licensing schedule issued in the latter half of each year contained items which could be divided into three main groups—viz., (a) items virtually excluded from importation, (b) items allowed to be imported only after close examination of each individual application, and (c) items allowed to be imported on a “basic allocation” dependent on the previous “import history” of the applicant. In the consideration of a licence the factors taken into account included such matters as past imports, probable demand and overseas supply, local availability (actual or potential), and Government policy in relation to protection of industry or special and specific limitation of consumption of certain types of goods. A further important feature of the policy was the desire to give the greatest possible preference to the goods of United Kingdom manufacturers.

In May 1950 the Government made provision for the issue of “no-remittance” import licences authorizing the importation of goods of such classes as were deemed desirable on the grounds of relative essentiality and inadequacy of supplies to meet normal requirements. Official overseas funds of banking institutions were in no case to be called on for the financing of “no-remittance” import licences, but provision was made for the transfer of private funds held overseas within the sterling area, such transfers to be made at the current rate of exchange.

A representative Import Advisory Committee was appointed in May 1950 to examine the import licensing system and recommend improvements in its administration, and was followed by the establishment of a Board of Trade (under the Board of Trade Act 1950) to advise the Government on matters relating to industrial and trade development, import licensing and export licensing (except agricultural and pastoral products), tariffs and trade negotiations, the marketing and distribution of products, and the acquisition of raw materials and other goods for use in industry.

By the end of 1950 over 400 of the approximately 1,000 items comprised in the licensing schedules of earlier years had been freed from licensing control from soft-currency areas. In the following year the number of decontrolled items from soft-currency areas was further increased and included a large number of items competitive with New Zealand manufactures, after the Board had considered the objections of local manufacturers.

By December 1951 the number of controlled items had been reduced to 300, and of these one-third were only residual portions of items which had been partially decontrolled.

A new departure announced in December 1951 was “world exemption” of six items, which meant that these items were free to be imported from any country without licence.

In order to assist in measures for strengthening the sterling area reserves and the balance of payments generally the Government of New Zealand announced in March 1952 certain decisions designed to ensure an increased surplus in New Zealand's overall balance of payments with non-sterling countries. Measures listed affecting import licensing included the cancellation of licences issued for imports from all “scheduled” countries (the United States of America, Canada, and Japan being the countries principally concerned), new licences being required for all future imports from these countries; and the importation of motor vehicles from all countries was brought under import licensing control.

In December 1951 the Reserve Bank, in commenting on the continued upward trend in bank advances, stated that the abnormal volume of imports was to a large extent being financed with bank credit and that this development had to be corrected because imports were outstripping available overseas income by a wider margin than could be continued for long. The Bank was therefore strengthening its selective control of advances by measures which included a request to the trading banks not to increase importers' overdraft limits for the purpose of buying overseas funds. The trading banks were given a discretionary authority for a tide-over period of three months.

At the end of March 1952 the Reserve Bank stated that owing to several factors, including the fall in the prices of wool and other products, imports were running at a rate which required specific measures to prevent overseas reserves being depleted below a reasonably safe level. Accordingly, sales of exchange to importers by the trading banks during 1952 were to be limited, except with the prior approval of the Reserve Bank, to 80 per cent of the sales to the same importers in 1950. Where an importer required more than this basic allocation, application had to be made to the Reserve Bank through a trading bank. Each application was to be considered on its merits, and decisions made in consultation with the Board of Trade, the Customs Department, the Department of Industries and Commerce, and the Treasury, taking into account (1) the essentiality of the goods, (2) whether the goods were already in oversupply, (3) firm commitments already entered into by importers and import licences held by importers, (4) any other special circumstances. It was anticipated that £170 million to £180 million could be made available for non-Government imports for 1952 by supplementing overseas receipts by a reasonable amount drawn from the Reserve Bank's reserves of overseas exchange. In the event overseas receipts were rather higher than anticipated, and the total of payments for non-Government imports for the year reached £200 million.

Importers' basic allocations of exchange for 1953 were announced on 4 August 1952 as 40 per cent of the 1950 figures. The announcement stated that, taking into account the Reserve Bank's statutory duty to maintain reserves which would provide a reasonable margin for contingencies, the Bank was not prepared, unless circumstances were exceptional, to draw further on overseas reserves in 1953. It was therefore imperative to ensure that the degree of freedom given importers was consistent with the making of sufficient exchange available for the purchase of the country's essential import requirements. It was estimated that overseas receipts in 1953 would enable £170 million to be made available for non-Government imports through basic and supplementary exchange allocations.

The Import Licensing Schedule for 1953 issued at the same time freed over 20 more items from licensing control. Import licensing has now been removed from a large proportion of New Zealand's imports (except where these are from “scheduled” countries), but a considerable number are still under control; in almost all these cases local manufacture is concerned.

In June 1953 the basic allocation for 1954 was announced to be 50 per cent of the remittances in 1950 for imports after deducting remittances in that year for (a) motor vehicles, (b) goods paid for under Third Party Certificates, (c) Government imports, and (d) goods for which it would be necessary to apply for an allocation of exchange in 1954. The trading banks were authorized to sell foreign exchange to importers up to the basic allocation without reference to the Reserve Bank. The sum involved was estimated to be £60 million, as against £54 million for 1953. At the same time a further list of items was freed from import control. In November 1953 the basic allocation for 1954 was further increased from 50 per cent to 75 per cent.

After being suspended for two months “no-remittance” imports were again permitted in September 1952, but the provision permitting the transfer of private funds held overseas was withdrawn and the imports were to be for the personal use of the importer or his family.

Subsequent to November 1953 “no-remittance” import licences were granted only for the obtaining of goods by the use of overseas funds or securities which had been held for not less than one year. Since 1953 persons purchasing motor vehicles by means of “no-remittance” licences have been required to make a declaration to the effect that the vehicle will not be disposed of for two years.

In November 1953 a 50 per cent increase in motor-vehicle import licences during 1954 was announced. The basic licences previously announced for 1954 were slightly greater than for 1953, and with the addition of the 50 per cent increase it was estimated that about 35,000 cars and 5,000 other vehicles would be imported during 1954.

MOVEMENT OF SPECIE.—Although there is a fairly considerable production of gold bullion, there is no Mint in New Zealand. Uncoined gold, therefore, ranks as an ordinary export, along with wool, dairy produce, and other merchandise.

The following table shows exports and imports of specie stated at face value for each of the eleven years 1942–52.

Year	Specie Imported	Specie Exported	Excess of Specie Imports (+) or Exports (−)
	£	£	£
1942	147,010	25,375	+ 121,635
1943	461,800	1,240	+ 460,560
1944	159,640	400	+ 159,240
1945	208,148	4,400	+ 203,748
1946	418,970	4,532	+ 414,438
1947	147,992	10,375	+ 137,617
1948	624,755	55,169	+ 569,586
1949	1,040,725	570,220	+ 470,505
1950	169,823	514,455	− 344,632
1951	250,108	280,150	− 30,042
1952	84,567	26,943	+ 57,624

GOVERNMENT CREDITS FOR FINANCING WOOL PURCHASES.—Financial agreements designed to facilitate the sale of New Zealand wool to France and Czechoslovakia were entered into by the New Zealand Government and the French and Czechoslovakian Governments—the former on 2 July 1947 and the latter on 22 January 1948.

The French agreement made available to France a credit up to £5,000,000 sterling for use in the purchase of New Zealand grown wool during the five years ending 30 June 1952. Other produce could also be brought under the scheme, if mutually agreed upon. Credit was made available to the Government of France to the value of one-half of the cost of wool purchased by French buyers, the remaining one-half being financed in the normal manner. At 31 March 1953 the total drawings on the account amounted to £(N.Z.)5,018,749. The total advances are to be repaid not later than 31 December 1957, and interest at the rate of 2½ per cent per annum is payable.

The Czechoslovakian agreement made available to Czechoslovakia a credit up to £1,000,000 in New Zealand currency for use in the purchase of New Zealand grown wool during the four years ended 30 June 1951. Credit was made available to the Government of Czechoslovakia to the value of one-half of the cost of the wool purchased by its buyers, with the proviso that the total credit drawn to 30 June 1948 was not to exceed £(N.Z.)250,000, to 30 June 1949 £(N.Z.)500,000, and to 30 June 1950 £(N.Z.)750,000. The total drawings on the credit at 31 March 1953 were £(N.Z.)999,864. The total advances are to be repaid not later than 30 June 1954, and interest at the rate of 2½ per cent per annum is payable.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE CONFERENCE.—The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations, by a resolution dated 18 February 1946, resolved to call an International Conference on Trade and Employment for the purpose of promoting the expansion of the production, exchange, and consumption of goods.

This Conference was ultimately held at Havana, Cuba, from 21 November 1947 until 24 March 1948, and a résumé of the main provisions of the Charter as finally drawn up at Havana is given on pages 210–212 of the 1947–49 issue of the Year-Book. This Charter has not, however, been ratified by any country.

At the second session of the Preparatory Committee (to prepare the ground for the International Conference) held in 1947 at Geneva, negotiations for a multilateral trace agreement embodying tariff concessions by the participating countries took place. Further concessions were agreed to in negotiations held in 1949 and 1950–53. The resulting concessions are contained in schedules to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948 and amendments thereto. Details of this as it affects New Zealand are given in Section 10D, “Customs Tariff and Revenue,” of this issue.

Further sessions of the Contracting Parties were held in Geneva in October–November 1952 and September–October 1953. The major subject considered was the accession of Japan to the Agreement. It was finally agreed that Japan be associated with the Agreement, but not as a Contracting Party. Some of the Parties agreed to apply the provisions of GATT to their trade relations with Japan. The 1953 session agreed to an extension of the terms of GATT for a further 18 months from 31 December 1953.

BULK PURCHASE OF PRIMARY PRODUCE BY UNITED KINGDOM GOVERNMENT.—The bulk purchase of New Zealand's primary produce by the United Kingdom Government originally commenced with the 1939–40 season's produce. It was a wartime measure whereby the United Kingdom Government became the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and in New Zealand the Marketing Department became the authority for the bulk purchase and shipment of most of the produce concerned. The principal products which came within this bulk purchase plan were wool, butter, cheese, meat, tallow, and woolly sheepskins.

With the conclusion of the war, so ended the bulk purchase agreements for wool and sheepskins, the sale of these products reverting to the open market. Dairy produce and meat contracts, however, were continued under the bulk purchase scheme as part of peacetime marketing, and in 1948 new agreements were signed in London extending these contracts up to 1955. A detailed account of these agreements will be found in Section 19.

10 B—EXPORTS

IN New Zealand the Department of Her Majesty's Customs requires for every package exported a declared statement of the contents, value, and destination, the export statistics being compiled from the analysis and summation of these statements.

Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment,” except re-exports ex bonded warehouse or under drawback of duty which are recorded at the original import values. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realizations, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures. Wool acquired under the wartime appraisal scheme and subsequently exported to be auctioned overseas was valued on export at appraisal prices, not ruling prices at the time of export. New Zealand currency was below parity with sterling from the beginning of 1930 to 19 August 1948, when it was again restored to parity. A table in the preceding subsection gives the values in sterling of total exports for the years 1942 to 1952.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. The trade records distinguish between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPORTS.—The table following gives merchandise exports (i.e., excluding specie) for the last eleven years by main commodity groups.

Year	Dairy Produce	Meat	Wool	Animal Fats	Hides, Skins, and Pelts	Total Merchandise Exports^*
* Including other commodities, among them uncoined gold and silver.
	£	£	£	£	£	£
1942	29,528,000	20,514,000	18,337,000	1,172,000	4,765,000	81,285,000
1943	24,521,000	17,459,000	13,484,000	1,101,000	4,397,000	71,863,000
1944	26,619,000	14,353,000	12,711,000	657,000	4,520,000	77,787,000
1945	29,953,000	19,443,000	12,717,000	980,000	5,008,000	81,631,000
1946	29,621,000	26,235,000	26,593,000	1,113,000	5,743,000	101,302,000
1947	42,557,000	32,323,000	31,970,000	2,577,000	10,383,000	129,420,000
1948	47,844,000	32,156,000	44,505,000	3,226,000	9,473,000	147,821,000
1949	51,867,000	30,439,000	46,554,000	2,694,000	6,679,000	147,281,000
1950	54,612,000	32,302,000	74,653,000	2,299,000	9,996,000	183,752,000
1951	63,324,000	31,303,000	128,176,000	2,686,000	12,862,000	248,127,000
1952	79,856,000	50,445,000	81,998,000	4,907,000	9,949,000	240,561,000

The commodity groups shown, normally account for more than 90 per cent of the total value of merchandise exports. The proportion fell to only three-quarters during the Second World War as a result of (1) increases in the domestic exports and re-exports to the Armed Forces of other goods, especially ordnance supplies, (2) the accumulation of unshipped wool in New Zealand, and (3) the supply to the United States Forces in New Zealand of produce which would normally have been exported. In the post-war period the proportion returned to the pre-war figure, and in 1951 it exceeded 96 per cent, mainly on account of the extremely high prices ruling for wool.

These high prices, loo, resulted in wool alone accounting for 52 per cent of the total value of merchandise exports in 1951, by far the highest proportion recorded since the development of the refrigerated export trade. The other two major commodity groups, dairy produce and meat, accounted for 26 and 13 per cent respectively of the total. In 1952 with the fall in wool prices the proportions were: wool 34, dairy produce 33, and meat 21. This distribution was more comparable with that which obtained in pre-war years.

New Zealand's reliance upon grassland farming for her exports is brought out by the figures in the next table showing exports of pastoral products and the percentage which they represent among total exports of New Zealand produce. The percentage supplied by this group was high in the late “nineties,” but after 1898 fell relatively, owing mainly to increased exports of agricultural and mining products. From 1902 onwards, however, the percentage increased almost continuously, till in 1924 and 1925 it amounted to 94 per cent of the total. The percentage dropped noticeably in the depression years, owing to the relatively greater fall in prices of pastoral products, particularly wool, but recovered in subsequent years with the advent of improved prices. Shipping difficulties were mainly responsible for the decline recorded in the aggregate value of pastoral products exported in 1941, the stocks of a number of items held in New Zealand at the end of that year being heavier than usual, and this factor contributed to the high total for 1942. During the next three years considerable quantities of meat and dairy produce were supplied locally to the United States Forces, by way of reverse lend-lease. The approximate value of this produce, which was rot treated as an export, even when subsequently shipped to the United States Forces in the Pacific, was: 1943, £7,000,000; 1944, £10,000,000; 1945, £8,000,000. The withdrawal of this produce from export resulted in decreased quantities of most of the principal pastoral products being exported in 1943 and 1944, and this, together with the substantial increase in the export of manufactured articles, mainly to the Armed Forces, and increased agricultural exports (notably peas and seeds), caused the percentage of pastoral exports to fall to its lowest level since 1913.

From 1945 to 1952 the value of pastoral produce exported has risen enormously, reaching a total of £239,116,000 in 1951, an increase of 421 per cent as compared with the average of the three pre-war years 1937–39. The total value of pastoral produce exported in 1951 also represented a record percentage of 97.1 per cent of the total value of exports of New Zealand produce. This fell to 91.5 per cent in 1952, largely on account of the falling-off in the price of wool.

EXPORTS OF PASTORAL PRODUCTS

Year	Value	Percentage^*
* Of total exports of New Zealand produce.
	£
1930	41,369,000	93.6
1931	32,115,000	93.6
1932	32,112,000	91.8
1933	37,111,000	91.8
1934	43,351,000	92.7
1935	42,647,000	92.6
1936	52,686,000	93.6
1937	62,549,000	94.5
1938	54,299,000	93.9
1939	53,744,000	93.6
1940	69,057,000	94.6
1941	62,238,000	93.0
1942	74,361,000	92.3
3943	61,029,000	86.9
1944	58,948,000	82.2
1945	68,112,000	87.0
1946	89,582,000	89.3
1947	120,342,000	94.2
1948	137,750,000	94.0
1949	138,702,000	95.0
1950	174,399,000	95.7
1951	239,116,000	97.1
1952	228,079,000	91.5

Of exports other than pastoral the principal ones of economic significance are: gold, of which there is a steady export from current production; frozen fish exported to Australia, supplemented now by the export of crayfish tails to the United States of America, and of fish-liver oils; timber, now mainly of exotic species; fresh apples, this trade having been resumed after a break during the war; peas, and grass and clover seeds, the latter having now risen to be the most important single export outside the pastoral group.

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce are next given for the years 1950 to 1952, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities from 1903 up to date. For some purposes, especially for comparisons between recent and more remote years, quantities are preferable to values, since the latter are affected by price-variations.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)	1950	1951	1952
* Ounces of the fineness of 20 carats and upwards.
The mine—
Coal (ton)	5,066	6,065	14,707
Pumice, sand and stone (ton)	1,329	1,238	791
Gold^* (oz.)	110,486	68,929	66,616
Scheclite (cwt.)	580	780	980
Silver (oz.)	97,105	2,302	1,593
Cement (cwt.)	22,990	11,936	23,928
The fisheries—
Fish (cwt.)	76,061	60,413	69,670
Fish and fish-liver oils (gal.)	19,733	21,811	12,208
Whale oil	120,907	173,050	151,960
The forest—
Kauri gum (ton)	1,178	1,071	576
Timber, sawn and hewn (sup. ft.)	14,878,958	21,490,057	16,622,526
Pastoral products—
Butter (cwt.)	2,749,540	2,942,666	3,670,334
Butterfat, dry (cwt.)	15,790	6,609	10,227
Casein (cwt.)	110,754	117,835	167,282
Cheese (cwt.)	1,997,801	2,132,372	1,825,105
Edible fats (cwt.)	190,965	198,056	301,777
Inedible fats (cwt.)	434,320	422,800	703,160
Hair not made up (cwt.)	825	445	408
Honey (lb.)	852,972	751,280	925,598
Live cattle and sheep' (number)	547	513	902
Live horses (number)	305	266	310
Canned meats (cwt.)	107,667	151,935	312,248
Meat extract (lb.)	332,046	1,253,859	799,573
Frozen and chilled meats (cwt.)	6,761,677	5,496,023	7,711,215
Other preserved meat (cwt.)	14,053	18,251	20,291
Meat meal (cwt.)	34,372	36,379	44,321
Milk, dried and condensed (lb.)	91,015,251	104,637,883	140,519,662
Sugar of milk (lb.)	5,748,561	7,439,934	8,100,549
Inedible offals (lb.)	1,840,109	2,875,133	3,480,109
Neatsfoot oil (gal.)	146,400	59,316	75,085
Sausage casings (cwt.)	50,157	47,229	60,019
Cattle and horse hides (number)	368,737	343,440	547,224
Calf skins (number)	870,402	977,477	1,577,712
Deer skins (number)	65,982	103,194	66,409
Opossum skins (number)	503,123	921,888	229,057
Rabbit skins (number)	9,918,514	5,745,460	2,839,342
Sheep skins and pelts (number)	17,461,162	14,704,649	20,092,123
Wool (lb.)	393,973,500	316,863,280	438,107,606

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)	1950	1951	1952
Agricultural products—
Biscuits (cwt.)	3,068	4,608	3,201
Fresh apples (lb.)	38,594,576	27,920,765	54,589,760
Fresh pears (lb.)	8,076	23,080	678,870
Peas (cental)	494,613	302,918	379,365
Barley (cental)	99,163	5,662	89,486
Hops (lb.)	180	409,214	100,583
Oatmeal (lb.)	227,100	9,200	500
Onions (ton)	1,275	2,399	1,721
Potatoes (ton)	7,185	2,751	1,005
Pastes, alimentary cooked (canned) (lb.)	49,348	6,319	2,184
Canned vegetables (lb.)	2,622,715	2,300,095	3,748,968
Seeds (grass and clover) (cwt.)	164,114	88,428	163,452
Linen-flax fibre and tow (cwt.)	824	3,984	2,314
Phormium fibre and tow (cwt.)	787	64
Miscellaneous—
Ale, stout, and cider (gal.)	228,273	232,782	256,737
Cocoa (lb.)	250,159	26,276	7,756
Tobacco, manufactured (lb.)	65,690	78,264	125,935
Sugar, refined (cwt.)	8,999	6,955	8,988
Metals, scrap (not precious) (cwt.)	83,767	192,164	278,910
Clothes pegs and pins (gross)	76,184	59,946	23,168
Soap and soap powder (lb.)	1,771,960	2,784,878	1,340,999
Building board (sq. ft.)	3,020,658	2,872,933	3,328,668

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)	1950	1951	1952
* Including items not enumerated.
The mine—	£	£	£
Coal	18,445	24,432	58,541
Pumice, sand and stone	9,187	10,654	8,131
Gold	1,296,610	843,792	798,956
Scheelite	13,539	64,318	77,813
Silver	25,895	680	497
Cement	9,173	5,603	15,099
The fisheries—
Fish	617,038	692,305	902,516
Fish and fish-liver oils	124,617	58,939	58,515
Whale oil	34,472	48,049	42,550
The forest—
Kauri gum	125,893	132,126	81,517
Timber, sawn and hewn	371,557	733,207	593,267
Pastoral products—
Butter	35,566,993	41,361,934	55,929,348
Butterfat, dry	306,381	127,665	215,846
Casein	657,090	955,683	1,316,973
Cheese	14,535,757	16,650,131	15,527,233
Edible fats	780,370	1,209,971	1,629,264
Inedible fats	1,518,623	1,475,544	3,277,942
Malted milk	43,905	52,533	49,556
Hair not made up	15,596	19,292	14,322
Honey	41,958	34,994	43,412
Live cattle and sheep	31,492	49,249	49,200
Live horses	114,125	155,960	181,218
Canned meats	884,785	1,697,570	4,756,552
Meat extract	29,943	166,261	119,117
Frozen and chilled meats	28,629,106	25,393,538	40,474,955
Other preserved meat	97,006	142,163	195,643
Meat meal	90,067	95,172	136,112
Milk, dried and condensed	3,321,883	3,952,028	6,563,941
Sugar of milk	223,409	276,886	302,219
Inedible offals	130,549	244,439	368,014
Neatsfoot oil	44,621	34,057	32,691
Sausage casings	2,660,834	3,902,557	4,898,695
Cattle and horse hides	1,623,430	1,943,105	1,968,494
Calf skins	994,803	1,081,528	1,333,396
Deer skins	73,176	245,971	92,995
Opossum skins	200,822	323,546	58,021
Rabbit skins	346,865	203,232	63,360
Sheep skins and pelts	6,736,162	9,033,299	6,415,907
Wool	74,653,007	128,176,051	81,998,141
Agricultural products—
Biscuits	15,126	25,982	20,560
Fresh apples	678,992	690,888	2,034,597
Fresh pears	251	829	25,492
Peas	873,953	572,655	996,901
Barley	88,961	4,949	109,469
Hops	39	80,137	22,769
Oatmeal	4,419	238	19
Onions	31,618	134,612	56,131
Potatoes	112,431	56,039	36,555
Pastes, alimentary cooked (canned)	2,067	343	137
Canned vegetables	121,017	107,543	206,385
Seeds (grass and clover)	2,083,630	1,246,014	2,106,627
Seeds (various)	73,329	69,732	321,366
Linen-flax fibre and tow	3,088	49,727	27,565
Phormium fibre and tow	3,379	285
Miscellaneous—
Ale, stout, and cider	51,428	56,172	65,550
Cocoa	19,513	3,359	1,323
Tobacco, manufactured	17,668	21,449	33,740
Dairying machinery	60,003	80,803	62,122
Fire-fighting appliances	4,299	425	2,042
Electrical apparatus	35,096	53,239	37,022
Manures	20,685	11,143	73,521
Sugar, refined	21,629	19,114	28,008
Metals, scrap (not precious)	23,223	96,915	164,552
Apparel and ready-made clothing	4,747	15,817	6,930
Leather	10,635	44,419	42,199
Soap and soap powder	65,617	97,826	54,783
Soup and soup powder	21,245	52,600	37,526
Ordnance stores	356	695	1,536
Books, papers, etc., printed	28,893	27,760	42,281
Building board	51,653	58,659	69,454
Chinaware and earthenware	25,656	29,216	6,990
Clothes pegs and pins	18,282	15,690	6,449
Fancy goods and toys	11,601	6,630	1,907
Vitamins and vitamin concentrates	9,836	69,868	65,485
Totals, New Zealand produce^*	182,332,151	246,394,217	238,418,724

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS.—The first exports from New Zealand went naturally to the earlier-developed sister colony, and for a considerable time Australia had a monopoly of our trade. In 1865, 70 per cent, and even in 1871, 44 per cent, of the total exports went to Australia. But since the establishment of direct shipping liner, the United Kingdom has absorbed the bulk of New Zealand exports, the proportion going to that country being usually in excess of 70 per cent and often exceeding 80 per cent of the total merchandise exports. The proportion is markedly affected by relative movements between the prices of (1) dairy produce and meat, most of which are sold to the United Kingdom, and (2) wool, hides, and skins, which are exported in much greater proportions to other countries. The prices of the former are generally less variable than those of the latter, resulting in a greater stability in the value of exports to the United Kingdom than to other countries. Hence, when the prices of wool, hides, and skins are relatively low the proportion of exports, going to the United Kingdom is high; it reached 88 per cent in 1932. Conversely, when the prices of wool, etc., are relatively high the proportion of exports going to the United Kingdom is low. In 1951 the extremely high wool prices ruling resulted in the proportion falling to 58 per cent, easily the lowest figure recorded since the United Kingdom supplanted Australia as the principal export market about 1870.

The same cause operated to reduce the proportion of exports going to British Commonwealth countries in 1951 to only 65 per cent, easily the lowest figure on record. This rose in 1952 to 72 per cent.

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including' re-exports) during the last twenty years are given in the table below. The nomenclature used in this and subsequent tables in regard to the countries of destination refers generally to status and territories in the years indicated and not necessarily to the present position.

Year	United Kingdom	Canada	Australia	France	Germany	United States of America	Other Countries^*	Total Merchandise Exports
* Including ships' stores.
	£	£	£	£	£	£	£	£
1933	35,275,909	560,875	1,393,311	738,176	376,886	1,188,972	1,471,790	41,005,919
1934	38,629,240	697,865	1,882,516	1,228,699	944,310	1,250,364	2,709,853	47,342,847
1935	38,921,568	656,984	1,781,811	484,610	165,304	2,468,066	2,060,038	46,538,381
1936	45,492,989	1,103,008	1,843,475	1,646,168	272,481	2,877,752	3,516,067	56,751,940
1937	50,705,591	1,678,403	1,824,183	1,014,941	919,148	4,784,099	5,787,014	66,713,379
1938	48,897,990	1,127,124	2,189,454	1,015,456	890,976	1,421,630	2,833,653	58,376,283
1939	46,689,198	953,710	2,256,007	1,579,176	390,006	2,847,158	3,324,061	58,049,315
1940	64,129,106	1,709,169	2,159,339	716,752		2,825,898	2,200,869	73,741,133
1941	52,395,538	2,822,334	2,400,266			5,190,613	4,670,662	67,475,413
1942	60,471,098	3,616,646	2,717,619			5,990,067	8,489,207	81,284,637
1943	46,367,940	4,535,207	2,849,125			6,385,402	11,724,924	71,862,398
1944	55,426,533	1,939,814	3,092,981			5,062,608	12,265,010	77,736,946
1945	58,643,411	2,250,862	4,195,247	46,965		7,984,696	8,510,095	81,632,276
1546	70,923,772	2,803,282	3,630,750	3,465,375	1,639,129	9,715,751	9,124,207	101,302,266
1947	98,698,479	3,059,660	4,096,064	4,447,174	78,294	8,174,452	10,865,524	129,419,647
1948	107,915,266	2,990,814	3,954,416	8,308,189	2,724,834	7,272,632	14,654,874	147,821,025
1949	107,706,305	2,196,352	3,747,746	7,657,899	2,993,503	5,491,546	17,487,600	147,280,951
1950	121,684,950	3,556,916	4,779,368	8,076,593	5,940,239	18,387,389	21,326,836	183,752,291
1951	142,362,169	8,564,989	5,112,874	17,853,958	8,836,332	28,859,044	36,537,806	248,127,172
1952	156,485,253	5,212,478	3,930,237	10,558,649	5,227,023	27,267,434	31,879,630	240,560,704

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded by the Customs Department. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This consideration applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and, in normal times, subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics. It is possible, of course, that the destination of goods may be changed while in transit; and this, in fact, happens occasionally in the case of wool. In such cases the actual destination will be different from that to which the goods have been credited in the statistics; however it is quite impossible to keep a record of all movements of this nature.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an “optional” basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received by the Customs Department as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realized from the considerations outlined above that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that our exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, our exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

The table which follows shows for each of eleven years the percentage of total exports (excluding specie and ships' stores), taken by each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

Country	1942	1943	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Country	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent
United Kingdom	74.97	64.88	71.75	72.28	70.35	76.66	73.30	73.38	66.44	57.57	65.33
Republic of India								0.60	0.42	0.39	0.63
Pakistan	1.28	3.59	5.27	3.62	3.07	0.38	0.54	0.05	0.11	0.06	0.08
Canada	4.48	6.35	2.51	2.77	2.78	2.38	2.03	1.50	1.94	3.50	2.18
Australia	3.37	3.99	4.00	5.17	3.60	3.18	2.69	2.56	2.61	2.07	1.64
Other British Commonwealth countries	0.98	1.54	1.36	1.73	2.01	1.56	1.34	1.34	119	1.38	2.19
Totals, British Commonwealth countries	85.08	80.35	84.89	85.57	81.81	84.16	79.90	79.43	72.71	64.97	72.05
Netherlands				0.01	0.49	1.33	1.94	1.66	1.87	1.32	0.85
Belgium					0.47	1.55	1.02	1.24	1.61	2.12	1.25
France				0.06	3.44	3.45	5.64	5.22	4.41	7.22	4.41
Germany					1.63	0.06	1.85	2.04	3.24	3.57	2.18
Italy			1.15	0.76	0.29	0.52	0.51	0.98	1.04	1.56	1.82
Poland				0.05	0.01	0.06	0.14	0.82	0.85	2.96	1.24
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	2.43	1.28			0.01	0.39	1.73	1.98	0.56	0.50
Egypt	4.47	8.90	6.84	2.96	0.41	0.16	0.14	0.17	0.08	0.14	0.06
Japan						0.04	0.03	0.53	0.54	1.55	1.46
United States of America	7.43	8.93	6.55	9.84	9.64	6.35	4.94	3.75	10.04	11.67	11.38
Remaining countries	0.59	0.54	0.57	0.75	1.80	1.93	2.16	2.18	3.05	2.42	3.30
Totals, other countries	14.92	19.65	15.11	14.43	18.19	15.84	20.10	20.57	27.29	35.03	27.95

Exports to Each Country, 1950–1952.—The table following shows the exports (including re-exports, but excluding specie) according to the countries of destination. Reference should be made to remarks made earlier regarding re-exports of New Zealand produce from the United Kingdom.

Country	1950	1951	1952
British Commonwealth Countries, Protected States, and Trust Territories
Europe—	£	£	£
United Kingdom	121,684,950	142,362,169	156,485,253
Gibraltar		404
Malta	5,614	26,256	218
Totals	121,690,564	142,388,829	156,485,471
Asia—
British Borneo	5,519	748	2,497
Ceylon	1,438	21,192	18,045
Hong Kong	94,811	271,076	67,943
Republic of India	763,375	963,421	1,503,994
Pakistan	202,384	148,053	197,678
Malaya and Singapore	343,004	321,285	428,965
Other	4,345	7,215	1,930
Totals	1,414,876	1,732,990	2,221,052
Africa—	£	£	£
British West Africa	23,667	77,940	142,065
Kenya and Uganda	2,282	11,626	15,516
Northern Rhodesia	3,804	5,719	131,672
Southern Rhodesia	10,904	8,324	340,314
Union of South Africa	289,742	268,725	557,847
Other	3,371	10,179	4,456
Totals	333,770	382,513	1,191,870
America—
Bermuda	1,362	41,577	192,545
British Guiana	30,509	43,040	158,701
British Honduras	2,081	13,179	7,817
British West Indies	563,027	715,627	1,531,868
Canada	3,556,916	8,564,989	5,212,478
Falkland Islands	2,002	506	118
Totals	4,155,897	9,378,918	7,103,527
Pacific—
Australia	4,779,368	5,112,874	3,930,237
Fiji	293,874	778,027	839,005
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	50,159	86,462	72,083
Nauru Island	34,016	42,989	40,519
Norfolk Island	23,460	27,914	39,485
Papua	22,611	6,886	2,944
Pitcairn Island	1,716	1,979	1,011
Solomon Islands	15,567	19,602	18,781
Tonga	114,653	212,853	239,398
Western Samoa	239,908	481,207	395,180
Totals	5,575,332	6,770,793	5,578,643
Totals, British Commonwealth countries, etc.	133,170,439	160,654,043	172,580,563
Other Countries
Europe—
Austria	183,586	95,910	34,583
Belgium	2,952,099	5,239,179	2,983,28!
Bulgaria	3	3	3
Czechoslovakia	1,004,270	763,699	604,292
Denmark	900,291	1,157,146	642,368
Finland	36,518	322,162	49,484
France	8,076,593	17,853,958	10,558,649
Greece	451,507	253,693	380,059
Italy	1,900,362	3,847,487	4,362,418
Netherlands	3,419,220	3,261,869	2,036,368
Norway	283,895	227,920	40,790
Poland	1,563,578	7,312,145	2,960,692
Portugal		13,729	21,938
Republic of Ireland	185,275	95,559	3,367,346
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	1,034,587	1,246,911
Spain	827	6	9
Sweden	394,593	672,908	486,492
Switzerland	77,428	128,277	56,447
West German Federal Republic	5,939,445	8,835,595	5,227,023
Yugoslavia	585,706	312,242	55,086
Other	3,270	1,044	4,621
Totals	28,993,053	51,641,442	33,871,949
Asia—	£	£	£
Burma	26,944	103,391	73,071
China	132	160
Iran	127,470
Iraq	1,480	7,711	3,650
Israel	769	1,506	851
Japan	996,828	3,844,738	3,505,334
Korea		50,416
Kuwait, Muscat, and Oman	11	2,553	6,923
Lebanon	14,319	20,227	23,558
Philippines	60,851	105,037	183,397
Saudi Arabia	62,316	81,789	116,870
Thailand	62,062	45,934	1,142
Syria	16,162
Turkey	37,360	47,429	44,371
Other	4,677	2,915	6,280
Totals	1,411,381	4,313,806	3,965,447
Africa—
Algeria	1	21,319	40,184
Belgian Congo	4,119	1,010	113,836
Egypt	153,117	353,120	136,418
French Morocco	2	12,522	13,998
Libya	602	12,918	434
Portuguese East Africa	168	6,972	10,438
Other	1,482	1,355	777
Totals	159,491	409,216	316,085
America—
Chile		9,817	1,079
Cuba			14,807
Mexico	363,303	295,059	267,005
Netherlands Antilles	208,614	175,235	322,195
Panama Republic	150,433	305,814	202,961
Panama Canal Zone	29,446	113,930	59,228
United States of America	18,387,389	28,859,044	27,267,434
Uruguay	3,961	27,282	342
Venezuela	19,226		2,590
Other	8,304	6,247	29,324
Totals	19,170,676	29,792,428	28,166,965
Pacific—
Hawaii	12,325	21,216	145,468
New Caledonia	327	3,945	21,768
New Hebrides	7,332	27,204	16,333
Society Islands	103,261	275,343	306,007
Tuamotu Archipelago	49,613	11,369	17,575
Tutuila	69,745	134,577	131,809
Other			7
Totals	242,603	473,654	638,967
Totals, other countries	49,977,204	86,630,546	66,959,413
Ships' stores	604,648	842,583	1,020,728

Destination of Main Exports.—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the years 1951 and 1952.

Country to Which Exported	1951		1952
Country to Which Exported	Quantity	Value	Quantity	Value
Wool
	lb.	£	lb.	£
United Kingdom	131,539,731	52,128,848	199,864,875	37,295,201
Union of South Africa	406,220	192,774	1,810,250	413,537
India	985,003	407,144	1,229,921	405,015
Canada	11,528,863	5,878,321	11,662,248	2,334,563
Australia	3,799,733	1,121,042	2,510,820	439,465
Republic of Ireland	61,104	13,057	138,596	27,005
Austria	24,978	16,930	30,856	5,032
Belgium	14,794,585	4,821,711	15,179,284	2,554,857
Norway	280,007	167,903	163,607	40,652
Denmark	1,702,990	1,061,886	1,584,963	404,338
Finland	194,191	146,015	173,657	42,668
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	2,835,228	1,246,909
Poland	15,692,991	7,255,190	12,290,479	2,890,146
Portugal	49,771	13,727	52,934	10,966
West German Federal Republic	19,407,069	7,784,369	14,092,392	2,833,132
Netherlands	5,675,356	2,231,958	5,958,809	1,078,471
France	43,384,399	15,670,588	53,978,874	9,173,434
Sweden	1,176,216	506,478	1,114,214	308,015
Switzerland	218,736	96,356	157,812	35,450
Italy	6,861,465	2,751,805	16,055,583	2,965,056
Czechoslovakia	1,551,073	763,551	4,186,971	602,653
Yugoslavia	560,226	309,179	254,521	53,507
Greece	513,764	252,461	1,293,851	359,734
Turkey	67,800	26,410	31,688	8,893
Algeria	118,078	21,313	218,655	40,176
Egypt	172,088	65,409	176,507	42,310
Japan	6,459,383	3,399,900	4,853,490	1,042,563
Mexico	1,103,742	295,048	1,739,905	266,607
United States of America	45,656,591	19,520,951	87,220,185	16,309,346
Other countries	41,399	8,818	81,659	15,349
Totals	316,863,280	128,176,051	438,107,606	81,998,141
Frozen and Chilled Meat
	Cwt.	£	Cwt.	£
United Kingdom	5,335,248	24,682,764	7,052,914	37,128,047
Hong Kong	31,165	111,559	3,076	26,839
British West Africa	4,462	26,230	7,542	46,276
Union of South Africa	8,402	22,205
Bermuda	413	2,395	7,387	63,292
British West Indies	21,772	101,708	66,758	454,483
Canada	14,465	43,954	12,829	32,339
Fiji	17,213	70,784	15,971	95,445
Tonga	2,513	10,957	2,201	13,511
Western Samoa	2,882	13,501	4,087	23,781
West German Federal Republic	22,418	86,811
Saudi Arabia	3,353	32,081	4,174	69,176
Netherlands Antilles	19,830	118,155	24,789	190,072
United States of America	4,537	19,177	493,007	2,208,870
Hawaii	616	7,548	2,030	26,563
Tutuila	2,769	17,741	3,674	27,811
Other countries	3,965	25,968	10,776	68,450
Total	5,496,023	25,393,538	7,711,215	40,474,955
Canned Meat
	Cwt.	£	Cwt.	£
United Kingdom	61,546	811,249	248,407	3,901,028
British West Africa	841	12,083	149	2,259
British Guiana	1,653	16,826	2,227	28,612
British West Indies	12,540	134,419	18,287	243,611
Fiji	18,917	191,542	11,338	156,513
Tonga	6,737	62,685	7,361	91,278
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	3,626	31,613	2,205	28,120
Western Samoa	14,168	127,578	5,716	71,796
New Hebrides	2,639	25,534	976	12,959
Society Islands	17,375	167,580	8,005	116,303
Tutuila	8,083	72,239	4,177	51,070
Other countries	4,035	45,141	3,400	53,003
Totals	152,160	1,698,489	312,248	4,756,552
Butter
	Cwt.	£	Cwt.	£
United Kingdom	2,742,088	37,953,588	3,175,386	47,388,848
Hong Kong	5,191	87,787	1,349	23,139
India	3,329	50,711	5,801	101,653
Pakistan	966	16,300	964	19,822
Malaya and Singapore	1,554	21,874	3,921	67,466
British West Africa	2,483	36,879	4,529	83,152
Northern Rhodesia			5,999	100,582
Southern Rhodesia			14,970	251,899
Union of South Africa			4,948	79,136
British Guiana	210	3,301	2,990	54,302
Bermuda	2,000	29,300	6,300	99,233
British West Indies	15,644	226,136	25,746	439,725
Canada	17,404	253,945	35,703	719,310
Australia	101	1,694	2,194	36,709
Fiji	1,352	21,420	409	7,125
Western Samoa	1,610	16,978	1,580	15,241
Republic of Ireland			200,000	3,239,219
France	60,130	1,107,422	20,130	362,549
West German Federal Republic	44,328	746,112	65,600	1,212,835
Italy	13,000	233,585	39,200	678,974
Japan	1,947	31,219	10,505	177,266
Philippines	4,807	75,679	8,349	142,394
Saudi Arabia	565	11,697	800	15,539
Belgian Congo	51	994	6,475	113,807
Netherlands Antilles	3,010	45,043	6,319	115,003
Panama Canal Zone	5,748	110,127	2,875	55,556
Panama Republic	11,328	215,843	10,137	193,793
Society Islands	1,353	25,264	1,759	37,088
Other countries	2,467	39,036	5,396	97,983
Totals	2,942,666	41,361,934	3,670,334	55,929,348
Cheese
	Cwt.	£	Cwt.	£
United Kingdom	1,924,079	14,886,425	1,640,448	13,567,473
British Guiana	2,124	17,777	4,426	42,655
Southern Rhodesia	591	4,376	8,502	82,555
British West Indies	12,054	114,033	23,119	250,026
Canada	60,879	485,621	44,560	454,017
Belgium	6,892	63,202	16,861	162,189
Norway	2,004	20,534
West German Federal Republic	11,280	128,363	29,426	282,578
Italy	1,361	11,097	10,638	109,890
Japan	404	4,683	3,418	35,818
Egypt	2,597	24,943	1,848	23,416
United States of America	103,993	848,113	29,848	391,318
Other countries	4,114	40,964	12,011	125,298
Totals	2,132,372	16,650,131	1,825,105	15,527,233
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
	lb.	£	lb.	£
United Kingdom	69,007,192	2,477,401	88,822,526	3,689,995
Malta	576,000	20,009
India	8,256,662	333,908	12,265,804	639,919
Pakistan	787,800	32,289	384,445	22,207
Malaya and Singapore	5,328,240	240,973	4,893,762	253,711
Hong Kong	676,832	25,425	79,360	3,017
British West Indies	1,330,530	55,841	1,025,820	52,512
Canada	3,068,320	111,053	2,103,086	122,022
Australia	568,360	26,887	639,074	29,426
Fiji	624,253	35,299	406,251	27,606
Western Samoa	213,740	11,405	134,590	9,521
Belgium	626,240	20,218	22,700	1,368
Japan	77,760	3,199	9,120,664	518,730
Korea	329,280	21,288
Lebanon	418,278	15,586	115,260	6,147
Saudi Arabia	658,288	38,011	491,322	32,155
Thailand	1,206,000	44,264	9,000	1,142
Burma	2,270,400	90,976	1,090,416	50,922
Egypt	1,881,680	76,786	1,221,680	54,777
Libya	302,304	11,860	7,200	308
Panama Republic	1,953,774	86,882	80,824	3,067
United States of America	2,456,478	87,486	14,612,285	874,710
Hawaii	24	3	473,728	22,469
Society Islands	743,593	33,198	1,128,909	75,585
Other countries	1,275,855	31,781	1,390,956	72,625
Totals	104,637,883	3,952,028	140,519,662	6,563,941
Edible Fats
	Cwt.	£	Cwt.	£
United Kingdom	22,943	99,726	244,776	1,275,981
India	13,816	93,631	31,568	202,114
Pakistan	2,440	15,948	3,826	23,902
Fiji	3,809	23,028	3,821	29,549
Western Samoa	2,022	11,819	1,908	14,388
France	7,807	42,813	960	6,077
Finland	3,569	85,350
West German Federal Republic	2,302	12,450
Italy	32,881	233,818	2,511	13,357
Netherlands	60,296	344,650	7,470	32,944
Sweden	4,346	23,363
Japan	3,586	23,047
Egypt	24,954	176,552	2,896	14,587
Other, countries	13,285	23,776	2,041	16,365
Totals	198,055	1,209,971	301,777	1,629,264
Inedible Fats
	Ton	£	Ton	£
United Kingdom	20,371	1,408,528	34,842	3,255,169
Fiji	209	16,260	98	9,384
Japan	300	30,000	25	1,813
Other countries	260	20,756	193	11,576
Totals	21,140	1,475,544	35,158	3,277,942
Cattle Hides
	Number	£	Number	£
United Kingdom	104,989	621,944	49,001	208,372
Canada	9,400	49,780	5,200	12,564
Australia	29,155	144,612	13,529	40,328
Sweden	9,250	70,301	2,032	9,939
Finland	10,629	63,977
Poland	8,470	56,353	13,348	69,900
West German Federal Republic	4,768	26,447	36,858	126,821
Netherlands	59,109	319,021	24,232	76,863
Norway	6,722	39,340
France	32,211	148,914	18,768	58,448
Italy	6,523	25,189	50,889	135,352
Austria	11,423	76,374	7,875	28,281
Japan	23,412	171,910	293,661	1,087,479
Turkey	3,585	19,990	8,419	35,478
United States of America	12,790	58,432	2,040	8,573
Other countries	3,530	17,686	7,490	26,214
Totals	335,966	1,910,270	533,342	1,924,612
Calf Skins
	Number	£	Number	£
United Kingdom	164,228	159,290	366,563	310,824
Canada	11,332	15,920	19,990	15,814
Australia	23,952	21,707	24,295	19,282
Belgium	17,510	21,307	33,524	28,702
West German Federal Republic	8,750	8,750	227,126	190,693
Greece			20,307	19,599
Netherlands	131,345	138,917	310,161	260,427
Italy	451,483	561,746	396,454	335,767
United States of America	160,462	144,983	154,736	131,488
Other countries	8,415	8,908	24,556	20,800
Totals	977,477	1,081,528	1,577,712	1,333,396
Rabbit Skins
	Number	£	Number	£
United Kingdom	2,526,790	90,403	1,897,296	32,249
United States of America	2,869,455	102,060	684,986	16,510
Other countries	349,215	10,769	257,060	14,601
Totals	5,745,460	203,232	2,839,342	63,360
Sheep Skins (With Wool)
	Number	£	Number	£
United Kingdom	163,894	319,315	182,861	179,453
France	539,913	823,480	854,949	676,608
West German Federal Republic			33,451	18,364
Japan	6,508	28,505
United States of America	2,943	6,070	19,977	14,338
Other countries	5,839	4,746	8,564	7,542
Totals	719,097	1,182,116	1,099,802	896,305
Sheep Skins (Without Wool)
	Number	£	Number	£
United Kingdom	3,264,440	2,096,819	2,849,714	922,064
Canada	150,330	72,434	37,112	9,157
Australia	95,743	39,931	69,671	15,268
Belgium	226,459	197,152	351,396	137,520
France	1,200	500	199,657	74,957
West German Federal Republic	6,600	4,762	1,010,342	319,269
Italy			62,496	19,534
Netherlands	108,037	71,567	999,582	366,066
Sweden	30,048	14,398	38,784	11,390
United States of America	10,090,057	5,348,619	13,371,899	3,643,833
Other countries	12,638	5,001	1,668	544
Totals	13,985,552	7,851,183	18,992,321	5,519,602
Sausage Casings
	lb.	£	lb.	£
United Kingdom	1,498,111	952,819	2,340,262	1,513,484
Canada	1,487,318	1,552,828	1,321,672	1,316,504
Australia	261,935	29,702	295,025	21,964
Denmark	82,954	74,129	213,585	187,910
Republic of Ireland	26,856	28,839	31,336	32,954
Netherlands	47,605	54,907	33,997	35,447
Sweden	45,777	37,157	141,935	144,708
United States of America	1,834,545	1,167,882	2,324,609	1,627,654
Other countries	4,586	4,294	19,755	18,070
Totals	5,289,687	3,902,557	6,722,176	4,898,695
Peas (Unprepared)
	Cental	£	Cental	£
United Kingdom	198,418	382,654	291,864	732,758
India	7,287	10,089
Australia	64,931	126,545	66,742	214,478
Belgium	3,539	6,107	6,768	13,515
Korea	11,011	15,188
United States of America	12,101	20,358	4,972	13,080
Other countries	5,631	11,714	9,019	23,070
Totals	302,918	572,655	379,365	996,901
Apples (Fresh)
	lb.	£	lb.	£
United Kingdom	27,473,560	678,338	47,754,920	1,814,992
Malaya	128,000	3,600	725,440	25,654
Canada			999,560	37,483
West German Federal Republic			3,550,000	99,927
United States of America			1,062,240	39,834
Other countries	319,205	8,950	497,600	16,707
Totals	27,920,765	690,888	54,589,760	2,034,597
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
	Cwt.	£	Cwt.	£
United Kingdom	32,170	445,178	61,097	843,493
Canada	2,295	48,761	5,639	92,635
Australia	33,190	345,060	27,665	201,895
Republic of Ireland	1,002	14,902	4,078	44,241
Belgium	1,300	19,117	3,352	33,799
France	622	9,560	2,075	28,727
West German Federal Republic	45	557	4,254	49,228
Netherlands	2,698	44,731	4,382	64,733
Japan	450	6,732	5,688	50,315
United States of America	14,018	295,240	41,752	646,870
Other countries	638	16,176	3,470	50,691
Totals	88,428	1,246,014	163,452	2,106,627
Timber (Sawn and Hewn)
	Sup. ft.	£	Sup. ft.	£
Australia	20,225,229	685,874	15,878,562	560,906
Tonga	294,798	10,704	204,754	8,381
Western Samoa	828,742	32,390	406,260	18,061
Other countries	141,288	4,239	132,950	5,919
Totals	21,490,057	733,207	16,622,526	593,267

EXPORTS BY PORTS.—From 1914 to 1921 the Customs Department allocated exports, as far as possible, to the appropriate district of production, whether exported through the port for such district or not, and no complementary figures are available to show the export trade from each individual port for this period.

The system, however, did not prove satisfactory in practice, and the method of recording exports according to the port at which the goods are placed on board the vessel by which they leave New Zealand was reverted to from 1 January 1922.

The following table shows for the years 1948–52 the value of total exports according to the port at which they were actually placed on board the overseas vessels.

While, in the case of imports, goods received through parcels-post are allocated according to ports of entry, similar treatment is not possible in the case of exports. The total of goods exported by parcels-post is accordingly shown under the heading “Parcels-post.”

Port	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
	£	£	£	£	£
Auckland	51,675,023	52,583,295	56,018,424	72,454,123	92,278,868
Tauranga	23,710	163,229	126,852	327,129	143,486
Gisborne		125	639	84,794	1,042,370
Napier	14,710,829	14,766,172	20,710,860	31,026,815	24,743,189
New Plymouth	8,089,934	8,622,736	10,600,710	12,566,658	11,043,663
Patea	35
Wanganui	14	162	342	5,814	4,311
Wellington	32,367,095	30,522,005	43,346,153	50,818,191	47,042,853
Wairau (including Picton)		32,237	14,310	73,354
Nelson		785	7	706,148	1,027,546
Westport		7,780		19,071	53,817
Greymouth	287,164	52,303	58,950		137,153
Hokitika	27,332				180
Lyttelton	15,339,183	13,531,015	16,407,330	22,760,919	24,437,986
Timaru	5,405,249	5,767,098	8,509,571	16,521,617	9,297,805
Oamaru	43		2,055		3,363
Dunedin	8,930,368	8,969,211	13,189,461	18,782,119	12,571,286
Invercargill	10,252,797	11,986,428	14,597,940	21,791,577	16,558,020
Parcels-post	712,249	276,370	168,687	188,843	174,808
Totals	147,821,025	147,280,951	183,752,291	248,127,172	240,560,704

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, usually one-third of the value of all exports being contributed by that port. Wellington occupies second place with approximately one-fifth, followed by Napier and Lyttelton with approximately 10 per cent each, Invercargill 7 per cent, and Dunedin and New Plymouth with 5 per cent each.

EXPORTS FOR YEARS ENDED 30 JUNE.—As indicated elsewhere in this section (page 277), farm products account for an extremely high proportion of exports from New Zealand. The farm-production export season fits much more closely to a June year than to a calendar year. The flush of the dairy-production season is spread over the months of October to March, while the whole harvest season, and most of the wool-selling season, occur in the early months of the calendar year. By 30 June in normal times the great bulk of the season's farm produce destined for export is shipped, except held-over wool and a certain amount of dairy produce and frozen meat kept in cool store to equalize shipments. It is desirable, therefore, for some purposes to tabulate New Zealand exports for years ending in June instead of December, a desideratum which, it may be observed, applies to most countries in the Southern Hemisphere.

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (QUANTITIES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30 JUNE

Commodity	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Butter (cwt.)	2,729,394	3,085,725	3,545,598
Butterfat, dry (cwt.)	2,131	7,813	9,490
Casein (cwt.)	101,682	137,202	177,903
Cheese (cwt.)	1,921,445	2,013,937	1,868,935
Fish (cwt.)	47,842	76,485	73,334
Honey (lb.)	598,161	791,231	597,439
Beef, frozen (cwt.)	732,255	867,781	981,673
Lamb, frozen (whole carcases) (cwt.)	3,380,125	3,963,439	4,119,004
Mutton, frozen (whole carcases) (cwt.)	1,059,780	1,540,250	1,844,087
Pork, frozen (cwt.)	172,100	162,980	233,780
Veal, frozen (cwt.)	156,415	98,382	86,242
Other frozen meats (cwt.)	235,356	378,856	552,722
Meats, canned (cwt.)	108,896	176,577	363,310
Meat extract (lb.)	795,459	1,024,131	834,687
Sausage casings (lb.)	4,223,777	7,057,939	6,502,047
Milk, preserved (lb.)	17,421,725	27,615,182	30,129,238
Milk, dried (lb.)	68,062,110	92,075,403	112,930,165
Apples, fresh (lb.)	24,578,536	57,894,185	46,867,020
Peas (cental)	383,339	412,580	296,204
Potatoes (cwt.)	152,560	48,740	21,960
Calf skins (number)	1,001,584	1,071,278	1,202,464
Cattle hides (number)	321,033	415,810	484,377
Rabbit skins (number)	8,542,612	4,394,995	3,084,239
Opossum skins (number)	599,926	1,007,049	306,966
Sheep skins, with wool (number)	605,359	934,022	1,221,864
Sheep skins, without wool (number)	11,781,654	22,756,988	18,732,360
Wool lb. (000)	263,723	474,991	406,267
Linen-flax (fibre and tow) (cwt.)	1,537	4,762	666
Seeds, grass and clover (cwt.)	117,865	136,080	151,996
Edible fats (cwt.)	128,791	301,303	255,905
Inedible fats (ton)	14,699	29,436	34,267
Coal (ton)	3,016	19,288	2,140
Kauri gum (ton)	1,050	955	284
Gold (oz.)	70,491	85,709	61,701
Silver (oz.)	47,286	3,531	32,170
Timber, sawn (sup. ft.)	11,519,613	29,879,199	12,600,449
Sugar of milk (lb.)	7,188,226	6,867,104	8,864,101

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE (VALUES) FOR YEARS ENDED 30 JUNE

Commodity	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Including commodities not enumerated.
	£	£	£
Butter	37,365,795	45,186,457	56,103,618
Butterfat, dry	40,444	152,846	202,203
Casein	664,794	1,268,420	1,243,338
Cheese	14,535,255	16,626,095	16,738,010
Fish	450,300	867,013	1,149,100
Honey	29,014	34,454	50,064
Beef, frozen	2,229,542	3,370,476	4,774,395
Lamb, frozen (whole carcases)	17,374,104	21,813,952	27,610,520
Mutton, frozen (whole carcases)	3,165,101	4,112,322	5,341,299
Pork, frozen	1454,163	1,402,628	2,051,788
Veal, frozen	493,797	412,790	492,732
Other frozen meats	998,202	2,181,502	3,760,205
Meats, canned	1,005,415	2,400,520	5,608,982
Meat extract	112,670	119,240	200,757
Sausage casings	2,363,477	5,431,496	3,536,935
Milk, preserved	606,196	1,156,434	1,408,818
Milk, dried	2,440,714	3,856,939	5,543,034
Biscuits	18,112	23,283	31,509
Apples, fresh	538,263	2,119,049	1,740,789
Peas	692,689	891,632	783,433
Potatoes	119,297	61,646	36,310
Calf skins	1,208,112	1,032,736	996,868
Cattle hides	1,661,757	1,923,225	1,730,307
Rabbit skins	348,616	150,186	73,048
Opossum skins	278,046	317,249	86,456
Sheep skins, with wool	937,350	1,033,451	952,354
Sheep skins, without wool	5,003,467	9,709,481	6,408,467
Other hides and skins	210,530	216,009	133,231
Wool	102,995,294	110,883,566	81,564,439
Linen flax (fibre and tow)	7,086	70,307	2,028
Seeds, grass and clover	1,781,030	1,811,549	1,796,990
Edible fats	683,370	1,721,700	1,076,796
Inedible fats	1,034,310	2,392,787	2,542,573
Coal	13,787	74,065	12,972
Kauri gum	119,262	129,897	42,197
Gold	838,350	1,042,417	744,962
Silver	12,568	1,052	9,916
Machinery and machines	137,792	352,117	243,674
Timber, sawn	288,852	1,055,200	435,589
Sugar of milk	269,579	249,474	331,319
Totals^*	206,248,079	252,102,125	238,418,724

RE-EXPORTS.—Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In most years, ships' and international aircraft stores, in which aviation spirit and bunker and lubricating oils loom largely, make up between a third and a half of the total re-exports. The balance is mainly comprised of various classes of machinery and metal manufactures, motor spirits, textiles, and cinematograph films. Munitions and war stores comprised the bulk of the large totals for the later war years.

There is a genuine entrepôt trade with the islands of the Pacific, the amount of which is, however, comparatively small. Exports to Cook Islands and Niue, which are treated as part of New Zealand, are not included in the figures of either exports or re-exports.

Particulars of re-exports over a period of years are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

	£
1932	633,532
1933	597,168
1934	571,554
1935	486,648
1936	488,135
1937	505,322
1938	575,657
1939	601,286
1940	767,597
1941	532,477
1942	739,063
1943	1,627,900
1944	6,105,148
1945	3,114,747
1946	994,612
1947	1,703,235
1948	1,354,856
1949	1,194,463
1950	1,420,140
1951	1,732,955
1952	2,141,980

The destination of this re-export trade is shown in the following table.

Country	1950	1951	1952
	£	£	£
United Kingdom	341,516	228,845	247,752
Hong Kong	3,665	4,794	1,242
Malaya	5,550	413	8,639
Union of South Africa	9,894	2,503	6,518
Canada	2,953	1,533	3,267
Australia	253,082	359,145	459,435
Fiji	51,227	125,966	198,642
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	8,080	6,928	9,773
Nauru Island	10,051	14,559	11,961
Norfolk Island	16,144	17,996	27,009
Solomon Islands	5,306	4,149	3,680
Tonga	50,242	35,714	35,491
Western Samoa	52,217	77,999	68,695
Belgium	462	24,861	1,043
France	15,276	137	868
Japan		6,556	11,829
United States of America	18,660	21,032	72,262
Society Islands	3,792	9,918	14,460
Tuamotu Archipelago	9,839	3,203	932
New Caledonia	3		13,108
Other countries	15,816	15,483	28,176
Ships' stores	546,365	771,221	917,198
Totals (excluding specie)	1,420,140	1,732,955	2,141,980

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE.—Trade with the Cook and associated Pacific Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the country, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between New Zealand and these islands, and exports to the islands are summarized below.

Year	Exports
	£
1941	75,814
1942	73,673
1943	103,760
1944	93,229
1945	133,012
1946	166,496
1947	254,461
1948	291,227
1949	278,487
1950	209,983
1951	525,068
1952	478,300

Further particulars regarding the trade of the islands will be found in Section 43, Island Territories.

10 C—IMPORTS

THE statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed at the Customs. The value shown for all merchandise imported is for the purpose of this Section now based on the current domestic value in the country of export at the time of exportation. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency. In Section 10A will be found (in conjunction with export figures) a summary of import totals for recent years, expressed both in New Zealand currency and in sterling, together with a series of index numbers of the volume of import trade. Import totals are exclusive of specie, except where the contrary is expressly stated. Reference should be made to Section 10A for details of system of valuation of imports as now used in these tables.

IMPORT CONTROL.—A brief discussion of import control appears in Section 10A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS.—The table following, classifying imports by broad divisions, is based on a grouping of the classes given in the subsequent table (refer page 296). It illustrates the great variety of imports which New Zealand receives in exchange for its few basic exports, figures of which are given in the table on page 276. The food, etc., division accounts for a Utile in excess of 10 per cent of the total imports in most years, the principal constituents being wheat, fruits, sugar, cocoa beans, tea, beverage spirits, and tobacco. Petroleum fuels are the principal items in the oils, etc., division, comprising approximately 6 to 7 per cent of the total, while drugs, chemicals, and manures account for approximately 4 per cent. It should perhaps be mentioned that, while New Zealand's livestock production is independent of imported animal feeding stuffs, it is highly dependent on the import of phosphatic manures and materials for their manufacture, these constituting a large proportion of the drugs, chemicals, and manures group. The remainder of the imports are made up largely of manufactured textiles and metal goods (including machinery and vehicles) both for capital purposes and consumption. The above classes in general comprise some 60 per cent of the total imports.

Calendar Year	Imports (c.d.v.)
Calendar Year	Food, Drink, and Tobacco	Apparel, Textiles, Fibres, and Yarns	Oils, Fats, and Waxes	Metals, Metal Manufactures, and Machines	Paper and Stationery	Drugs, Chemicals, and Manures	Vehicles (Including Parts and Tires)	Total^*
* Including classes not listed.
£(000)
1942	6,284	8,548	3,285	8,868	1,358	2,153	1,345	48,960
1943	5,244	10,627	4,148	13,139	2,376	2,856	1,312	86,584
1944	6,375	13,020	4,425	15,434	2,312	2,701	2,260	78,543
1945	8,325	11,738	3,535	11,700	2,188	2,913	1,545	50,080
1946	9,238	14,201	3,838	17,912	3,325	4,116	4,909	65,065
1947	14,015	29,071	6,564	28,404	6,787	5,455	11,950	116,946
1948	13,205	25,521	8,838	34,488	6,310	4,789	10,629	116,857
1949	12,909	23,557	7,455	34,305	4,628	4,861	8,601	109,121
1950	17,681	31,342	10,672	42,551	6,056	6,363	12,548	143,585
1951	21,775	44,242	11,665	49,754	10,078	7,455	18,550	187,758
1952	24,114	35,854	16,040	74,937	14,741	9,901	27,589	229,447

Since 1914 the statistics of both imports and exports have been classified according to the nature of the commodity, the items being assembled in well-defined classes as shown in the following table, covering merchandise imports for the years 1950, 1951, and 1952. In January 1949 the list of individual trade items within each class recorded for statistical purposes was greatly extended, and the contents of a few of the classes were slightly altered. Consequently the figures for some classes are not strictly comparable with those for earlier years shown in the 1950 and earlier issues of the Year-Book. The 1952 c.i.f. values are also given.

No.	Class	1950 c.d.v.	1951 c.d.v.	1952 c.d.v.	1952 c.i.f.
		£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
01	Foodstuffs of animal origin	976	1,038	788	850
02	Foodstuffs of vegetable origin	11,437	12,298	16,016	19,069
03	Beverages, non-alcoholic, and materials therefor	2,390	4,930	2,145	2,695
04	Spirits and alcoholic beverages	1,217	1,890	2,899	3,328
05	Tobacco and manufactures thereof	1,661	1,620	2,267	2,438
06	Live animals, birds, fish	152	110	97	111
07	Animal substances (mainly unmanufactured) inedible	763	1,516	634	664
08	Vegetable substances and unmanufactured fibres	1,674	3,086	2,654	3,216
09	Apparel, footwear, and minor articles therefor	3,378	4,033	3,985	4,196
10	Textile piece-goods and drapery	22,227	27,955	23,201	25,355
11	Manufactured fibres and miscellaneous textile manufactures	5,737	12,254	3,668	10,454
12	Oils, greases, waxes, and inedible fats	10,672	11,665	16,040	25,169
13	Paints, colours, and varnishes	862	1,024	987	1,204
14	Stone, earth, ores, and non-metallic minerals	792	1,204	1,446	2,844
16	Metals	10,836	12,407	22,379	27,844
17	Metal manufactures other than machinery	6,616	8,272	11,061	13,043
18	Machinery	25,098	29,074	41,497	44,533
19	Rubber and manufactures n.e.i.	1,473	3,762	1,903	2,048
20	Leather and manufactures n.e.i.	697	666	539	579
21	Timber	1,084	1,254	2,748	4,010
22	Wood, cane, and wicker manufactures	236	443	715	836
23	Chinaware, earthenware, glassware, and stoneware	2,118	2,338	3,716	4,733
24	Paper	3,731	7,230	11,020	13,364
25	Stationery and paper manufactures	2,326	2,848	3,721	4,068
26	Fancy goods, jewellery, sports requisites, and timepieces	1,319	2,210	2,089	2,246
27	Optical, surgical, dental, and scientific instruments and materials and photographic goods	1,923	2,376	2,353	2,162
28	Chemicals, drugs, and druggists' wares	3,574	4,806	6,631	7,940
29	Manures	2,789	2,649	3,271	7,355
30	Vehicles and rubber tires	12,548	18,550	27,589	32,982
31	Miscellaneous	3,278	4,252	6,387	6,878
	Totals, merchandise imports	143,584	187,758	229,447	276,215

The next classification presented is that according to the purpose or use of commodities, particulars being given for the years 1951 and 1952. It should be mentioned that the absence of essential information in regard to actual purpose or use of a number of commodities has created certain difficulties, necessitating the employment of arbitrary decisions in some instances. Also, where certain commodities are used for more than one purpose it has not been possible to segregate the portion applicable to each. In such cases the whole import has been assessed according to the principal use of the article or commodity in New Zealand.

Class of Merchandise	1951	1952
Producers' materials—	£(000)	£(000)
Building and construction	8,522	16,315
Farm	4,090	4,440
Manufacturing—
Food	8,695	12,048
Beverages	880	741
Tobacco	1,505	1,781
Textiles (apparel or household goods)	26,967	21,641
Other	34,716	43,401
Fuels and lubricants	10,503	14,616
Auxiliary aids to production	5,782	6,346
Producers' equipment—
Farm	7,220	8,774
Commerce and industry	22,406	30,890
Transport equipment—
Railway	1,322	3,085
Road	15,786	23,901
Other	895	664
Consumers' goods—
Food	5,029	5,344
Beverages	5,902	4,183
Tobacco	179	560
Clothing and accessories	3,994	3,420
Household equipment	11,956	12,291
Other	10,719	13,065
Munitions and war stores	548	1,438
Unclassified	142	503
Totals, merchandise imports	187,758	229,447

In the next table particulars are given of New Zealand's import trade for the years 1951 and 1952 according to the stage of production or degree of manufacture of commodities, the divisions used, following the classification of the former League of Nations, being “crude,” “simply transformed,” and “more elaborately transformed.”

—	1951	1952
* Including unclassified items.
Producers' materials—	£(000)	£(000)
Crude	14,627	15,270
Simply transformed	21,502	33,089
More elaborately transformed	49,245	52,007
Fuel and lubricants—
Crude	87	36
Simply transformed	10,416	14,580
More elaborately transformed
Auxiliary aids to production—
Crude
Simply transformed	4	2
More elaborately transformed	5,777	6,344
Producers' equipment—	£(000)	£(000)
Crude	74	50
Simply transformed	835	1,070
More elaborately transformed	28,717	38,544
Transport equipment—
Crude
Simply transformed	377	1,177
More elaborately transformed	17,626	26,473
Consumers' goods—
Crude	6,265	4,106
Simply transformed	258	429
More elaborately transformed	31,256	34,327
Total merchandise imports^*—
Crude	21,054	19,494
Simply transformed	33,392	50,428
More elaborately transformed	133,312	159,525
Totals, all merchandise^*	187,758	229,447

An indication of the changes that have occurred during the same period is contained in the next table, which gives the figures for each of the divisions as percentages of total imports.

—	1951	1952
* Including unclassified items.
Producers' materials—	Per Cent	Per Cent
Crude	7.8	6.7
Simply transformed	11.5	14.4
More elaborately transformed	26.2	22.7
Fuels and lubricants—
Crude
Simply transformed	5.5	6.4
More elaborately transformed
Auxiliary aids to production—
Crude
Simply transformed
More elaborately transformed	3.1	2.8
Producers' equipment—
Crude
Simply transformed	0.4	0.5
More elaborately transformed	15.3	16.8
Transport equipment—
Crude
Simply transformed	0.2	0.5
More elaborately transformed	9.4	11.5
Consumers' goods—
Crude	3.3	1.8
Simply transformed	0.1	0.2
More elaborately transformed	16.6	15.0
Total merchandise imports—
Crude	11.2	8.5
Simply transformed	17.8	22.0
More elaborately transformed	71.0	69.5
Totals, all merchandise^*	100.0	100.0

Despite the big increase in the value of total imports over recent years, from £116 million in 1948 to £229 million in 1952, the distribution between the various headings did not greatly alter over this period. In particular the proportions applicable to the three main headings remained fairly stable, producers' materials at approximately 45 per cent, producers' equipment at 15 to 17 per cent, and consumers' goods at 17 to 20 per cent. Pre-war the proportions attributable to these three headings were typically—under 40 per cent, 13 per cent, and 27 per cent respectively. The increases in the percentages for producers' materials and equipment and the fall in that for consumers' goods indicate a long-term growth in New Zealand's manufacturing potential. No doubt the policy of import control gave an impetus to this tendency which was further assisted by New Zealand's enforced reliance on local manufacturing industries in the war and early post-war years.

The proportion of commodities described as “crude” and “simply transformed” both rose during the war years at the expense of those classified as “more elaborately transformed,” but in recent years the distribution has returned almost to the pre-war pattern, the “more elaborately transformed” group showing only a slightly lower percentage of the total than pre-war.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE.—The import trade of New Zealand, though spread over more countries than the export trade, is confined mainly to the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States of America, and Canada. For the pre-war years 1938 and 1939 these four countries accounted for 82 and 80 per cent respectively of the total imports of New Zealand. During the war period, mainly as a result of the severance of trade with Japan, Indonesia, and most European countries, this concentration of New Zealand's imports was even more marked, and in 1946 the percentage was 85. In the following years, mainly because of the resumption of imports from certain European countries, the proportion fell to normal, being 81 per cent in 1949 and 1950. It fell however even lower, to 76 per cent, in 1951 on account of increased imports from Europe, but rose to 78 per cent in 1952.

In the early years of settlement Australia was the source from which the young colony drew most of its supplies, and for a long period imports from Australia over-shadowed imports from the United Kingdom. The proportion of imports from Australia, however, decreased steadily from 60 per cent in 1862 to 7 per cent in 1929. For some years up to the beginning of the Second World War the trend was steadily but slowly upward, reaching 16 per cent in 1941. Since then the percentage has fluctuated below this figure, and fell to 10 per cent in 1951, in which year the value of total imports of Australian origin was approximately four times that of New Zealand exports to Australia. In 1952 imports from Australia were worth six times as much as New Zealand exports to that country.

Imports from the United Kingdom comprised between 60 per cent and 70 per cent of total imports during the “eighties” and “nineties”; so that, at that time, the United Kingdom and Australia between them supplied approximately 80 per cent of the total imports of New Zealand. With the disruption in trading relations during the First World War other countries—notably the United States of America and Japan—increased their share of New Zealand's import trade. This trend was accentuated by the appearance of new industrial products, in which the United States occupied a dominant position, and by severe foreign competition in staple United Kingdom manufactures such as the textile industry. In the circumstances it is not surprising to find that the proportion of goods of United Kingdom origin included in New Zealand's imports of merchandise fell from about 60 per cent before the First World War to about 46 per cent in the late “twenties.”

From 1930 onwards the relative position of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's import trade improved, partly due to New Zealand's tariff policy of preference to Commonwealth countries. During each of the five years 1931–35 over 50 per cent of the imports of merchandise were of United Kingdom origin, this recovery having been made despite the growth in imports from Australia of certain goods—e.g., iron and steel—which were formerly almost entirely imported from the United Kingdom. From 1935, however, the proportion again declined, particularly during the war years, owing to difficulties of supply and abnormal imports of lend-lease material from the United States. With the return to more normal trading conditions in 1946 imports from the United Kingdom rose

to 48 per cent of the total. Increased imports from Canada and the United States of America during 1947, plus the re-opening of many pre-war continental markets, resulted in the percentage dropping to 43 in 1947, but since then the imperative need to restrict expenditure in non-sterling areas and the increased availability of British goods for export has resulted in the United Kingdom resuming its pre-war position as the supplier of more than half New Zealand's import requirements (60 per cent in 1950, but dropping to 54 per cent in 1951 and 1952).

The United States of America was sending goods to New Zealand almost from the foundation of the colony, and the share of the imports received from that country steadily increased till in the first decade of the present century it was 11 or 12 per cent. The adoption of Imperial preference seems to have caused a temporary drop in the figure to about 7 per cent, though the proportion maintained a steady increase for several years after the First World War, and, indeed, considerably surpassed its old level. From 1933 to 1940 about one-eighth of the total imports came from the United States of America. The cutting-off of supplies from the United Kingdom and certain other countries owing to the exigencies of war and the necessity of obtaining war materials resulted in imports of United States of America origin showing large increases in the later war years. In 1943 imports from this quarter reached 37 per cent of the total, higher than the percentage from the United Kingdom. However, in 1946 imports from the United States of America were only 16 per cent of the total, but rose again in 1947 to 18 per cent. Both these percentages are well above those of the immediate pre-war years. In 1948, 1949, and 1950 the acute shortage of dollar exchange imposed, of necessity, a drastic restriction in imports of United States of America origin, which fell progressively to 11, 10, and 7 per cent of the total. In 1951, with the easing of import restrictions, the absolute value of imports from this country again rose, by two-thirds of the previous year's figure, but was still only 9 per cent of the total. It remained at this level in 1952.

Imports of Canadian origin gradually rose to 10 per cent of the total (in 1929), but fell during the depression period to 4.5 per cent (in 1932). By 1939 the proportion had risen to 9 per cent, but a very irregular movement prevailed during the war years, the 1943 figures reaching the high proportion of 12 per cent. Imports from Canada, as a “hard” currency area, fell to a marked degree during 1948,1949, and 1950, the percentages of total imports being 5, 4, and 2, but recovered very slightly in 1951, reaching 3 per cent of the total, and remained at that figure in 1952.

It should be noted that the nomenclature used in the following tables in regard to countries of origin of imports refers generally to status and territories in the years indicated and not necessarily to the present position.

The table which follows shows imports during the last eleven years from the United Kingdom, other British Commonwealth countries, and other countries.

Year	Country of Shipment			Country of Origin			Total Merchandise Imports
Year	United Kingdom	Other British Commonwealth Countries	Other Countries	United Kingdom	Other British Commonwealth Countries	Other Countries	Total Merchandise Imports
	£	£	£	£	£	£	£
1942	18,247,566	15,480,549	15,231,896	18,324,410	15,005,051	15,630,550	48,960,011
1943	29,642,302	24,018,004	32,923,631	29,650,794	23,845,874	33,087,269	86,583,937
1944	31,751,736	18,893,049	27,898,135	31,711,959	18,637,453	28,143,508	78,542,920
1945	17,920,376	16,948,013	15,211,775	18,038,992	16,648,133	15,393,039	50,080,164
1946	31,061,188	19,631,764	14,371,896	31,079,074	19,336,631	14,649,143	65,064,848
1947	50,323,515	36,085,562	30,537,128	50,006,545	35,700,869	31,238,791	116,946,205
1948	61,309,645	32,463,096	23,076,579	61,006,474	32,028,307	23,814,539	116,849,320
1949	60,516,627	29,507,035	19,097,676	59,976,322	28,509,714	20,635,302	109,121,338
1950	87,583,194	33,253,975	22,747,264	86,240,941	32,353,075	24,990,417	143,584,433
1951	102,804,117	47,946,239	37,007,385	100,620,064	46,429,155	40,708,522	187,757,741
1952	129,213,357	50,855,508	49,378,444	125,990,760	48,734,386	54,722,163	229,447,309

The next table shows in more detail the principal countries from which New Zealand draws its imports, figures on the basis of country of origin being given for the years 1950 to 1952.

Country	1950	1951	1952
British Commonwealth Countries, Protected States, and Trust Territories	£	£	£
Europe—
United Kingdom	86,240,940	100,620,064	125,990,760
Gibraltar, Malta, and Gozo	4,822	8,675	15,636
Asia—
Bahrein Island	1,530,913	1,883,735	2,678,096
British Borneo	1,271,965	1,159,940	998,818
Ceylon	1,804,310	3,455,181	1,359,731
Hong Kong	138,928	276,629	282,218
Republic of India	2,021,088	6,030,132	2,335,243
Malaya and Singapore	1,334,323	3,696,615	1,783,036
Pakistan	32,618	68,792	12,612
Other	860	1,467	4,670
Africa—
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan	12,319	10,963	18,888
British West Africa	569,311	726,015	540,174
Kenya and Uganda	111,844	256,099	307,036
Southern Rhodesia	24,098	9,521	23,477
Seychelles	1,546		55,562
Swaziland, Bechuanaland, Basutoland	8,175	2,913	21,150
Tanganyika Territory	102,217	369,878	259,081
Union of South Africa	895,562	1,563,311	1,251,663
Other	2,075	3,535	21,053
America—
British Guiana	2,751	14,276	6,742
British West Indies	255,326	342,373	1,004,185
Canada	3,244,487	5,586,608	8,070,631
Other	240	204	649
Pacific—
Australia	17,296,362	19,321,914	24,364,530
Fiji	1,013,425	1,005,279	2,332,015
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	83,578	107,333	98,936
Nauru Island	232,818	292,406	622,665
New Zealand (re-imports)	51,434	30,998	53,235
Tonga	27,953	29,103	25,180
Western Samoa	276,395	171,976	186,773
Other	1,333	3,285	701
Totals, British Commonwealth countries	118,594,016	147,049,220	174,725,146
Other Countries
Europe—
Austria	63,181	271,431	682,454
Belgium	1,020,088	2,705,892	4,625,189
Czechoslovakia	120,132	247,666	352,342
Denmark	80,179	135,211	217,732
Finland	97,813	242,895	503,733
France	1,111,280	2,112,456	3,621,742
Germany, Eastern Zone	3,991	58,081	155,811
Greece	271	28,799	21,485
Republic of Ireland	14,123	17,309	38,625
Italy	244,315	870,539	1,488,372
Luxemburg	46,795	32,712	162,297
Netherlands	552,540	1,099,750	2,270,021
Norway	557,251	740,955	637,924
Poland	4,025	15,395	6,815
Portugal	87,665	169,908	178,497
Russia (U.S.S.R.)	75,514	113,840	60,166
Spain	32,156	57,896	111,168
Sweden	1,119,387	1,731,219	3,110,269
Switzerland	353,987	875,952	1,027,620
West German Federal Republic	191,050	1,260,893	2,279,999
Other	3,565	5,914	531
Asia—
Burma	62,300	9,771	6,072
China	259,790	490,912	236,022
Indonesia	3,058,251	3,661,269	4,879,760
Iran	3,318,155	2,390,911	208,009
Iraq	158,676	124,667	115,968
Japan	435,546	2,219,027	3,758,903
Philippines	11,455	40,956	55,755
Saudi Arabia	7,115	12,188	328,611
Siam	34,306	20,711	91,296
Turkey	77,877	72,830	72,951
Other	13,610	11,720	31,535
Africa—
Algeria	799	15,465	5,137
Belgian Congo	10,758	12,979	5,586
Egypt	89,204	1,006	3,871
Ethiopia	17,297	10,223	11,481
French Morocco	20,606	4,284	56,844
Portuguese East Africa	14,165	2,065
Portuguese West Africa	307	11,192	2,666
Tunisia	390,473	443,843	189,085
Other	4,182	6,447	4,607
America—
Brazil	84,170	90,222	75,285
Chile	66,136	86,316	78,961
Ecuador	15,555	11,794	4,903
Mexico	7,860	9,220	156,342
Netherlands Antilles	6	245,875	1,258,539
United States of America	10,467,506	17,620,810	21,249,321
Uruguay	23,760	274,626	1
Venezuela	11,835		249,201
Other	7,538	8,484	29,811
Pacific—
Tuamotu Archipelago	533,373
Other	8,498	3,995	2,848
Totals, other countries	24,990,417	40,708,521	54,722,163
Totals, all countries	143,584,433	187,757,741	229,447,309

The following table shows for the last eleven years the percentage of total imports (excludin specie) received from each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

IMPORTS (COUNTRY OF ORIGIN)

Country	1942	1943	1944	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent	Per Cent
United Kingdom	37.43	34.24	40.38	36.02	47.77	42.76	52.21	55.13	60.06	53.59	54.91
Bahrein Island					0.61	0.85	1.00	1.26	1.07	1.00	1.17
Ceylon	4.23	0.50	0.99	1.58	204	1.52	1.85	1.41	1.26	1.84	0.59
Republic of India	3.38	3.07	3.78	4.79	2.96	3.66	2.82	2.55	1.41	3.21	1.02
Pakistan	3.38	3.07	3.78	4.79	2.96	3.66	2.82	0.01	0.02	0.04	0.01
Malaya and Singapore	0.10				0.03	0.39	0.57	0.75	0.93	1.97	0.78
Union of South Africa	0.39	0.10	0.10	0.45	0.31	0.38	0.56	0.40	0.62	0.83	0.55
Canada	4.36	12.03	5.90	9.25	6.51	9.03	5.38	3.87	2.26	2.98	3.52
Australia	15.12	10.67	11.90	15.11	14.56	11.61	11.13	12.79	12.05	10.29	10.62
Fiji	2.28	0.63	0.58	0.95	1.75	1.69	1.72	0.77	0.71	0.54	1.02
Other British Commonwealth countries	0.78	0.55	0.54	1.11	0.95	1.40	2.38	2.19	2.21	2.03	1.96
Totals, British Commonwealth countries	68.07	61.79	64.17	69.26	77.49	73.29	79.62	81.13	82.60	78.32	76.15
Belgium					0.34	1.90	1.19	1.55	0.71	1.44	2.02
France					0.10	0.68	0.73	0.34	0.77	1.13	1.58
Germany	0.01					0.02	0.07	0.28	0.14	0.70	0.99
Sweden		0.02		0.23	0.70	0.89	1.19	0.56	0.78	0.92	1.36
Iran	0.05		0.14	0.50	0.64	1.47	1.70	1.49	2.31	1.27	0.09
Japan	0.02						0.05	0.30	0.30	1.18	1.64
Indonesia	0.85	0.01			0.01	0.02	1.26	1.93	2.13	1.95	2.13
Netherlands Antilles	0.75		0.78	1.05	0.41					0.13	0.55
Peru	1.22	0.75	1.53	3.01	1.24	0.02
United States of America	27.80	36.63	32.23	23.72	16.41	18.13	10.79	9.62	7.29	9.38	9.26
Tuamotu Archipelago	0.50	0.40	0.45	1.13	1.13	0.60	0.43	0.54	0.37
Other countries	0.73	0.40	0.70	1.10	1.53	2.99	2.98	2.26	2.60	3.58	4.23
Totals, other countries	31.93	38.21	35.83	30.74	22.51	26.71	20.38	18.87	17.40	21.68	23.85

It will be seen that the great bulk of New Zealand's imports of merchandise are of British origin, the proportion of total imports derived from British countries in normal times being approximately 75 per cent, although for reasons already outlined this proportion fell during the war years.

Origin of Principal Imports.—The table which follows shows by main countries of origin details of the principal imports into New Zealand for the years 1950–52.

Country of Origin	1950	1951	1952
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Fish (Canned)
United Kingdom	152	169	145
Union of South Africa	88	73	14
Denmark	3	3	3
Norway	291	408	183
Portugal		23	7
Japan		53
Other countries	13	21	22
Totals	547	750	374
Fruits (Canned)
Malaya	230	119	7
Union of South Africa	195	532	209
Australia	376	575	558
Fiji.	46	23	48
Other countries		4	10
Totals	847	1,253	832
Fruits (Dried)
Union of South Africa	198	232	117
Australia	459	765	681
Greece		27	19
Iraq	159	124	116
Turkey	45	43	45
United States of America		97	38
Other countries	10	3	7
Totals	871	1,291	1,023
Fruits (Fresh)
Union of South Africa	1	20	69
British West Indies	49	122	101
Australia	323	510	442
Fiji	54	58	32
Tonga	21	24	21
Western Samoa	40	27	34
Italy			10
Other countries	1		1
Totals	489	761	710
Wheat
Australia	3,910	3,388	6,368
Sugar
United Kingdom	500	349	696
Union of South Africa		62	35
British West Indies			548
Australia	2,233	1,972	611
Fiji	863	868	2,204
Netherlands	24	15	11
United States of America	9	15	6
Other countries	1	13	18
Totals	3,630	3,294	4,129
Cocoa Beans (Raw)
British West Africa	268	561	472
Kenya and Uganda		11
Western Samoa	32	38	27
Ecuador	10
Venezuela	12
Other countries	2	7	4
Totals	324	617	503
Tea
Ceylon	1,686	3,271	1,219
India	170	641	134
China	13	5	2
Indonesia		109	51
Other countries			1
Totals	1,869	4,026	1,407
Spirits (Beverages)
United Kingdom	467	804	1,203
Republic of Ireland	2	9	27
Union of South Africa	25	15	19
British Guiana		14	5
British West Indies	55	112	110
Australia	219	190	158
France	183	360	834
Netherlands	34	96	92
Other countries	13	25	21
Totals	998	1,625	2,469
Tobacco and Tobacco Manufactures
United Kingdom	384	115	437
United States of America	1,271	1,499	1,777
Other countries	6	6	53
Totals	1,661	1,620	2,267
Wool
United Kingdom	109	149
Australia	184	580	263
Totals	293	729	263
Kapok
India	23	42	17
Indonesia	276	282	179
Other countries	4	2	6
Totals	303	326	202
Seeds (excluding Oil Seeds)
United Kingdom	22	218	98
Australia	195	272	42
Denmark	26	9	1
Finland		10
France	1	32	6
Netherlands	6	11	12
Sweden	35	52
United States of America		55	43
Other countries	8	8	10
Totals	293	667	212
Hats, Caps, and Millinery
United Kingdom	295	383	250
Australia	21	22	11
Czechoslovakia	10	15	14
France	6	17	29
Italy	36	61	53
Switzerland	37	44	24
China	18	24	7
Japan	5	10	6
Ecuador	6	12	5
Other countries	15	21	17
Totals	449	609	416
Hosiery
United Kingdom	1,035	849	827
Other countries		13	2
Totals	1,035	862	829
Other Apparel
United Kingdom	1,256	1,622	1,672
Hong Kong		12	3
India	7	29	4
Australia	59	113	88
France	2	13	13
Italy		22	39
West German Federal Rep.		4	24
China		10	4
United States of America	30	63	52
Other countries	10	27	43
Totals	1,364	1,915	1,942
Footwear and Grindery
United Kingdom	408	475	657
India	4	10	6
Malaya	2	15	3
Canada	20	39	22
Australia	20	26	34
United States of America	12	16	12
Other countries	16	13	27
Totals	482	594	761
Made-up Textiles
United Kingdom	1,802	2,740	2,114
Hong Kong	14	65	59
India	11	32	17
Australia	80	92	64
Belgium		26	18
Italy		32	40
Netherlands		25	21
Portugal		11	5
Switzerland		10	28
China	10	21	3
Japan	3	25	26
Other countries	4	29	30
Totals	1,924	3,108	2,425
Cotton Piece-goods
United Kingdom	7,266	7,947	7,682
Hong Kong	8	43	17
India	590	628	389
Canada	50	167	131
Australia	38	92	40
Austria		9	9
Belgium	75	265	101
Czechoslovakia	20	27	11
France	14	26	18
Italy	3	35	54
Netherlands	20	68	94
Switzerland	4	41	73
West German Federal Rep.	1		18
Japan	24	75	45
United States of America	6	319	425
Other countries	2	16	12
Totals	8,121	9,758	9,119
Silk, Rayon, and Nylon Piece-goods
United Kingdom	4,750	5,503	4,277
Canada		69	22
Australia	138	141	86
Belgium	3	6	9
Czechoslovakia	11	5	4
France	87	186	120
Italy	106	325	519
Netherlands	2	15	38
Switzerland	1	22	95
West German Federal Republic		46	54
Japan	213	305	137
United States of America	6	183	93
Other countries	5	24	12
Totals	5,322	6,830	5,476
Woollen Piece-goods
United Kingdom	4,570	\|4,541	3,407
Australia	135	134	11
Belgium	2	12	3
France		2	16
Italy		25	28
Other countries		9	1
Totals	4,707	4,723	3,466
Other Textile Piece-goods and Drapery
United Kingdom	1,772	2,506	2,241
India	281	743	238
Australia	52	84	28
Belgium	2	15	23
France	34	65	35
Italy	2	35	88
Switzerland	3	24	19
Japan	2	15	1
United States of America	1	27	8
Other countries	5	21	35
Totals	2,154	3,535	2,716
Bags, Sacks, and Woolpacks
United Kingdom	6	11	28
India	474	2,912	944
Australia	181	133	285
Other countries	1	11	9
Totals	662	3,067	1,266
Linoleum and Congoleum
United Kingdom	547	858	844
Other countries		2	11
Totals	547	860	855
Carpets and Floor Rugs
United Kingdom	1,534	3,621	3,139
India	1	31	38
Australia	3	85	17
Other countries	5	10	3
Totals	1,543	3,747	3,197
Threads and Yarns
United Kingdom	2,378	3,358	2,546
Ceylon	5	8	6
India	4	14	1
Tanganyika	18
Canada	10	5	1
Australia	313	499	154
Netherlands		26	13
Japan	6	8
United States of America	3	208	54
Other countries	2	22	16
Totals	2,739	4,148	2,791
Mineral Lubricating Oils and Greases
United Kingdom	29	30	72
Australia	20	14	25
Iran	10
United States of America	1,060	982	1,595
Other countries	5	4
Totals	1,124	1,030	1,692
Motor Spirits
British Borneo	1,078	901	728
Malaya			511
France			329
Bahrein Island	1,364	1,747	2,309
Iran	1,704	1,443	164
Indonesia	1,641	1,615	2,872
Saudi Arabia			175
Netherlands Antilles		84	807
Venezuela			249
United States of America		301	786
Other countries			1
Totals	5,787	6,091	8,931
Kerosene, Diesel, and Fuel Oils
United Kingdom			192
British Borneo	123	152	200
Malaya	35	124	260
British West Indies			126
Bahrein Island	162	128	265
Iran	1,512	889	31
Indonesia	1,028	1,278	1,392
Saudi Arabia	7	12	153
Mexico			148
Netherlands Antilles		161	446
United States of America	3	472	553
Other countries			78
Totals	2,870	3,216	3,844
Linseed Oil
United Kingdom	21	57	2
India	40	272	173
Canada	29	43	77
Uruguay	24
United States of America		19
Totals	114	391	252
Paints and Varnishes
United Kingdom	631	561	619
Union of South Africa			2
Canada	6	36	5
Australia	119	147	154
Netherlands	6	6	10
United States of America	95	253	129
Other countries	5	21	68
Totals	862	1,024	987
Cement
United Kingdom	212	287	539
Australia	46		48
Belgium	40	191
Japan		306	167
Other countries			2
Totals	298	784	756
Iron and Steel—Pipes, Tubes, and Fittings
United Kingdom	751	563	1,336
Canada	307	23	120
Australia	272	311	605
Belgium			159
France	153	221	205
United States of America	32	3	11
Other countries	5	15	109
Totals	1,520	1,136	2,545
Iron and Steel—Plate and Sheet
United Kingdom	1,856	1,828	3,198
Australia	201	209	402
Belgium	11	192	400
France	3	10	43
Japan		309	1,364
United States of America	229	278	684
Other countries	1	30	101
Totals	2,301	2,856	6,192
Iron and Steel—Cordage and Wire
United Kingdom	1,126	682	1,011
Canada		5	11
Australia	130	120	284
Belgium	3	620	870
Czechoslovakia	39	1
France	59	241	488
Netherlands			74
West German Federal Republic	3	45	118
Japan		377	97
United States of America	166	89	158
Other countries	2		30
Totals	1,528	2,180	3,141
Iron and Steel—Other Shapes and Forms
United Kingdom	1,342	860	1,043
Canada	8	10	25
Australia	399	321	664
Belgium	68	223	898
France	3	62	223
Luxemburg	46	24	136
Netherlands	43	2	16
West German Federal Republic		13	123
Japan		170	1,094
United States of America	120	251	410
Other countries	5	1	35
Totals	2,034	1,937	4,667
Aluminium and Alloys
United Kingdom	1,101	706	939
Canada	38	51	336
Belgium		22	65
Netherlands	39	92	139
West German Federal Republic		26	190
Japan		226	339
United States of America	5	68	52
Other countries	5	9	40
Totals	1,188	1,200	2,100
Brass, Bronze, and Copper
United Kingdom	1,520	1,405	1,861
Union of South Africa	19	48	8
Canada	80	389	866
Australia	55	66	68
United States of America	8	5	26
Other countries	1	5	35
Totals	1,683	1,918	2,864
Other Metals
United Kingdom	264	361	505
Malaya	74	400	11
Canada	2	26	11
Australia	233	308	263
Japan		10	18
United States of America	8	74	58
Other countries	1		6
Totals	582	1,179	872
Artificers' Tools
United Kingdom	719	780	898
Canada	157	194	232
Australia	175	216	127
Netherlands	1	13
Sweden	9	32	40
West German Federal Republic	1	23	74
United States of America	73	174	293
Other countries	6	19	22
Totals	1,141	1,451	1,686
Other Metal Manufactures (Not Machinery)
United Kingdom	4,394	5,071	7,054
Hong Kong	1	25	15
Canada	128	124	158
Australia	456	617	781
Austria	55	12	14
Belgium	1	167	161
France	4	37	41
Netherlands	15	62	138
Sweden	70	91	176
Switzerland	15	18	32
West German Federal Republic 12	82	225
United States of America	313	489	520
Other countries 11	25	60
Totals	5,475	6,820	9,375
Office and Commercial Machines and Appliances
United Kingdom	399	430	587
Canada	18	72	60
Australia	8	14	14
Sweden	33	39	18
Switzerland	1	14	17
West German Federal Republic	1	9	14
United States of America	275	282	444
Other countries	1	9	15
Totals	736	869	1,269
Agricultural Machinery
United Kingdom 689	740	1,435
Canada 32	60	111
Australia 197	231	395
France 8	34	65
Sweden 24	42	47
West German Federal Republic 3	14	41
United States of America 661	576	654
Other countries 2	5	12
Totals 1,616	1,702	2,760
Electric Motors and Parts
United Kingdom	11,040	1,051	1,280
Canada	90	31	50
Australia	75	63	57
Sweden	35	37	56
United States of America	42	32	32
Other countries	7	18	7
Totals	1,289	1,232	1,482
Insulated Cable and Wire
United Kingdom	1,604	1,525	2,676
Canada	4	4	54
Australia	29	45	42
Netherlands			140
Sweden	4	6	2
Other countries	5	9	9
Totals	1,646	1,589	2,923
Other Electrical Machinery and Equipment
United Kingdom	4,186	3,959	6,636
Hong Kong	33	39	36
Union of South Africa		14	5
Canada	137	182	154
Australia	354	361	569
Belgium	173	89	80
Netherlands	114	181	285
Sweden	46	39	87
Switzerland	11	14	20
West German Federal Republic	1	6	47
United States of America	206	335	392
Other countries	7	30	38
Totals	5,268	5,249	8,349
Engines and Parts
United Kingdom	822	926	1,359
Canada	138	217	241
Australia	53	79	61
West German Federal Republic		12	2
United States of America	382	529	379
Other countries	3	9	13
Totals	1,398	1,773	2,055
Tractors and Parts
United Kingdom	2,632	2,482	3,178
Canada	42	71	68
Australia	60	122	132
France	5	23	73
Italy	2	16	14
West German Federal Republic	34	20	15
United States of America	1,513	2,881	2,106
Other countries		2	2
Totals	4,288	5,617	5,588
Domestic Machinery and Appliances n.e.i.
United Kingdom	507	688	1,015
Australia	6	13	10
Czechoslovakia		27	19
Denmark	34	47	58
Italy	1	20	17
Netherlands		21	32
Sweden	13	16	22
Switzerland	10	52	66
West German Federal Republic		3	62
Other countries	4	8	8
Totals	575	895	1,309
Metal and Wood-working Machinery
United Kingdom	906	974	1,455
Canada	19	76	79
Australia	216	215	397
Sweden	78	37	67
West German Federal Republic	4	13	51
United States of America	148	214	385
Other countries	12	24	30
Totals	1,383	1,553	2,464
Other Machinery
United Kingdom	4,671	5,341	8,487
Union of South Africa	1	5	32
Canada	67	124	169
Australia	752	888	1,366
Belgium	13	5	8
Czechoslovakia	3	9	7
Denmark	6	14	75
France	44	14	53
Italy	5	5	31
Netherlands	5	23	31
Sweden	112	140	231
Switzerland	31	62	44
West German Federal Republic	83	132	362
United States of America	1,096	1,824	2,321
Other countries	9	8	80
Totals	6,898	8,594	13,297
Rubber and Manufactures n.e.i.
United Kingdom	429	593	812
Ceylon	31	26	51
Malaya	928	2,969	857
Union of South Africa	1	2	19
Canada	15	24	19
Australia	42	68	62
Western Samoa		13	14
France		18	15
Sweden	9	1	4
United States of America	18	46	41
Other countries		3	9
Totals	1,473	3,763	1,903
Leather and Manufactures n.e.i.
United Kingdom	566	519	415
India	38	26	30
Canada	9	11	8
Australia	68	56	50
France	8	15	4
United States of America	3	26	16
Other countries	4	12	16
Totals	696	665	539
Timber
British Borneo	8	5	15
British West Africa	13	10	35
Canada	255	485	634
Australia	577	501	1,469
Sweden	15	13	24
Japan	155	175	172
United States of America	56	55	363
Other countries	5	9	36
Totals	1,084	1,253	2,748
Table Glass and Chinaware
United Kingdom	903	888	1,349
Australia	26	49	49
Czechoslovakia	5	26	74
Other countries	5	26	75
Totals	939	989	1,547
Glass, Plate and Sheet
United Kingdom	323	300	551
Belgium	25	84	212
Other countries	6	14	12
Totals	354	398	775
Pulp and Paperboard
United Kingdom	134	236	293
Canada	153	208	226
Australia	23	21	23
Finland	29	104	254
Netherlands	5	11	38
Norway	29	51	36
Sweden	75	310	421
West German Federal Republic	16	6	19
United States of America	43	356	509
Other countries	8	25	29
Totals	515	1,328	1,848
Printing Paper
United Kingdom	705	1,192	1,564
Canada	753	1,275	2,021
Austria	1	127	333
Czechoslovakia		18	16
Finland	2	22	21
France		9	121
Netherlands	1	10	20
Norway	70	82	114
Sweden	42	76	66
French Morocco			50
United States of America	6	343	381
Other countries		28	48
Totals	1,580	3,182	4,755
Other Paper
United Kingdom	990	1,314	1,765
Canada	175	294	540
Australia	58	56	102
Austria	3	84	260
Belgium	1	10	51
Czechoslovakia	4	8	19
Finland	30	97	127
France	18	26	51
Italy			56
Netherlands	1	30	39
Norway	80	138	231
Sweden	225	300	374
West German Federal Republic	4	101	80
Japan		27	12
United States of America	42	214	701
Other countries	5	20	9
Totals	1,636	2,719	4,417
Printed Books, Papers, Magazines, and Music
United Kingdom	1,065	1,144	1,389
Canada	8	3	6
Australia	421	460	766
Netherlands	7	12	10
United States of America	128	133	177
Other countries	7	15	21
Totals	1,636	1,767	2,369
Other Stationery and Paper Manufactures
United Kingdom	565	922	743
Canada	3	2	5
Australia	95	115	123
Sweden		2	425
United States of America	17	16	20
Other countries	10	24	36
Totals	690	1,081	1,352
Timepieces and Parts
United Kingdom	234	217	156
Australia	56	48	25
France	23	28	15
Switzerland	195	487	433
West German Federal Republic		42	106
United States of America	4	9	8
Other countries	2	12	4
Totals	514	843	747
Photographic Equipment
United Kingdom	323	304	222
Australia	232	272	340
Belgium	6	23	16
France	12	62	18
Italy	1	11	4
West German Federal Republic	7	59	40
United States of America	20	18	22
Other countries	5	19	21
Totals	606	768	683
Scientific, Surgical, etc., Instruments and Appliances
United Kingdom	710	923	886
Union of South Africa	8	25	19
Canada	2	4	2
Australia	61	87	60
France	2	19	9
Italy	2	8	43
West German Federal Republic	5	14	31
United States of America	121	131	91
Other countries	10	19	32
Totals	921	1,230	1,173
Chemicals, Drugs and Druggists' Wares
United Kingdom	2,341	2,668	4,256
Hong Kong	8	5	7
India	4	17	7
Union of South Africa	29	32	47
Canada	8	42	18
Australia	722	1,072	1,140
Belgium	13	38	52
France	36	91	99
Italy	14	56	69
Netherlands	31	82	63
Norway	32	6	13
Sweden	5	16	23
Switzerland	20	44	67
West German Federal Republic	2	41	118
China	12	19	7
Japan	1	5	68
Brazil	9	5	4
United States of America	264	536	514
Other countries	23	30	59
Totals	3,574	4,805	6,631
Manures (including Crude Sulphur)
United Kingdom	155	137	165
Seychelles	2		56
Canada	18
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	84	107	99
Nauru	233	293	623
Belgium	542	586	568
France	275	207	366
Netherlands	11	43	66
West German Federal Republic	1	31	25
Germany—Eastern Zone		41	129
Japan		38	157
Algeria		15
Egypt	89
French Morocco	19
Tunisia	386	443	189
Chile	53	85	75
Tuamotu Archipelago	534
United States of America	383	620	748
Other countries	4	3	5
Totals	2,789	2,649	3,271
Aircraft and Parts
United Kingdom	314	574	313
Canada	2	40	16
Australia	28	21	21
United States of America	65	45	98
Other countries	1	1
Totals	410	681	448
Bicycles, Motor and Power Cycles, and Parts
United Kingdom	723	924	1,185
Australia	3	5	5
Other countries	5	9	36
Totals	731	938	1,226
Motor Cars
United Kingdom	4,254	8,250	12,523
Canada	12	515	843
Belgium			548
France		11	10
United States of America	25	198	373
Other countries	3	3	13
Totals	4,294	8,977	14,310
Commercial Vehicles
United Kingdom	2,284	3,035	3,811
Canada	48	15	126
Australia	2	112	259
United States of America	12	115	82
Other countries		1	2
Totals	2,346	3,278	4,280
Parts of Motor Vehicles
United Kingdom	804	874	1,633
Canada	187	248	202
Australia	149	186	196
France	2	9	13
United States of America	327	364	552
Other countries		1	7
Totals	1,469	1,682	2,603
Railway and Tramway Vehicles and Equipment
United Kingdom	1,853	1,025	2,416
Australia	41	37	94
United States of America	16	30	298
Other countries			1
Totals	1,910	1,092	2,809
Pneumatic Tires and Tubes (exceeding in. Diameter)
United Kingdom	469	561	894
Union of South Africa	26	2	27
Canada	10	20	49
United States of America	21	40	78
Other countries	2	5	10
Totals	528	628	1,058
Musical Instruments
United Kingdom	278	575	614
Australia	50	67	39
Czechoslovakia	4	9	5
France	13	5	8
Italy	11	36	50
West German Federal Republic	1	13	22
Other countries	8	36	37
Totals	365	741	775
Plastics and Synthetic Resins and Materials Therefor
United Kingdom	452	902	981
Australia	139	184	246
Canada	5	1	3
United States of America	75	105	113
Other countries	4	13	48
Totals	675	1,205	1,391

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED.—The following table shows the quantity imported, during each of the years 1950 to 1952, of a large number of the principal items.

Item	Unit of Quantity	1950	1951	1952
Canned fish	lb. (000)	5,987	6,070	3,128
Fruit—
Canned	lb. (000)	19,520	25,495	16,761
Dried	lb. (000)	22,423	26,035	19,333
Fresh—
Bananas	lb. (000)	27,937	19,490	13,045
Oranges	lb. (000)	19,173	27,732	20,424
Grain and pulse—
Wheat	Bush. (000)	5,835	5,172	8,463
Maizena and cornflour	lb. (000)	5,682	5,739	5,122
Rice (other than rice flour and ground rice)	Cwt.	63,500	48,200	50,800
Nuts, edible	lb. (000)	3,228	5,654	4,001
Vegetable butters and fats	lb. (000)	2,403	1,456	1,448
Confectionery	lb. (000)	213.8	213.4	188.4
Sugar	Cwt. (000)	2,532	2,011	2,169
Tea	lb. (000)	11,646	24,466	8,940
Coffee, raw	lb. (000)	1,124	1,187	934
Cocoa-beans, raw	lb. (000)	3,699	5,379	5,239
Cigarettes	lb. (000)	739	179	578
Tobacco	lb. (000)	5,643	6,541	6,812
Spirits (beverages)	Liq. gals. (000)	963	1,342	1,739
Wine	Liq. gals. (000)	383	277	264
Cotton and linen piece-goods—
Cheese-bandages and meat-wraps	lb. (000)	3,260	2,418	2,978
Knitted	lb. (000)	401	252	178
Woven	Sq. yds. (000)	53,901	52,769	41,776
Woollen piece-goods	Sq. yds. (000)	10,798	8,312	5,878
Silk, and artificial and synthetic fibre piece-goods—
Woven	Sq. yds. (000)	24,611	26,395	17,989
Knitted	lb. (000)	1,550	1,967	1,635
Yarns—
Cotton	lb. (000)	1,999	2,179	4,884
Silk and artificial silk	lb. (000)	647	887	583
Woollen	lb. (000)	1,790	2,109	1,163
Bags, sacks, wool-packs	Doz. (000)	275	1,370	634
Footwear—
Children's	Doz. pairs	42,100	39,000	48,000
Adults'	Doz. pairs	10,900	15,600	18,200
Hosiery—
Full length	Doz. pairs (000)	292.3	232.4	200.5
Half and three-quarter hose	Doz. pairs (000)	70.4	59.8	61.8
Gloves	Doz. pairs (000)	41.9	106.1	86.2
Hat-hoods, felt, unblocked	Doz. (000)	104.5	114.5	71.6
Mowers and harvesters	No.	5,616	5,875	6,699
Cream separators	No.	5,652	3,589	4,800
Electrical—
Storage batteries	No.	7,324	10,711	30,956
Wireless valves	No. (000)	634	847	1,364
Lamp bulbs	No. (000)	2,428	3,076	5,178
Sparking plugs	No. (000)	838	1,245	2,056
Typewriters	No.	5,513	5,760	7,900
Sewing machines, domestic	No.	24,913	30,655	29,238
Iron and steel—
Bar, rod, billet, bloom, pig	Cwt. (000)	1,366	998	2,462
Angle, tee, channel, girder	Cwt. (000)	480	288	564
Plate and sheet	Cwt. (000)	1,173	1,087	1,886
Pipes, tubes, and fittings	Cwt. (000)	566	403	806
Wire	Cwt. (000)	627	720	910
Copper: bar, plate, piping	Cwt.	66,700	59,500	75,600
Brass: bar, plate, piping	Cwt.	29,500	27,700	38,000
Lead: pig, sheet	Cwt.	15,100	23,100	61,900
Tin: bar, ingot, etc.	Cwt.	2,800	9,200	4,700
Cordage of metal	Cwt.	83,300	58,800	86,000
Bicycles	No.	38,746	33,315	63,246
Motor cycles	No.	2,234	5,199	4,276
Motor cars	No.	16,568	26,899	39,177
Lorries, trucks, etc.	No.	8,602	10,336	10,541
Tractors	No.	8,801	10,045	10,148
Tires (excluding bicycle)	No. (000)	101	76	134
Mineral oils—
Motor spirits	Gals. (000)	144,028	140,355	196,639
Lubricating oil	Gals. (000)	7,384	6,158	8,884
Kerosene	Gals. (000)	7,844	7,193	8,915
Crude petroleum fuel oils, etc.	Gals. (000)	130,465	124,131	136,666
Chemicals—
Acids	lb. (000)	1,464	1,794	2,291
Calcium carbide	Cwt.	40,100	20,800	39,800
Sulphur	Tons	62,499	73,760	79,246
Salt	Cwt. (000)	862	786	1,452
Caustic soda	Cwt.	45,100	49,900	81,500
Carbonate of soda	Cwt. (000)	213.3	145.9	339.9
Manures—
Nitrate of soda	Tons	3,067	264	3,241
Phosphatic	Tons	645,939	521,783	753,824
Potash	Tons	12,686	19,331	24,705
Sulphate of ammonia	Tons	4,587	4,692	4,405
Timber, sawn	Sup. ft. (000)	23,275	25,353	46,655
Glass: plate and sheet	Sq. ft. (000)	9,415	10,521	17,494
Linseed oil	Gals. (000)	188	637	380
Dry paints	Cwt. (000)	209.0	199.9	169.3
Plaster-of-paris	Cwt. (000)	168.5	141.2	376.1
Gypsum	Cwt. (000)	566.2	304.3	70.2.0
Asbestos, crude	Cwt.	75,700	47,000	94,900
Cement	Cwt. (000)	1,424.9	2,868.1	2,469.9
Pulp and paper building board	Sq. ft. (000)	2,127	6,871	14,412
Printing paper	Cwt. (000)	708.4	930.6	1,141.7
Other paper	Cwt. (000)	193.0	165.7	335.8
Cardboard, etc.	Cwt. (000)	160.2	281.1	338.6
Raw rubber	Cwt. (000)	102.0	152.3	62.4
Paraffin wax	lb. (000)	2,444	3,397	3,640
Asphalt, bitumen, and road oils	Cwt. (000)	559.4	347.9	638.0

Imports by Ports.—With the closing of the Customs Houses at Kaipara, Patea, Hokitika, and Westport (from 31 January 1953), New Zealand now has sixteen ports of entry for Customs purposes —seven in the North Island and eight in. the South Island, plus the port of Waitangi in the Chatham Islands.

The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry during the five years 1948–52. Waitangi had no overseas imports during this period.

Port	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
	£	£	£	£	£
Auckland	43,135,554	39,566,550	53,671,448	73,200,383	85,245,604
Tauranga	4,126	20,144	31,562	27,322	37,779
Gisborne	119,515	112,154	166,248	236,963	289,731
Napier	784,252	1,082,685	1,628,629	1,605,776	2,519,315
New Plymouth	1,103,331	1,639,790	2,291,301	2,396,849	4,064,827
Patea	20,391	18,746	24,867	14,109
Wanganui	412,547	377,656	467,726	604,592	830,685
Wellington	43,627,324	40,972,251	53,622,052	65,460,462	80,228,185
Wairau (including Picton)	37,225	33,125	35,885	233,966	86,247
Nelson	254,974	270,065	463,757	378,468	602,281
Westport	27,544	68,789	124,998	240,236	195,237
Greymouth	113,753	83,590	103,653	78,921	119,164
Hokitika	2,507	3,957	3,386
Lyttelton	15,830,984	14,441,063	18,547,289	25,904,065	32,808,217
Timaru	237,132	379,196	354,787	778,185	1,072,533
Oamaru	61,983	49,354	208,745	128,143	290,501
Dunedin	9,820,934	8,850,022	10,315,907	14,764,405	18,167,488
Invercargill	1,255,245	1,152,201	1,522,192	1,704,896	2,889,515
Totals	116,849,321	109,121,338	143,584,432	187,757,741	229,447,309

Three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Wellington or Auckland. For some years prior to the Second World War the value of imports received at Wellington exceeded the Auckland figure by a considerable margin, but in the last two years the Auckland figure has been higher than the Wellington total. On the basis of import values, the next most important ports are Lyttelton, Dunedin, New Plymouth, Invercargill, and Napier.

Perhaps it should be mentioned that imports by air are credited to the port in whose district the air-port is located. Thus goods coming in through Mechanic's Bay and Whenuapai are included in the Auckland figures, imports through Evans Bay in the Wellington figures, and through Harewood in the Lyttelton figures.

IMPORTS FROM COOK AND ASSOCIATED ISLANDS.—Trade with the Cook and associated islands is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows imports into New Zealand from the Group. Further particulars of the trade of the islands will be found in the section dealing with Island Territories.

Year	Imports
	£
1942	61,420
1943	80,781
1944	89,072
1945	80,959
1946	113,313
1947	117,434
1948	168,553
1949	171,314
1950	161,705
1951	192,398
1952	245,883

The principal articles imported into New Zealand from the Cook and associated islands are as follows.

Item	1949	1950	1951	1952
Fruits, fresh—	£	£	£	£
Bananas	1,379	1,335	2,384	2,951
Oranges	19,566	9,798	6,120	38,745
Tomatoes	11,717	8,758	13,761	32,213
Other	3,860	2,447	12,283	26,317
Copra	96,501	101,069	93,020	81,630
Apparel	22,752	24,612	48,083	42,264
Cinematograph films (re-imports)	3,633	2,561	3,760	4,015
Arrowroot	831	943	133
Hats and caps	1,367		191
Wickerware	3,679	3,958	3,920	4,831
All other items	6,029	6,224	8,745	12,917

10 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF.—The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled “The Customs Tariff of New Zealand,” published by the Government Printer, Wellington.

A summarized historical account of the Customs tariff of New Zealand, setting forth the principal developments and changes from earliest times to 1930, will be found in the 1931 number of the Year-Book. Considerations of space preclude a detailed account of the rates of duty now levied on goods imported into New Zealand, and only a brief survey of the nature of the tariff and of developments since 1930 can be given here.

The basis of Customs taxation is principally ad valorem, but specific duties are applied to some lines, including several of the principal revenue items such as alcoholic beverages, tobacco, tea, sugar, and motor spirits.

As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the tariff is printed in “multi-column” form listing rates of duty under the British Preferential Tariff, agreements with certain Commonwealth countries, the Most-favoured-nation Tariff (under which goods from all countries adhering to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs are admitted), and the General Tariff.

Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from the obtaining of revenue, has for its objects the following:

The development of New Zealand industries.
The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.
The encouragement of intra-Commonwealth trade.

Under the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 New Zealand, in common with the other Commonwealth countries, was committed to hold an inquiry into the tariff and, if necessary, to revise it in accordance with certain explicitly stated principles. As a result of the Ottawa Conference, dutiable goods the produce of the United Kingdom or of any British Commonwealth country except Canada (including Newfoundland), the Union of South Africa, the Republic of Ireland, India, and Pakistan were exempted from the surtax on duty previously payable. Reductions were made in the rates of duty charged on confectionery, apparel, hosiery, and silk and artificial silk piece-goods, and an additional preference to British Commonwealth countries was granted by the imposition of a duty or an increase in the existing rate on foreign cocoa-beans, raw coffee, cigars, rum, asphalt and bitumen, certain unground spices, and paper.

A Tariff Commission was set up in 1933 to inquire into the Customs tariff and to recommend for the consideration of the Government any alterations thereto with a view to implementing the agreement made at Ottawa, and having regard, inter alia, to the financial, economic, and industrial conditions in New Zealand.

The revision which followed the report of this Commission was the last complete revision of the tariff undertaken and the resultant new tariff, enacted by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934, is in the main still in operation, although extended in its scope by subsequent trade agreements. Some of the principal alterations made in the British preferential rates at that time were listed in the 1946 and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

This tariff retained the surtax payable since 1930 on foreign goods and on some goods of British origin, of nine-fortieths of the duty in some cases but one-twentieth in the case of a few lines, notably spirits, tobacco, timber, sugar, and motor spirits. With the exception of motor spirits, surtax is not payable in respect of goods qualifying for entry as the produce of the United Kingdom or any British Commonwealth country except Canada (including Newfoundland), the Union of South Africa, India, and Pakistan. The primage duty of 3 per cent imposed on 31 July 1931 on most goods not otherwise dutiable also remained, but the list of exemptions from primage has subsequently been extended. Imports from the Republic of Ireland are accorded the same preference under the British Preferential Tariff as those from Canada, the Union of South Africa, India, and Pakistan.

The following is a list of the principal items which, regardless of their country of origin, are entirely free of duty or subject to primage only:

Live animals; barley (if to be used as stock food); bran; pollard; seeds; vegetable butters or fats; currants; dates; figs; prunes; glucose and caramel; nuts, except walnuts; rice; acids, other than acetic; inorganic salts of metallic elements, and many other drugs and chemicals; certain surgical appliances; bags and sacks of jute, etc.; woolpacks; raw cotton; hatmakers' materials; buttons; needles and pins; wadding; cotton piece-goods for meat wraps and cheese bandages; umbrella-makers' materials; upholsterers' materials; coir, flax, and jute yarns; grindery; leather made from goat and kid skins; patent leathers; bricks, other than firebricks; marble in the rough; grindstones and whetstones; cinema films (subject, however, to film-hire tax); bookbinders' materials; cardboard and similar boards; parchment and greaseproof paper; printed books, papers, and music; beekeepers' apparatus; percussion caps, detonators, and explosives; hay rakes, reapers and binders, mowers, and certain other agricultural implements; certain dairying machinery; sewing machines; iron and other metal in ingots, pigs, or billets; fish and vegetable (other than linseed) oils; kerosene and other refined mineral oils not exceeding in specific gravity 0,860 at 60° F. (other than motor spirits); waxes; cork; crude tanning materials; manures; skins and hides.

The following are entirely free or subject only to primage duty if British but dutiable at varying rates if of foreign origin:

Tea in bulk; bananas; oranges, mandarins, and grapefruit; raisins; infants' and invalids' foods; mustard; salt; cocoa beans; raw coffee; sago and tapioca; cornflour; macaroni; acetic acid; cream of tartar; disinfectants; chloroform and other anaesthetics; antiseptics; manufactured dyes; most surgical, dental, optical, and scientific instruments and materials; felt, cotton, linen, and canvas piece-goods; silk and artificial silk piece-goods; leather cloth; oil baize; sewing, etc, cottons and threads; elastics; plain tape; tailors' lining materials; cotton, silk, and artificial silk yarns; plain tablecloths, towels, and similar plain articles; belting (other than leather); children's boots and shoes; gum boots; rubber hose; most rubber manufactures, except tires for motor vehicles; sheet glass; lenses; watch glasses; pianos and certain other musical instruments; gramophone records; artists' materials; paperhangings; sensitized surfaces; waxed paper; paper (other than wrapping) in large sheets or rolls; ball bearings; bolts and nuts; rivets and washers; buckles; chains; fire engines, fire extinguishers, and other fire-extinguishing appliances; typewriters; most electrical apparatus; measuring, testing, etc., appliances; sheep-shearing machines; tractors; artificers', etc., tools; machinery peculiar to industrial processes; iron and other metal in bars or sheets; wire and wire netting; metal cordage; rails for railways and tramways; under-carriage springs and metal fittings for vehicles; asphalt and bitumen; table chinaware.

With the object of reducing the cost of building in order to relieve the shortage of dwellings in particular and buildings in general, prefabricated houses, from 20 April 1951, Portland cement, from 6 July 1951, and steel, corrugated aluminium sheet, and certain timbers, from 9 November 1951, were temporarily exempted from all duty, regardless of their origin. The exemption respecting steel and aluminium sheet ceased on 31 December 1952. Provision has been made for the exemption of cement and timber to continue until 31 December 1954. The period during which the duties on prefabricated houses are suspended has been extended to 30 June 1954, but only in respect of importations under the British Preferential Tariff and under the Australian and Canadian Trade Agreements. For the period from 30 June 1953 to 30 June 1954 a duty of 20 per cent ad valorem has been imposed on importations of these goods under the Most-favoured-nation Tariff. The normal statutory rate of 50 per cent ad valorem plus nine-fortieths of the amount of the duty applies to importations under the General Tariff as from 30 June 1953.

It is impossible to give here an account of the range of duties payable on all of the numerous tariff items, but the duties as at the beginning of December 1953 on some of the principal commodities in general use are mentioned hereunder. It should be noted that, in addition, surtax or primage may also be payable.

Tea.—Tea in bulk, when of British origin, was placed on the free list as early as 1907, when the duty on foreign tea was fixed at 2d. per pound. In 1917 a duty of 3d. per pound was imposed on British tea, the foreign rate being increased to 5d. per pound. British tea in bulk was again placed on the free list in 1923, and the duty on foreign tea reduced to 2d. Rates of 3d. and 5d. per pound respectively were reinstated as from 31 July 1931. On and after 26 July 1948 a duty of 4d. per pound was introduced on tea in bulk imported from most-favoured nations, and from the same date all tea imported under the British preferential tariff was exempted from surtax. On 3 September 1951 tea in bulk of British origin was exempted from all duty and the rates on foreign tea became most-favoured-nation, 1d., general tariff, 2d. per pound.

Sugar.—Sugar also was placed on the free list in 1907, prior to which the duty was ½d. per pound. Refined sugar of foreign origin was charged ½d. per pound under the 1921 tariff, the rate being altered in 1923 to ed. and in 1924 to ¼d; irrespective of origin. The duty on refined sugar was increased to ¾d. per pound in 1931; and raw sugar was made dutiable at ½d. per pound. Raw sugar imported for refining at Auckland enters free of duty under bond, an excise duty of ½d. per pound being levied on the refined products. An additional 1d. per pound on both refined and raw sugar was imposed as from 9 February 1933.

Tobacco.—Prior to the imposition of special war taxation in 1939 the duties on tobacco were as follows: cigarettes, exceeding in weight 2½ lb. per 1,000, 10s. 6d. per pound; cigarettes, not exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 25s. 6d. per 1,000; cigars, 12s. per pound under the British preferential tariff and 14s. or 16s. under the general tariff; manufactured tobacco, cut, 6s. 10d. per pound, and plug, 6s. 8d. per pound; unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of cigarettes, 3s. per pound; and unmanufactured tobacco for the manufacture of tobacco, cigars, or snuff, 2s. per pound. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war, further duties, in addition to those set out above, and equal to 25 per cent of the duties, were levied as from 27 September 1939. As from 1 May 1942 this war impost was replaced by the following specific duties additional to the ordinary revenue duties quoted above: Cigarettes, exceeding 2½ lb. per 1,000, 8s. per pound; cigarettes, not exceeding 2£ lb. per 1,000, 20s. per 1,000; cigars, 8s. per pound; tobacco, cut and plug, 7s. 2d. per pound; tobacco, unmanufactured, for cigarettes, 9d. per pound; tobacco, unmanufactured, for the manufacture of tobacco, 6d. per pound. As from 31 October 1947 the duties on unmanufactured tobacco were consolidated and the one rate of 3s. 9d. per pound applied to all unmanufactured tobacco imported for manufacturing purposes in a bonded tobacco factory. As from 26 July 1948 surtax was removed from the duty on all cigarettes and unmanufactured tobacco imported from most-favoured nations or from any British Commonwealth country. On 26 September 1952 an additional duty of 2s. per pound plus 10 per cent ad valorem was imposed on cigars imported from all sources, and an exemption from all duty was provided for unmanufactured tobacco imported for manufacturing cigars in a bonded tobacco factory. A duty of ½d. British preferential tariff or ¾d. general tariff is levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof. The excise duties on tobacco, etc., made in New Zealand are shown later under “Excise Duties”.

Alcoholic Beverages.—Prior to the imposition in 1939 of special taxation for war purposes the rate of duty payable on most spirituous beverages was 40s. per proof gallon, except rum of foreign origin, which was dutiable at 44s. per proof gallon. Sparkling wine was liable to a duty of 10s. per gallon under the British preferential tariff, 9s. 6d. under the trade agreement with the Union of South Africa, and 13s. or 15s. under the general tariff. Australian and South African still wines were liable to a duty of 5s. 6d. per gallon, the duty under the British preferential tariff was 4s. and under the general tariff, 6s. The duty on imported beer was 1s. 9d. per gallon under the British preferential tariff, and 3s. under the general tariff. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war further duties, in addition to those set out above, and equal to 15 per cent of the duties, were levied as from 27 September 1939; these were increased to 50 per cent as from 1 May 1942, except in the case of beer, on which the additional duty is 1s. 3d. per gallon.

On 26 July 1948 rum, brandy, and gin imported from British Commonwealth countries and most-favoured nations were exempted from surtax and a special most-favoured-nation rate of 15s. per gallon (including the additional 1942 duty) was established for champagne. The excise duty on beer produced in New Zealand is given under “Excise Duties.”

Apparel.—Most apparel, except that made to the order or measurement of a New Zealand resident which is liable to duty at the rate of 40 per cent under the British preferential tariff, pays duty at the rate of 20 per cent or 25 per cent under the British preferential tariff and 65 per cent under the general tariff. The duties on apparel of Canadian and Australian origin vary from the British preferential rates to 40 per cent, 45 per cent, and 55 per cent.

Timber.—A review of the rates of duty imposed is given on pages 271–2 of the 1951–52 Year-Book. The duties on coniferous timbers, other than dressed, were suspended from 9 November 1951.

Textiles.—Piece-goods of cotton, silk, or artificial silk are in general admitted free of duty under the British preferential tariff and liable to 15 per cent from foreign sources. Dress, curtain, and similar nets are dutiable at 15 per cent British preferential and 35 per cent most-favoured-nation tariff. For woollen piece-goods, other than moquettes, the rates are 20 per cent and 40 per cent respectively.

Motor Vehicles.—Motor vehicles imported in an unassembled or completely knocked-down condition are dutiable at 5 per cent under the British preferential tariff, 40 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 50 per cent under the general tariff. Assembled motor vehicles are subject to a duty of 15 per cent, if admissible under the British preferential tariff, 50 per cent under the most-favoured-nation tariff, and 60 per cent if liable to the general tariff. Rates intermediate between the British preferential and the most-favoured-nation tariffs apply to vehicles of substantially Canadian origin.

Tires for Motor Vehicles.—Previously dutiable at 10 per cent ad valorem under the British preferential tariff and 40 per cent under the general tariff, these were in 1934 made subject to a duty based on the weight of the tires. Pneumatic rubber tires for motor vehicles, inner tubes of rubber therefor, and moulded rubber strip for repair of such tires are now dutiable at 2£d. per pound under the British preferential tariff and 8d. per pound under the general tariff. Solid rubber tires are liable to a duty of 1d. per pound and 4d. per pound under the British preferential and general tariffs respectively.

Motor Spirits.—Towards the end of 1927 the Motor Spirits Taxation Act of that year imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (increased in 1930 to 6d.) on motor spirits. The proceeds of this tax were devoted to roading purposes. In 1931 and 1933 an increase in duty of 2d. per gallon in each year was made, and an additional 4d. per gallon duty was imposed as from 2 August 1939. The total duty on motor spirits remained at 1s. 2d. per gallon (plus a surtax of one-twentieth of the duty if of foreign origin) until 3 September 1951, when it was reduced by 2d. per gallon. On 4 December 1951 the surtax was made payable also on motor spirits of British origin. The tax on motor spirits was raised to 1s. 3d. per gallon from 26 November 1953, all of which is to be devoted to roading purposes after 1 April 1954.

PROHIBITED AND RESTRICTED IMPORTS.—Full particulars of the goods which are prohibited or restricted from being imported into New Zealand are contained in the publication entitled “The Customs Tariff of New Zealand.”

The Import Control Regulations 1938 (made by Order in Council of 5 December 1938) prohibit the importation of any goods except in pursuance of a licence under the regulations or of an exemption granted by the Minister of Customs. A considerable number of items were exempted from import licensing during 1950 and 1951, and of approximately 1,000 items in the earlier import licensing schedules only 296 remained in the 1953 schedule. Some of these items were residual portions only of items appearing in the previous schedules (see page 273).

EXCISE DUTIES.—An important excise duty is that on beer, which up to 1915 was charged at the rate of 3d. per gallon. In that year the beer duty was altered so as to increase according to the specific gravity of the worts used, the rate being 3¾d. per gallon when the specific gravity did not exceed 1,047, and increasing by d. per gallon for every unit of specific gravity up to 1,055, and by ⅛d. thereafter. On 2 August 1917 the minimum rate of duty for beer was increased from 3¾d. to 4¾d. per gallon, and further (on 15 September 1917) to 5¾d., with a maximum of 6d. per gallon. In 1921 a rate of 11½d. per gallon (increased to 1s. in 1930, and to 1s. 6d. in 1931) was imposed where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,047, the rate being increased by d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,047. The basic rate of excise duty on beer was reduced from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 3d. per gallon by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934, but was increased to 1s. 9d. per gallon as from 2 August 1939. In order to assist in financing the expenses of the war a further increase to 2s. per gallon was made as from 27 September 1939. The duty was again increased on 11 May 1942, when provision was also made for a lower alcoholic content. When the specific gravity of the worts was 1,036 the new duty was 3s. per gallon, rising by 1d. for every unit of specific gravity above, and falling by 1d. for every unit below, 1,036, but subject to a minimum of 2s. 3d. per gallon. These duties were further amended as from 22 August 1947 by abolishing the reduction of 1d. in the basic duty for every unit of specific gravity below 1,036, so that the duty is now 3s. per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts does not exceed 1,036, increased by 1d. for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 60° F. is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Prior to the introduction of special taxation for war purposes, cut tobacco was charged an excise duty of 4s. 6d. per pound; other tobacco, 4s. 4d. per pound. Cigars and snuff paid 6s. per pound, and the excise duty on cigarettes made in New Zealand was 13s. 6d. per 1,000 on cigarettes not exceeding in weight 2£ lb. per 1,000, and 5s. 6d. per pound on cigarettes over 2½lb. per 1,000. A war surcharge of 25 per cent of the excise duty on tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, and snuff was levied as from 27 September 1939, but this was replaced on 1 May 1942 by additional taxation similar to that imposed on imported tobacco, etc. (see page 318). An excise duty of ½d. is levied on each sixty cigarette tubes or papers or the equivalent thereof.

The Customs Acts Amendment Act 1931 imposed an excise duty of ½d. per pound (increased to 1d. per pound from 9 February 1933) on sugar manufactured in New Zealand.

Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on imported alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: on alcohol used in the manufacture of— perfumed spirits, 36s. per proof gallon; toilet preparations, 34s.; culinary and flavouring essences, 20s.; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 per cent of proof spirit, 4s. 6d. per gallon. In similar medicinal preparations containing not more than 50 per cent, the alcohol used is duty-free.

EXPORT DUTIES.—The Gold Duty Act of 1858 first imposed an export duty on gold. This duty was amended from time to time and was finally abolished in 1949, there being now no export duty on gold. A summary of the movements on gold duty is available on page 273 of the 1951–52 Year-Book.

An export duty was also imposed on timber (white-pine and kauri) by Acts of 1901 and 1903, and still operates. The present rates of 5s. per 100 superficial feet on logs, and 3s. or 5s. per 100 superficial feet on flitches, were imposed by the Timber Export Duty Order of 23 June 1937. This duty is not payable in respect of sawn timber in smaller sizes.

The Wool Industry Act 1944 provides for a levy on all wool exported or delivered to a wool manufacturer for use in New Zealand, and the proceeds, less cost of collection, etc., are payable to the New Zealand Wool Board established under the Act to enable it to carry out its functions. At the present time, however, the provisions in regard to the payment of the levy are suspended, but an equivalent amount is received by the Board from the contributory charge imposed by the Wool Commission Act 1951 (see Section 20A). Prior to the passing of the Wool Industry Act 1944 a similar levy was payable under the authority of the Wool Industry Promotion Act 1936 on exported wool only.

CUSTOMS REVENUE.—In the earlier years of New Zealand's history the revenue derived from Customs and excise duties represented a greater proportion of the total revenue from taxation than it does today. For a considerable period prior to 1914 there was a constant tendency for this proportion to decrease, and the taxation legislation of the First World War period temporarily accelerated the movement. From 1921–22 to 1925–26 the percentage rose continuously, but did not regain its former proportions. A gradual decline then commenced and, with one slight interruption (1935–36), continued up to and including 1945–46. The low percentages following the year 1938–39 were the result of the huge increase in taxation imposed for war purposes, only a small proportion of which was derived from Customs and excise duties. The amount of war taxation received by way of Customs and excise duties in 1945–46 was only £4,574,021 out of a total war taxation of £51,416,847. The high figures shown in the last five years are accounted for by a substantial increase in dutiable imports. The figures for the last twenty years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 March	Total Taxation	Customs and Excise Duties
Year Ended 31 March	Total Taxation	Amount	Percentage of Total Taxation
	£	£	Per Cent
1934	21,473,406	7,140,478	33.25
1935	24,739,409	8,094,605	32.72
1936	25,478,598	8,876,203	34.84
1937	31,181,603	10,340,838	33.16
1938	36,798,971	11,737,170	31.90
1939	37,797,904	11,727,224	31.03
1940	44,522,028	11,734,784	26.36
1941	61,360,840	11,258,370	18.35
1942	68,163,256	10,622,092	15.58
1941	87,940,844	12,142,115	14.03
1944	100,839,484	13,922,574	13.81
1945	108,681,814	14,869,449	13.68
1946	114,954,873	15,682,637	13.64
1947	113,119,046	19,970,492	17.65
1948	122,275,911	28,794,932	23.55
1949	130,440,249	23,666,860	18.14
1950	135,556,319	26,296,873	19.40
1951	157,946,975	28,636,207	18.13
1952	200,549,881	37,873,400	18.88
1953	199,771,075	32,739,907	16.39

The figures for Customs and excise duties are exclusive of tire tax and the highways proportion (6d. per gallon) of the motor-spirits tax, two classes of taxes collected through the Customs and paid to the Consolidated Fund in the years quoted, sums at least equal to these amounts being allocated for road-maintenance purposes. Such taxation is, however, included in total taxation. Figures given under the heading of Customs and excise duties include for 1939–40 and subsequent years the amounts received on account of additional rates imposed on certain commodities for war purposes. Most of these additional rates are still in operation.

The Customs and excise duties received during the last three financial years available are shown in more detail in the next table. The figures have been rounded off to the nearest thousand. Primage duties and surtax are included, but not tire tax or the highways proportion of motor-spirits tax, which do not really represent Customs taxation, although levied on imports and for the sake of convenience collected through the Customs.

—	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional.
Customs duties—	£	£	£
Wines and spirits	2,097,000	2,874,000	2,914,000
Cigars, cigarettes, snuff, and tobacco	1,343,000	1,601,000	1,150,000
Motor spirits	5,051,000	4,411,000	4,649,000
Other duties, including primage and surtax	8,440,000	16,576,000	11,371,000
Totals, Customs duties	16,931,000	25,462,000	20,084,000
Excise duties—
Alcohol used in perfumed spirit, etc., in New Zealand	42,000	43,000	46,000
Cigarette papers and tubes	80,000	78,000	93,000
Tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, snuff, New Zealand manufactured	5,747,000	6,335,000	6,350,000
Beer, New Zealand	5,036,000	5,274,000	5,447,000
Sugar	800,000	681,000	720,000
Totals, excise duties	11,705,000	12,411,000	12,656,000
Grand totals, Customs and excise duties	28,636,000	37,873,000	32,740,000

Revenue per head of population—	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.
From Customs duties	8	14	9	12	16	7	9	17	2
From excise duties	6	0	9	6	5	1	6	4	2
Totals	14	15	6	19	1	8	16	1	4

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY.—Preference to British Commonwealth countries in respect of certain commodities was provided for in the earliest tariff in force in New Zealand—that introduced in 1841. The amended tariff of 1844 involved the dropping of this preference to British goods, but two years later preference was again introduced.

The first definite attempt at reciprocity was made in 1870, when the Colonial Reciprocity Act gave power to the Government to make reciprocal agreements with the Australian States, including Tasmania; but this Act failed to receive the Royal assent and consequently lapsed.

In 1895, however, the Customs Duties Reciprocity Act received the Royal assent and ratified an agreement which had been tentatively proposed with South Australia, besides giving power to the Government to make further agreements with the other Australian States. In 1907 the New Zealand and South African Customs Treaty was negotiated. A tariff agreement with the Australian Commonwealth has been in operation since 1922, and with Canada since 1932.

Imperial preference proper was introduced in New Zealand by the Preferential and Reciprocal Trade Act 1903, which followed the lead given by Canada. At first only a few items were covered by the extra duties levied upon goods of foreign origin, but the Tariff Act of 1907 extended this additional preferential duty to a great number of items. The effect of the 1921, 1927, 1930, and 1934 tariffs has been to widen the disparity in the duty as between goods of British Commonwealth countries and those of foreign origin. Under the Ottawa agreement New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods where the margin of preference did not exceed 20 per cent, and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 per cent without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom. In the tariff of 1934, where reductions in duty were made under the British preferential tariff, the rates of duty under the general (foreign) tariff were, except in a few cases, retained.

The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries and which are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:

Goods wholly the produce of such countries:
Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw material and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured raw materials which are enumerated in the regulations:
Goods partially manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such, countries and/or labour performed within such countries in each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British Commonwealth countries, the products of which are admissible under the British preferential tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Prior to 1 April 1926 the minimum mentioned in paragraph (c), which is now one-half, was one-fourth.

In the calculation of the proportion of produce or labour none of the following items is to be included or considered:

Manufacturer's profit, or the profit or remuneration of any trader, agent, broker, or other person dealing in the article in its finished condition:
Royalties payable in respect of the finished goods:
The cost of outside packages or any cost of packing the goods thereinto:
Administrative and general office expenses:
Any cost of conveying, insuring, or shipping the goods subsequent to their manufacture:
Any other charges incurred subsequent to the completion of the manufacture of the goods.

Tea to be free of duty must have been grown in some part of the British Commonwealth, and the final process of manufacture must also have been performed in some country of the British Commonwealth.

Under the reciprocal trade agreements with Australia and Canada discussed hereunder, the duties on certain items are sometimes higher than the corresponding duties under the British preferential tariff.

Reciprocity with the Union of South Africa.—As already stated, there was inaugurated in 1907 a reciprocal arrangement with the Union of South Africa whereby products of that country, when imported direct, were admitted into New Zealand at reduced rates of duty, in return for similar concessions granted by South Africa in respect of New Zealand products. This agreement was revised in 1922, the duties on wines being increased, and tobacco being deleted from the list. A further alteration, whereby maize and dried apples were deleted from the list, was made in 1925. Dried fruits formerly came under the agreement, being admitted free when the general tariff was 4d. per pound and the British preferential rate 2d. On 1 January 1934, however, the general tariff was reduced to 2d. and the British rate made free.

The items specially provided for in the agreement were feathers, fish, fresh fruit, dried fruit, tea, and wine; while in the case of all other dutiable goods, with the exception of spirits and tobacco, a reduction of 3 per cent of the duty payable was made.

The legislation giving effect to the arrangement with the Union of South Africa was revoked by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948, although that Act provides for the continuation of most of the concessions previously granted, an exception being the reduction of 3 per cent of the duty formerly granted.

The following table shows the merchandise trade with the Union of South Africa during the eleven years ended in 1952.

Year	Merchandise Imports		Merchandise Exports to Union of South Africa
Year	From Union of South Africa	Of Union of South Africa Origin	Merchandise Exports to Union of South Africa
	£	£	£
1942	207,426	210,173	19,521
1943	91,273	93,389	26,882
1944	82,356	86,881	48,033
1945	237,849	247,035	193,899
1946	221,582	220,866	59,161
1947	490,345	494,861	65,064
1948	748,044	725,151	89,053
1949	452,616	472,805	132,934
1950	939,877	985,118	289,742
1951	1,612,663	1,719,643	268,725
1952	1,205,894	1,251,663	557,847

Reciprocity with Australia.—A trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand was first entered into on 11 April 1922. Under this agreement each country granted to goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods on which special rates were fixed.

During 1933 a Minister of the Commonwealth Government visited New Zealand to discuss the commercial relations between the two countries. A provisional agreement was reached in April 1933, and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act 1933. The new agreement came into operation from 1 December 1933.

The agreement provided for lower duties than those under the British preferential tariff on many lines of New Zealand products entering Australia—e.g., fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; hay; chaff; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Article X of the agreement sets out the conditions under which goods are regarded as the produce or manufacture of Australia or New Zealand.

Article IX provides that, where with respect to any goods not specially enumerated in the agreement the rate of duty thereon under the New Zealand British preferential tariff is less than the duty under the Australian British preferential tariff, the New Zealand Government may request the Australian Government to admit into the Commonwealth, New Zealand produced goods of such class at the rate of duty chargeable on goods of that class under the New Zealand British preferential tariff. If within three calendar months after the receipt of the request the Australian Government does not comply therewith, the New Zealand Government may, without further notice, impose on such goods of Australian origin a rate of duty not being greater than the rate of duty for the time being in force in Australia on the like goods under the Australian British preferential tariff. A similar provision is made with respect to the admission of Australian produced goods into New Zealand.

The rates of duty payable on Australian goods imported into New Zealand and not specifically mentioned in the agreement are automatically affected by changes in the New Zealand British preferential tariff. A modification of the agreement was made in May 1935, whereunder the duty on certain Australian goods which would otherwise have been reduced or removed from 1 June 1935, following changes made in the British preferential tariff by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934, remained unaltered.

The duties on many Australian goods were increased as from 1 March 1938 by an Order in Council made on 26 February 1938, while the duties on fresh grapes, canned pineapples, slippers, boots and shoes, and certain types of refrigerating units were reduced as from 26 July 1948 by the Trade Agreement (Australia) Order 1948.

Merchandise trade between New Zealand and Australia during the eleven years ended in 1952 has been as follows.

Year	Merchandise Imports		Merchandise Exports to Australia
Year	From Australia	Of Australian Origin	Merchandise Exports to Australia
	£	£	£
1942	8,789,804	8,142,273	2,717,619
1943	10,354,786	10,160,380	2,849,125
1944	10,483,555	10,277,373	3,092,981
1945	8,651,543	8,326,494	4,195,247
1946	10,733,495	10,423,886	3,630,750
1947	15,467,441	14,940,541	4,096,064
1948	14,904,330	14,307,853	3,954,416
1949	16,339,423	15,673,651	3,747,746
1950	19,490,301	19,025,998	4,779,368
1951	21,940,432	21,254,105	5,112,874
1952	24,893,628	24,887,193	5,930,237

Reciprocity with Canada.—From October 1925 reciprocal trade arrangements with respect to certain items of Canada–New Zealand trade were in force, but ceased in May 1930.

Negotiations between the Canadian and New Zealand Governments bore fruit in a trade agreement which came into force in both countries for a period originally of one year, as from 24 May 1932. This agreement has been extended from time to time, and is now to continue in force indefinitely.

By Order in Council dated 21 July 1948 the duties on canned fish and certain types of refrigerating units were reduced as from 26 July 1948, and the duties on slippers, boots and shoes, and motor vehicles were consolidated by the absorption of surtax into the ad valorem rate.

Pursuant to the agreement the following rates inter alia apply to New Zealand products imported into Canada: butter, 5 cents per pound; cheese, 1 cent per pound; and lamb and mutton, ½ cent per pound; while sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst commodities admitted free.

The rates of duty payable in New Zealand on certain imports from Canada are as under: Canned fish. 1 ½d. per pound; silk or artificial silk or nylon stockings, 55 per cent; electric cooking and heating appliances, 30 per cent; certain agricultural implements, 35 per cent; timber, 7s. 6d. or 9s. 6d. (rough sawn) and 19s. (sawn and dressed) per 100 superficial feet. The duty on undressed coniferous

timbers has been suspended since 9 November 1951. Canadian goods not mentioned in the agreement enter New Zealand at the ordinary British preferential rates of duty. In some instances where the British preferential rates of duty were reduced by the 1934 tariff, the rates on certain Canadian goods mentioned in the agreement were also reduced to the British preferential level. Special duties are payable on motor vehicles of Canadian origin, these duties varying according to the Canadian content.

Merchandise trade with Canada during the eleven years ended in 1952 is shown in the following table.

Year	Merchandise Imports		Merchandise Exports to Canada
Year	From Canada	Of Canadian Origin	Merchandise Exports to Canada
* Includes Newfoundland.
	£	£	£
1942	2,350,018	2,351,262	3,616,646
1943	11,453,203	11,455,147	4,535,207
1944	5,103,438	5,104,506	1,939,814
1945	5,079,026	5,094,353	2,250,862
1946	4,650,150	4,657,075	2,803,282
1947	11,580,519	11,610,254	3,059,660
1948	6,868,949	6,913,710	2,990,814
1949	4,626,795	4,639,386	2,196,352
1950	3,622,398	3,568,936	3,556,916
1951	6,402,784	6,145,269	8,564,989
1952	8,277,165	8,070,631	5,212,478

Other Trade Arrangements.—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth. Particulars of the trade agreements with certain European countries are contained in the 1940 and previous issues of the Year-Book, but, owing to the war with Germany and its subsequent effects, these agreements became largely inoperative. In certain instances the agreements referred to became applicable to New Zealand automatically as a member of the British Commonwealth, while in others New Zealand became a party by signifying her willingness to adhere to treaties negotiated by the United Kingdom. New Zealand also in some cases entered into agreements with foreign countries by direct negotiation with those countries, among these being Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and in others the United Kingdom acted for New Zealand in making trade agreements on her behalf. In some instances the trade involved was insignificant.

On the resumption of normal trade relations after the Second World War most-favoured-nation preferences were accorded to the following countries: Argentina, Belgium and Luxemburg, Brazil, China, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Greece, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and Sweden, while the agreement with Switzerland provided for similar preferences on certain products only.

The Customs (Tariff Preference and General) Regulations 1936 set out the classes of goods from foreign countries which may be entered at concessional rates of duty applying to any such countries as a result of treaty obligations between New Zealand and such countries, viz:

Goods wholly the produce of such a country:
Goods wholly manufactured in such a country from unmanufactured raw materials:
Goods partially manufactured in such a country, provided (1) that the final process of manufacture has been performed in that country or in any British country the produce or manufactures of which are entitled to be entered under the British preferential tariff; (2) that the expenditure in material the produce of that country, and/or in labour performed in that country, on each and every article is not less than one-half of the factory or works cost of such article in its finished state.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GENEVA).—At its first meeting in February 1946 the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations set up a Preparatory Committee to prepare the ground for an International Conference on Trade and Employment, and New Zealand was appointed a member.

At the Committee's first session in London during October and November 1946, the important step was taken of drawing up a procedure for the negotiation of a multilateral trade agreement embodying tariff concessions by the participating countries.

These tariff negotiations took place during the second session of the Preparatory Committee in Geneva in 1947, and the concessions given by each country were embodied in schedules to a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The tariff negotiations themselves were bilateral but all the concessions were applied multi-laterally, so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants, and, conversely, New Zealand's concessions apply to all the other countries which took part. In addition, the existing commitments to countries mentioned earlier that they should receive most-favoured-nation treatment required that the benefits should be extended to them even though some of these countries did not adhere to the General Agreement. Where they did adhere the Agreement superseded the existing arrangements.

Concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions of duties and bindings of duties against increase.

The Agreement, which provides for concessions under both the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, was applied provisionally by New Zealand on 26 July 1948.

Further negotiations took place at Annecy (1949) and Torquay (1950–51).

The foreign countries to whose products the concessional rates of duty apply (i.e., the most-favoured nations) were proclaimed in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Provisional Application Order 1948, and with later additions and deletions are now as follows: Argentina, Austria, Belgium (including overseas territories), Brazil, Chile, China, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Federal Republic of Germany, Finland, France (including overseas territories), Greece, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, Luxemburg, Netherlands (including overseas territories), Nicaragua, Norway, Peru, Republic of the United States of Indonesia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United States of America, Uruguay.

Some of the more important products of those countries in respect of which concessions have been made are as follows: onions; tea; raw coffee; raisins; oranges; certain canned fruits; spices; sago; matches; tapioca; cornflour; cigars; cigarettes; tobacco; rum; brandy; gin; wines; flavouring essences; surgical and dental instruments; carpets; linoleum; lace; sewing cotton; woollen piece-goods; belting for machinery; leather manufactures; glassware; clocks; fancy goods; toys; sporting requisites; certain musical instruments; gramophones; came/as and photographic goods; toilet preparations; tobacco pipes; paperhangings; certain types of paper; adding and accounting machines; cash registers; typewriters; duplicating machines; certain lawn mowers, power operated; engines for motor cycles, other motor vehicles, and tractors; certain electrical machinery and appliances; certain mining and quarrying machinery; tractors; certain industrial machinery; refrigerators; hardware; wire; certain pipes and tubes; wire netting; bicycles; motor cycles; motor vehicles; certain timbers.

Chapter 11. SECTION 11—SHIPPING AND TRADE OF PORTS

Table of Contents

THE tonnage of all shipping arriving at or departing from New Zealand ports is recorded by the Customs authorities. On the arrival or departure of an overseas merchant vessel, foreign or coastwise, the master or owner must “enter” or “clear” the vessel with the Collector of Customs of the port concerned. The movement of coastal shipping is similarly recorded.

The figures given in this section include all registered merchant vessels trading at New Zealand ports: thus they exclude naval vessels when engaged in their normal duties, private launches, lighters engaged in loading or unloading vessels in roadsteads, trawlers and other fishing vessels, and yachts when not employed in trading. Merchant vessels used in the transport of troops are included.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING.—In recording the following statistics only one entry and one clearance is counted for each voyage: at the first port of call and the port of final departure, regardless of the number of ports visited by the vessel while in New Zealand waters.

However, statistics are also compiled (see page 330) showing the relative overseas trade of the various ports, wherein every overseas vessel is recorded, whether entered or cleared, overseas or coastwise.

The following table gives the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels entering and clearing New Zealand ports during the years 1942–52, distinguishing those entered and cleared “with cargo” (cargo manifest tonnages are also shown for these) from those “in ballast.”

Year	With Cargo			In Ballast^†		Total
Year	Vessels	Net Tonnage	Cargo Manifest Tonnage^*	Vessels	Net Tonnage	Vessels	Net Tonnage
* Direct comparisons of import and export tonnages are invalid since the former contain a much higher proportion of goods recorded in “measurement” tons than do the latter. † “In ballast” means (a) inwards—“having no cargo for discharge in New Zealand”; (b) outwards—“having no cargo loaded in New Zealand.”
Entered
1942	363	1,414,632	1,975,601	155	883,507	518	2,298,139
1943	320	1,230,295	1,916,239	161	834,199	481	2,064,494
1944	295	1,067,532	1,815,514	151	721,155	446	1,788,687
1945	275	1,096,385	1,712,923	138	722,574	413	1,818,959
1946	344	1,485,419	2,097,037	118	656,107	462	2,141,526
1947	414	1,812,703	2,822,520	52	245,288	466	2,057,991
1948	446	1,857,825	2,758,418	60	279,656	506	2,137,481
1949	509	2,186,692	3,100,368	54	285,964	563	2,472,656
1950	549	2,464,093	3,492,032	48	224,130	597	2,688,223
1951	502	2,316,344	3,641,667	44	236,465	546	2,552,809
1952	652	2,759,949	4,400,254	52	268,081	704	3,028,030
Cleared
1942	292	1,319,805	1,042,464	225	969,656	517	2,289,461
1943	250	1,019,390	971,492	222	1,026,888	472	2,046,278
1944	227	918,463	855,360	230	864,523	457	1,782,986
1945	255	1,108,877	891,347	158	727,850	413	1,836,727
1946	284	1,343,658	1,044,616	151	689,169	435	2,032,827
1947	296	1,285,440	1,077,184	167	769,243	463	2,054,683
1948	330	1,420,401	1,118,493	164	721,910	494	2,142,311
1949	382	1,703,993	1,033,725	174	740,975	556	2,444,968
1950	363	1,713,242	1,163,934	212	911,647	575	2,624,889
1951	332	1,561,642	1,129,629	218	986,398	550	2,548,040
1952	388	1,774,658	1,173,577	338	1,365,638	726	3,140,296

The ballast figures include vessels embarking and disembarking passengers only, or entering for, or clearing with, bunkers and stores only, as well as the normal ballast movement.

Ports of Arrival and Departure.—The next table shows the extent to which various ports were made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure by overseas vessels during the last three years. The figures should not be regarded as indicating the relative overseas trade of the various ports.

Port	Entered			Cleared
Port	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
	Net Tons	Net Tons	Net Tons	Net Tons	Net Tons	Net Tons
Auckland	1,190,936	1,273,871	1,469,579	994,137	880,283	1,120,285
Tauranga	6		2,474	5,723	13,028	8,851
Gisborne	328		6,732			12,024
Napier	84,516	37,737	54,453	99,464	126,371	109,883
New Plymouth	96,450	107,887	131,096	74,317	76,940	80,589
Wanganui			221
Wellington	954,332	768,445	888,480	979,887	933,205	1,128,749
Picton		2,214
Nelson	265	11,455	7,300	19,328	18,434	10,686
Westport	79	155	310	155	4,191	4,473
Greymouth	155		1,000	2,561		1,000
Lyttelton	223,350	191,721	286,870	180,816	137,491	250,273
Timaru	31,582	24,737	40,702	24,851	39,336	45,172
Oamaru			2,658			3,946
Dunedin	79,401	95,605	112,419	163,669	239,953	250,972
Bluff	26,823	38,982	23,736	79,981	78,808	113,393
Totals	2,688,223	2,552,809	3,028,030	2,624,889	2,548,040	3,140,296

Figures for the last three years show that 79 per cent of overseas vessels (on a tonnage basis) arriving in New Zealand made Auckland or Wellington their first port of entry.

For the same period, and again on a tonnage basis, 72 per cent of overseas vessels finally departing from New Zealand were cleared from either Auckland or Wellington.

Direction of Overseas Shipping.—Particulars of the number and net tonnage of vessels entered and cleared between New Zealand and various countries during 1951 and 1952 are given in the following table.

—	1951				1952
	Entered		Cleared		Entered		Cleared
	No.	Net Tonnage	No.	Net Tonnage	No.	Net Tonnage	No.	Net Tonnage
United Kingdom	114	716,810	134	882,116	147	914,480	143	949,784
British Borneo	14	76,786	12	62,652	5	28,168	3	15,371
Republic of India	9	38,886	4	12,256	5	17,992	9	34,668
Malaya and Singapore	23	117,780	5	24,993	27	142,181	6	34,453
Union of South Africa	5	26,622			6	34,123	1	4,453
Canada	18	102,304	19	99,786	19	96,577	20	107,795
Australia	174	686,668	181	656,961	252	821,337	275	887,737
Fiji	14	47,519	18	40,880	28	79,616	27	71,483
Gilbert and Ellice Islands	9	38,251	9	37,256	13	44,469	18	69,793
Nauru Island	33	129,956	38	151,768	54	194,239	49	170,247
Belgium	2	8,646			6	20,628
France			5	16,956	3	15,528	7	25,067
Bahrein Island	11	67,975	12	67,659	15	87,540	24	135,450
Iran	16	86,396	11	59,112
Indonesia	9	50,879	13	72,765	17	96,264	17	102,673
Japan	14	39,342	11	24,884	14	39,777	15	48,502
Egypt			2	8,127			2	8,157
Portuguese East Africa	2	8,517			1	5,126
Tunisia	6	23,237			2	5,658
Netherlands Antilles	6	31,855	12	68,908	8	44,235	19	105,042
United States of America	39	166,467	28	133,979	41	191,110	35	144,362
Tuamotu Archipelago			2	9,234			2	4,602
Other countries	28	87,913	34	117,748	41	148,982	54	220,657
Totals	546	2,552,809	550	2,548,040	704	3,028,030	726	3,140,296

The net tonnage of all vessels entered in 1952 showed an increase of 20 per cent on the previous year and the number of vessels an increase of 32 per cent.

The tonnage entered from the United Kingdom showed an increase in 1952 over the previous year of 28 per cent, while clearances for the United Kingdom were 8 per cent above the 1951 figures. The tonnages entering from and clearing to the United Kingdom were the highest for any individual country and represented 30 per cent of the respective totals.

The next table shows the net tonnage of shipping between New Zealand and certain principal countries for the five years 1948–52.

Year	Australia	United Kingdom	United States of America	Canada	Pacific Islands
Entered (Net Tons)
1948	655,447	478,149	178,161	72,622	221,342
1949	857,139	531,641	176,403	97,811	259,043
1950	896,546	701,294	136,075	93,661	242,361
1951	686,668	716,810	166,467	102,304	226,484
1952	821,337	914,480	191,110	96,577	319,902
Cleared (Net Tons)
1948	609,602	792,437	160,321	50,432	196,919
1949	774,430	856,209	66,396	58,154	274,756
1950	805,745	870,352	67,234	70,417	305,502
1951	656,961	882,116	133,979	99,786	289,160
1952	887,737	949,784	144,362	107,795	369,104

Nationality of Overseas Shipping.—The table following shows the nationality of vessels arriving in New Zealand during the years 1948–52. Vessels registered in the United Kingdom represented 53 per cent of the total tonnage recorded in 1952, the remaining British Commonwealth countries accounted for 27 per cent and other countries for 20 per cent.

A feature of the table is the relatively small totals shown for shipping registered in New Zealand, the figures for which were considerably higher prior to the Second World War.

OVERSEAS SHIPPING INWARDS

Country of Registry	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Net Tons (000)
British Commonwealth—
United Kingdom	1,505	1,739	1,848	1,764	1,633
New Zealand	141	262	290	228	388
Other British Commonwealth	150	171	183	144	190
Cargo	1,584	1,899	2,117	1,924	2,211
Ballast	212	273	204	212	226
Totals, British Commonwealth countries	1,796	2,172	2,321	2,136	2,437
Percentage of total	84	88	86	84	80
Other—
Norway	77	90	164	130	244
Netherlands	16	7	24	40	65
Panama	56	44	79	114	85
United States of America	135	92	39	38	32
Remaining countries	57	68	61	95	123
Cargo	273	288	347	392	549
Ballast	68	13	20	25	42
Totals, other countries	341	301	367	417	591
Percentage of total	16	12	14	16	20
Grand totals	2,137	2,473	2,688	2,553	3,028

TRADE OF PORTS.—The following matters dealing with the trade of ports are covered below: shipping tonnages, cargo statistics, and transhipments.

Shipping Tonnages.—This section deals with the tonnage recorded by the various ports in New Zealand and includes overseas and coastal shipping, irrespective of whether the former had been entered or cleared overseas or coastwise. Thus overseas vessels have been recorded as overseas arrivals and departures on every visit to a New Zealand port, instead of only at the first port of call and the final port of departure as under the earlier heading.

The movement of overseas and coastal vessels on the New Zealand coast is well illustrated in the following table, which gives the aggregate number and tonnage of the total calls made during each of the years 1942–52.

Year	Overseas Vessels		Coastal Vessels		Total
Year	Number	Net Tonnage	Number	Net Tonnage	Number	Net Tonnage
1942	1,666	5,491,688	13,610	3,786,536	15,276	9,278,224
1943	1,379	4,526,542	12,050	4,007,179	13,429	8,533,721
1944	1,083	3,729,631	12,161	3,981,700	13,244	7,711,331
1945	1,088	3,827,780	12,369	3,756,871	13,457	7,584,651
1946	1,191	4,774,613	12,770	3,709,357	13,961	8,483,970
1947	1,144	4,966,088	12,808	4,528,941	13,952	9,495,029
1948	1,173	4,857,982	13,333	4,579,300	14,506	9,437,282
1949	1,482	5,946,332	13,117	4,298,388	14,599	10,244,720
1950	1,529	6,364,068	12,864	4,324,152	14,393	10,688,220
1951	1,397	6,131,367	11,422	3,806,253	12,819	9,937,620
1952	1,820	7,640,410	13,622	4,621,963	15,442	12,262,373

Using the figures for 1939 as a standard pre-war guide to the volume of shipping at New Zealand ports, the war years showed a remarkable decline in the number of vessels and net tonnage, particularly in the overseas section. The 1944 figures for the latter represented a fall of nearly 57 per cent in the number of vessels and 62 per cent in tonnage. In addition to the large decrease in overseas arrivals in the country during the war period, a contributory cause was the limited number of ports visited by overseas vessels, shipping, as a war necessity, being concentrated at the main ports.

Figures for the post-war years show a substantial recovery in both the overseas and coastal trade of ports, although the coastal trade on this basis showed a decrease in 1951 as compared with 1950. This would be mainly accounted for by the waterfront dispute which occurred in the later year.

The following table shows the average number of calls made by overseas ships arriving in New Zealand, based on total arrivals and total entrances in New Zealand ports.

Overseas Vessels	1939	1945	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Total number entered New Zealand	634	413	506	563	597	546	712
Total entrances at New Zealand ports	2,490	1,088	1,173	1,482	1,529	1,397	1,820
Average number of calls at New Zealand ports	3.9	2.6	2.3	2.7	2.6	2.6	2.6

This table is only intended to show the reason for the fall in overseas shipping tonnage of ports, and not the actual average calls made. Many vessels—as, for instance, those engaged in the transport of timber and coal, and those merely touching at a New Zealand port while en route between Australia and America—call at only one port in New Zealand; on the other hand, vessels engaged in the United Kingdom trade, which, in the pre-war period, generally called at a number of ports, have curtailed their visits, as evidenced by the figures.

The following table shows for the three years 1950–52 the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, and covers vessels entered overseas or coastwise.

Port	1950		1951		1952
Port	Number	Tonnage	Number	Tonnage	Number	Tonnage
Whangarei	5	10,715	6	15,581	5	12,791
Auckland	455	1,713,239	410	1,715,816	502	2,005,101
Onehunga	2	526
Raglan	1	328
Tauranga	9	7,745	13	16,550	9	10,896
Gisborne	2	1,066	1	5,068	11	62,647
Napier	71	333,597	66	294,151	82	355,486
New Plymouth	66	312,525	69	323,312	86	357,763
Wanganui					1	221
Wellington	398	1,921,271	357	1,781,277	469	2,145,846
Picton	1	1,340	3	3,910	1	261
Nelson	10	32,418	13	53,725	19	55,244
Westport	10	2,754	13	10,459	17	13,800
Greymouth	8	4,653	1	1,297	8	8,640
Lyttelton	203	906,383	184	845,721	263	1,164,399
Timaru	54	198,155	40	151,538	51	202,651
Oamaru	4	6,392	7	8,256	8	14,846
Dunedin	168	675,965	163	698,930	210	914,464
Bluff	62	229,996	51	205,776	78	315,354
Totals	1,529	6,364,068	1,397	6,131,367	1,820	7,640,410

Overseas vessels are shown to have called at 18 ports in 1950, 16 in 1951, and 17 in 1952. In the pre-war years 1936–38 approximately 24 New Zealand ports were visited by overseas vessels. During the war years the concentration of overseas shipping at the main ports was most marked. This concentration is still noticeable, though now lessened from what it was during those years. This is demonstrated in the following table, which shows the percentages of overseas shipping tonnage recorded at the ports of Wellington, Auckland, and Lyttelton for the years 1939 and 1949–52. In 1939 these three ports handled 63 per cent of the overseas shipping tonnage, as compared with 71 per cent in 1949, 1950, and 1951, and 69 per cent in 1952.

Port	1939	1949	1950	1951	1952
Percentage
Auckland	27.3	26.8	27.0	28.3	26.2
Wellington	24.5	29.3	30.2	28.3	28.1
Other North Island	15.4	9.5	10.5	10.8	10.5
North Island	67.2	65.6	67.7	67.4	64.8
Lyttelton	11.3	15.4	14.2	13.9	15.2
Other South Island	21.5	190	18.1	18.7	20.0
South Island	32.8	34.4	32.3	32.6	35.2
New Zealand totals	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0

The table below shows for the years 1950–52 the total shipping traffic handled inwards at the various ports. Overseas and coastal vessels calling at more than one port in the course of a single voyage have been recorded as entered at every port visited.

Port	1950		1951		1952
Port	Number	Tonnage	Number	Tonnage	Number	Tonnage
Parengarenga	154	9,971	151	10,606	166	11,863
Awanui	154	10,991	126	7,502	193	12,652
Mangonui	60	6,124	48	3,391	81	6,017
Whangaroa	142	12,650	74	5,795	106	8,625
Russell	64	5,591	53	3,709	79	5,281
Hokianga	16	1,223			2	330
Whangarei	1,095	124,470	823	73,145	992	132,565
Auckland	4,566	2,018,050	4,588	2,000,274	5,298	2,362,243
Onehunga	48	12,096	53	12,907	76	20,931
Raglan	17	3,950	15	3,456	15	3,467
Thames	669	18,103	732	28,904	610	22,702
Coromandel	56	2,988	49	2,158	59	3,097
Whitianga	80	1,845	67	1,635	73	2,159
Tauranga	106	20,284	109	32,183	114	26,708
Whakatane	83	8,781	71	7,722	89	9,622
Opotiki	45	4,738	30	3,060	42	4,320
Tokomaru Bay	84	14,834	56	10,905	75	15,903
Tolaga Bay	17	4,380	21	4,641	23	6,974
Gisborne	174	55,711	166	63,185	167	130,898
Napier	273	385,413	266	349,501	261	421,614
New Plymouth	121	331,928	123	346,651	174	386,346
Patea	96	9,870	67	6,950	109	11,292
Wanganui	235	48,919	180	39,819	287	68,903
Wellington	2,365	3,492,834	1,874	3,144,517	2,373	3,758,490
Picton	363	152,346	389	163,405	362	150,802
Wairau	69	5,272	67	4,888	67	5,644
Nelson	857	316,517	548	254,158	838	349,632
Motueka	187	20,612	133	14,949	229	24,658
Waitapu	60	2,985	41	1,786	44	2,306
Westport	172	148,492	143	140,562	163	148,308
Greymouth	140	116,393	100	68,777	147	101,588
Hokitika	15	967	7	563
Lyttelton	869	1,959,713	734	1,824,240	978	2,284,674
Timaru	138	259,970	139	225,223	189	295,959
Oamaru	56	47,641	44	36,458	70	58,929
Dunedin	271	757,419	266	762,231	354	1,009,637
Bluff	341	282,438	332	265,354	397	384,209
Half-moon Bay	135	11,711	134	12,410	140	13,025
Totals	14,393	10,688,220	12,819	9,937,620	15,442	12,262,373

In 1952 Wellington ranked as the first port of New Zealand as regards aggregate tonnage of shipping entered, followed by Auckland, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Napier, New Plymouth, Bluff, Nelson, and Timaru in that order.

It should be remembered in any comparison of port statistics of shipping tonnages that certain ports are termini of inter-Island passenger services, and this factor adds considerably to the volume of shipping traffic credited to these ports—viz., Wellington, Lyttelton, Picton, and Nelson (up to April 1953).

Cargo Statistics.—In order to obtain statistics of the total trade of each port a system of monthly returns from the various port authorities was instituted in 1922 showing under a number of headings the quantity of goods handled, distinguishing inwards and outwards cargo, coastal and overseas, and transhipments. The resultant statistics show on a tonnage basis the total trade of each port, including all exports, whether placed on the overseas vessel there, sent to a central port for shipment overseas, or despatched coastwise to another port for consumption in New Zealand. No figures were collected during the years 1943–45.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo handled at all ports for the years 1942 and 1946 onwards.

Year	Inwards^*		Transhipments	Outwards^*		Total Tonnage
Year	Coastal	Overseas	Transhipments	Coastal	Overseas	Total Tonnage
* Excluding transhipments.
Manifest Tons
1942	2,182,673	1,980,120	350,430	2,092,338	1,137,440	8,093,431
1946	2,062,883	2,077,881	209,911	2,008,971	1,112,864	7,682,421
1947	2,114,964	2,790,934	231,641	1,943,389	1,099,150	8,411,719
1948	2,034,850	2,956,793	264,056	1,952,114	1,150,385	8,622,254
1949	1,922,339	3,266,667	222,416	1,889,252	1,108,195	8,631,285
1950	1,923,221	3,504,616	225,464	1,901,224	1,203,203	8,983,192
1951	1,649,439	3,810,425	152,839	1,596,387	1,166,135	8,528,064
1952	1,971,925	4,811,147	207,218	1,846,616	1,328,218	10,372,342

The next table shows for each port the total cargo inwards and outwards in 1952. The high proportion of transhipments in the case of Wellington is very noticeable.

Port	Inwards^*		Transhipments	Outwards^*		Total Tonnage
Port	Coastal	Overseas	Transhipments	Coastal	Overseas	Total Tonnage
* Excluding transhipments.
Manifest Tons
Mangonui	2,503			1,070		3,573
Russell	897			296		1,193
Whangarei	76,354	6,869		112,730		195,953
Auckland	570,970	1,992,842	37,433	237,458	474,805	3,350,941
Onehunga	27,880		17	43,668	128	71,710
Raglan	7,746			612		8,358
Thames	1,686			379		2,065
Tauranga	15,697	1,936		4,139	8,680	30,452
Whakatane	10,880			9,824		20,704
Opotiki	5,226			2,534		7,760
Tokomaru Bay	2,759			4,411		7,170
Tolaga Bay	1,381			578		1,959
Gisborne	59,026	1,764	131	16,268	8,952	86,272
Napier	67,630	97,518	21,366	8,535	109,369	325,784
New Plymouth	39,380	280,793	1,168	6,078	78,296	406,883
Patea	209			17,816		18,025
Wanganui	69,390			24,149		93,539
Wellington	436,988	1,279,400	139,615	360,269	291,148	2,647,035
Picton	29,802			30,831		60,633
Wairau	5,667			4,370		10,037
Nelson	97,964	13,841	2,213	59,370	21,564	197,165
Motueka	6,214			19,872		26,086
Waitapu	1,367			1,402		2,769
Westport	6,705			268,446	10,034	285,185
Greymouth	22,677			201,989	4,179	228,845
Hokitika	267			404		671
Lyttelton	208,169	601,877	2,977	254,817	98,123	1,168,940
Timaru	26,942	39,611		52,985	58,237	177,775
Oamaru	4,380	16,887		26,205	3,182	50,654
Dunedin	106,316	413,707	2,298	60,034	64,027	648,680
Bluff	56,638	64,102		13,795	97,494	232,029
Half-moon Bay	2,215			1,282		3,497
Totals	1,971,925	4,811,147	207,218	1,846,616	1,328,218	10,372,342

In any consideration of these statistics it is advisable to note that the term “ton” does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. For a portion only of the goods handled is it practicable to obtain the actual weights involved. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulae as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the ton. In a few instances the tons are “short” tons of 2,000 lb. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in “measurement” tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in “measurement” tons, thus artificially swelling the figures, direct comparison of import cargo tonnage with export is invalid.

The penultimate column of the preceding table shows, excluding coastal to overseas transhipments, the quantity of cargo placed on board the overseas vessels at the respective ports, while a table on page 331 shows the number and tonnage of overseas vessels calling at each port. These tables give a good indication of the extent to which each port enters directly into the overseas trade of New Zealand. The following table shows for the year 1952 the total shipments from each port overseas and coastwise (including transhipments) of nine principal commodities exported overseas by New Zealand, and thus shows the extent to which the various ports handle overseas exports, although the goods may be sent outwards coastwise for transhipment at another port.

Port	Wool	Frozen Meat	Canned Meat	Butter	Cheese	Other Milk Products	Tallow	Hides, Skins, and Pelts	Seeds	All Other Goods	Totals
Manifest Tons
Mangonui	57			464				15		534	1,070
Russell										296	296
Whangarei	300			7,001		183	3	9		105,234	112,730
Auckland	31,351	74,147	19,968	145,861	13,099	99,734	15,982	11,955	395	337,204	749,696
Onehunga	34		30		159	489	12	122	4	42,963	43,813
Raglan	11					125		1		475	612
Thames	2						7	11		359	379
Tauranga						16				12,803	12,819
Whakatane	72			6,472	1,682	30		23		1,545	9,824
Opotiki	131			2,121		47	67	29		139	2,534
Tokomaru Bay	920	2770					325	263		133	4,411
Tolaga Bay	574									4	578
Gisborne	4,298	8,349	1,795	1,093			1,280	953	67	7,516	25,351
Napier	36,309	45,808	4,625	1,733	921	14	5,706	4.256	97	39,801	139,270
New Plymouth	713	24,662		15,288	32,170	3,984	3,428	1,602		3,695	85,542
Patea					17,810					6	17,816
Wanganui	10,994			'367	7,274		133	463		4,918	24,149
Wellington	52,580	76,510	1,018	20,246	48,522	10,614	8,969	12,735	675	559,163	791,032
Picton	391	3,172			635		261			26,372	30,831
Wairau	177								719	3,474	4,370
Nelson	942	1,842	11	278	5	359	695	259	44	78,712	83,147
Motueka	109		138						55	19,570	19,872
Waitapu	154			1,033				2		213	1,402
Westport							28	11	10	278,431	278,480
Greymouth			8			1	75	1		206,083	206,168
Hokitika							175			229	404
Lyttelton	22,980	31,242	436	12	1,681	1	7,082	6,539	8,885	277,059	355,917
Timaru	14,297	30,275	41	48	756		4,246	1,758	2,078	57,723	111,222
Oamaru					90				200	29,097	29,387
Dunedin	20,530	20,045	953	165	1,351	412	3,564	2,502	2,790	74,047	126,359
Bluff	19,937	45,668	634	222	11,789	6,267	5,360	2,606	1,466	17,340	111,289
Hair-moon Bay	5									1,277	1,282
Totals	217,868	364,490	29,657	202,404	137,944	122,276	57,398	46,115	17,485	2,186,415	3,382,052

Transhipments.—Transhipments of cargo during 1952 totalled 207,218 tons, of which 139,615 tons were transhipped at Wellington. The total manifest tonnage in 1951 was 8,528,064, as compared with 8,983,192 tons in 1950. A factor contributing to this decrease was the prolonged industrial dispute experienced in 1951. In 1952 the total increased to 10,372,342, the highest recorded tonnage to date.

Transhipments fall into the following four classes:

Coastal to Coastal.—Cargo which has been loaded in a vessel at one New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at another New Zealand port.
Coastal to Overseas.—Cargo which has been loaded in a vessel at a New Zealand port and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a port outside New Zealand.
Overseas to Coastal.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge at a New Zealand port.
Overseas to Overseas.—Cargo which has come from overseas and is transhipped to another vessel for discharge outside New Zealand.

The first class represents purely coastal trade while goods in the last class do not enter New Zealand, but each of the others may be added to the appropriate figures of overseas trade shown previously, to ascertain the total tonnage of goods arriving from or departing overseas. Thus the total inward tonnage from overseas in 1952 was 4,927,639, and the total outward tonnage going overseas 1,402,994. Comparative figures for 1951 were 3,893,795 and 1,218,424 tons respectively. The following table shows for 1951 and 1952 the transhipment trade of each port affected.

Port	Coastal to Coastal		Coastal to Overseas		Overseas to Coastal		Overseas to Overseas		Totals
Port	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952
Manifest Tons
Auckland	1,107	1,010	3,086	3,635	22,647	29,300	4,397	3,488	31,237	37,433
Onehunga	35	17							35	17
Gisborne				131						131
New Plymouth			900		484	279	98	889	1,482	1,168
Napier	1	39	13,068	9,863	2,520	11,464			15,589	21,366
Wellington	9,624	8,539	34,940	60,326	53,617	70,734	105	16	98,286	139,615
Picton	66								66
Nelson	1,076	1,633		80		500			1,076	2,213
Lyttelton	576	81	213	723	1,53	2,173			1,942	2,977
Dunedin	95	238	82	18	2,949	2,042			3,126	2,298
Totals	12,580	11,557	52,289	74,776	370	116,492	4,600	4,393	152,839	207,218

The next table shows the various items of merchandise, etc., which comprised the transhipment trade in 1951 and 1952.

Item	Coastal to Coastal		Coastal to Overseas		Overseas to Coastal		Overseas to Overseas		Totals
Item	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952
Manifest Tons
Beans and peas	174	71	1,040	1,421	165	31	1	92	1,380	1,615
Butter	90	167	2,637	1,732					2,727	1,899
Cement						523	318	77	318	600
Cheese	87		16,238	27,866					16,325	27,866
Coal	2,040	2,001							2,040	2,001
Flour	149	198					20	70	169	268
Fruit, preserved	52	107	129	42	2,392	2,806	10	4	2,583	2,959
Fruit, fresh	34	2	5,639	13,041	1,775	2,058	247		7,695	15,101
Hides, skins, and pelts	1	2	586	1,553			9	50	596	1,605
Manures, artificial	155	103			7,048	3,672		8	7,203	3,783
Meat, frozen (beef, mutton, and lamb)	3	1	8,518	6,831					8,521	6,832
Meat, preserved	3	8	525	2,547					528	2,555
Milk products (other than butter and cheese)	16	52	177	229					193	281
Motor spirits, kerosene, and other fuel oils	444	500			17,578	20,336	1	1,075	18,023	21,911
Oats	89	21			411	3			500	24
Potatoes	101		53			198			154	198
Seeds	17	7	128	485	86	21	1		232	513
Tallow	33		1,478	2,139					1,511	2,139
Timber	29	330	655	675	6,445	10,655	308	30	7,437	11,690
Wines, spirits, and beer	14	25		16	799	1,051	12	37	825	1,129
Wool	44	3,276	12,238	14,333				118	12,282	17,727
All other goods	9,005	4,686	2,248	1,866	46,671	75,138	3,673	2,832	61,597	84,522
Totals	12,580	11,557	52,289	74,776	83,370	116,492	4,600	4,393	152,839	207,218

Values of Exports and Imports by Ports.—Tables showing the values of exports and imports through the various ports are included in Sections 10B and 10C respectively.

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING REGISTER.—The number and tonnage of vessels on the New Zealand register at 31 December 1952 were as follows.

Port of Registry	Sailing Vessels			Steam Vessels			Motor Vessels
Port of Registry	Vessels	Gross Tonnage	Net Tonnage	Vessels	Gross Tonnage	Net Tonnage	Vessels	Gross Tonnage	Net Tonnage
Auckland	35	2,014	1,602	36	8,592	4,059	244	24,673	11,898
Napier				3	989	546	9	3,075	1,523
Wellington	7	70	54	42	106,004	55,756	54	65,523	35,780
Nelson				6	7,279	3,030	14	3,926	1,586
Lyttelton	1	836	836	6	2,936	1,077	16	3,251	1,601
Timaru				1	942	488	1	11	3
Dunedin				7	10,463	5,585	11	7,841	4,321
Invercargill				3	1,058	430	9	256	75
Totals	43	2,920	2,492	104	138,263	70,971	358	108,556	56,787

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's “mosquito” fleet, the average net tonnage of the 315 vessels on the Auckland register being only 55 tons. At Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin a number of the vessels of the Union Steam Ship Company of New Zealand are registered, while several are also registered in Australia. The figures for vessels registered in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last eleven years are as follows.

Year	Sailing Vessels			Steam and Motor Vessels			Totals
Year	Vessels	Gross Tonnage	Net Tonnage	Vessels	Gross Tonnage	Net Tonnage	Vessels	Gross Tonnage	Net Tonnage
1942	45	4,087	3,553	429	175,343	89,623	474	179,430	93,176
1943	45	4,087	3,553	410	159,625	80,606	455	163,712	84,159
1944	45	4,087	3,553	407	159,517	80,552	452	163,604	84,105
1945	45	4,087	3,553	406	159,203	80,376	451	163,290	83,929
1946	44	4,075	3,541	419	161,685	81,728	463	165,760	85,269
1947	45	4,091	3,547	433	181,289	91,542	478	185,380	95,089
1948	43	4,049	3,515	430	190,388	96,655	473	194,437	100,170
1949	44	4,066	3,525	438	201,797	102,079	482	205,863	105,604
1950	44	4,066	3,525	455	241,477	124,538	499	245,543	128,063
1951	43	3,761	3,281	460	249,781	128,622	503	253,542	131,903
1952	43	2,920	2,492	462	246,819	127,758	505	249,739	130,250

In the next table vessels registered in New Zealand at the end of 1952 have been classified according to whether employed in the coastal or the foreign trade. The totals given therein do not agree with those shown above, as vessels employed exclusively within “restricted limits” and pleasure vessels are not included. The total number of vessels so engaged was 171 of an aggregate net tonnage of 117,146, as compared with 186 vessels and 83,832 tons in 1939.

Size of Vessel	Employed in the Coastal Trade Only		Employed Partly in the Coastal and Partly in the Foreign Trade		Employed in the Foreign Trade Only
Size of Vessel	Number of Vessels	Net Tonnage	Number of Vessels	Net Tonnage	Number of Vessels	Net Tonnage
Under 50 tons	41	777
50 and under 100 tons	25	1,783
100 and under 200 tons	27	3,665	1	155
200 and under 300 tons	6	1,542
300 and under 400 tons	12	4,194	1	368		383
400 and under 600 tons	4	1,929
600 and under 800 tons	6	4,448				753
800 and under 1,000 tons	1	932
1,000 and under 1,200 tons	3	3,308	1	1,100
1,200 and under 1,500 tons	8	10,636	4	5,257		1,293
1,500 and under 2,000 tons	5	8,367	5	9,898	4	7,546
2,000 tons and over	2	6,023			12	42,789
Totals	140	47,604	12	16,778	19	52,764

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES.—The examinations for masters, mates, and engineers serving in the Mercantile Marine are conducted by the Marine Department, the regulations relating to these examinations being based upon those of the United Kingdom Ministry of Transport with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions. The Ministry of Transport recognizes the following certificates only as of Imperial validity: extra master, master, first mate and second mate foreign-going ships, first and second class steam and motor engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the Ministry of Transport.

New regulations for the examination of masters and mates came into force on 1 August 1952 and those for marine engineers on 1 October 1939. Both sets of regulations provided for partial passes—i.e., the examination may be taken in two parts.

During the year ended 31 March 1953, 182 examinations were held for certificates as masters and mates. A summary of these examinations is as follows: of the 103 who passed in their examinations, 47 passed for certificates as masters and mates of foreign-going ships, 23 for masters and mates of home-trade ships, 9 as masters of river steamers, 22 as masters of oil-engine vessels under six tons register, 1 for voluntary examination in compass deviation, and 1 for yacht master, New Zealand waters.

A summary of the examinations of marine engineers held during the year ended 31 March 1953 is as follows: 211 candidates presented themselves for certificates of Imperial validity, of whom 58 passed and 61 secured partial passes. There were 167 examinations for certificates of New Zealand validity only, and 124 were successful in their examinations, which included 69 for third class steam engineer, 2 for river steam engineer, 36 for first and second class coastal motor engineer, and 17 for river oil engineers' certificates.

SURVEY OF SHIPS.—Survey certificates were issued during the year ended 31 March 1953 for 4 passenger foreign-going ships, 5 foreign-going cargo steam ships, 12 foreign-going cargo motor ships, 4 home-trade passenger steam ships, 25 home-trade cargo steam ships, 95 home-trade cargo motor ships, 35 restricted-limits steam ships, and 276 restricted-limits motor ships. A total of 404 surveys were made for seaworthiness, efficiency of equipment, tonnage, radio telegraphy, etc.

LIGHTHOUSES.—Along the New Zealand coast there are sixty-two coastal lights of various types. In twenty-eight cases the lights are watched or attended lights and the apparatus is classed as of the dioptric order—i.e., a central lamp sending its ray through a combination of surrounding lenses—while the remaining thirty-four coastal lights, exclusive of harbour-entrance lights, are automatic lights. The buildings housing the lights are of varying kinds, as necessitated by their respective situations.

Fog signals of the diaphone type are established on Tiri Tiri Island, at Pencarrow Head, Godley Head, and Taiaroa Head; while radio beacons have been established at Cape Reinga, Tiri Tiri Island, Portland Island, Cuvier Island, Mokohinau, Baring Head, Stephen's Island, Cape Campbell, and Puysegur Point.

The most powerful light is that of Stephen's Island, which, placed some 600 ft. above high water, is visible at a distance of 32 nautical miles. Next in order come Cape Reinga (altitude 542 ft.), visibility 31 miles; Cape Brett (altitude 490 ft.) and East Cape (505 ft.), both visible at 30 miles; Cuvier Island (altitude 390 ft.) and Mokohinau (altitude 400 ft.), both of which have a visibility of 26 miles; Godley Head (altitude 317 ft.) and Portland Island (altitude 300 ft.), both visible at 24 miles. Nine other lights have a range of 20 miles or over, being Centre Island, Baring Head, Kaipara (North Head), and Akaroa, all 23 miles; Cape Palliser, Brothers, and Nugget Point, all 22 miles; Tiri Tiri Matangi and Cape Saunders, 20 miles each. The remaining 11 watched lights have visibilities as follows, the distance being recorded in miles: Moeraki and Castlepoint, 19 each; Manukau (South Head), Cape Campbell, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point, all 18 miles; Kahurangi and Cape Egmont, 16 miles each; Farewell Spit, 15 miles; Waipapa, 14 miles; and French Pass, 8 miles.

All manually-attended coastal lighthouses are equipped with signalling flags and lamps, the keepers being competent to transmit or receive messages. In addition, there are nine of the principal lighthouses equipped with radio-telephone systems of communication. Coastal lights—i.e., those outside the bounds of the various harbour authorities—are maintained by the Marine Department.

The expenditure on all lighthouses under the control of the Marine Department during the year 1952–53 was as follows: salaries and wages, £35,976; stores and general maintenance, £57,728; radio beacons, improvements, etc., £4,679; working expenses of tender, £14, administrative expenses, £6,649; depreciation, £20,019: total, £125,065. Light dues for 1952–53 totalled £111,735, an increase of £8,906 on the previous year.

WRECKS.—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Collector of Customs, Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Marine, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a Magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district, usually an officer of the Customs, has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

The numbers of shipping casualties reported to the Marine Department during the year ended 31 March 1953 is shown in the following table.

Nature of Casualty	On or Near the Coast of New Zealand		Outside New Zealand		Total Number Reported
Nature of Casualty	Number of Ships	Registered Tonnage	Number of Ships	Registered Tonnage	Number of Ships	Registered Tonnage
Strandings—
Total loss	5	158			5	158
Damaged	6	709			6	709
Undamaged	12	8,479			12	8,479
Totals, strandings	23	9,346			23	9,346
Collisions—
Total loss
Damaged	12	3,520			12	3,520
Undamaged
Totals, collisions	12	3,520			12	3,520
Fires—
Total loss	3	18			3	18
Damaged	1	5			1	5
Undamaged
Totals, fires	4	23			4	23
Miscellaneous—
Including damage by heavy seas, machinery defects, etc.	6	933	1	367	7	1,300
Grand totals	45	13,822	1	367	46	14,189

There have been no lives lost as a result of shipping casualties in New Zealand waters since the year 1950–51.

Chapter 12. SECTION 12—RAILWAYS

Table of Contents

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT.—Railway history in New Zealand dates from the year 1860. In that year a contract was let for the construction of a line from Christchurch to Lyttelton, and the first portion of this line was opened on 1 December 1863. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on 5 February 1867. The Provincial Council of Auckland in 1863 began the construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

Although practically the whole of the railways are now State-owned, some were built by private enterprise. Of these the more important were constructed by the Midland and the Wellington-Manawatu Railway Companies.

At 31 March 1880, 1,167 miles of State-owned lines were open for traffic, and at 31 March 1900, 2,104 miles. The rail link between Wellington and Auckland was completed on 3 August 1908, and the first through passenger train left Wellington on 7 August 1908. Daily through express services were not operated until the privately-owned Manawatu line was taken over on 7 December 1908 and the last section from the Public Works Department on 15 February 1909. Total mileage open for traffic at 31 March 1910 was 2,717, a figure which increased by 292 to 3,009 during the next ten years.

The last section of the South Island Main Trunk railway from Picton to Bluff was taken over from the Public Works Department on 15 December 1945.

At 31 March 1953 there were 3,535 miles of State railways open for traffic, divided into three distinct sections as follows:

Section	Length (Miles)
North Island main line and branches	1,692
South Island main line and branches	1,783
Nelson	60
Total South Island	1,843

The Christchurch-Lyttelton section of railway, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1928–29, the Otira-Arthur Pass section, including the Otira Tunnel, in 1923, the Wellington-Johnsonville section in 1938, and the Wellington-Paekakariki section in 1940.

Work is proceeding on the electrification and duplication of the line, approximately 20 miles, between Wellington and Upper Hutt. Portion of this line, between Petone and Haywards, will be re-routed over the Hutt Valley suburban branch line, which is now open to Taita. Electrified services commenced running on this section in October 1953.

A tunnel through the Rimutaka Range in the North Island is under construction, holing through taking place in April 1954. This tunnel, 5 miles 36 chains in length, will be part of a deviation to eliminate the difficult hill section between Upper Hutt and Cross Creek. The proposed route deviates from the existing line at Upper Hutt and links with it again near Featherston. The new section will obviate the use of the special Fell engines and vans, with centre rail equipment, at present operating between Summit and Cross Creek.

New timber and paper mills in the extensive exotic forests of the Putaruru-Taupo district of the North Island are served by the recently completed Tokoroa Branch of approximately 18 miles from Putaruru to Kinleith. Similar industries which are to be established in the nearby Kaingaroa Forest - Bay of Plenty area will be served by a branch line of about 40 miles now under construction from Awakaponga to Murupara; 8 miles of this branch from Awakaponga to Kawerau were opened for traffic on 26 October 1953.

Government railways are constructed by the Ministry of Works and transferred to the Railways Department when completed. The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in. Standard rails for heavy traffic main lines weigh 91 lb. per lineal yard, and for secondary and branch lines 72lb. per yard. At present much of the track is laid to the standards adopted prior to 1950—viz., 85 lb. and 70 lb. rails. Sleepers, 2,400 to the mile, are principally of Australian hardwood and New Zealand silver pine and totara.

ADMINISTRATION.—In the year 1876 the railways of New Zealand passed from the control of the Provincial Governments to the Public Works Department. A few years later the opened lines were handed over to the Working Railways Department, and in 1889 a Board of three Railway Commissioners was appointed. This was the form of management for five years, when a General Manager, responsible to the Minister of Railways, was appointed. Control by a General Manager continued until 1952 except for two short periods of board management, from 1925 to 1928, when a Board of three members was appointed, and from 1931 to 1936, when the Board consisted of five members.

On the recommendation of a Royal Commission appointed on 3 March 1952 to inquire into and report upon all aspects of the New Zealand Government Railways, their future development, and sphere of operations, the Government established a Railways Commission. Five Directors were appointed from 12 January 1953.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.—The capital cost of State railways as at the end of each of the last five financial years is given below.

—	31 March 1949	31 March 1950	31 March 1951	31 March 1952	31 March 1953
* Equal to £25,077 per mile of open line.
Open for traffic—	£	£	£	£	£
Railway	-75,364,182	77,624,303	80,885,096	640,544	88,648,416^*
Lake Wakatipu steamer service	20,396	21,878	21,878	22,557	22,557
Subsidiary services	3,401,846	3,895,686	4,075,223	4,353,726	4,648,849
General	9,896	9,896	9,896	9,896	9,896
Totals	78,796,320	81,551,763	84,992,093	88,026,723	93,329,718
Works under construction	1,371,919	1,738,722	2,282,738	3,168,632	4,654,563
Grand totals	80,168,239	83,290,485	87,274,831	91,195,355	97,984,281

So varied are the geographical features of New Zealand that a great disparity exists in the cost of constructing the individual sections of lines. Numerous mountain chains and rivers make railway construction in general both difficult and expensive. The Otira Tunnel is 5 miles 26 chains long, and the Rimutaka Tunnel, which is now under construction, is to be 5 miles 36 chains. The length of the longest bridge, over the Rakaia River, is 5,7?0 ft., and the largest viaduct, the Mohaka, is 887 ft. long and 318 ft. above water-level.

ROLLING STOCK.—Information as to the rolling stock in use on the State railways as at 31 March 1953 is given in the following table.

* In addition there are 5 battery electric shunting locomotives in use in workshops and 56 diesel and petrol shunting tractors in use at stations.
Locomotives—
Tender		488
Tank		166
Electric		28
Diesel electric		13
Diesel shunting		5
Total		700^*
Passenger vehicles—
Sleepers		15
Combination day-sleepers		3
First class		135
Second class		1,242
Composite		24
Rail cars		21
Electric multiple units		102
Postal		8
Ambulance		1
Total	1,551
Wagons—	Four-wheeled	Bogie
Horse boxes	104	85
Cattle	944	44
Sheep	3,416	56
Frozen and chilled meat	727	523
Cool, ventilated	1,101
Covered goods	635	362
High-side	20,562	371
Low-side	1,678
Platform		1,103
Brake vans	12	455
Other	3,561	348
	32,740	3,347
Total	36,087

From 1901 to 1939 most of the rolling stock, including carriages, diesel-mechanical rail cars, wagons, and locomotives, was built in the Department's workshops. Special types were imported from England, notably multiple unit electric coaches and the prototypes of electric locomotives.

During the war years the resources of the Railway workshops were directed towards Armed Forces requirements and urgent repairs of rolling stock. Construction programmes consequently fell far behind schedule, and little headway has since been made owing to staff and material shortages.

To alleviate an acute post-war wagon shortage orders were placed in Great Britain for 5,500 general-purpose four-wheeled LA and LC wagons and 2,380 wagons of other classes. Deliveries commenced in 1947, and by November 1953 all had been received for final assembly in New Zealand Railway workshops. Locomotives were also ordered overseas, and recent deliveries were 16 JA steam oil-burning, 7 Ew electric, 15 (660 h.p.) diesel-electric, and 11 diesel mechanical shunting locomotives. Still to be supplied are 41 main-line diesel electric locomotives and 71 diesel mechanical shunting locomotives. To provide fast passenger services where traffic warrants, 35 diesel-mechanical twin-car sets are being imported.

The heaviest types of locomotive used in New Zealand have been designed and built in the New Zealand Railway workshops, the K class weighing 140 tons in working trim, the KA 145 tons, and KB (with booster) 146 tons. Twenty-seven locomotives of a programme of 35 class JA (109 tons) have been completed at Hillside. This type is similar to the imported J-class locomotives.

The following steam locomotives of comparatively recent construction haul most of the traffic.

Class	Type	Weight	Tractive Force
		Tons	lb.
AB	4–6–2 superheated; simple, with tender	87	20,000
G	4–6–2 superheated; simple, with tender	98	25,800
J and JA	4–8–2 superheated; simple, with tender	109	24,920
K	4–8–4 superheated; simple, with tender	140	30,815
KA	4–8–4 superheated; simple, with tender	145	30,815
KB	4–8–4 superheated; simple, with tender (fitted with booster)	146	36,815

Standard carriages are 56 ft. in length, fitted with chair seats to accommodate thirty-one to fifty-six passengers, steam-heated, and lighted by electricity.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.—The total revenue from and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) during each of the years 1942–43 to 1952–53 were as shown below.

Year Ended 31 March	Gross Revenue	Expenditure	Net Revenue
* Loss recovered from Consolidated Fund.
	£	£	£
1943	14,128,993	11,302,413	2,826,580
1944	15,325,306	12,757,336	2,567,970
1945	14,459,750	13,260,277	1,199,473
1946	15,444,847	14,384,844	1,060,003
1947	15,680,057	15,944,270	−264,213^*
1948	17,070,872	17,710,897	−640,025^*
1949	18,597,728	19,700,594	−1,102,866^*
1950	19,541,184	20,596,740	−1,055,556^*
1951	22,085,491	22,079,701	5,790
1952	23,993,186	25,195,674	−1,202,488^*
1953	26,607,937	26,524,665	83,272

The expenditure figures do not include interest on capital liability. With £3,123,436 interest added, the 1952–53 profit of £83,272 becomes a loss of £3,040,164.

A sum of £2,107,243 was set aside in 1952–53 for depreciation and track renewals, while expenditure from these funds amounted to £1,541,842. The amounts standing to the credit of the Depreciation and Renewals Accounts at 31 March 1953 were £5,590,332 and £704,025 respectively.

The revenue and expenditure for the last five years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 March	Gross Revenue		Expenditure		Net Revenue
Year Ended 31 March	Railway Operation	Subsidiary Services, etc.	Railway Operation	Subsidiary Services, etc.	Railway Operation	Subsidiary Services, etc.
* Net loss.
	£	£	£	£	£	£
1949	15,338,882	3,258,846	16,788,256	2,912,338	−1,449,374^*	346,508
1950	16,062,066	3,479,118	17,360,913	3,235,827	−1,298,847^*	243,291
1951	18,500,344	3,585,147	18,725,416	3,354,285	−225,072^*	230,862
1952	20,097,242	3,895,944	21,515,300	3,680,374	−1,418,058^*	215,570
1953	22,588,758	4,019,179	22,755,397	3,769,268	−166,639^*	249,911

The various subsidiary services now conducted by the Railways Department, with the revenue and expenditure of each during the last two years, are shown below. Full working costs, including interest, are charged against these services, and the interest so charged is taken into miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

Service	Revenue		Expenditure
Service	1951–52	1952–53	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£	£	£
Lake Wakatipu steamers	15,594	18,131	21,775	25,570
Refreshment service	346,781	347,395	396,835	386,633
Bookstall service	246,430	252,022	248,823	247,673
Advertising service	61,219	66,673	50,598	53,254
Departmental dwellings	195,751	203,437	461,514	527,457
Leases of bookstalls, etc.	80,646	84,620	72,328	79,645
Road services—Passengers and goods	2,400,301	2,445,404	2,428,501	2,449,036
Miscellaneous receipts	549,222	601,497
Totals	3,895,944	4,019,179	3,680,374	3,769,268

Revenue.—In the following table the railway operating revenue during 1952–53 and each of the preceding ten years is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 March	Passenger Fares	Parcels, Luggage, and Mails	Goods and Livestock	Labour, Demurrage, etc.	Totals
	£	£	£	£	£
1943	3,710,509	397,142	8,044,563	262,866	12,415,080
1944	4,275,482	435,928	8,479,387	274,182	13,464,979
1945	3,504,453	411,021	8,261,087	271,746	12,448,307
1946	3,912,509	426,619	8,515,673	249,786	13,104,587
1947	3,253,748	440,731	8,903,762	225,543	12,823,784
1948	2,687,767	553,366	10,486,744	236,403	13,964,280
1949	2,759,478	560,593	11,747,129	271,682	15,338,882
1950	2,847,925	480,869	12,434,487	298,785	16,062,066
1951	2,662,987	532,556	14,978,599	326,202	18,500,344
1952	2,264,922	519,468	16,957,810	355,042	20,097,242
1953	2,522,883	545,841	19,136,216	383,818	22,588,758

The revenue from passenger fares during the year 1952–53 represented an expenditure on railway travel of £1 5s. 1d. per head of mean population. The total railway operating revenue was equal to £11 4s. 10d. per head.

On 21 June 1953 suburban fares were increased by 10 per cent, while increases varying from 5 per cent to 20 per cent were made in some goods rates, further increases in the latter class, mostly from 5 to 7 per cent, taking effect from 17 January 1954.

Expenditure.—The total railway expenditure in 1952–53 represented 99.69 per cent of the gross earnings, and the operating expenses 100.74 per cent of operating revenue. It is of interest to trace the movement over a series of years, as in the following statement. The figures show the percentage of operating expenditure to operating revenue.

Year Ended 31 March	Per Cent
1933	90.54
1934	86.65
1935	86.98
1936	88.46
1937	91.81
1938	96.05
1939	95.73
1940	90.66
1941	86.72
1942	85.73
1943	80.71
1944	84.41
1945	93.96
1946	95.77
1947	106.40
1948	108.06
1949	109.44
1950	108.09
1951	101.22
1952	107.06
1953	100.74

The operating expenditure under various heads is now given for 1952–53 and for each of the previous ten years.

Year Ended 31 March	Maintenance of Ways and Works	Maintenance of Signals	Maintenance of Rolling Stock	Locomotive Transportation	Traffic Transportation	Head Office and General Charges^*	Totals
* Including superannuation subsidy. † Merged with Maintenance of Ways and Works.
	£	£	£	£	£	£	£
1943	1,829,311	271,499	2,380,260	2,430,347	2,862,653	245,589	10,019,659
1944	2,146,448	326,190	2,868,006	2,555,956	3,207,782	261,535	11,365,917
1945	2,250,736	332,015	2,839,591	2,473,581	3,460,705	340,267	11,696,895
1946	2,524,485	375,499	3,055,303	2,627,868	3,618,584	347,985	12,549,724
1947	2,466,020	376,458	3,241,139	2,996,016	4,138,817	426,329	13,644,779
1948	2,528,407	426,841	3,298,700	3,786,756	4,550,376	499,011	15,090,091
1949	2,904,028	482,492	3,885,493	4,032,864	4,956,482	526,897	16,788,256
1950	2,966,062	540,074	3,889,152	4,064,901	5,355,345	545,379	17,360,913
1951	3,171,856	566,687	4,217,951	4,605,695	5,615,272	547,955	18,725,416
1952	4,671,869	^†	4,582,801	5,322,231	6,341,828	596,571	21,515,300
1953	4,800,452		4,795,960	5,914,494	6,640,290	604,201	22,755,397

The increase in expenditure in recent years has been due chiefly to an increased wages bill, mainly the result of higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment, to the high cost of locomotive fuels, and to a general rise in the price of stores. In an endeavour to overcome a hitherto unsatisfactory coal position, the Department was obliged to import coal from overseas and convert seventy-seven locomotives to burn oil fuel. As there were adequate supplies of New Zealand coal during 1952–53 none was imported, and one oil-fired locomotive was reconverted to coal burning.

PASSENGERS AND GOODS.—During the period 1926–33 there was a rapid falling off in passenger journeys, due mainly in the earlier years to intensive motor competition and later to the economic depression. This period was followed by an upward trend as a result of the improvement in economic conditions. After the outbreak of war in 1939 passenger traffic increased sharply, owing to the movement of members of the Armed Forces and to the curtailment of road services and partial immobilization of private motor cars, the result of restrictions placed on the use of motor spirits and rubber tires. Following the cessation of hostilities the number of passenger journeys receded considerably, owing to the large decline in Armed Forces traffic, intensified road and air competition, and, until recently, to the difficulty in obtaining sufficient coal to run full passenger services.

Because of industrial disputes, coal for steam locomotives was in very short supply in 1951–52. Workers' services were maintained, but other passenger services were severely curtailed. Following the spring of 1952 coal became more plentiful, and with the use of recently imported diesel electric locomotives and the electrification of Hutt Valley services to Taita more trains have been provided. However, with preference being given to the running of goods trains, a shortage of train crews is the main factor preventing the full restoration of normal passenger services. Compared with the previous year, passenger journeys in 1952–53 increased by only 162,637, or 0.8 per cent. The over-all decline in recent years in rail passenger traffic has been largely offset by a steady increase in the numbers carried by the Railway Department's road services. In 1952–53 there were 24,119,936 passengers carried by the Railway Road Services, which is a decline of 543,979 compared with the previous year, when extra services were provided to handle passenger traffic diverted from restricted rail services.

The tonnage of goods carried, including livestock, increased steadily up to 1929–30, but from then until 1932–33 successive declines were recorded, due mainly to the world economic depression and to motor competition. Commencing in the following year goods-tonnage has recorded an almost continuous upward trend, with slight reductions in 1944–45 through a falling off in military freights and in 1950–51 because of industrial disputes.

The disputes which adversely affected traffic in the year 1950–51 continued several months into the year 1951–52. Although the quantity of goods carried from March to July 1951, when normal industrial working was resumed, was some 600,000 tons lower than in the corresponding months of the previous year, goods traffic improved to such an extent that by the end of the financial year 1952 the tonnage was higher than that for the previous year.

Goods traffic, still buoyant until October 1952, reached 10,025,939 tons in 1952–53, an increase of 197,168 tons, or 2 per cent, compared with the year 1951–52. Freight-ton mileage decreased by 6,575,459, or 0.6 per cent, while the average distance for which goods were hauled fell from 109 miles to 106 miles. The 1952–53 goods revenue of £19,136,216 represented 84.7 per cent of total operating revenue.

Year Ended 31 March	Length Open Miles	Train-mileage (Revenue)	Passengers		Season Tickets Issued	Tonnage of Goods and Livestock^*
Year Ended 31 March	Length Open Miles	Train-mileage (Revenue)	Including Season-ticket Holders	Excluding Season-ticket Holders	Season Tickets Issued	Tonnage of Goods and Livestock^*
* Livestock converted to equivalent tonnage.
1943	3,460	15,139,882	36,133,268	17,171,214	1,377,825	8,887,089
1944	3,504	15,328,987	38,611,267	18,317,323	1,518,045	9,026,626
1945	3,504	12,802,536	32,994,529	13,629,523	1,394,817	8,954,239
1946	3,528	13,454,508	32,417,675	13,553,083	1,369,572	9,210,466
1947	3,528	13,169,233	28,869,135	10,222,325	1,358,453	9,329,333
1948	3,526	13,712,103	25,887,189	8,111,417	1,347,671	9,524,043
1949	3,526	13,895,488	26,167,845	7,708,049	1,387,961	9,666,130
1950	3,526	14,420,852	25,895,253	7,881,255	1,402,789	9,948,261
1951	3,531	14,153,211	24,824,075	7,574,275	1,338,435	9,615,857
1952	3,539	12,371,043	21,292,556	5,641,970	1,195,639	9,828,771
1953	3,535	13,409,380	21,455,193	5,779,389	1,209,004	10,025,939

Passenger train-miles run during 1952–53 totalled 4,215,052, and the passenger revenue received represents 143.65d. per passenger train-mile and £876 per mile of line operated by passenger services.

The number of ordinary passenger journeys in 1952–53 increased by 2.4 per cent compared with the previous year. The tonnage of goods handled increased by 2 per cent.

The numbers of livestock carried in 1952–53 were 794,343 cattle and horses, 802,789 calves, 7,964,075 sheep, and 479,968 pigs. The equivalent tonnage was 647,484. Comparative figures for 1951–52 were 730,388 cattle and horses, 810,684 calves, 8,287,146 sheep, 468,264 pigs, and 638,895 tons.

Detailed figures showing the number of rail passengers carried during the last five years are given in the following table.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Ordinary	4,317,612	4,353,272	4,023,850	3,055,790	2,944,317
Suburban	2,196,135	2,177,278	2,307,079	1,843,495	2,052,676
Other reduced fares	1,194,302	1,350,705	1,243,346	742,685	782,396
Totals	7,708,049	7,881,255	7,574,275	5,641,970	5,779,389
Season tickets only—
Suburban weekly:—
Twelve-trip	473,225	477,366	462,060	432,791	423,937
Ten-trip			7,227	14,065	14,502
Workers' weekly	71,671	64,494	57,789	50,408	50,515
Weekly twelve-trip	40,732	40,957	35,222	27,519	32,115
Bearer twelve-trip	62,868	55,790	56,697	47,516	52,170
Bearer six-trip	667,562	696,857	656,483	565,464	578,174
School	20,161	17,827	18,087	16,922	16,740
Tourist	45	32	21	13	11
Travellers' annual	121	113	101	86	76
Other	51,576	49,353	44,748	40,855	40,764
Totals	1,387,961	1,402,789	1,338,435	1,195,639	1,209,004

The following table gives interesting information as to the constitution of the goods traffic for the year 1952–53. The figures are exclusive of steamer traffic on Lake Wakatipu.

Commodity	Tonnage				Revenue
Commodity	Tons Carried	Percentage of Total	Tons, One-mile	Average Haul	Total Gross^*	Per Ton-mile
* Refunds not deducted.
	No.	Per Cent	No.(000)	Miles	£	d.
Grain and seeds	310,036	3.09	18,314	59	358,492	4.70
Meal	99,385	1.00	6,987	70	131,028	4.50
Fruit and vegetables	60,202	0.60	11,826	196	180,430	3.66
Root crops and fodder	94,537	0.94	12,693	134	175,026	3.31
Cattle, calves, horses	304,920	3.05	29,459	97	636,793	5.19
Sheep and pigs	342,564	3.42	35,806	105	894,374	5.99
Meat, fresh and frozen	361,377	3.60	17,072	47	692,483	9.74
Butter	150,791	1.50	16,100	107	356,077	5.31
Cheese	85,499	0.85	4,648	54	139,461	7.20
Wool	200,483	2.00	15,970	80	456,129	6.85
Dairy by-products	79,838	0.80	7,685	96	182,136	5.69
Fat, hides, and skins	66,005	0.66	5,746	87	169,778	7.09
Fish	10,179	0.10	1,970	194	30,607	3.73
Agricultural lime	504,445	5.03	44,068	87	462,905	2.52
Coal, New Zealand hard	714,484	7.13	50,791	71	664,773	3.14
Coal, New Zealand brown	1,238,497	12.35	165,971	134	1,768,660	2.56
Road-metal	69,620	0.69	4,548	65	73,155	3.86
Timber, imported	48,831	0.49	4,321	88	107,011	5.94
Timber, New Zealand	770,120	7.68	128,865	167	1,699,371	3.17
Firewood, posts, etc.	81,399	0.81	9,715	119	108,589	2.68
Motor spirits, kerosene	375,201	3.74	35,895	96	959,764	6.42
Cement	198,953	1.98	27,001	136	443,383	3.94
Manures	1,019,153	10.17	110,986	109	1,467,117	3.17
Miscellaneous	2,839,420	28.32	296,230	104	7,061,947	5.72
Totals	10,025,939	100.00	1,062,667	106	19,219,489	4.34

The next table shows the tonnage of goods carried, freight train-miles run, and net ton-miles run, together with the respective averages for each of the last eleven years.

Year Ended 31 March	Tonnage Carried	Freight Train-miles	Tons One-mile	Gross Revenue
Year Ended 31 March	Tonnage Carried	Freight Train-miles	Tons One-mile	Per Ton			Per Freight Train-mile			Per Ton-mile
			(000)	£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.	d.
1943	8,887,089	8,758,310	781,379	0	18	6	0	18	9	2.52
1944	9,026,626	8,873,974	832,594	0	19	2	0	19	6	2.50
1945	8,954,239	8,199,598	814,906	0	18	10	1	0	6	2.48
1946	9,210,466	8,646,417	842,542	0	18	10	1	0	1	2.47
1947	9,329,333	8,516,995	883,664	0	19	5	1	1	3	2.46
1948	9,524,043	9,002,450	937,422	1	2	4	1	3	8	2.73
1949	9,666,130	9,157,049	970,756	1	4	8	1	6	0	2.94
1950	9,948,261	9,326,993	1,021,138	1	5	1	1	6	9	2.93
1951	9,615,857	9,153,137	1,026,935	1	11	5	1	12	11	3.51
1952	9,828,771	8,514,453	1,069,243	1	14	8	2	0	0	3.82
1953	10,025,939	9,194,328	1,062,667	1	18	4	2	1	10	4.34

A classification of goods traffic for the eleven years ended 1952–53 is now given, the figures quoted being in thousands of tons.

Year Ended 31 March	Agricultural and Pastoral Produce				Agricultural Lime and Manures	Timber and Firewood	Coal	Motor Spirits and Kerosene	Other
Year Ended 31 March	Agricultural Produce	Dairy Produce	Meat, Fish, and Livestock	Wool	Agricultural Lime and Manures	Timber and Firewood	Coal	Motor Spirits and Kerosene	Other
1943	696	288	1,214	222	1,149	758	2,049	180	2,331
1944	757	252	1,196	219	1,240	757	2,084	202	2,320
1945	752	255	1,194	205	1,402	715	2,084	205	2,142
1946	795	250	1,255	250	1,457	692	2,097	221	2,193
1947	733	249	1,212	233	1,647	701	2,062	261	2,231
1948	759	260	1,202	222	1,534	793	2,088	298	2,368
1949	736	277	1,157	220	1,535	860	2,084	305	2,492
1950	689	294	1,131	226	1,637	882	2,131	330	2,628
1951	652	297	1,047	219	1,654	922	1,869	358	2,598
1952	598	319	959	232	1,556	835	1,952	370	3,007
1953	564	316	1,086	200	1,524	900	1,953	375	3,108

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES.—The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1953 was 25,256. The staff is divided into two divisions—namely, the salaried or clerical division, and the general or out-of-door division—and is further classed in five branches, as shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 March	Traffic	Ways and Works	Locomotive Running	Workshops	Other Branches	Totals
1949	8,311	4,751	3,590	5,965	3,707	26,324
1950	8,347	4,934	3,644	5,928	3,927	26,780
1951	8,084	4,691	3,531	5,551	3,816	25,673
1952	7,923	5,329	3,519	5,407	3,031	25,209
1953	7,785	5,591	3,534	5,289	3,057	25,256

A system of classification, first introduced in 1896 and revised at various times since, applies to railway employees. An Appeal Board is constituted to hear grievances of members dissatisfied with decisions in regard to promotion, loss of status, or breaches of discipline. The Board consists of a Magistrate and two members of the Railways service, one appointed by the Minister of Railways and the other elected by the members of the Department. The Government Railways Amendment Act 1944 provided for the establishment of a Tribunal of three members whose principal functions are to prescribe scales of salaries and rates of wages for railway employees; conditions in regard to hours of work, overtime, etc.; and terms and conditions in regard to leave of absence, railway travel concessions, etc. This tribunal, known as the Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, is deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The members, who must not be members of the Railways Department or of any of the railway employees' organizations, are appointed for a term of three years.

A superannuation fund in connection with the Railways service was established in 1903, but was merged with other State superannuation funds as from 1 April 1948, all moneys standing to the credit of the fund being transferred to the newly created Government Superannuation Fund as from that date. Information concerning this is given in the section dealing with “Social Security, Pensions, Superannuation, etc.” A sick-benefit fund, providing for the payment of weekly allowances for periods up to fifty-two weeks to employees other than salaried staff who are incapacitated by sickness, was instituted in 1929. The fund is subsidized by the Department up to a maximum of £28,000 per annum. The amount claimed in 1952–53 was £6,000. The Sick Benefit Society had a membership of 14,801 at 31 March 1953.

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.—The history of the railways in New Zealand has been one of comparative freedom from train accidents of a serious nature. Of earlier accidents which may be termed disasters, the first occurred near Ongarue in 1923, when seventeen passengers were killed and twenty-six injured as a result of an express train colliding with a fallen boulder on the line; the second was a major derailment of a passenger train near Hyde on 4 June 1943, which caused the deaths of twenty-one passengers and more or less serious injuries to forty-six others.

A further serious accident occurred on 25 February 1948, when the Picton-Christchurch passenger express became derailed two miles south of Seddon Station. A Board of Inquiry set up under the Government Railways Act 1926 found that the cause of the accident was the overturning of the engine and tender due to entering a curve at a speed far in excess of that authorized. Six passengers were killed and sixty-one injured, some seriously. The fireman and driver were also injured.

New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, 1953, when the engine and six carriages of the 3 p.m. Wellington - Auckland express plunged into a raging flood of ice water, silt, and debris with the accompanying collapse of a bridge over the Wangaehu River. Known deaths totalled 131, with 20 persons still missing after the elapse of some weeks.

During the year ended 31 March 1953, 44 persons were killed and 435 were injured in all kinds of accidents arising from train working and movements of rolling stock. Comparative figures for the previous year were 31 killed and 411 injured. These figures do not include employees who were killed or injured whilst engaged on other duties—e.g., railway workshops.

Of the 44 persons meeting with fatal accidents in 1952–53, 3 were passengers and 12 were employees; of the remainder who were neither passengers nor employees, 19 were killed at railway crossings, 6 in accidents on the line, 2 whilst trespassing, and 2 from other causes. Of those injured, 29 were passengers, 300 were employees (chiefly minor accidents), and 106 were neither passengers nor employees. Of the 106 other persons, 78 were injured in crossing accidents.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS.—There are a number of private railways in New Zealand, chiefly lines of light construction serving colliery and sawmilling areas. On the timber tramways, special rolling stock is used for log haulage with various types of locomotive, many of interesting design according to the nature of the work required of them. The longest of the private lines connecting collieries to the State system is the 11 miles 67 chains of railway between Birchfield and Wairio, operated by the Ohai Railway Board.

Chapter 13. SECTION 13—ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS AND ASSOCIATED TRANSPORT

Table of Contents

SYSTEMS AND OWNERSHIP.—The five electric tramway systems operating in New Zealand at 31 March 1953 serve the cities of Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and are controlled by local authorities under powers conferred by the Tramways Act 1908. In Auckland and Christchurch the authorities are boards—namely, the Auckland Transport Board and the Christchurch Transport Board; control of the other three systems is exercised by the City Councils concerned.

Trolley buses are being run in conjunction with all tramway services and have replaced tram cars on some routes as well as covering routes not previously served by tramways. Motor buses are used in each of these five cities to supplement the tramway and trolley bus services, and in Wellington and Dunedin the City Councils also operate cable tramways. In Invercargill tram cars ceased to run in September 1952, and have been replaced by a motor bus service. Wellington has one cable tramway, serving Kelburn; and one service operates in Dunedin, to Mornington.

The tables which follow are divided into two parts, the first series dealing with the operations of electric tramways, trolley buses, and motor buses which form integrated transport services, and the second portion giving details of the cable tramways.

ELECTRIC TRAMWAYS, TROLLEY BUSES, AND MOTOR BUSES.—In the following pages are reviewed the operations of these forms of transport, showing each system separately for 1952–53, and summary figures for all systems combined for the last three years.

Passenger Vehicles in Use.—The following table sets out details of the numbers of vehicles in use by the various authorities during the year ended 31 March 1953.

System	Tram Cars and Trailers	Trolley Buses	Motor Buses
Auckland	185	56	109
New Plymouth	10	4	14
Wellington	187	22	55
Christchurch	57	11	105
Dunedin	43	26	40
Invercargill	10		15
Totals	492	119	338
Seating Capacity.—The next table shows the seating capacity of the vehicles shown above.
Auckland	9,620	2,432	3,805
New Plymouth	356	168	421
Wellington	6,553	924	1,891
Christchurch	2,674	424	4,493
Dunedin	1,698	1,040	1,262
Invercargill	304		546
Totals	21,205	4,988	12,418
Miles Run During Year.—An analysis of total miles run during the year is now given.
Auckland	5,478,142	796,083	2,691,211
New Plymouth	214,467	84,020	198,718
Wellington	3,302,163	332,486	751,582
Christchurch	1,602,342	336,063	1,989,644
Dunedin	990,633	489,273	1,006,304
Invercargill	47,535		273,798
Totals	11,635,282	2,037,925	6,911,257

Summary.—The three most recent years are compared in the next series of tables, which shows total numbers of vehicles in use, total seating capacity, and total mileage recorded.

Year	Tram Cars and Trailers	Trolley Buses	Motor Buses
* Total capacity, seated and standing.
Number of Vehicles
1950–51	644	48	261
1951–52	591	82	273
1952–53	492	119	338
Seating Capacity
1950–51	27,758	1,961	11,478^*
1951–52	23,407	3,369	9,722
1952–53	21,205	4,988	12,418
Miles Run During Year
1950–51	13,775,539	931,713	6,485,257
1951–52	13,137,051	1,442,787	6,458,308
1952–53	11,635,282	2,037,925	6,911,257

Passengers Carried.—During the years 1950–51, 1952–52, and 1952–53 passengers carried totalled 193,775,087, 177,427,140, and 171,358,382 respectively. The number carried by each of the systems during the year ended 31 March 1953 is given below.

System	Number of Passengers
Auckland	78,825,446
New Plymouth	3,403,583
Wellington	43,128,008
Christchurch	23,539,061
Dunedin	20,529,639
Invercargill	1,942,645

Electric Power Used.—Power used during the year amounted to 42,419,000 kWh., compared with 43,249,000 kWh. during 1951–52, and 45,299,000 kWh. during 1950–51. The quantities used by individual authorities are given in the following table.

System	Thousand kWh.
Auckland	22,575
New Plymouth	667
Wellington	9.429
Christchurch	6,330
Dunedin	3,317
Invercargill	101

Length of Routes.—The length of roadways traversed by tramway and trolley bus routes totalled 102 miles 67 chains and 42 miles 52 chains respectively, details for each system being available in the next table.

System	Length of Road Traversed at 31 March 1953
System	Tramways		Trolley Buses
	M.	ch.	M.	ch.
Auckland	38	20	11	46
New Plymouth	4	43	3	29
Wellington	26	77	9	2
Christchurch	24	72	9	36
Dunedin	8	15	9	19

Capital Outlay.—At 31 March 1953 the capital value of the six systems was £6,968,635 and expenditure less sales during the year amounted to £989,125. This total value was made up of the assets shown below.

System	Land and Buildings	Tracks and Overhead Equipment	Vehicles	Other Assets	Totals
	£	£	£	£	£
Auckland	313,872	365,542	971,229	119,257	1,769,900
New Plymouth	15,109	81,727	75,379	23,068	195,283
Wellington	315,492	648,843	955,874	108,252	2,028,461
Christchurch	191,464	546,406	935,179	227,887	1,900,936
Dunedin	100,672	239,667	442,459	92,991	875,789
Invercargill	21,074	45,767	118,960	12,465	198,266
Totals	957,683	1,927,952	3,499,080	583,920	6,968,635

The introduction of trolley buses to replace tram cars, which has been proceeding for several years, is reflected in the next table, which gives details of capital outlay on the various types of vehicles.

Class of Vehicle	Value at 31 March 1952	Net Expenditure During Year	Value at 31 March 1953
	£	£	£
Tram cars and trailers	1,029,043	Cr. 35,749	993,294
Trolley buses	841,357	132,163	973,520
Motor buses	868,407	663,859	1,532,266

Accrued Funds and Reserves.—Accrued funds and reserves for each system at 31 March 1953 are given in the following table.

System	Sinking Fund Reserves	Depreciation Reserves	Accident Reserves	Other Reserves	Totals
	£	£	£	£	£
Auckland	241,636	400,305	15,669	43,677	701,287
New Plymouth		15,052		163,929	178,981
Wellington	93,202	166,085	102,738	59,764	421,789
Christchurch	64,944	33,585	93,423	1,158,220	1,350,172
Dunedin	26,351	244,014	23,567	41,712	335,644
Invercargill	2,122	28,896			31,018
Totals	428,255	887,937	235,397	1,467,302	3,018,891

The next table compares the total accrued funds and reserves at the end of each of the last three years.

Year	Sinking Fund Reserves	Depreciation Reserves	Accident Reserves	Other Reserves	Totals
	£	£	£	£	£
1950–51	374,563	1,372,780	247,005	2,246,134	4,240,482
1951–52	397,958	945,887	261,824	1,524,892	3,130,561
1952–53	428,255	887,937	235,397	1,467,302	3,018,891

Revenue.—The two tables which follow show the revenue of each of the authorities for the 1952–53 year and total revenue of all authorities for each of the past three years specified.

System	Passenger Fares		Other Revenue	Totals
System	Cash	Concession	Other Revenue	Totals
	£	£	£	£
Auckland	1,056,691	384,202	28,761	1,469,654
New Plymouth	33,624	19,642	3,022	56,288
Wellington	436,488	226,259	79,893	742,640
Christchurch	352,747	98,081	41,585	492,413
Dunedin	251,981	108,615	17,516	378,112
Invercargill	24,626		5,348	29,974
Totals	2,156,157	836,799	176,125	3,169,081

Revenue	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Passenger fares—	£	£	£
Cash	2,669,579	2,174,287	2,156,157
Concession	2,669,579	931,127	836,799
Other revenue	68,201	68,107	176,125
Totals	2,737,780	3,173,521	3,169,081

Expenditure.—Details of expenditure by each of the authorities during the 1952–53 year and total expenditure by all authorities for the last three years are stated in the next two tables.

System	Operating Expenditure	Capital Charges	Other Expenditure	Totals
	£	£	£	£
Auckland	1,383,752	156,051		1,539,803
New Plymouth	63,403	5,009	5,707	74,119
Wellington	726,220	80,722	562	807,504
Christchurch	457,259	123,823	38,445	619,527
Dunedin	360,012	46,451	43,514	449,977
Invercargill	36,593	9,013	6,627	52,233
Totals	3,027,239	421,069	94,855	3,543,163

Expenditure	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£	£
Operating expenditure	2,599,422	2,941,510	3,027,239
Capital charges	349,312	391,847	421,069
Other expenditure	42,862	41,925	94,855
Totals	2,991,596	3,375,282	3,543,163

Employment, Salaries and Wages Paid.—Included in the total expenditure for the year ended 31 March 1953 and distributed between operating and other expenditure, is an amount of £2,307,608 paid as salaries and wages. The total amounts of salaries and wages paid during 1950–51 and 1951–52 were £1,985,729 and £2,259,148 respectively. Details of the number of persons employed by these transport systems and the manner in which the salaries and wages were allocated during 1952–53 are as follows.

—	Males	Females
Average Number of Persons Engaged
	No.	No.
Management and office staff	160	47
Traffic staff (including inspectors)	1,910	328
Other (maintenance, etc.)	1,201	8
Totals	3,271	383
Salaries and Wages Paid
	£	£
Management and office staff	117,620	17,980
Traffic staff (including inspectors)	1,251,558	203,529
Other (maintenance, etc.)	713,502	3,419
Totals	2,082,680	224,928

Summary of Operations.—Averages derived from the information given concerning passengers carried, fares paid, revenue, and expenditure, are supplied in the table which follows, together with similar details of the operations of the previous two years.

Item	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Passengers per mile run No.	9.14	8.43	8.32
Average fare per passenger Pence	3.31	4.20	419
Revenue per mile run Pence	31.00	36.20	36.95
Expenditure per mile run Pence	33.88	38.50	41.30

CABLE TRAMWAYS.—There were two cable tramway systems in operation during 1952–53, one in Wellington and one in Dunedin. Both are electrically operated. The total length of track in use by the two systems amounted to 1 mile 71 chains.

Operations during the year ended 31 March 1953 resulted in a total deficit of £8,479, each system showing a loss. Details of revenue and expenditure are set out in the next table.

System	Passenger Fares	Other Revenue	Total Revenue	Operating Expenditure	Capital Charges	Total Expenditure
	£	£	£	£	£	£
Wellington	14,839	340	15,179	17,486	758	18,244
Dunedin	25,482	159	25,641	26,767	4,288	31,055
Totals	40,321	499	40,820	44,253	5,046	49,299

Review of Operations.—Principal statistics for the three latest years are as follows.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1951	1952	1953
Systems No.	3	3	2
Passenger vehicles in use No.	25	25	13
Passenger capacity No.	716	716	442
Miles run No.	262,142	267,638	242,823
Passengers carried No.	4,086,882	3,577,572	3,165,091
Passengers per mile run No.	15.59	13.37	13.03
Average fare per passenger d.	2.62	3.06	3.05
Employees paid out of revenue No.	61	62	48
Salaries and wages paid £	34,480	37,195	33,724
Capital outlay—
Land and buildings £	20,597	20,597	17,505
Power plant £	15,465	15,465	10,691
Tracks and overhead equipment £	48,503	48,503	20,257
Vehicles £	13,614	13,614	8,397
Other assets £	19,355	19,325	24,378
Totals £	117,534	117,504	81,228
Revenue—
Passenger fares £	44,587	45,641	40,321
Other revenue £	494	519	499
Totals £	45,081	46,160	40,820
Revenue per mile run d.	41.27	41.39	40.35
Expenditure—
Operating expenditure £	46,047	47,659	44,253
Capital charges £	9,044	8,837	5,046
Totals £	55,091	56,496	49,299
Expenditure per mile run d.	50.44	50.66	48.73

Chapter 14. SECTION 14—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

Table of Contents

ROADS AND BRIDGES.—The total mileage of formed roads in New Zealand at 31 March 1952 was 54,525, in addition to which there were 5,465 miles of bridle-tracks and 17,048 miles of unformed legal roads. Details are given in the following table.

—	Counties	Boroughs	Town Districts	Road Districts	Totals
* Includes 5 miles of wood or stone. † Includes 7 miles clay and shell. ‡ Includes 334 miles of pumice roads.
Formed roads and streets, paved or surfaced with—	Miles	Miles	Miles	Miles	Miles
Bituminous or cement concrete	183	247	9	5	444
Bitumen or tar	5,431	2,454^*	112	28	8,025
Metal or gravel	37,155	1,257^†	233	57	38,702
Unmetalled formed roads and streets (i.e., not paved or surfaced)	7,084^‡	170	79	21	7,354
Totals, formed roads	49,853	4,128	433	111	54,525
Bridle-tracks	5,378	8		79	5,465
Unformed legal roads	16,676	322	47	3	17,048
Totals, all roads	71,907	4,458	480	193	77,038

The formation of roads in many parts has been attended with considerable expense and difficulties, arising from the configuration of the country and the abundance of rivers. As illustrating the latter aspect, the following table, showing the number and lengths of bridges incorporated in the roads system as at 31 March 1952, is of interest. Only bridges 25 ft. or over in length have been taken into account, no official enumeration having been made of the innumerable culverts and short bridges. A perusal of the figures shown in this and in the preceding table gives an average of 13.3 feet of bridging per mile of formed road.

Material of which Bridge Constructed	Counties		Boroughs		Town Districts		Road Districts		Totals
Material of which Bridge Constructed	No.	Total Length	No.	Total Length	No.	Total Length	No.	Total Length	No.	Total Length
		Ft.		Ft.		Ft.		Ft.		Ft.
All concrete or stone	1,554	157,747	108	10,524	9	614	3	87	1,674	168,972
Steel and concrete	307	39,353	44	7,787	5	708			350	47,848
Steel, concrete, and timber	545	46,860	19	3,235	2	115			566	50,210
Steel and timber	913	75,117	27	4,343					940	79,460
Australian hardwood	2,112	205,042	92	10,135	7	360			2,211	215,537
Native timbers	2,781	159,739	44	3,831	7	387	5	143	2,837	164,100
Totals	8,212	683,858	334	39,855	30	2,184	8	230	8,584	726,127

ROADS ADMINISTRATION.—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Counties Act 1920 and amendments, and the National Roads Act 1953 replacing the Main Highways Act 1922 and amendments.

A Special Committee was set up by the Minister of Works in March 1952, the order of reference of which contained a general direction to the Committee to recommend to the Government what standard of reading was adequate to provide and maintain an efficient road transport system and to report on the financial implications. This Committee furnished its report early in March 1953, and a number of its findings have already been implemented.

The principal measure which carried into effect certain recommendations of the Special Committee was the National Roads Act 1953. By this Act a National Roads Board is established from 1 April 1954 to take over the functions of the former Main Highways Board. District Roads Councils are also established to perform the functions hitherto carried out by District Highways Councils, with additional functions in their districts in relation to roading requirements and standards of the various local authorities. The National Roads Board, through the District Councils and otherwise, has functions in relation to the maintenance of roads other than main highways in the districts of local authorities. The Act provides that there will be an increased and automatic allocation of moneys to a National Roads Fund to be expended for roading purposes. Allocations of funds are made without appropriation to boroughs and independent town districts for roading purposes calculated on a population basis, and to counties and road districts based on general rates and special rates for roading purposes collected by them.

The composition of the National Roads Board is: (a) An officer and an engineer officer of the Ministry of Works (Chairman and Deputy Chairman respectively); (b) an administration officer from the Ministry of Works; (c) an officer of the Transport Department; (d) two nominees of the New Zealand Counties Association (Incorporated); (e) a nominee of the Municipal Association of New Zealand (Incorporated); (f) a representative of commercial road users; and (g) a representative of private motorists.

The functions of the Board are defined as follows:

To administer the National Roads Fund in accordance with the provisions of the Act;
To provide an advisor) service in respect of the whole roading system of counties, boroughs, and town districts throughout New Zealand, and to report to the Government from time to time on the progress being made in providing a roading system adequate for needs arising from current developments in motor traffic;
To advise the Government of any changes necessary in the legislation and regulations relating to the use of roads;
To act as the final authority in disputes relating to road classifications;
To advise the Government of changes necessary in the provision of finance for road construction and maintenance, particularly of changes considered advisable in the levying and collection of motor taxation, including exemptions therefrom;
To assist and advise local authorities generally on roading matters and any special roading problems arising from development of industries, etc.;
To undertake at not more than five or less than three year intervals a comprehensive survey into the roading position in New Zealand, including standards, growth of traffic, adequacy, etc.;
To give effect to any special matter of roading policy communicated to it by the Government;
To initiate and conduct research into roading problems in New Zealand;
To collect information on roading developments in other countries and make this available to roading authorities in New Zealand;
To undertake any other activity for the provision of a roading system adequate both for the needs of an efficient road transport system and for the benefit generally of motor-vehicle operators and the safety of the public in relation to motor traffic.

Roads Council Districts.—New Zealand is divided into twenty roads council districts, composed of counties grouped according to geographic situation and community interest, these districts being deemed to be the same as the former highway districts which they replaced.

For each roads council district there is an advisory body, known as the District Roads Council, which is constituted to include the District Commissioner of Works, one representative of each constituent county and road district, one person to represent boroughs and independent town districts for each two members representing counties or road districts, a representative of commercial road users, a representative of private motorists, and a nominee of the Commissioner of Transport.

The principal functions of these councils are more extensive than those of the former highways councils. They include the making of recommendations to the Board each year as to which roads within the several districts should be declared main highways and the works which should be under taken, together with estimates of the cost of works, their opinion of the roading needs of their districts as a whole, and their recommendations on other matters of interest to road users or affecting road safety.

Finance.—The financial provisions made in respect of roads were materially altered with the passing of the National Roads Act 1953. This Act provided for a National Roads Fund to be established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund to be derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State and main highways to modern standards and of subsidizing the roading programmes of local authorities.

On the revenue side of the Fund's operations the Government has reintroduced the principle of reserving motor spirits tax receipts and other motor taxation for roading purposes, which was generally in effect until the change to parliamentary appropriation from the Consolidated Fund for roading expenditure took place consequent on the abolition of the Main Highways Account as from 1 April 1947.

Details of the classes of revenue automatically paid into the Fund fro: April 1954 are as follows:

Fees and charges from registration and licensing of motor vehicles (section 34, Transport Act 1949), refer page 360 for present rates;
Heavy traffic licence fees (section 59, Transport Act 1949), less cost of collection not exceeding 5 per cent of the amount;
Motor spirits tax and mileage tax (Part IV of Transport Act 1949);
Tire tax (Customs Duties Tariff item 205 (6), Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934);
Receipts from any source in respect of the construction, maintenance, or control of any highway;
Receipts from transfers, sales, or hire of materials or plant or property of any kind or from executing works for other organizations;
Any other moneys credited to the Fund; and
An annual payment of £1,000,000 from the Consolidated Fund.

The tax on motor spirits from August 1939 to September 1951 was 1s. 2d. per gallon for British imports, of which 8d. was ordinary Customs revenue, and 1s. 2 d. for foreign imports, of which 8 d. was ordinary Customs revenue. From September 1951 to November 1953 both rates were reduced by 2d. per gallon, but as from the latter month the duty was increased to 1s. 3d. per gallon, all of which is now to be paid into the National Roads Fund, not, as formerly, the first 6d. per gallon only.

Expenditure from the Fund may be made without appropriation as follows:

Payment of annual subsidies to local authorities for roading purposes (not exceeding 10 per cent of the Fund's revenue to borough councils and independent town boards, or 12 per cent to county councils and road boards; nor less than receipts during 1953–54 by way of heavy-traffic fees and annual subsidy, under Municipal Corporations Act 1933, to boroughs or, under the Appropriation Act 1916, to counties, road districts, or town districts);
Payments by the Crown in respect of the construction, maintenance, and control of main highways;
Compensation payable by the Crown for acquisition of land for a main highway;
Compensation and damages payable by the Crown for accidents and injuries in relation to works the cost of which is chargeable to the Fund;
Cost of purchase or hire of machinery or equipment;
Cost of survey and other preparatory work for main highways;
Cost of experimental work;
Cost of administration by the Ministry of Works: and
Other expenses by the National Roads Board in exercise of its functions.

The following table gives a summary of the returns from special taxation of motor vehicles for the last five financial years.

Yield of	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Share for highway purposes only (first 6d.). † Provisional.
	£	£	£	£	£
Tire tax	241,136	64,349	26,745	40,163	25,224
Motor spirits tax^*	2,598,870	2,823,369	3,104,216	3,459,664	3,814,227
Fees, etc., under Transport Act 1949	736,386	705,576	805,160	1,000,496	995,577
Mileage tax	15,974	19,997	25,932	32,153	36,745
Heavy-traffic fees	651,308	727,641	802,315	917,737	974,536^†
Drivers' licences	117,058	123,551	130,685	140,132	152,729^†
Totals	4,360,732	4,464,483	4,895,053	5,590.345	5,999,038^†

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on main highways construction, renewal, or maintenance by the Main Highways Board during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£	£	£	£
Construction and improvement	2,070,288	2,246,736	1,765,143	2,683,494	3,082,310
Renewal of bridges	287,384	436,450	417,334	594,857	838,145
Maintenance, repairs, etc.	2,635,896	2,508,945	2,685,893	3,796,237	3,689,965
Totals	4,993,568	5,192,131	4,868,370	7,074,588	7,610,420

An analysis of the actual expenditure on maintenance in each Island, as compared with the number of motor vehicles in each Island at 31 March of each of the last five years, appears in the following table, the percentages relating to New Zealand totals.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Percentage of New Zealand Totals
North Island—
Maintenance expenditure	69.48	70.07	69.67	67.93	67.13
Motor vehicles	66.21	66.26	66.75	66.91	66.92
South Island—
Maintenance expenditure	30.52	29.93	30.33	32.07	32.87
Motor vehicles	33.79	33.74	33.25	33.09	33.08

The following table shows the mileage of main highways in the North and South Islands as at 31 March 1953, together with a classification as to the type of construction or surface.

—	Length of Main Highways
—	Dustless Surface	Gravel or Macadam Surface	Clay or Pumice Surface	Totals
	Miles	Miles	Miles	Miles
North Island	3,163	3,835	180	7,178
South Island	1,834	3,824		5,658
Totals	4,997	7,659	180	12,836

Assistance to Local Authorities.—In terms of the Main Highways Act of 1922, the Main Highways Board was required to provide one-half of the cost of construction or reconstruction of main highways and one-third of the cost of maintenance and repairs. By subsequent legislation the rate of assistance was increased and eventually the Board was empowered to determine the basis of subsidy. From 1 April 1931 the standard maintenance subsidy rate was £3 for £1, and only in exceptional circumstances was this increased. The construction or renewal of bridges was subsidized at £2 for £1 until 1 April 1938, but for bridges on main highways where the cost of the bridge was not greater than £60,000 the work was subsidized on a £3 for £1 basis; where the cost exceeded £60,000 the excess was met in full by the Board. On State highways the Board met the whole cost. These provisions are continued by the National Roads Act 1953, the authority now becoming the National Roads Board.

In special circumstances the Board may advance money, by way of loan, to local authorities to provide for the proportion of cost payable by a local authority in respect of the construction or reconstruction of a main highway. Such loans must be repaid by instalments extending over a period (not exceeding ten years) to be agreed upon between the Board and the local authority, and interest is payable at a rate approved by the Minister of Finance.

The payment of annual subsidies to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading purposes is made at the following rates: Borough councils whose districts have a population of 6,000 or more, at the rate of £1 2s. per head of population; borough councils and independent town boards with less than 6,000 population, 15s. per head; county councils and road boards, 8s. for each £1 of general rates or of special rates for roading purposes collected during the year. This replaces the former system under which 8 per cent of the proceeds of the first 6d. per gallon of the motor spirits tax and of the mileage tax was distributed on a population basis to cities and boroughs with a population of over 6,000 for expenditure on streets forming continuations of highways. Local authorities also collected and retained receipts from heavy-traffic fees and drivers' licences, the latter of which is still retained by the local authorities. In the year ended 31 March 1953 the amount distributed among cites and boroughs under the former system was £312,662, and for the previous year £298,078.

The Board is also empowered to sell roadmaking machinery, plant, and equipment to local authorities on such terms as it thinks fit, including terms for the repayment of the purchase money by instalments extending over not more than four years, with interest on the unpaid balance at such rate as is fixed by the Board. Since this scheme was introduced, plant, etc., has been purchased to the value of £753,845, of which sum £62,877 was outstanding at 31 March 1953.

Main and State Highways.—Prior to the advent of the motor vehicle only a small proportion of the total road mileage outside of boroughs was permanently surfaced. The development of motor traffic, however, entirely changed the complexion of the roading problem in New Zealand, as elsewhere, and better roads were demanded as motor transport became popular. It was found that under the strain of motor traffic the roads, particularly those between the main centres running parallel with railways, were deteriorating, while the necessity for changes in both construction and administration became more and more obvious. To meet the situation the Main Highways Act was passed in 1922, under which provision was made for the declaration of roads as main highways, and thus the control of arterial roads became primarily a national concern. Under an amendment to the Act of 1922, passed in 1936, the Main Highways Board was empowered, with the approval of the Minister of Works, to classify any main highway as a State highway.

Both of these powers were transferred to the National Roads Board with the coming into force of the National Roads Act 1953.

The National Roads Board has the sole powers of construction, maintenance, and control of all main highways. These powers may be delegated, for any main highway or portion thereof, to the local authority in whose district the road is situated. Any construction or maintenance work that is not delegated by the Board to a local authority is carried out by or through the agency of the Commissioner of Works and the cost borne by the Fund. The Board may also delegate to the Ministry of Works its duties in connection with design, supervision, construction, or maintenance, or the administration of any specified main highway. No new construction works are to be commenced by the Board, however, without the prior consent of the Minister of Works.

As stated earlier the cost of construction and maintenance of main highways is apportioned so that the three-quarters is met from the Fund and the rest is payable by the several local authorities within whose districts any part of the highway is situated in such proportions as may be fixed by the Board. For those main highways declared as State highways, however, the whole cost of construction is to be met from the National Roads Fund.

At 31 March 1953 the length of main highways totalled 12,836 miles, compared with 12,723 miles in March 1952, the small increase of 113 miles being due to the addition of a few special extensions or connections having regard to their relationship to the overall highway system. Of the 12,836 miles of main highways, 5,304 miles, comprising the principal arterial routes, have been classed as State highways, this being an increase of 21 miles over the March 1952 total.

Main Highway Standards.—In order to qualify for financial assistance local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are

not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadrnaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests, and during recent years advances have been made in the direction of framing standard specifications which allow of a wider use of certain local materials which formerly were not accepted.

Motor-ways.—Legislation by means of the Public Works Amendment Act 1947, as amended by section 44 of the Public Works Amendment Act 1948, makes provision for the declaration of limited-access highways or, more shortly, motor-ways. It is emphasized that motor-ways are not merely better all-purpose highways.

In addition to providing the most efficient and economic transport service, the main distinguishing features of a motor-way are the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development, both of which will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

Activity During the Year Ending 31 March 1953.—During the year ended 31 March 1953., 192 miles of new scaling were completed, giving an aggregate of 4,997 miles of sealed roads, or 39 per cent of the total mileage of main highways. In addition, a length of 264 miles of existing sealed surfaces received a maintenance coat, and 13 miles of sealed surface were reinstated.

New bridging totalled 6,655 lineal feet, compared with 5,690 lineal feet in the previous year.

TOTAL EXPENDITURE ON ROADS BY GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES.—The following table compiled from Transport Department sources shows the total expenditure upon roads, streets, and bridges for the years quoted. The amounts expended on maintenance and construction of main highways differ from those given on page 357, since the figures given in the table presented here arc inclusive of local authority expenditure on roads classed as highways, whereas the earlier data refer only to funds expended by the Main Highways Board on this account.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52^†
* The bulk of interest is an estimate of interest on local-authority and public road liability. † Provisional.
Maintenance—	£	£	£	£
Rural main highways	3,319,561	3,276,413	3,533,799	4,699,512
Urban roads and streets	744,220	839,785	889,504	1,062,069
Other rural roads	1,859,514	2,077,025	2,366,809	2,861,949
Totals	5,923,295	6,193,223	6,790,112	8,623,530
Construction—
Rural main highways	2,511,323	2,854,586	2,322,091	3,509,796
Urban roads and streets	891,055	1,029,924	1,096,561	1,336,807
Other rural roads	623,317	730,738	819,048	1,064,309
Totals	4,025,695	4,615,248	4,237,700	5,910,912
Interest^* and sinking fund charges—
Rural main highways	558,701	575,861	588,985	613,482
Urban roads and streets	661,663	669,043	716,661	729,465
Other rural roads	1,167,705	1,187,629	1,251,073	1,316,429
Totals	2,388,069	2,432,533	2,556,719	2,659,376
Totals, New Zealand	12,337,059	13,241,004	13,584,531	17,193,818

The total expenditure shown in the preceding table was made available from the following sources of revenue.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52^†
* This item covers sources of revenue other than receipts by way of loans, local rates, Government grants, and motor taxation, the latter including receipts from motor-drivers' licences and heavy-traffic fees. † Provisional.
All roads—	£	£	£	£
Loans	2,991,903	3,447,836	3,027,233	4,383,987
Local rates	3,510,751	3,842,235	4,223,290	4,909,083
Government grants	14,095	13,726	13,260	12,701
General taxation^*	1,675,766	1,741,286	1,810,736	2,121,580
Motor taxation	4,144,544	4,195,921	4,510,012	5,766,467
Totals	12,337,059	13,241,004	13,584,531	17,193,818

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES.—Before the Main Highways Act was passed, the Government, by the provisions of the Customs Amendment Act 1921 and the Finance Act 1921–22, recognized and applied the principle that motor-vehicle owners should contribute toward the cost of the construction and upkeep of the road surfaces which were required principally for them. By these Acts an import duty was levied on tires and tubes, the funds so obtained being used for highway construction and maintenance.

Amongst the funds specified by the Main Highways Act as being available for the Revenue Fund was a sum to be derived from the licensing of motor vehicles. When the Main Highways Act was passed it was expected that a Motor Vehicles Act dealing with the registration and licensing of motor vehicles would be simultaneously passed, but owing to the difficulty of co-ordinating all interests it was not until November 1924 that the Motor Vehicles Act became law. This Act provided for the registration and annual licensing of all motor vehicles. The Transport Act 1949, however, repealed the Motor Vehicles Act 1924, and as from the operating date of 1 November 1949 the Transport Act became the statutory authority dealing with these requirements.

The following scale of fees are to operate from 1 July 1954 by virtue of the Transport Amendment (No. 2) Act 1953. Registration fees are £1 for any tractor or trailer, and £2 for any other motor vehicle. Annual licence fees are as follows: Motor cycle, £2; motor car, £3; trade motor, £5; motor vehicles designed to carry more than nine passengers, £5; motor vehicles of which the gross unladen weight plus rated weight-carrying capacity exceeds two tons, £5; traction engine, £7 10s.; motor vehicle not otherwise specified, £4; trailers (two or more axles), £5; trailer (other), £1 10s. Other fees include drivers' licences, 5s.; changes of ownship, 10s.; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, £2; any other motor vehicle, £3). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, were credited to the Consolidated Fund until 31 March 1954, and thereafter are credited to the National Roads Fund. Heavy-traffic fees which are referred to under the next' heading are levied under the Transport Act, and receipts therefrom, until 31 March 1954, were distributed among local authorities, and from 1 April 1954 to the Public Account to the credit of the National Roads Fund.

The 1949 Act provides that the annual licence may take the form of new registration plates or be in such other form as prescribed by regulation. The Motor Vehicles (Registration and Licensing) Regulations 1949, replacing earlier emergency regulations, authorize the permanent alternative of a licensed label system instead of an annual change of registration plates. The sum of 6d. has been the charge for licence stickers, and 2s. 6d. for each set of two number plates and 1s. 3d. for each single number plate on issue or replacement of number plates.

The following table shows the numbers of the various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years.

Type of Vehicle	Licensed as at 31 March
Type of Vehicle	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
* Not required to register in the earlier years shown.
Cars	225,093	233,812	251,122	280,458	305,672
Light trucks (i.e., 2 tons and under, laden)	40,536	43,186	46,714	53,167	56,582
Heavy trucks (i.e., over 2 tons laden)	31,823	34,440	38,207	42,014	44,459
Contract vehicles	2,182	2,225	2,143	2,103	2,106
Omnibuses	1,397	1,494	1,583	1,678	1,762
Taxis	1,970	2,021	2,116	2,222	2,233
Rental cars	1,056	1,200	1,393	1,557	1,638
Private-hire cars	239	266	308	306	352
Service cars	692	689	734	703	727
Trailers	29,293	32,860	36,471	40,937	44,137
Vehicles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (other than exempted Government-owned vehicles)	22,009	28,557	34,509	42,971	45,564
Government vehicles	9,062	10,149	11,036	12,018	13,900
Motor cycles	19,914	20,733	21,048	26,703	25,546
Power cycles^*					3,651
Totals	385,266	411,632	447,384	506,837	548,329
Dealers' cars	1,614	1,651	1,677	2,182	2,312
Dealers' motor cycles	75	80	89	140	121
Grand totals	386,955	413,363	449,150	509,159	550,762

Wartime restrictions, etc., had the effect of reducing the number of vehicles licensed in the mid-war period, although there were slight increases in the goods-carrying categories in the later war years. The abolition of motor-spirits rationing as from 1 June 1950 was the culmination of the gradual lifting of wartime restrictions on the use of motor-spirits. The higher figures for recent years follow on the higher importations of motor vehicles, particularly of cars. Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, logging machinery, cranes, etc.

The next table shows the estimated total consumption of motor spirits in New Zealand, together with the quantity consumed by motor vehicles, for each year during the period 1942 to 1952.

Calendar Year	Consumption of Motor Spirits
Calendar Year	By Motor Vehicles	Total Consumption
	Million Gallons	Million Gallons
1942	46.1	56.5
1943	50.2	59.4
1944	53.7	62.7
1945	65.6	74.6
1946	86.5	96.6
1947	103.3	117.0
1948	102.6	118.3
1949	111.5	132.6
1950	122.5	145.8
1951	139.4	165.9
1952	149.0	182.9

Consumption of motor spirits for civilian purposes reached its lowest level in 1942, successive increases occurring from then until 1948, which was influenced by reversion to a modified form of the wartime rationing. The following years also recorded increases principally owing to the abolition of rationing in 1950 and to the greater number of vehicles on the roads in recent years. Consumption by the Armed Forces was excluded from the figures given for years up to the 1947 year.

The following diagram illustrates the movement that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles since 1933. The low consumption of motor spirits during the depression period, the effects of rationing during the war years, the post-war recovery, and increases paralleling the greater number of vehicles licensed in later years, are clearly demonstrated.

The following table gives particulars of the numbers of motor vehicles registered during each of the last five financial years. It must not be assumed, however, that the figures are a record of the number of new vehicles introduced into the country's traffic system each year, since they include an unknown number of vehicles which have been brought back into commission after having been removed from the register. In this connection it may be mentioned that dormant registrations—i.e., vehicles the registrations of which have not been cancelled, but which have not been relicensed for the current year—may be cancelled after the expiration of that year. If, however, a vehicle is again brought into use after its registration has been cancelled, it is treated as a new registration.

Year Ended 31 March	Cars	Motor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)	Commercial Vehicles	Total Registrations
1949	11,662	2,157	21,450	35,269
1950	11,776	2,791	23,770	38,337
1951	19,201	2,937	25,660	47,798
1952	34,699	8,125	31,045	73,869
1953	28,419	6,459	28,841	63,719

The large number of registrations shown for the last two years reflect the heavy importations of vehicles during the period.

ROAD TRANSPORT.—The period following the First World War ushered in a rapid development of an already considerable road motor transport which has necessitated extensive legislation not alone for its control, but also for the provision of adequate road-surfaces. Certain principal enactments are referred to briefly in chronological order.

The Customs Amendment Act 1921, among numerous tariff changes, imposed a tire tax on rubber tires and tubes, previously duty free. The proceeds were credited to the Main Highways Account until 31 March 1947, and since then to the Consolidated Fund. For an account of the moneys derived from this and other highways taxation, see Section 30B (Taxation).

The Main Highways Act of 1922, referred to earlier in this Section, constituted the next landmark. Two years later came the Motor Vehicles Act 1924 (this being repealed by the Transport Act 1949). At the same time the Public Works Amendment Act 1924 was passed (later included in the 1928 consolidation of that Act). Under it regulations could be made fixing, in respect of commercial vehicles of over 2 tons gross weight, heavy-traffic fees payable to local authorities for road-maintenance purposes, and also classifying roads and providing other measures. Regulations to this effect were made in 1925, and are now embodied in the Heavy Motor Vehicle Regulations 1950, replacing 1940 regulations of similar title. In the financial year 1952–53 local authorities received £974,536 by way of heavy-traffic fees, the amount in the previous year being £917,737. Quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicle Regulations range from £2 3s. 4d. (not above 2 ½ tons) to £97 15s. (30 tons), with £3 10s. for each additional ton or part thereof above 30, commencing from 1 June 1954. The fees for farmers' trucks range from £1 1s. 8d. to £92 1s. 8d. on a corresponding basis. No distinction is now made between passenger and goods vehicles, while the range of weight classes is considerably extended. Heavy-traffic fees, less the cost of collection, etc., have been apportioned among the local authorities having control of roads within each heavy-traffic district, either as may be mutually agreed upon by such local authorities or. in default of such agreement, by the Minister of Transport, but from 1954 the fees (less collection costs if not exceeding 5 per cent) are payable to the National Roads Fund.

With the object of controlling motor-omnibus competition with tramways, regulations under the Board of Trade Act were issued in 1926. In the same year they were superseded by the Motor Omnibus Traffic Act, itself later repealed by the comprehensive Transport Licensing Act 1931 (amended in 1933, 1935, 1936, 1939, and 1948). All this legislation was consolidated by the Transport Act 1949.

The Motor Spirits Taxation Act 1927 imposed a duty of 4d. per gallon (raised in 1930 to 6d. per gallon; further subsequent increases are not connected with road taxation). As previously mentioned, from the net proceeds 8 per cent was formerly distributed on a population basis among cities or boroughs of a population of 6,000 upwards. From November 1953 the full duty was increased to 1s. 3d. per gallon, all of which is now to be paid into the National Roads Fund instead of only the first 6d. per gallon.

In 1927 the administration of the Motor Vehicles Act 1924 was transferred to the Public Works Department, which subsequently issued in draft form regulations containing a uniform code of rules for motor traffic in New Zealand. After full opportunity for criticism by interested parties the regulations were brought into force in 1928; they were later reissued through the Transport Department as the Traffic Regulations 1936.

The Public Works Act 1928 contained extensive provisions relating to the construction, maintenance, and use of roads. Almost simultaneously came the Motor Vehicles Insurance (Third Party Risks) Act 1928—refer Section 34B (Accident Insurance).

In 1929 the Transport Department Act constituted the portfolio of Minister of Transport, and also constituted the. Transport Department under a Commissioner of Transport. The Act placed the administration of the following Acts under the Transport Department: Motor Vehicles Act 1924, Motor Omnibus Traffic Act 1926, Motor Spirits Taxation Act 1927, Motor Vehicles Insurance (Third Party Risks) Act 1928, and Public Works Act 1928 in so far as it related to heavy traffic or to motor vehicles. The Transport Licensing Act 1931 was also under the administration of the Department. The Transport Act 1949 consolidated all previous legislation and repealed the Acts quoted.

TRANSPORT LICENSING.—The Transport Act 1949, which repealed the Transport Licensing Act 1931 and its amendments, provides that any authority under the Act when dealing with an application or any other matter concerned with road transport or harbour-ferry services, is to have regard to the following:

The provision of modern transport facilities best suited according to the nature of the service to meet the needs of national production and living standards and of national defence:
The fair and impartial regulation of all forms of public transport in order to develop and maintain transportation facilities adequate to meet the needs of New Zealand and of national and Commonwealth defence; and, for these purposes, to administer such facilities so as to recognize and preserve the inherent advantages of each form of transport; to promote safe, adequate, economic, and efficient service, and the fostering of sound economic conditions in transportation; to encourage the establishment and maintenance of reasonable transport charges without unjust discrimination, undue preference or advantage, or unfair or destructive practices; and to promote good working conditions for workers.

The more important provisions of the 1949 law are described in the paragraphs now given, most of these being the re-enactment of the former legislation.

The constitution of transport, goods-service, and harbour-ferry service districts was provided for in the Act, together with the establishment of a Licensing Authority for each district. For the four metropolitan transport districts, the Licensing Authorities appointed are the Auckland Transport Board and the Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin City Councils respectively. Goods-service districts may be identical with a transport district or be a part of the latter. The Minister of Transport may also declare any specified harbour or harbours or parts thereof to be a harbour-ferry service district.

The Licensing Authority for any transport district may also be declared to be the Licensing Authority for the goods-service district. The Act provides for the appointment of a Licensing Authority for each harbour-ferry district instead of the former practice under which the Licensing Authority for the transport district to which the harbour is contiguous was to be the Licensing Authority for the harbour-ferry district. The Minister may authorize any specified Licensing Authority to exercise jurisdiction in respect of licences which would otherwise come within the jurisdiction of some other Licensing Authority.

The Licensing Authority, other than a Metropolitan Authority, is to consist of either one or three persons as the Minister may determine, who are appointed for a term of up to three years' duration. Members are also eligible for reappointment. The sole member or the Chairman (where the Authority consists of three members) has the authority and privileges of a Magistrate in respect of proceedings.

Passenger and goods services and harbour-ferry services are only to be carried on under licence. The meaning of “goods service” is intended by the Transport Act to include the transport of goods otherwise than for hire or reward by means of a heavy motor vehicle from one place to another if there is between these places an available route for the carriage of goods that includes not less than 30 miles of open Government railway unless (a) the route including the railway is longer by one-third than the shortest road route available, or (b) the owner of the motor vehicle is a farmer or market gardener who is carrying goods in connection with his business as a farmer or market gardener, or (c) the owner of the motor vehicle is the Crown or a local authority or public body.

A transport licence is not required for (1) the carriage to and from school of school children and their teachers only; (2) the carriage by a contract vehicle or a harbour ferry of a private party on a special occasion; (3) carriage of workmen to and from work by the Government or a public body, where the vehicle is not designed principally for the carriage of persons and such service has been approved by the Minister for this purpose; (4) carriage of passengers in a trackless trolley omnibus; (5) for carriage of newspapers, or in connection with funerals or repair and wreckage of vehicles which have met with mishap; (6) farmers carrying milk, cream, or whey to and from dairy factories for their neighbours where a licensed goods service is not available; (7) relieving or assisting inhabitants of a locality affected by flood, earthquake, or fire; (8) carriage of showman's goods, etc., by a vehicle owned by the showman; and (9) goods services otherwise exempted by Order in Council.

In considering applications for licences the Licensing Authority is to have regard to the extent to which any proposed service or improved service is necessary or desirable in the public interest, and the needs of the district concerned. If further consideration be then given, factors to be taken into account are existing services, financial ability of applicant to carry on the service, provision and maintenance of a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the transport industry, the manner in which a service has already been carried on, or the likelihood of satisfactorily carrying on a service, time-tables and frequency of service, vehicles or ferries to be used, conditions of roads, routes and load restrictions, speed, etc., and representations that may be made by various bodies, persons carrying on transport services and likely to be affected, and petitions of twenty-five or more adult persons of the locality concerned, etc.

Preference is to be given to applications by Government and local authority or other public body under certain conditions, chiefly where no existing services are available or where the proposal is for an extension of an existing service, or if the new service is wholly within the applicant's district in the case of a local authority, etc., or where there will be no competition with an existing service to the same locality by means of another route.

The Licensing Authority is to prescribe the terms and conditions of the licences such as class (continuous, seasonal, or temporary), commencement date, localities and routes, time-tables, etc.

Additional requirements may be prescribed for taxicab licences to ensure the control of the service in the interests of efficiency and of the public—e.g., complying with roster of duties, joining an organization for the purpose of obtaining telephone facilities, etc. Licences are transferable subject to certain conditions, while the maximum duration of a harbour-ferry service licence is to be ten years, and that of road transport licences to be five years.

Certificates of fitness are required for each passenger service or goods-service vehicle and all trucks with gross laden weight exceeding two tons.

The Transport Act 1949 provided that the fixing, altering, or reviewing of charges in respect of any transport service should be carried out solely by the Transport Charges Committee or the Transport Charges Appeal Authority established under the Act. The 1950 amendment, however, abolished the Transport Charges Committee and provides that charges are to be fixed, in the case of a service owned by a public body, by that body itself, and in the case of any other service, by the Commissioner of Transport, there being a right of appeal to the Transport Charges Appeal Authority in either case.

The Transport Charges Appeal Authority, as in the case of the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority, also established under the Act, is to be either a Judge of the Supreme Court or the holder of any office under any Act who is entitled to the equivalent rights and tenure of office as a Judge of the Supreme Court.

Applications to fix road and harbour-ferry charges may be made by the holder of, or an applicant for, the licence; any other person whose interests are affected, being the holder of a licence, an applicant, the permanent head of a Government Department, a local authority, or a public body; any twenty-five or more adult residents of a locality in which the charges are or would be in force; all parties to a contract for the carriage of passengers or goods by any such services; and incorporated bodies whose members have a special interest in the type of transport concerned or whose principal objects are the protection of the interests of transport operators. The power to fix fares to be charged on any road passenger service carried on by the Minister of Railways to which the Government Railways (Wellington to Johnsonville) Act 1935 applies, is expressly excluded from the jurisdiction of the charge-fixing bodies or Appeal Authority.

The principles to be observed in determining transport charges include: the promotion and maintenance of the economic stability of New Zealand; desirability of increasing national production by granting concessions on the carriage of producers' goods; desirability of providing special fares for all regular users of passenger services and that children under four years be carried free, with children from the age of four years and under fifteen years at half adult rates; desirability of maintaining a reasonable standard of living and satisfactory working conditions in the road transport and harbour-ferry industries; and the maintenance of efficiency of the transport services to which the proceedings relate.

Included in the general provisions is one under which the owner of any motor vehicle licensed for passenger services or goods services and involved in an accident attended by serious injury to any person or serious damage to the property of any person shall notify the Commissioner of Transport within forty-eight hours of the occurrence.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services.—The following tables review the operations of licensed road transport services to which the preceding paragraphs relate. The first of these tables gives the estimated overall figures concerning licensed road goods services for the years ended 31 March 1950. 1951, and 1952.

Road Goods Services	Year Ended 31 March 1950	Year Ended 31 March 1951	Year Ended 31 March 1952
* Not available.
Total costs	£13,665,000	£15,463,000	^*
Revenue	£16,523,000	£17,962,000	£23,342,000
Drawings and wages included in costs	£5,299,000	£6,207,000	^*
Capital	£13,560,000	£13,908,000	£15,074,000
Outside liabilities	£4,030,000	£4,054,000	^*
Total vehicle-miles	150,177,000	156,866,000	195,300,000
Vehicles owned (number)	11,750	11,959	12,285
Number of operators	4,711	5,099	5,248
Average cost per vehicle-mile	21.84d.	23.64d.	^*
Average revenue per vehicle-mile	26.42d.	27.48d.	28.68d.
Average profit per vehicle-mile	4.58d.	3.84d.	^*
Average number of miles per vehicle	12,781	13,117	15,899

The second table shows traffic data, operating expenses, revenue, and profit of the road passenger services operating in New Zealand, and is inclusive of services in the four Metropolitan Transport Districts, for each of the three years ended 31 March 1950, 1951, and 1952.

Road Passenger Services	1950	1951	1952
* Not available.
Traffic statistics—
Number of vehicle journeys	4,736,728	5,358,155	^*
Passengers carried	102,177,874	108,364,764	119,080,344
Average number of passengers per vehicle journey	22	20	^*
Vehicle-miles	53,365,724	55,230,277	59,692,822
Operating expenses—	£	£	£
Running costs	2,036,327	2,240,335	^*
Standing charges	2,040,321	2,393,861	^*
Overhead	544,831	611,623	^*
Total operating costs	4,621,529	5,245,819	^*
Total revenue	4,900,419	5,367,766	6,242,373
Total operating costs, in pence per mile	21.18	22.76	^*
Total revenue, in pence per mile	22.46	23.30	25.09
Average fare paid per passenger journey	11.5d.	11.9d.	^*
Number of vehicles included	2,352	2,540	2,749

ROAD SAFETY.—During 1947 the New Zealand Road Safety Council was reconstituted. This body was first set up in 1936 to advise the Government on matters of road safety. Sub-committees have now been set up dealing with the following: the motor driver, motor vehicle, roads, traffic laws, traffic law enforcement, road accident statistics, road safety publicity, and child education in traffic.

Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out per medium of the press, posters, screen slides, and radio, concentrating on simultaneous presentation, as far as possible, of specific aspects of the problem. Other means employed in furthering road safety consist of traffic instruction in schools, inspection of motor vehicles, and enforcement of traffic laws.

The Transport Act 1949, as amended in 1950, contains several provisions designed to achieve greater safety on the roads. A maximum speed limit of 50 miles per hour is fixed, but lower limits are provided for special classes of vehicles—e.g., motor cycles with pillion riders and heavy passenger vehicles, 40 miles per hour; vehicles drawing trailers, 35 miles per hour; and heavy goods vehicles, 30 miles per hour. A uniform speed limit of 30 miles an hour is fixed in boroughs, town districts, or other localities which have been declared to be closely populated localities by notice published by the Minister of Transport in the New Zealand Gazette. The Act also gives the Minister power to exempt any road in a particular borough or town district from the provisions of the maximum speed limit, and further exceptions are ambulances (fitted with a siren or bell) or police vehicles travelling on urgent duty, or fire engines proceeding to a fire.

Persons convicted on indictment of negligent or reckless driving, or while under the influence of drink or a drug to such an extent as to be incapable of having proper control of a motor vehicle, if injury to any person results from their actions, are liable to a maximum penalty of five years' imprisonment or a fine of £500. Where no person is injured or where the offence as above results in summary conviction, the maximum penalty is three months' imprisonment or a fine of £100. Where any person is convicted of negligent or reckless driving or driving or attempting to drive a vehicle while under the influence of drink or a drug to such an extent as to be incapable of having proper control of a motor vehicle the Act provides that, unless the Court directs otherwise, an order must be made cancelling the offender's licence and disqualifying him from obtaining another for a period of at least one year from the date of conviction. By the 1950 amendment application may be made after six months to the Court imposing this penalty for removal of the disqualification. The Act prescribes penalties for careless or inconsiderate driving, certain accident promoting offences (28 days' disqualification), the carriage of intoxicants in a public vehicle, and makes compulsory the reporting to the police of all motor-vehicle accidents involving injury.

Included in the Traffic Regulations 1936, as amended up to and including the 1953 amendment, are the requirements to which motor drivers must conform and which are designed to promote the safety of those using the roads.

The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the years ended 31 March 1951, 1952, and 1953.

Type of Offence	1951	1952	1953
(a) Road traffic offences—
Intoxicated in charge	120	157	207
Negligent driving	16	10	18
Dangerous manner	222	283	383
Dangerous speed	110	141	254
Careless or inconsiderate driving	330	296	513
Exceeding 30 m.p.h.	1,777	2,313	4,356
Overtaking offences	100	122	199
Failing to keep left	127	272	436
Failing to yield right of way	201	215	500
Driver's licence offences	610	728	955
Licensing and registration offences	429	402	546
Lighting offences	557	739	1,322
Defective brakes	63	144	266
No warrant of fitness	947	1,139	1,946
Loading offences	161	215	282
Exceeding 50 m.p.h.	150	176	399
Cycling offences	722	444	436
Failing to dip	53	76	108
Failing to give right of way to pedestrians	51	46	107
Exceeding 40 m.p.h. with pillion passenger	122	234	40
L plate offences	174	277	510
Crossing railway line	64	76	75
Miscellaneous	999	977	1,768
(b) Heavy motor vehicle offences—
Exceeding heavy-traffic licence	250	465	794
Exceeding axle load	227	655	1,169
No heavy-traffic licence	242	258	524
Speeding	624	641	657
No heavy-traffic disc or class plates	20	49	89
Miscellaneous	51	55	231
(c) Transport licensing offences—
Unlicensed goods service	149	209	310
Breach of goods service licence	25	34	145'
Unlicensed passenger service	14	14	19
Breach of passenger service licence	15	10	4
No certificate of fitness	212	260	455
No vehicle authority	39	48	94
Drivers' hours breaches	26	1	5
Overloading	14	75	205
Rental car offence	31	27	40
Miscellaneous transport offences	12	5	15
(d) Miscellaneous offences under miscellaneous Acts and regulations	102	71	47
Totals	10,158	12,359	20,798

The above table covers only the offences reported by officers of the Transport Department.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS.—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the police, and since 15 March 1937 very full particulars of all accidents have been furnished to the Transport Department. For the year ended 31 December 1952, 5,589 such accidents, resulting in 272 fatalities and in injuries to 7,448 other people, were reported. Comparative figures for 1951 and 1950 years were (1950 figures being given in parentheses): number of accidents, 5,224 (4,647); fatalities, 292 (232); persons injured, 6,938 (6,314;. The increase in the traffic flow over the last few years, caused partly by the progressive easing of the restrictions on the use of motor spirits, and partly by the increased number of vehicles on the road, has been an important factor in the increase in motor accidents. New Zealand has one of the lowest motor accident death rates (based on deaths per 10,000 licensed motor vehicles) of any of the motorized countries, the New Zealand figure for 1952 being 5.74. Details of the number and nature of road accidents for the five calendar years ended in 1952, which have been compiled by the Transport Department, are as follows.

Nature of Accident	Number of Accidents
Nature of Accident	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Collisions—
Between two motor vehicles	1,116	1,378	1,590	1,967	2,218
Between motor vehicle and bicycle	825	878	902	1,056	1,101
Between motor vehicle and pedestrian	763	806	928	924	902
Between motor vehicle and fixed object	154	208	249	234	249
Between motor vehicle and animal or horse vehicle	34	28	36	45	45
Between motor vehicle and railway train	30	39	33	40	39
Between motor vehicle and tram	34	39	37	38	40
Multiple and other collisions	145	122	188	180	201
Totals, collisions	3,101	3,498	3,963	4,484	4,795
Non-collisions—
Drove off road	114	151	177	197	176
Went over bank	126	162	182	194	194
Overturned on roadway	159	151	187	232	290
Person fell from vehicle	73	114	112	92	108
Other	20	16	26	25	26
Totals, non-collisions	492	594	684	740	794
Total accidents	3,593	4,092	4,647	5,224	5,589

Particulars of fatal motor-vehicle accidents included in the foregoing table are now given. It should be noted that the figures relate to the number of accidents and not to the number of deaths, which, as stated above, numbered 272 in 1952.

Nature of Accident	Number of Fatal Accidents
Nature of Accident	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Collisions, motor vehicle with—
Pedestrian	56	45	57	69	60
Motor vehicle	28	50	46	55	60
Train	6	10	9	8	6
Tram				1	2
Bicycle	27	27	22	36	30
Horse vehicle or animal	1	1	2	1	2
Other	17	19	28	29	23
Otherwise	52	46	59	73	70
Totals	187	198	223	272	253

Statistics of deaths resulting from motor-vehicle accidents are available for many years from vital statistics, these figures being discussed briefly on pages 93–94.

The following table shows the distribution of motor accidents on the system of roads and streets during the calendar year 1952.

Classification of Locality	Fatal Accidents		Injury Accidents		All Accidents
Classification of Locality	Number	Percentage of Total	Number	Percentage of Total	Number	Percentage of Total
Four main centres	35	13.8	1,502	28.1	1,537	27.5
Secondary cities (8)	15	5.9	662	12.4	677	12.1
Boroughs 6,000 to 20,000 population	9	3.6	445	8.3	454	8.1
Small boroughs, town districts, and closely populated localities	43	17.0	997	18.7	1,040	18.6
Total in built up areas	102	40.3	3,606	67.5	3,708	66.3
State highways	82	32.4	1,052	19.7	1,134	20.3
Main highways	34	13.4	350	6.6	384	6.9
Other rural roads	35	13.9	328	6.2	363	6.5
Total on rural roads	151	59.7	1,730	32.5	1,881	33.7
Total accidents	253	100.0	5,336	100.0	5,589	100.0

The next table gives an analysis of the more important causes of accidents involving motor vehicles during the year ended 31 December 1952.

Cause	Percentage of Accidents Where Motorists Considered Responsible	Percentage of Accidents Where Pedestrians Considered Responsible	Percentage of Accidents Where Cyclists Considered Responsible	Percentage of all Miscellaneous Causes
Failure to yield right of way	27		24
Failure to keep left	12		9
Driver/rider inattentive	12		16
Excessive speed	8
Passing or overtaking negligently	3
Skidding	4
Pedestrian crossing roadway heedless of traffic		52
Pedestrian emerging from behind vehicle or object		17
Pedestrian stepping into roadway without due care		9
Pedestrian intoxicated		8
Pedestrian confused by traffic		2
Pedestrian walking on roadway when footpath available		2
Swerving negligently			9
Failure to give proper signal			8
Reckless emergence from another road			6
Door opened in moving vehicle				12
Animals on roadway				13
Passenger riding in insecure position				6
Road surface slippery from rain				10
Narrow road				6
Excessive depth of loose metal				6
Sundry causes	34	10	28	47
Totals	100	100	100	100

On week days, from Monday to Friday inclusive, the worst hourly period for motor accidents was from 5 p.m. to 6 p.m., on Saturdays from 7 p.m. to 8 p.m., and on Sundays from 4 p.m. to 5 p.m. More accidents occur on Saturday than on any other day of the week.

Chapter 15. SECTION 15—CIVIL AVIATION AND AIR TRANSPORT

Table of Contents

ADMINISTRATION.—Civil Aviation in New Zealand is administered by the Civil Aviation Branch of Air Department. The Air Department was constituted by the Air Department Act of 1937. Prior to that date the control of Civil Aviation, like its military counterpart, was vested in the Defence Department.

The Civil Aviation Act of 1948 provides for the position of Director of Civil Aviation as well as giving effect to the Convention on International Civil Aviation signed at Chicago on behalf of New Zealand on 7 December 1944.

The present organizational structure of the Civil Aviation Branch divides the Branch into three technical divisions—viz., Operations, Airworthiness, and Airways, plus a Directorate Staff and Administration Section. Principal functions of the three Technical Divisions include—

Examining and licensing of flight crews and aircraft maintenance engineers.
Operation of the airways communication and air traffic control systems.
The surveying of, and issuing certificates of airworthiness for, civil aircraft.
Collaboration with the Ministry of Works on airport projects.
Licensing of aerodromes.
The provision and maintenance of radio aids to air navigation.
Operational certification of commercial aircraft operators.
Dissemination of aeronautical and general aviation information.
Liaison with the Royal New Zealand Air Force on matters of common interest and with overseas organizations, particularly the International Civil Aviation Organization.

STAFF.—The staff of the Civil Aviation Branch at 31 March 1953 totalled 636. This figure is inclusive of officers stationed in Fiji, the Cook Islands, and Western Samoa, but excludes local native labour employed at those places.

FACILITIES.—Various facilities for air navigation are provided by the Civil Aviation Branch. Radio navigational aids of different kinds are installed at the more important airfields in New Zealand and in the South West Pacific, as well as en route aids at various points along the internal airways.

In addition, the Civil Aviation Branch has a number of aeradio stations in New Zealand providing air to ground, ground to air, and ground point to point communication facilities, plus communication centres located at Auckland, Christchurch, and Wellington.

The Air Traffic Control system comprises control towers situated at the important aerodromes with Area Control Centres situated at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. In addition, communication facilities are provided at aerodromes in the Cook Islands, Fiji, and Western Samoa. In Fiji an Air Traffic Control Service is also maintained by the Civil Aviation Branch.

As already mentioned, the Civil Aviation Branch is responsible for collaborating with the Ministry of Works on airport planning, with the Ministry undertaking the actual construction and maintenance. At the larger airports in New Zealand and in the South-west Pacific crash/fire facilities are provided by the Civil Aviation Branch.

The Civil Aviation Charges Regulations 1954 prescribe the rates of dues payable by operators for the use of airways and airport facilities provided or maintained by the Crown. Different rates are prescribed in respect of international and domestic operators, and a distinction is made in respect of air transport and other domestic operations. No charges, other than those prescribed by regulations, are to be made for the use of aerodromes or connected facilities without the approval of the Minister.

The administration of Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group and Campbell Island, on which weather reporting stations are located, is another responsibility of the Civil Aviation Branch.

EXPENDITURE.—The total Government expenditure on civil aviation in New Zealand and its island territories in 1952–53 was £1,541,632, compared with £1,509,163 in 1951–52. Expenditure on the South Pacific Trunk Air Route (partly recoverable from South Pacific Air Transport Council Member Governments) was £413,743 in 1952–53 and £271,544 in 1951–52.

AIR TRANSPORT SERVICES LICENSING.—Licensing of air services in New Zealand is now vested in the Air Services Licensing Authority which was constituted by the Air Services Licensing Act of 1951. This authority consists of three members appointed by the Crown, and its principal functions are to hear and determine applications for the granting, renewal, or transfer of air service licences. An air service may not be commenced or carried on without a licence granted under the Act except that any aero club affiliated to the Royal New Zealand Aero Club (Inc.) may carry club members in club owned or hired aircraft without such a licence.

For the year 1952–53, 82 applications were received for air service licences.

The following table summarizes the disposition of licences and applications during the year 1952–53.

Category	Continuous Licence Granted	Declined	Withdrawn or Lapsed	Adjourned Sine Die	Adjourned for Further Hearing	Awaiting Hearing	Temporary Licence Granted	Total
Aerial top-dressing	41	2	2		2	1	5	53
Other aerial works	46	2	2		2	1		53
Scheduled services	20	1	4	1	1			27
Non-scheduled services	37	2	8	2	3		3	55
Joy-riding (excluding aero clubs)	3							3
Photography	7							7
Mapping (survey)	2							2
Advertising	3				1		2	6
Amendments to existing licences	1							1
Transfers						2		2
Totals	160	7	16	3	9	4	10	209

Provision also is made in the Air Services Licensing Act for the appointment of an Appeal Authority of one member. Four appeals were lodged in 1952–53, of which one was allowed in part, and the others dismissed (one with a minor amendment to the licence granted).

NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION.—The operation of the internal air services is no longer under the complete control of the National Airways Corporation, as provision was made for other operators to run services under the Air Services Licensing Act 1951 previously mentioned. However, the bulk of the internal scheduled services are still operated by the Corporation. Information concerning the establishment of the National Airways Corporation and its duties and functions may be found on pages 329–330 of the 1951–52 Year-Book.

The Corporation's operating revenue figures for the year ended 31 March 1953, together with those for the previous year, are as follows.

	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£
Passenger fares	1,324,606	1,475,330
Excess baggage	22,570	20,684
Freight	184,603	138,554
Mail	99,228	72,748
Charters	48,275	13,936
Incidental revenue	50,200	55,341
Totals	1,729,482	1,776,593

Operating expenditure in 1952–53 totalled £1,713,519 (including depreciation on equipment), as compared with £1,527,120 in 1951–52. The Corporation thus enjoyed a successful year financially. After allowing for interest on capital a net profit of £22,564 was made. Of this total £10,064 was paid into the Public Account and £12,500 transferred to insurance reserve.

FLYING OPERATIONS: Domestic Scheduled Services.—Scheduled air transport operations over specific routes were first commenced in New Zealand in December 1934, on the route Inch-bonnie - Hokitika - Franz Josef Glacier, on the West Coast of the South Island. Subsequent extensions of services up to the outbreak of war in September 1939 had covered almost the whole of New Zealand. During 1946 and 1947 the New Zealand National Airways Corporation absorbed all existing scheduled commercial services, and by adding to the fleet of aircraft was able to commence new services.

In February 1953 a scheduled service between Christchurch and Oamaru via Ashburton and Timaru was commenced by South Island Airways, Ltd.

At 31 March 1953 domestic scheduled services were being operated on the following routes.

Route No.	Terminating Sector Points	Intermediate Stops	Route Miles	Scheduled Frequency
New Zealand National Airways Corporation
1	Auckland–Whangarei	Nil	72	3 return trips daily.
	Auckland–Kaitaia	Kaikohe	142	1 return trip daily.
2	Auckland–Dunedin	Wellington, Christchurch	703	2 south and 3 north trips daily.
	Auckland–Christchurch	Wellington	505	2 south and 1 north trips daily.
	Auckland–Christchurch	Nil	479	1 return trip daily.
	Auckland–Christchurch	Hamilton, Palmerston North, Blenheim	530	1 return trip daily.
	Palmerston North–Wellington	Nil	52	1 return trip daily.
	Wellington–Christchurch	Nil	218	1 south and 2 north trips daily.
	Wellington–Dunedin	Christchurch	416	1 return trip daily.
	Wellington–Dunedin	Nil	414	1 south trip daily.
	Wellington–Auckland	Nil	287	1 return trip daily.
3	Dunedin–Invercargill	Nil	107	4 return trips daily.
4	Auckland–Rotorua	Nil	134	1 return trip daily.
	Rotorua–Hamilton	Nil	55	1 return trip daily.
	Wellington–Hamilton	Nil	213	1 return trip daily.
5	Auckland–Gisborne	Nil	223	1 return trip daily.
	Auckland–Gisborne	Tauranga	226	1 return trip daily.
6	Gisborne–Wellington	Napier, Palmerston North	226	1 return trip daily.
	Gisborne–Wellington	Napier	225	1 return trip daily.
7	Auckland–Wellington	New Plymouth, Palmerston North	332	1 return trip daily.
8	Wellington–Nelson	Nil	92	6 return trips daily.
	Wellington–Blenheim	Nil	72	4 return trips daily.
9	Nelson–Westport	Nil	95	1 return trip daily.
10	Westport–Hokitika	Nil	75	1 return trip daily.
11	Hokitika–Haast	Wataroa, Waiho	125	3 return trips weekly (as required to Wataroa and Waiho).
South Island Airways, Ltd
12	Christchurch-Oamaru	Ashburton, Timaru	130	2 return trips weekly.
Straits Air Freight Express (N.Z.R. Freight Service)
13	Wellington-Blenheim	Nil	72	Daily as required.
14	Wellington-Nelson	Nil	96

The following table gives the summarized results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services during the last six years. Statistics for the New Zealand Railways Freight Service are excluded.

Year Ended 31 March	Hours Flown	Miles Flown	Passengers	Freight (lb.)^*	Mail (lb.)	Passenger-miles	Freight Ton-miles^†	Mail Ton-miles
* Includes excess baggage. † Includes excess baggage ton-miles.
1948	26,735	3,320,992	154,329	1,211,345	597,231	35,695,285	126,010	97,310
1949	31,386	4,015,831	174,836	1,934,626	752,492	44,323,199	242,846	108,580
1950	35,249	4,508,306	204,707	2,757,701	873,305	49,478,365	351,175	121,251
1951	34,066	4,369,308	238,405	5,724,341	916,688	59,744,623	658,817	128,923
1952	37,191	4,818,331	303,048	10,880,822	1,782,084	78,351,805	1,351,088	238,507
1953	37,049	4,739,727	312,422	7,834,868	1,123,626	79,512,139	1,010,009	146,457

Aircraft used in the operation of services on these routes were—

Douglas D.C. 3	20
Douglas C.47B (Freighter)	2
D.H. 89B Dominie	7
D.H. 83 Fox Moth	3
D.H. Heron	3
Bristol Freighters	2
Total	37

During the year ended 31 March 1953, 312,422 passengers, 41,714,313 lb. of freight, and 1,123,626 lb. of mail were carried on these services. Of the total amount of freight carried 33,879,445 lb. was carried by the New Zealand Railways Rail/Air Freight Service.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service.—The New Zealand Railways Air Freight Service was commenced officially in February of 1947 following a number of special inter-island freight flights which had been carried out by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Railways Department to meet a shipping emergency. With the introduction of the Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service delays caused by lack of shipping space and industrial troubles were somewhat alleviated. The service was conducted by the R.N.Z.A.F. operating Dakota aircraft until June 1947, when the service was handed over to the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, which continued to operate with Dakotas.

In 1950 the Railways Department decided to allow private enterprise the opportunity of tendering for the contract to run the service, and the successful tenderer was Straits Air Freight Express, Ltd., which took over on 1 April 1951. The service is at present (January 1954) being maintained by two Bristol Freighters on a daily basis, the number of trips varying according to the amount of cargo offering.

Traffic statistics for this freight service for the years 1947 to 1953 are as follows.

Year Ended 31 March	Trips Flown	Hours Flown	Miles Flown	Freight (lb.)	Freight Ton-miles
1947	299	173	22,585	2,040,101	71,297
1948	1,786	1,114	138,266	13,081,232	448,891
1949	2,230	1,482	181,630	17,286,265	600,682
1950	3,018	1,949	232,042	21,789,779	745,781
1951	4,297	2,781	320,514	31,293,329	1,045,558
1952	4,541	2,461	335,714	49,671,125	1,644,051
1953	2,913	1,412	213,459	33,879,445	1,106,476

Non-scheduled Air Services.—In addition to the scheduled services mentioned above, charter and taxi flights were carried out by New Zealand National Airways Corporation as well as by other companies, including Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., which operated flights to the Chatham Islands as required. Aero clubs also operated air services on a charter basis. The following is a traffic summary of these services for the years ended 31 March 1952 and 1953.

—	1951–52			1952–53
—	Commercial Companies	Aero Clubs	Total	Commercial Companies	Aero Clubs	Total
Number of flights	4,742	8,862	13,604	6,106	8,518	14,624
Hours flown	3,530	6,173	9,703	4,614	5,603	10,217
Miles flown	373,055	564,836	937,891	504,557	512,035	1,016,592
Passengers carried	12,051	16,423	28,474	13,596	15,960	29,556
Freight carried (lb.)	1,399,761	43,332	1,443,093	4,280,225	21,487	4,301,712

Aerial Work Operations.—The Royal New Zealand Air Force undertook extensive trials in the dropping of fertilizer from the air in 1948 at the request of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, which was interested in aerial top-dressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion. As the R.N.Z.A.F. experiments were successful and showed the distinct possibilities of aerial top-dressing as a commercial proposition, interest among the farming community quickened, and private firms commenced operations in 1949 assisted by the knowledge and experience gained in the official trials. Spectacular progress has resulted since the commencement of commercial operations, and the number of firms engaged in aerial top-dressing has grown from 9 at the end of 1949 to 40 in September 1953. The number of aircraft also has shown a striking increase, from 12 aircraft in December 1949 to approximately 170 in September 1953. To the end of March 1953 a total of 2,655,808 acres had been top-dressed from the air, a figure which shows that the importance of aerial top-dressing is appreciated by the farming community of New Zealand.

Although not as prominent as aerial top-dressing, other aerial work activities are rendering invaluable services to farmers and others. The dropping of rabbit poison, supplies, and fencing materials from the air, aerial seed sowing, spraying and dusting of crops and noxious weeds are important phases of aerial-work operations.

The dropping of supplies to deer cullers and fencing materials in remote areas showed an increase over last year's figures, the total weight dropped in 1952–53 being 313,031 lb., as against 231,807 lb. for the year ended 31 March 1952.

A summary of aerial work operations for the year ended 31 March 1953 follows:

Top-dressing—
Hours flown	40,727
Fertilizer distributed (lb.)	324,357,034
Area treated (acres)	1,376,18
Seed sowing—
Hours flown	142
Seed sown (lb.)	200,258
Area treated (acres)	15,911
Rabbit poisoning—
Hours flown	1,980
Bait distributed (lb.)	2,941,224
Spraying of noxious weeds—
Hours flown	273
Hormone weed-killer distributed (gallons)	28,425
Aerial photography and survey—
Hours flown	272

International Services.—In March-April 1954 broad proposals for the reorganization of the Pacific air services were announced. Tasman Empire Airways is to be owned equally by the New Zealand and Australian Governments and will be re-equipped with D.C. 6 pressurized land planes at present operated by British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines. These aircraft will be based in New Zealand, and the company will use the land-based aircraft to replace the present flying-boats in services to Australia and to Fiji; the details of routes, frequencies, etc., are to be the subject of later decisions.

The services at present carried out by British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines between Australia and North America are to be taken over by Australia and integrated with the Kangaroo services now operated by Quantas Empire Airways, which will continue in partnership with British Overseas Airways Corporation on the Kangaroo route; New Zealand will consequently withdraw from the British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, which is being wound up.

Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd.—An air service from Australia to New Zealand across the Tasman Sea is the last stage of an air route from the United Kingdom to New Zealand. The first survey of this route was undertaken by Imperial Airways, Ltd., of London, in 1937. Subsequently a company known as Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., was formed to operate a proposed trans-Tasman air service. The share capital was subscribed by the Governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, the share proportions being 20, 30, and 50 per cent respectively.

On 30 April 1940 the Auckland-Sydney service commenced. In June 1950 the company took over from New Zealand National Airways Corporation the Auckland-Suva service. The Wellington-Sydney service was inaugurated on 3 October 1950 and the Christchurch-Melbourne service on 28 June 1951. Short S. 45 flying-boats with a seating capacity of 42 persons are used on all routes with the exception of Christchurch-Melbourne, on which Douglas Skymaster (D.C. 4) aircraft are employed.

The Coral Route to Tahiti via Suva and Aitutaki was inaugurated in December 1951 with a frequency of one return trip monthly. This was increased to one return trip fortnightly in May 1952. In October 1952 Apia in Western Samoa was added to the route, and in August 1953 a service to Tonga was inaugurated.

Route No.	Route	Route-miles	Scheduled Frequency (August 1953)
1	Auckland-Sydney	1,342	3 return trips weekly.
2	Wellington-Sydney	1,391	3 return trips weekly.
3	Auckland-Suva-Apia-Aitutaki-Tonga-Papeete		Auckland-Suva: 1 return trip weekly.
		3,451	Auckland-Papeete: 1 return trip fort-nightly.
			Auckland-Apia: 3 return trips monthly.
			Auckland-Tonga: 1 return trip monthly.
4	Christchurch-Melbourne	1,502	1 return trip weekly.

Revenue traffic statistics for the year ended 31 March 1953 are given below.

Item	Auckland-Sydney	Wellington-Sydney	Christchurch-Melbourne	Auckland-Papeete	Total
Hours flown	3,873	3,045	968	1,600	9,486
Miles flown	744,810	581,438	168,224	296,240	1,790,712
Passengers	16,109	12,771	4,119	3,899	36,898
Passenger-miles	21,618,278	17,764,461	6,186,738	6,276,176	51,845,653
Available seat-miles	29,471,662	21,924,942	7,579,092	10,319,301	69,294,997
Passenger load factor (per cent)	73.35	81.02	81.63	60.82	74.82
Cargo (lb)—
Freight	243,349	193,977	43,444	40,113	520,883
Excess baggage	47,050	34,119	8,624	9,576	99,369
Mail	340,189	347,023	8,372	32,901	728,485
Ton-miles flown—
Passenger	2,061,905	1,686,220	589,907	592,393	4,930,425
Excess baggage	27,595	21,184	5,779	8,120	62,678
Freight	145,772	120,450	28,775	23,841	318,838
Mail	203,807	215,495	5,749	23,166	448,217
Total ton-miles	2,439,079	2,043,349	630,210	647,520	5,760,158
Available capacity ton-miles	3,399,065	2,514,003	876,499	1,151,331	7,940,898
Overall load factor (per cent)	71.76	81.28	71.90	56.24	72.54

The following is a summary of traffic statistics for Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., for the last five years, and includes services flown by other airlines under charter to the company.

Year Ended 31 March	Hours Flown	Miles Flown	Passengers	Freight^*	Mail	Passenger-miles	Freight Ton-miles^†	Mail Ton-miles
* Includes excess baggage. † Includes excess baggage ton-miles.
1949	7,202	1,215,103	24,597	377,178	345,715	33,004,924	207,749	207,324
1950	6,660	1,183,644	22,579	361,623	405,587	30,301,018	216,337	243,046
1951	7,026	1,325,384	31,233	561,779	461,792	41,845,054	336,223	276,538
1952	9,738	1,817,547	42,301	1,675,447	665,206	58,037,277	1,008,468	403,323
1953	9,486	1,790,712	36,898	620,252	728,485	54,845,653	381,516	448,217

New Zealand National Airways Corporation.—The handing over of the Regional Services in the South-west Pacific to Tasman Empire Airways, Ltd., was completed on 31 October 1952, when the last flight from Rarotonga to Auckland via Aitutaki, Faleolo, and Nandi commenced. The service to Tonga had previously been discontinued in July 1951. The only international service now being operated by the New Zealand National Airways Corporation is to Norfolk Island, on a frequency of one return trip weekly, the route mileage being 661 miles.

Revenue traffic statistics for these routes for the years ended 31 March 1952 and 1953 and as follows.

Item	1951–52	1952–53
Hours flown	2,142	1,571
Miles flown	332,156	245,793
Passengers	4,372	3,408
Passenger-miles	3,883,384	2,795,075
Available seat-miles	4,807,577	3,585,600
Passenger load factor (per cent).	80.78	77.95
Cargo (lb.)—
Freight	110,585	88,205
Excess baggage	9,666	8,395
Mail	44,439	24,252
Ton-miles flown—
Passenger	334,553	242,125
Excess baggage	2,635	2,937
Freight	42,847	27,838
Mail	25,264	12,002
Totals	405,299	284,902
Available capacity ton-miles	499,730	363,774
Overall load factor (per cent)	81.10	78.31

Pan American World Airways, Inc.—The service between San Francisco and Auckland via Honolulu, Kingman Reef, and Pago Pago was commenced by Pan American Airways after a survey flight from Honolulu to Auckland in December 1937, but was discontinued after an accident to a Clipper aircraft on 11 January 1938. The service was resumed in 1940 on a reduced schedule, the first flight terminating at Auckland on 18 July 1940. Operations ceased in December 1941 after the outbreak of hostilities with Japan.

This organization recommenced services in the Pacific on 6 June 1946, over the route Auckland – San Francisco (via Fiji, Canton Island, and Honolulu). Aircraft employed at present are Douglas D.C. 4's. The frequency is two return trips weekly.

British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, Ltd.—The decision to establish British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines was made at a conference held in Wellington during February and March 1946, the company being formed to operate an air service between Australia and North America, and between New Zealand and North America. The organization was set up on a tripartite basis comprised of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. In order to commence operations at an early date Australian National Airways were chartered, and the first flight from New Zealand left on 25 April 1947, travelling over the following route: Auckland, Fiji, Canton Island, Honolulu, San Francisco, and Vancouver.

A formal agreement between the Governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand for the formation of British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines, Ltd., was signed at Canberra on 4 August 1947. The initial capital was subscribed by the three Governments in the following proportion: Australia, 50 per cent, New Zealand, 30 per cent, United Kingdom, 20 per cent.

British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines commenced operating on its own account in April 1948, using D.C. 4 (Skymaster) aircraft and operating one return trip per fortnight. On 22 February 1949 the frequency was changed to one return trip per week with D.C. 6 aircraft.

For a summary of the proposed re-organization of Pacific services which affect this company, see page 374.

Canadian Pacific Air Lines.—Under the terms of the Air Transport Agreement of 1950 between New Zealand and Canada, Canadian Pacific Air Lines was selected as the Canadian airline to operate across the Pacific to New Zealand. Canadian Pacific Air Lines originally intended to commence operations to New Zealand in January 1951 but, as many of its aircraft were participating in the transport of military personnel and cargo to the United Nations forces in Korea at the time under charter, the service was not actually commenced until January 1952. The route at present followed is Vancouver - Honolulu - Nandi (Fiji) - Auckland. Canadian Pacific Air Lines use Douglas D.C. 6B aircraft on the route.

Revenue Traffic Statistics for Overseas Airlines (C.P.A., P.A.W.A., and B.C.P.A.).—Revenue traffic statistics for Canadian Pacific Air Lines, Pan American World Airways, and British Commonwealth Air Lines to and from New Zealand for the year ended March 1953, together with the totals for 1951–52, are given below.

—	Year Ended March 1953			Total 1952–53	Total 1951–52
—	C.P.A.	P.A.W.A.	B.C.P.A.	Total 1952–53	Total 1951–52
Hours flown	2,391	2,820	2,907	8,118	10,534
Miles flown	489,060	703,697	760,416	1,953,173	2,247,961
Traffic entering New Zealand—
Passengers	244	1,079	1,718	3,041	3,040
Freight (lb.)	463	55,077	26,786	82,326	137,919
Mail (lb.)	1,043	15,746	4,945	21,734	32,970
Traffic leaving New Zealand—
Passengers	199	1,000	1,483	2,682	2,945
Freight (lb.)	86	14,006	12,034	26,126	38,824
Mail (lb.)	634	997	11,808	13,439	20,514

Entrances and Clearances of Aircraft in the Overseas Trade.—The following figures supplied by the Customs Department give the number of aircraft entering New Zealand classified by the countries from which they arrived and aircraft departing by the countries to which they departed during the calendar years 1952 and 1953. Air freight carried is also shown for the same years.

Country from Which Arrived or to Which Departed	Entrances				Clearances
Country from Which Arrived or to Which Departed	Number		Air Freight (lb.)		Number		Air Freight (lb.)
1952	1953	1952	1953	1952	1953	1952	1953
United Kingdom		7		715
Canada	60	77	37,448	50,393	55	67	10,043	6,369
Fiji	69	54	7,169	9,385	72	63	28,368	17,795
Norfolk Island	97	100	3,336	32,895	102	98	71,310	64,268
Australia	569	542	436,990	474,753	575	562	127,417	117,413
Malaya		1
Cook Islands	8	3	305	2,146	5	3	1,235	3,936
Western Samoa	1	9	36	1,266		2		76
Netherlands	5		36		4	2		2,240
United States of America	81	109	134,945	163,730	75	99	218,010	305,312
Hawaii					1		3,283
Society Islands	6	16	401	2,601	14	25	6,155	19,345
Totals	896	918	620,666	737,884	903	921	465,821	536,757

AERO CLUBS.—Practical interest in aviation was greatly stimulated by the first trans-Tasman flight of Kingsford-Smith and Ulm in 1928, and to this flight the aero-club movement largely owes its inception. The steady progress made by the movement has been in a great measure due to the scheme initiated by the Government of subsidizing a limited number of light aeroplane clubs. This subsidy (abolished from 31 March 1937) took the form of the loan of light aircraft and payments to clubs on account of pupils qualifying for their “A” flying licences, and for male pilots renewing their licences. The payment of subsidy was discontinued on the institution of the Civil Reserve scheme, by which the Government entered into an agreement with approved clubs for the training of civil reservists and Air Force candidates. On the outbreak of war in September 1939 the Government took over all aircraft suitable for training purposes, so that training operations of the clubs had to be suspended in most cases. The remaining clubs continued operations until December 1941, when, after the Japanese entry into the war, all civil flying with the exception of commercial scheduled services was prohibited under Proclamation issued by the Governor-General. This prohibition was lifted on 24 December 1945. After the cessation of hostilities an immediate resumption of club activities was not possible because of non-availability of accommodation at aerodromes and the shortage of qualified instructors. However, by 31 March 1946 there were four clubs again in operation, the number rising in later years, and in March 1953, 23 aero clubs were affiliated to the Royal New Zealand Aero Club.

The aircraft which had been purchased from the aero clubs by the Government at the outbreak of war were, resold to the clubs to facilitate an early resumption of their activities. In addition, a number of Tiger Moths were presented free to the aero clubs by the Government. Assistance was also given to the clubs through the Air Training Corps flying training plan. This plan, which was inaugurated in 1947, provides for training by the clubs of selected Air Training Corps cadets, and Government subsidies are paid in connection therewith.

Also the aero clubs undertook the responsibility of providing annual refresher courses for R.N.Z.A.F. Active Reserve instructors, for which payment was made by the Government. The additional revenue received by the clubs for Air Training Corps and other instruction for the year ended 31 March 1953 amounted to £31,418.

The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs for the last five years.

Year Ended 31 March	Clubs Operating	Membership		Aircraft in Use	Hours Flown		Ab Initio Pupils Under Training
Year Ended 31 March	Clubs Operating	Associate	Flying	Aircraft in Use	Dual	Solo	Ab Initio Pupils Under Training
1949	24	3,359	2,686	108	7,481	18,504	454
1950	24	3,960	2,577	106	7,784	18,939	411
1951	22	3,467	2,613	84	6,060	15,937	348
1952	21	3,329	2,517	75	6,025	14,757	392
1953	23	3,204	2,359	84	6,150	16,328	505

LICENCES.—A summary of licences and certificates current at 31 March 1953 is given below.

Flight Crew (I.C.A.O.) Type—

Pilot Licences—	Number at 31 March 1953
Student Pilot	840
Private Pilot	590
Commercial Pilot	301
Senior Commercial Pilot	2
Airline Transport Pilot	135
Pilot Licence Ratings—
Instructor	83
Instrument	164
Navigator Licences—
Cadet Flight Navigator	5
Flight Navigator	36
Licences to Operate Radio Equipment in Aircraft—
Flight Radio Operator	18
Cadet Flight Radio Operator	2
Flight Radio Telephone Operator	106
Restricted Flight Radio Operator	114
Flight Engineer Licences—
Flight Engineer	19
Cadet Flight Engineer	3
Other Licences, Certificates, etc.—
Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences	271
Aircraft—
Certificates of Registration	400
Certificates of Airworthiness	325
Aerodromes—
Public Licences	63
Authorities in Lieu of Passports—
Crew member certificates (for stewards, etc.)	34
Special endorsement(s) (for licensed flight crew)	68
Air Service Certificates	30

METEOROLOGICAL FACILITIES.—The provision of meteorological information for the use of civil and military aircraft operating within New Zealand or on trans-ocean routes in the South West Pacific region is one of the functions of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. The head office and general forecast office are located at Wellington, and branch forecasting offices are maintained principally for aviation purposes at Nandi (Fiji), Auckland, Ohakea, Paraparaumu, Christchurch, and Taieri (Dunedin).

Weather reports are collected by telegraph and radio at three-hourly or six-hourly intervals from approximately 110 stations within New Zealand and 40 on islands of the South West Pacific. Most of the reports are prepared by airfield, telegraph, or lighthouse officials. Twenty airfields report hourly. In addition, routine measurements of the temperature and humidity in the upper atmosphere are made by balloon-borne radiosondes released from five stations, and radar tracking of balloons is employed for wind measurement at six stations. The collected reports are broadcast from Wellington and Nandi for the benefit of neighbouring Services. Similar information is received from Australia and other Pacific administrations.

Forecasting and other services for aviation are provided in accordance with recognized international procedures and agreements. Detailed written forecasts are made available to all scheduled commercial aircraft and supplemented where possible by personal discussion.

Pilots operating from airfields not staffed by meteorological personnel may obtain forecasts and other information by telephone.

AIR MAILS: Inland.—From 1920 onwards various attempts were made to operate air-mail services, but it was not until the inauguration of a service between Hokitika and South Westland in January 1934 that a service of any permanency was established. The district served in this instance is one which possesses very poor transport facilities; and, though the population is sparse and the area small, the carriage of mails by air has great advantages over a land service. It is for this reason that no surcharge is made on the mail matter carried by this service.

On 16 March 1936 the first regular air-mail services linking up the larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin, and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the air-mail facilities were correspondingly expanded.

The rate of postage for inland air-mail correspondence was originally 2d. per ounce, but from October 1939 to 29 February 1952 it was 3d. per half-ounce. Since 1 March 1952 the rate has been fixed at 4d. per half-ounce. For parcels up to 28 lb., the rates range from 2s. 6d. to 15s.

The numbers of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand during the years 1942–43 to 1952–53 are shown hereunder.

Year Ended 31 March	Letters	Parcels
* Abnormal increase due to interruption of surface connections owing to industrial dispute.
1943	3,705,000	13,825
1944	4,436,920	18,760
1945	7,055,900	25,690
1946	7,968,920	32,204
1947	11,368,000	48,298
1948	13,008,080	65,205
1949	13,542,720	77,607
1950	13,839,600	91,226
1951	14,206,000	99,575
1952	19,089,800^*	217,726^*
1953	14,577,960	150,680

Overseas: Trans-Tasman Air Services.—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. A service between Wellington and Sydney was commenced on 3 October 1950, and on 28 June 1951 the first flight was made between Melbourne and Christchurch. In normal weeks there are now seven to nine flights weekly between New Zealand and Australia.

New Zealand–United Kingdom Air Service.—The Empire service had been extended to Sydney in December 1934 but, until the establishment of the direct air link across the Tasman in April 1940, it was necessary for air mails to be forwarded by sea from New Zealand to Sydney. In June 1940 the through service from New Zealand to London was interrupted with the entry of Italy into the war, and it was necessary for air correspondence from New Zealand for the United Kingdom to be forwarded by air via Egypt to South Africa, and thence by sea to destination. Following the entry of Japan into the war the service beyond Australia was totally interrupted in March 1942; and it was not until 30 June 1944 that the through service from Australia to the United Kingdom was restored. The service is now operating six times weekly between Sydney and London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally five to six days.

Trans-Pacific Services.—The trans-Pacific service operating on a regular fortnightly schedule between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940, the route followed being via Noumea, Suva, Canton Island, and Honolulu. This service, which was operated by Pan American Airways, ceased on the entry of Japan into the war in December 1941, and it was not until 20 September 1945 that arrangements of a temporary nature were made for the resumption of the conveyance of civilian air-mail correspondence for North America by the Royal Air Force Transport Command service, the route followed being via Suva, Canton Island, and Honolulu. The Royal Air Force Transport Command service ceased on 18 December 1945. The Pan American air service was recommenced on 6 June 1946, and is now on a regular twice-weekly schedule, the route being via Suva, Canton Island, and Honolulu to San Francisco. The dispatch of New Zealand mail by the Pan American service ceased on 13 July 1953. On 25 April 1947 British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines commenced a direct service from Auckland to Vancouver, via Suva, Honolulu, and San Francisco, the service being a fortnightly one. In February 1949 the frequency was increased to once weekly. Mails by the British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines planes are also forwarded via Sydney to connect with services operating between Sydney and Vancouver, thus giving a twice-weekly service to North America by B.C.P.A. planes. A service between Auckland and Vancouver by Canadian Pacific Air Lines was commenced on 2 February 1952.

Regional Pacific Services.—Services from New Zealand to Norfolk Island, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands operated by the R.N.Z.A.F. in the immediate post-war period were placed under the control of the National Airways Corporation on 1 November 1947. Tasman Empire Airways subsequently took over the Auckland-Fiji service on 6 November 1950, and on 27 December 1951 extended this service to Aitutaki (Cook Islands) and Papeete (French Oceania). On 14 October 1952 Tasman Empire Airways finally replaced the National Airways Corporation services to the Pacific by including Apia (Samoa) in their services; while an extension to Tonga was made in August 1953. As from 31 October 1952 the only place beyond New Zealand served by National Airways Corporation is Norfolk Island.

Chapter 16. SECTION 16—POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC

Table of Contents

POSTAL BUSINESS.—At 31 March 1953 there were 1,464 post offices in New Zealand. In addition, there were 345 offices at which telephone business only was transacted.

The following table shows the numbers of articles posted during the years ended 31 March 949 to 1953.

Year Ended 31 March	Letters, Lettercards, and Postcards	Accounts, Circulars, Newspapers, Packets, etc.	Parcels
1949	162,131,000	148,959,000	8,139,000
1950	169,798,000	165,041,000	8,185,000
1951	178,857,000	471,487,000	7,839,000
1952	174,591,000	164,781,000	7,282,000
1953	176,895,000	173,638,000	7,078,000

Compared with the year ended 31 March 1952 letters, lettercards, and postcards posted during the year ended 31 March 1953 showed an increase of 2,304,000 (5 per cent); and accounts, circulars, etc., an increase cf 8,857,000 (4 per cent). Parl postings dropped by 204,000 during the year.

The average numbers of letters, etc., posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1953 were: letters, lettercards, and postcards, 88; accounts, circulars, newspapers, packets, etc., 87; parcels, 4.

RURAL MAIL DELIVERY.—The rural-mail-delivery system was instituted in New Zealand about 1900, but, as the boxholders were generally called upon to meet part of the cost, development was slow until 1922. In that year the system was altered and a fee was introduced, the rates being 10s. per annum for a delivery of thrice weekly or less and £1 per annum for a greater frequency. The system showed gradual development until 1947, when a review of postal facilities in rural areas was commenced which resulted in a considerable increase in the number of boxholders. The growth of this scheme can be gauged from the following figures: 1921, 8,700; 1940, 32,382; 1950, 51,827; and in March 1953, 59,092.

The rural delivery system enables country settlers to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural-mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which settlers obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc.

AIR-MAIL SERVICE.—Details of the New Zealand air-mail service are given at the end of the preceding Section.

OVERSEAS PARCEL-POST.—The facilities afforded for the transmission of parcels through the Post Office to places within and beyond New Zealand have proved of much convenience to the public. The regulations admit of parcels up to 22 lb. in weight being sent to Great Britain and Northern Ireland and many other countries (rates range from 3s. for up to 3 lb. to 10s. for 22 lb.), but to Australia, South Africa, and a few other countries the weight limit is 11 lb. Inland parcels may weigh up to 28 lb. Particulars of overseas parcels received and despatched in each of the years 1949 to 1953 are contained in the following table.

Year	Overseas Parcels Received			Overseas Parcels Despatched
Year	Number	Weight	Customs Duty	Number	Weight
* Not available.
		lb.	£		lb.
1949	290,521	2,204,010	^*	920,357	9,235,946
1950	340,082	2,679,932	539,265	572,405	5,369,425
1951	470,035	3,703,993	561,309	509,946	4,838,980
1952	393,960	3,104,503	1,079,971	489,754	4,647,374
1953	354,138	3,010,673	616,254	439,714	3,720,098

NEWSPAPERS.—In October 1953 there were 280 publications on the Post Office Register of Newspapers. Of these, 43 are published daily, 10 being morning papers and 33 evening papers. Eleven appear three times per week, 18 twice per week, 65 weekly, 16 fortnightly, 126 monthly, and 1 at irregular intervals.

MONEY-ORDER AND POSTAL-NOTE SERVICES.—Details of these services are given below.

Money-orders.—New Zealand has reciprocal money-order agreements with all British Commonwealth countries and also with the United States of America, the Republic of Ireland, and Tonga. Money-orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in any other country with which the United Kingdom has exchanges of money-orders.

For payment within New Zealand the maximum amount for a single order is £100, but there is no limit to the amount which may be remitted. The commission is computed on each individual order. Commission on inland money-orders is 7d. for the first £10 and 3d. for each additional £5 or part thereof.

A money-order may be transmitted by telegraph for the additional telegraph charge of 1s. 9d.

For money-orders issued for payment overseas there is a limit for most countries of £40 for a single order, but for some countries the limit is £10. There are two special rates of commission, one rate applying to Australia and countries advised through Australia (Fiji, Norfolk Island, and Tonga), and the other rate to all other countries.

During 1952, 1,090,862 money-orders were issued in New Zealand for a total of £14,373,891, and of that total 63,433 orders of a value of £259,733 were issued for payment overseas.

Money-orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1952 numbered 25,463 and totalled in value £130,746.

The analysis of the overseas money-order business is given below.

Country of Issue or Payment	Orders Issued in New Zealand for Payment Overseas		Orders Issued Overseas for Payment in New Zealand
Country of Issue or Payment	Number	Value	Number	Value
* No service to New Zealand.
		£		£
United Kingdom	24,114	146,908	9,472	62,592
Australia	34,201	74,004	10,127	25,644
Canada	166	621	847	3,237
Ceylon	20	130	22	71
Fiji	671	11,275	1,527	7,169
Hong Kong	44	315	5	72
India	1,276	11,280	198	255
Republic of Ireland	961	7,327	97	674
Norfolk Island	66	489	479	8,635
Pakistan	168	1,560	^*	^*
South Africa	342	1,842	298	1,995
United States of America	1,363	3,390	1,702	9,842
Tonga	41	592	689	10,560
Totals	63,433	259,733	25,463	130,746

The following table gives particulars of all money-orders issued and paid during each of the last five years.

Year Ended 31 December	Number of Offices at End of Year	Money-orders Issued			Money-orders Paid
Year Ended 31 December	Number of Offices at End of Year	Number	Value	Commission	Number	Value
			£	£		£
1948	936	942,654	10,842,865	39,114	942,779	10,897,406
1949	970	952,214	10,855,648	31,393	934,262	10,821,786
1950	975	977,000	11,638,091	33,577	948,491	11,540,875
1951	973	1,026,510	12,680,898	36,544	987,396	12,550,991
1952	972	1,090,862	14,373,891	39,556	1,055,772	14,283,987

Postal Notes.—Postal notes in thirty-nine denominations ranging from 1s. to 20s. are issued in New Zealand for payment within New Zealand, Niue, the Cook Islands, and Western Samoa. The poundage payable is as follows: 1s. to 2s. 6d., 2d.; 3s. to 7s. 6d., 3d.; 8s. to 15s., 4d.; and 15s. 6d. to 20s., 5d.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are, therefore, a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1953, 2,297,239 postal notes valued at £1,101,004 were purchased by the public.

Information regarding the issue and payment of postal notes is given below.

Year Ended 31 March	Number of Offices at End of Year	Postal Notes Issued			Postal Notes Paid
Year Ended 31 March	Number of Offices at End of Year	Number	Value^*	Commission	Number	Value
* Value figures are inclusive of commission shown in next column.
			£	£		£
1949	1,129	2,483,929	1,106,479	35,948	2,479,810	1,072,201
1950	1,123	2,460,762	1,119,667	36,401	2,457,203	1,078,641
1951	1,130	2,371,577	1,083,977	34,659	2,386,354	1,049,851
1952	1,126	2,349,890	1,115,564	35,664	2,337,982	1,075,228
1953	1,118	2,297,239	1,101,004	35,199	2,287,908	1,066,761

British Postal Orders.—These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold in this country are 6d., 1s., 1s. 6d., 2s., 2s. 6d., 3s., 5s., 10s., 15s., and 20s. The commission payable ranges from 2d. to 6d.

As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, particularly the United Kingdom.

During the year ended 31 March 1953 the Post Office sold 195,417 British postal orders valued at £124,977 and paid 42,988 orders valued at £37,446.

TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE SERVICES.—Up to 31 March 1953 a total sum of £31,652,010 had been expended on telegraph construction, including the construction of telephone exchanges. The amount expended during the financial year 1952–53 was £4,335,047.

During the year ended 31 March 1953 the revenue from telegrams and toll communications was £3,747,821, of which £663,677 represented ordinary telegrams, £104,955 press telegrams, and £2,979,189 toll communications. To these figures should be added £4,061,245 revenue of telephone exchanges and £232,614 miscellaneous receipts, making a total telegraph and telephone revenue of £8,041,680.

Details of telegraph and telephone services for each of the last five financial years are now given.

Year Ended 31 March	Number of Paid Telegrams and Toll Messages Forwarded During the Year	Revenue (Including Miscellaneous Receipts)		Total Value of Business
Year Ended 31 March		Telegraph and Toll	Telephone Exchange	Total Value of Business
		£	£	£
1949	32,955,179	2,845,114	2,380,715	5,225,829
1950	34,983,335	2,922,478	2,540,124	5,462,602
1951	34,866,663	3,359,801	3,464,099	6,823,900
1952	36,030,144	3,789,980	3,766,043	7,556,023
1953	36,935,314	3,980,435	4,061,245	8,041,680

The number of paid telegrams forwarded in 1952–53 was 7,635,393, a decrease of 108,493 (14 per cent) as compared with 1951–52, while the number of toll communications, 29,299,921, showed an increase of 1,013,663 (3.6 per cent).

The charge for ordinary telegrams on week-days is 1s. for six words or less, and 1d. for each additional word. The charge for letter-telegrams, which are delivered by post on the morning following the day of lodgment, is a flat rate of 1s. 6d. for twenty-two words, and 1d. for each additional two words. On Sundays and departmental holidays the rate for ordinary telegrams is 1s. 6d. for six words or less, and 1 ½ d. for each additional word, the total charge being taken to the next penny where necessary. An additional charge of 9d. is made for an urgent telegram, irrespective of the number of words contained in the message.

TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE SERVICE.—At 31 March 1953 there were 381 telephone exchanges in New Zealand, serving a total of 425,186 connections. Of these exchanges 327 were manually operated, serving 173,814 connections, or 41 per cent of the total, and 54 were automatic, serving 251,372 connections, or 59 per cent of the total.

The following table indicates the growth of the New Zealand telephone-exchange service (the figures are as at 31 March of each year shown).

—	1945	1946	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
* Represents separate instruments connected to main telephone system.
Exchanges	347	347	348	350	356	358	364	371	381
Subscribers' main stations	188,175	194,508	206,337	219,185	234,874	253,458	268,365	285,171	307,453
Service stations	3,014	3,005	3,168	3,319	3,418	3,576	3,570	3,533	3,596
Toll stations	1,911	1,854	1,829	1,836	1,827	1,784	1,765	1,719	1,691
Public call stations	1,406	1,413	1,456	1,550	1,640	1,802	1,958	2,085	2,223
Extension stations	58,120	60,783	65,251	70,662	76,832	83,804	90,536	98,239	106,591
Private telephone lines	4,100	4,200	4,300	4,000	4,166	4,115	3,795	3,819	3,632
Telephone station totals^*	256,726	265,763	282,341	300,552	322,757	348,539	369,989	394,566	425,186
Number installed during year	13,510	10,573	17,002	17,883	21,067	24,806	24,111	26,536	33,560
Number of waiting applicants	19,462	27,000	34,800	41,292	48,378	55,309	58,484	58,348	54,946

The total number of telephone stations shows an increase of 168,460, or 65 per cent, during the period covered by the table, the net gain for each of the last five years being 22,205, 25,782, 21,450, 24,577, and 30,620 respectively. The increase in subscribers' main stations during the same period amounted to 119,278, or approximately 63 per cent, while extension stations show an increase of 48,471, or a little over 83 per cent.

The “party” line system of telephone service is extensively used, particularly by those whose premises are situated at a distance from an exchange. In March 1953 the number of “party” lines was 39,210, serving a total of 148,627 stations.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1952) compiled by the Chief Statistician of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fourth equal in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (29.3), Sweden (25.2), Canada (22.1), New Zealand (19.9), Switzerland (19.9), and Denmark (17.5).

The first public call stations (coin-in-the-slot telephones) erected in New Zealand were installed at Wellington in August 1910, and a total of 2,094 such instruments were in use at 31 March 1953. The revenue of these slot telephones during the year ended 31 March 1953 was £146,619. In addition, there are 129 multi-coin slot telephones in use, the first of which was installed at Christchurch in October 1938. These instruments take penny, sixpenny, and shilling coins and are used for effecting toll calls.

The capital expenditure on the equipment, etc., of the telephone exchanges up to 31 March 1953 was £25,822,627.

The following table shows the classification of telephone exchanges and the annual rental rates for different classes of connection.

Class of Exchange	Class of Connection	Annual Rate Within Base-rate Area
Class of Exchange	Class of Connection	Business			Residential
		£	s.	d.	£	s.	d.
Special (Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin)	Individual	28	17	6	15	0	0
	2-party	22	0	0	12	10	0
	3-party	19	5	0	11	11	0
	4-party	16	10	0	10	12	6
Class I (Over 3,000 subscribers)	Individual	22	0	0	12	10	0
(Typical exchanges are Gisborne, Hamilton, Napier, New Plymouth, and Invercargill)	2-party	16	10	0	10	12	6
	3-party	15	2	6	10	0	0
	4-party	13	15	0	9	7	6
Class II (2,001 to 3,000 subscribers)	Individual	19	5	0	11	17	6
(Typical exchanges are Hawera, Oamaru, and Tauranga)	2-party	15	2	6	10	0	0
	3-party	13	15	0	9	7	6
	4-party	12	7	6	8	15	0
Class III (1,001 to 2,000 subscribers)	Individual	17	17	6	11	5	0
(Typical exchanges are Cambridge, Marton, and Waimate)	2-party	14	8	9	9	7	6
	3-party	13	1	3	8	15	0
	4-party	11	13	9	8	2	6
Class IV (201 to 2,000 subscribers with continuous attendance)	Individual	16	10	0	10	12	6
(Typical exchanges are Te Kuiti, Piopio, Waipawa, and Rangiora)	2-party	13	15	0	8	15	0
	3-party	12	7	6	8	2	6
	4-party	11	0	0	7	10	0
Class V (Up to 1,000 subscribers with restricted attendance and automatic exchanges with less than 200 subscribers)	Individual	13	15	0	9	7	6
	2-party	11	0	0	7	10	0
(Typical exchanges are Akaroa, Kawhia, Te Akau, and Waitotara)	3-party	10	6	3	6	17	6
	4-party	9	12	6	6	5	0

In respect of stations located outside the boundary of the base-rate area of an exchange a mileage rate as indicated hereunder is added to the general base-rate area rental.

For every furlong or part of a furlong by line measurement from the base-rate boundary to the respective subscriber's station—

	Business		Residential
	s.	d.	s.	d.
Individual line	16	6	15	0
2-party line—each party	8	3	7	6
3-party line—each party	5	6	5	0
4-party line—each party	4	2	3	9

Rural line telephone service is provided at all exchanges except those in the special class. This service provides for a minimum of 5 subscribers and a maximum of 10 subscribers on any one line. In general, subscribers connected on rural lines reside beyond the boundary of the basic-rate area.

Annual rental charges for rural line stations vary according to the number of subscribers on the line and the distance of the subscribers from the exchange.

TOLL SERVICE.—The basic rates for toll calls are as follows:

Initial charge for an ordinary call not exceeding three minutes in duration.

For Distances	Between 8 a.m. and 6 p.m. on Week Days and Between 6 a.m. and Midnight on Sundays and Departmental Holidays		Between Midnight and 8 a.m. and Between 6 p.m. and Midnight on Week Days and Between Midnight and 6 a.m. on Sundays and Departmental Holidays
	s.	d.	s.	d.
Up to and including 10 miles	0	4	0	4
Over 10 miles but not over 15 miles	0	6	0	6
Over 15 miles but not over 20 miles	0	8	0	8
Over 20 miles but not over 30 miles	0	11	0	11
Over 30 miles but not over 40 miles	1	3	1	3
Over 40 miles but not over 60 miles	1	8	1	5
Over 60 miles but not over 80 miles	2	2	1	8
Over 80 miles but not over 100 miles	2	6	1	11
Over 100 miles but not over 150 miles	3	3	2	5
Over 150 miles but not over 200 miles	4	1	3	1
Over 200 miles but not over 250 miles	5	0	3	9
Over 250 miles but not over 300 miles	5	6	4	2
Over 300 miles but not over 350 miles	6	0	4	6
Over 350 miles but not over 400 miles	6	6	4	11
Over 400 miles but not over 450 miles	7	0	5	3
Over 450 miles	7	6	5	8

The charge for every additional minute exceeding three is one-third of the respective initial charge except in the case of calls from coin box telephones.
The additional charge for an ordinary call exceeding three minutes in duration from telephones having coin boxes associated therewith in which charges for toll calls may be deposited is assessed in multiples of the respective initial charge for a three minute call.
Charge for an urgent call: double the rate for an ordinary call.

OVERSEAS CABLE SERVICES.—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, this cable being duplicated in 1890. Subsequent developments were the opening in 1902 of the Pacific cable between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island, with a connection linking Norfolk Island to Brisbane; the laying of a cable direct between Auckland and Sydney in 1912; shifting of terminals from Wakapuaka to Wellington in 1917; laying a cable direct between Auckland and Suva in 1923, and duplicating the Suva-Canada cable in 1927. In 1929 a merger of British cable and wireless companies resulted in the overseas cable services being brought under the control of one authority (the private company of Cable and Wireless, Ltd., with headquarters in London), following which one cable between Wellington and Sydney was abandoned, part of it being lifted for re-use, and the route of the other was altered to terminate at Auckland instead of Wellington. One of the two direct Auckland-Sydney cables later became faulty and has not been repaired, leaving only one direct cable link between Auckland and Sydney. Following upon a conference of representatives of Commonwealth Governments (including New Zealand) held in London in 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets of Cable and Wireless, Ltd., in New Zealand, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

RADIO COMMUNICATION: Government Stations.—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911.

The principal stations under the control of the New Zealand Government are at Awarua, Wellington, and Auckland on the New Zealand mainland, at Apia in Western Samoa, at Rarotonga and Niue in the Cook Islands, and at the Chatham Islands. Smaller stations are established at certain lighthouses on the New Zealand coast and also on a number of adjacent islands. Marine radio beacons are operated at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Puysegur Point, Tiri Tiri Island, Mokohinau, Portland Island, Stephen's Island, Baring Head, and Cape Campbell.

Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook Group by Rarotonga-Radio through small feeder stations at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mangaia, Manihiki, Manuae, Mauke, Mitiaro, Nassau, Palmerston, Penrhyn, Pukapuka, and Rakahanga. Small stations at Aleipata, Atafu, Fagamalo, Sataua, Palauli, Fakaofo, Nukunono, Salailua, and Tuasivi communicate with Apia-Radio. Niue communicates with Apia-Radio, Rarotonga-Radio, and Wellington-Radio.

By means of the radio stations at Wellington, Apia, Rarotonga, and Niue, communication is maintained between New Zealand and the Pacific islands, the last three stations mentioned having direct communication with New Zealand. Wellington-Radio has also direct communication with Chatham Islands, Papeete-Radio (Tahiti), Nukualofa (Tonga), Noumea (New Caledonia), and San Francisco (United States of America).

Particulars of the radio business, exclusive of free (service) messages, transacted by the New Zealand coast stations during the last five years are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 March	Forwarded			Received
Year Ended 31 March	Messages	Words	Post Office Revenue	Messages	Words	Post Office Revenue
			£			£
1949	25,644	545,658	7,106	61,634	1,197,717	14,309
1950	28,896	581,961	7,643	73,366	1,365,070	16,416
1951	32,219	608,358	6,824	76,919	1,493,134	11,683
1952	36,667	727,335	7,343	88,883	1,769,121	14,055
1953	39,632	778,539	8,438	88,662	1,655,697	13,882

Facilities exist for the despatch of radio-telegrams to vessels at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand.

Other Radio Services.—Telephone communication by radio is now available to thirty-six countries in addition to certain inter-island and trans-Tasman vessels as well as to Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, and Campbell Island. There has also been a remarkable expansion of the Post Office very-high-frequency radio-telephone service for mobile units first introduced in 1948. It is now operating in nineteen centres for a total of 1,667 mobile units. Ambulance services, fire boards, traffic officers, taxi companies, veterinary services, and motor-transport companies are the principal users of the service. Radio-telephone services continue to provide essential service for isolated communities which cannot reasonably be reached by land-line—e.g., isolated settlers, alpine huts, etc. There is also a free radio-medical service for ships at sea and for lighthouses on the New Zealand coast for use in emergency cases.

Private Stations.—Private radio stations are governed by the New Zealand Radio Regulations 1953.

The licences for radio receiving stations (i.e., ordinary radio licences) are designed to provide for reception from broadcasting stations, and may be obtained at any postal money-order office on payment of the prescribed fee. Further reference to these licences will be found in Section 17, dealing with radio broadcasting.

Licences for amateur stations are intended to provide facilities for experimental transmission to those interested in radio science, and are issued only to holders of amateur operators' certificates.

Two radio manufacturing organizations and three colleges have been given authority to conduct experimental television transmissions for the purposes of studying the techniques involved and for investigating equipment developments in this new field of radio.

RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS.—The receipts and payments of the Post and Telegraph Department for the last three financial years are now shown.

Receipts	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£	£
Postages	3,315,751	3,617,136	3,801,480
Money-order and postal-note commission	67,808	72,116	73,993
Private box and bag rents and rural-delivery fees	108,669	120,294	123,624
Miscellaneous receipts	1,480,604	1,785,057	1,826,291
Telegrams	714,777	. 770,740	768,632
Tolls	2,351,637	2,695,744	2,897,060
Telephone-exchange rentals	3,284,891	3,577,484	3,857,604
Overseas telecommunications		442,705	356,749
Totals	£11,324,137	£13,081,276	£13,705,433
Payments	£	£	£
Salaries	5,048,602	5,853,840	6,106,892
Conveyance of mails by sea and air	512,647	654,473	652,058
Conveyance of mails by road	304,616	365,382	406,052
Conveyance of mails by railway	237,784	247,407	290,018
Maintenance and renewal of telecommunication system	788,106	974,631	1,275,389
Motor services and workshops	484,346	725,948	847,764
Miscellaneous	2,552,346	3,264,374	3,451,271
Interest on capital liability	811,128	947,886	1,016,266
Sick-benefit Fund	12,670	17,245	17,871
Post Office buildings	227,881	312,938	318,346
Superannuation Fund subsidy	206,000	232,385	239,100
Overseas telecommunications		254,065	145,159
Totals	£11,186,126	£13,850,574	£14,766,186

Receipts and payments for the last eleven years are shown by the following figures.

Year Ended	Receipts	Payments
31 March	£	£
1943	5,863,621	5,089,889
1944	6,251,242	5,105,982
1945	6,694,901	5,970,244
1946	7,068,397	6,478,956
1947	8,672,640	7,374,561
1948	8,974,448	8,956,316
1949	9,519,652	9,877,525
1950	9,647,950	10,491,851
1951	11,324,137	11,186,126
1952	13,081,276	13,850,574
1953	13,705,433	14,766,186

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS.—In addition to its natural functions, the Post and Telegraph Department performs a large amount of work for other Government Departments, its widespread organization being of inestimable value in this respect. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various Departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts.—Social Security Department (social security charge on income, social security charge on wages, sale of social security stamps), Agriculture Department (orchard tax and inspection fees, etc.), Education Department (child welfare receipts and examination fees, etc.), Health Department, Department of Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax), Lands and Survey Department, Treasury (special mileage tax on motor vehicles), National Provident Fund, Public Trust Office, State Advances Corporation (state rents, loan and interest repayments), State Hydro-electric Department (Southland electric power receipts), Government Superannuation Board, Transport Department, Department of Tourist and Publicity (Mamaku and Ngongotaha power receipts), Valuation Department, New Zealand Broadcasting Service (radio licence fees and subscriptions to New Zealand Listener), Customs Department (collection of Customs duty and sales tax).

Payments.—Social Security Department (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health Department (refunds of medical expenses), Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons), Government Superannuation Board, Army Department, Air Department, Education Department (boarding-out orders), Labour and Employment (subsidized wage payments, military training medical examination payments, and holiday cards), Department of Maori Affairs (Maori Trust payments), Public Trust Office, Police Department (witness warrants), Treasury (refunds of duty on motor spirits and miscellaneous payments for other Departments), Ministry of Works.

Other services performed by the Post and Telegraph Department are the control of the licensing of, and the issue of licences in respect of, motor vehicles and radio apparatus, provision of advice and service on radio matters to the Marine Department and the Civil Aviation Branch of the Air Department, and provision of a fleet of motor vehicles in the larger centres for hire by other Departments. In the smaller centres Postmasters act as Registrars of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, Registrars of Electors, and agents for the Government Life Insurance Department, State Fire and Accident Insurance Office, and State Advances Corporation.

Other activities, not strictly departmental, include the receipt of Motor Vehicles Insurance (Third Party Risks) premiums under the Transport Act 1949, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatization societies, organizing and collecting investments in respect of national savings, organizing and selling health stamps, and collecting revenue for such outside bodies as the New Zealand Poultry Board, the New Zealand Trade Certification Board, and the Armed Forces Canteen Council.

STAFF.—The large volume and varied nature of the business of the Post and Telegraph Department entails the employment of a large staff. The Department is administered by the Postmaster-General and Minister of Telegraphs, with the Director-General as executive head. The staff at 31 March 1953 was as follows: Permanent, 13,436; temporary, 5,745; non-classified, 282: total, 19,463. In addition, there were 1,031 country postmasters and telephonists who acted as such in conjunction with other pursuits and did not rank as officers of the Department. There were also 64 officers of the Railways Department who acted as postmasters.

Chapter 17. SECTION 17—RADIO BROADCASTING

Table of Contents

NEW ZEALAND BROADCASTING SERVICE.—The Broadcasting Act of 1936 established the National Broadcasting Service as from 1 July 1936, and vested its control in a Minister of the Crown. All property, rights, liabilities, and engagements of the pre-existing controlling authority (the New Zealand Broadcasting Board) were transferred to the Crown. Details of the Board's activities and of the early history and development of radio broadcasting in New Zealand are given in the 1942 and earlier issues of the Year-Book.

The administration of the National Broadcasting Service was placed in the hands of a Director of Broadcasting, appointed by the Governor-General in Council to hold office for a period not exceeding three years. Permanent officers in the employ of the Board became officers of the Public Service as from 1 July 1936.

Section 9 of the Act allows for the appointment of an advisory body called the Broadcasting Advisory Council, to consist of not more than five members, to be appointed from time to time by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. Appointment to the Council is for a period of three years, except that members may be reappointed or removed from office by the Governor-General. No Advisory Council has however been appointed under this section.

The Broadcasting Act 1936 also authorized the Minister of Broadcasting to establish and operate commercial broadcasting stations from which advertising matter might be broadcast. For every locality that is served by a commercial station the Minister is required to provide an alternative service from at least one non-commercial station. Advertising over the air is forbidden except from the commercial stations authorized under the Act.

The Broadcasting Amendment Act 1937 made legislative provision for the establishment of a National Commercial Broadcasting Service. The administration of the Commercial Service, which in 1938 operated five stations—1ZB, 2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB, and 2ZA, was placed in the hands of a Controller. Thus in 1938 there were two separate broadcasting organizations in New Zealand—the National Broadcasting Service under a Director, and the National Commercial Broadcasting Service under a Controller. This provision was repealed by section 4 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1943, the position of Controller was abolished, and from 26 August 1943 the two services were combined under a Director of Broadcasting. The Commercial Service was thus absorbed into the National Broadcasting Service.

In 1946 the title of the Department was changed to the New Zealand Broadcasting Service to give effect to the complete amalgamation of the two pre-existing authorities, which had in fact commenced prior to 1943 with the amalgamation of all technical resources under a Chief Engineer. Thus since 1946 there has been only one broadcasting organization, the New Zealand Broadcasting Service, controlling commercial and non-commercial broadcasting in New Zealand.

Stations and Programmes.—There were, at 31 March 1953, twenty-nine medium-wave broadcasting stations and two short-wave transmitters of Radio New Zealand with eighteen assigned frequencies. Two of the medium-wave stations are privately owned (2XM and 4XD) and operate with the assistance of a subsidy from the Broadcasting Account, five are national advertising stations-marked “(a)” in the following list—and seven are local stations carrying advertising up to nine hours daily, Monday to Saturday, the balance of programme time carrying no advertising—these stations are marked “(b)”, the complete list being given below.

Station	Aerial Energy	Frequency^*	Normal Hours of Transmission Per Week
* The frequencies used vary from time to time. * Operates during period when 2YA is broadcasting proceedings of the House of Representatives.
	Kilowatts	Kilocycles	Hr.	min.
SHORT-WAVE STATIONS
ZL2 Wellington	7.5	9,540	115	35
ZL3 Wellington	7.5	11,780	115	35
ZL4 Wellington	7.5	15,280	115	35
ZL8 Wellington	7.5	9,620	115	35
ZL10 Wellington	7.5	15,220	115	35
MEDIUM-WAVE STATIONS
1XN, Whangarei (b)	2.00	970	49	0
1YA, Auckland	10.00	760	121	20
1ZB, Auckland (a)	10.00	1,070	126	0
1YD, Auckland	0.75	1,250	48	0
1YC, Auckland	10.00	880	31	0
1XH, Hamilton (b)	2.00	1,310	79	0
1YZ, Rotorua	10.00	800	108	30
2XG, Gisborne (b)	2.00	1,010	49	0
2XM, Gisborne	0.09	1,180	16	30
2YZ, Napier	5.00	860	108	30
2XP, New Plymouth (b)	2.00	1,370	49	0
2XA, Wanganui (b)	2.00	1,200	49	0
2ZA, Palmerston North (a)	2.00	940	87	0
2YA, Wellington	60.00	570	121	20
2YX, Wellington	1.00	1,400	^*
2YC, Wellington	60.00	660	37	0
2ZB, Wellington (a)	10.00	980	126	0
2YD, Wellington	0.50	1,130	21	0
2XN, Nelson (b)	2.00	1,340	49	0
3YZ, Greymouth	10.00	920	108	30
3YA, Christchurch	10.00	690	121	20
3ZB, Christchurch (a)	10.00	1,100	126	0
3YC, Christchurch	10.00	960	38	30
3XC, Timaru (b)	2.00	1,160	49	0
4YA, Dunedin	10.00	780	121	20
4ZB, Dunedin (a)	10.00	1,040	126	0
4YC, Dunedin	10.00	900	38	30
4XD, Dunedin	0.06	1,430	13	0
4YZ, Invercargill	500	720	108	30

Station 2AP, Apia, is operated by New Zealand Broadcasting Service staff under secondment to the Broadcasting Department of the Government of Western Samoa. The New Zealand Broadcasting Service also acts in an advisory capacity in respect of broadcasting matters and arranges for the supply and maintenance of technical equipment in Western Samoa.

The aggregate transmission of all stations—National, Commercial, and Short-wave—amounted during the year end 31 March 1953 to 117,991 hours. Of the scheduled time, 41 ½ hours were lost owing to technical defects in equipment.

At the request of the authorities responsible for the conservation of electric power, broadcasting after May 1950 was curtailed, but early in 1954 these restrictions were eased.

All programmes to be transmitted from the private broadcasting stations are supervised, and the Minister has authority to prohibit the broadcasting of any programme or part of a programme which in his opinion is unsuitable for broadcasting.

The programmes of the various stations are published in the New Zealand Listener, a weekly paper which was first issued on 30 June 1939.

Radio Coverage of New Zealand.—The call signs of the stations operated by the New Zealand Broadcasting Service and their functions in the programme coverage of New Zealand are as follows:

Stations 1YA, 2YA, 3YA, 4YA, 1YZ, 2YZ, 3YZ, and 4YZ. These stations are operated to provide non-advertising programmes separately or in link to listeners throughout the whole country.
Stations 1YC, 2YC, 3YC, 4YC, 1YD, 2YD, and 2YX, provide alternative non-advertising programmes to the programmes of the YA and YZ stations listed in (a) above, but with coverage not quite so extensive.
Stations 1ZB, 2ZB, 3ZB, 4ZB, and 2ZA present advertising programmes mainly of a light nature giving further alternative programmes to those provided by stations listed in (a) and (b) above.
Stations 1XN, 1XH, 2XG, 2XP, 2XA, 2XN, and 3XC. These are stations of local coverage in the smaller cities and towns and are designed to serve the immediate locality and present advertising and non-advertising programmes in specified time bands. Within their coverage range, these stations provide alternative programmes to those provided by stations listed in (a), (b), and (c) above.

In addition, the overseas short-wave service of Radio New Zealand operates from ZL2, ZL3, ZL4, ZL8, and ZL10.

Television.—A departmental committee was set up in July 1949 by the Minister of Broadcasting to advise him on the development of television overseas and on the problems involved in the establishment of a television service in New Zealand. The Service continues to study closely the latest developments both in the technical and programme fields of overseas television organizations and the committee mentioned reports periodically to the Minister in this direction.

SHORT-WAVE SERVICE.—The service provided by Radio New Zealand is now well established, with a wide listening audience in Australia, the Pacific Islands, and even as far afield as Western Europe, the United States of America, and Japan.

Broadcasts by New Zealand artists are increasing in number each year. Features include the broadcasting of the National Orchestra, spoken material informing listeners of life in New Zealand—e.g., in such documentary programmes as “Felling the Timber”, “Big Game Fishing in the Bay of Islands”, etc., and the daily news service for New Zealand forces serving in Korea. A home service programme is rebroadcast from 6 a.m. to 7 p.m., and the special overseas transmission “Calling Australia and the Islands” follows. For the benefit of New Zealanders overseas, a full New Zealand summary of all sports results is broadcast each Saturday evening.

NATIONAL NON-COMMERCIAL SERVICE.—An analysis of the combined programmes of the National non-commercial stations for a sample week in February 1953 showed that, of the total broadcasting hours, 19.55 per cent was devoted to serious music; 44.15 per cent to light music; 3.49 per cent to modern dance music; 8.46 per cent to plays, sketches, and dramatic serials; 5.11 per cent to sporting commentaries; 6.73 per cent to talks, general and educative; 7.34 per cent to news and commentaries; 2.28 per cent to church and devotional services; and 2.89 per cent to children's sessions.

The Service maintains a broad policy of broadcasting from the National stations in the four main centres, programmes designed and classified to suit the major divisions of community taste. In the smaller centres, where there is only a single station, the problem is more difficult. Every effort is made to solve it suitably and experiments are tried continually.

The practice is followed of giving broadcasting engagements to the best musical and other talent available in New Zealand. Throughout the year ended 31 March 1953 the Service engaged in the studios or by relayed performance 361 different bands, large choral groups, and similar societies. In all, these groups were on the air 917 times. In addition, 3,581 artists or small groups of artists appeared 16,653 times before microphones of the Service.

The writing and production of dramatic and other special features in which local actors and actresses are employed are carried out by the productions section of the New Zealand Broadcasting Service, and encouragement is being given to New Zealand writers.

The recording facilities are a valuable adjunct, and the studios are engaged daily in recording plays and programmes written by overseas and New Zealand authors, talks and news bulletins broadcast overseas which are rebroadcast in New Zealand at more convenient times, and historical events and other features.

The proceedings of the House of Representatives are broadcast from Station 2YA in order to acquaint the public with the provisions of the various Bills and the views of their representatives. During this time its scheduled programme is broadcast by 2YC, and 2YX takes over the scheduled programme of the latter.

Regular broadcasting programmes for schools are undertaken. The weekly schedule consists of three hours, and the following subjects are dealt with: music appreciation, singing, ryhthm for juniors, literature, history through literature, nature study, book reviews, talks on news, social studies, and science, and French lessons for post-primary pupils. The Correspondence School of the Department of Education also broadcasts three half-hourly programmes per week. A new programme “Kindergarten of the Air”, is now broadcast for the benefit of pre-school children.

Time signals from the Seismological Observatory are broadcast through Station 2YA or 2YC each day. The signals take the form of a series of six “dots” at intervals of one second, the last “dot” being the exact minute. Fuller details of this time service may be obtained from the article on time service arrangements published in Section 44 (Miscellaneous) of this Year-Book.

The National Orchestra of the New Zealand Broadcasting Service was formed in 1946. Its concerts, studio broadcasts, tours, and free concerts to schools, are arranged and managed by the Concert Section of the Service, which also arranges for the presentation of overseas celebrity artists in public concerts associated with the National Orchestra, in concert tours without the Orchestra, and in studio broadcasts.

Financial Statistics.—The following table shows the expenditure on the national activities of the Service for the last five financial years:

	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£	£	£	£
Programmes	204,393	238,331	210,957	192,562	220,249
Maintenance of plant	15,885	35,800	30,113	59,168	43,601
General administrative and running expenses	250,371	283,550	309,507	335,308	346,088
Subsidies to private “B” stations	225	225	225	225	225
Depreciation of assets	28,303	48,023	67,222	88,455	99,277
Other expenses	2,335	573	500	500	250
Total expenditure	£501,512	£606,502	£618,524	£676,218	£709,690

Income for the year ended 31 March 1953 amounted to £601,497, including radio-licence fees, £561,431 (net), and surplus on New Zealand Listener, £2,323. The total income for each of the preceding four years was: 1948–49, £531,095; 1949–50, £548,237; 1950–51, £572,100; and 1951–52, £604,930.

COMMERCIAL SERVICE.—Following the coming into operation of the Broadcasting Act 1936 the State purchased Station 1ZB, Auckland, which had previously operated as a “B” station, and commenced the broadcasting of programmes which included advertising matter. Commercial stations were subsequently established at Wellington (2ZB), Christchurch (3ZB), and Dunedin (4ZB), all of which were opened in 1937, while Station 2ZA (Palmerston North) was opened in 1938.

In January 1949 a station (3XC) was opened at Timaru. This station was the first to broadcast both commercial and non-commercial programmes. Similar stations now operate at Whangarei (1XN), Hamilton (1XH), Gisborne (2XG), Wanganui (2XA), Nelson (2XN), and New Plymouth (2XP).

The programmes of the Commercial stations contain a high percentage of entertainment, as compared with commercial announcements or direct advertising.

Sessions of informative value and services such as the broadcasting for missing cars and persons are provided in addition to the normal programmes.

Financial Statistics.—Advertising constitutes the only source of revenue of the Commercial stations no portion of the radio-licence fees being allocated to these activities. For the year 1952–53 income totalled £681,623, and expenditure £538,868, making a net profit for the year of £142,755 before payment of tax. Corresponding figures for the previous financial year were: Income, £609,182; expenditure, £513,430; net profit before payment of tax, £95,752.

STATISTICS OF RADIO LICENCES.—The growth in the number of radio-receiving licences is apparent from the following table. Free licences, which are referred to later, are included in the figures. The licence fee for a receiving station, which from 1 April 1935 had been £1 5s. per annum, was increased to £1 10s. per annum as from 1 January 1954.

As at 31 March	Auckland	Wellington	Canterbury	Otago	New Zealand Totals	Licences Per Hundred of Population
1943	121,194	130,453	65,935	50,539	368,121	22.53
1944	124,855	133,845	66,046	50,666	375,412	22.84
1945	126,716	133,706	68,155	50,612	379,189	22.57
1946	130,445	139,243	71,367	51,943	392,998	22.35
1947	139,487	143,812	74,472	57,452	415,223	23.16
1948	144,646	146,484	74,164	55,689	420,983	22.95
1949	148,742	150,373	75,385	57,589	432,089	23.07
1950	155,797	155,585	78,286	59,679	449,347	23.86
1951	160,743	160,973	80,795	60,907	463,418	23.89
1952	165,838	167,471	83,924	62,300	479,533	24.11
1953	173,008	169,918	85,415	63,515	491,856	24.14

A summary of all radio licences in force in New Zealand as at 31 March 1953 follows.

District	Receiving Stations	Radio Dealers	Private Experimental		Multiple	Total Licences
District	Receiving Stations	Radio Dealers	Amateur	Research	Multiple	Total Licences
Auckland	173,008	739	765	23	18	174,553
Wellington	169,918	733	881	32	42	171,606
Canterbury	85,415	326	366	7	18	86,132
Otago	63,515	277	252	8	12	64,064
Totals	491,856	2,075	2,264	70	90	496,355

Licences are issued free of charge to institutions for the blind and also to any blind person. In addition, public hospitals, benevolent and orphan institutions, and other charitable institutions are granted free licence privileges, provided that the sets are used for the benefit of patients or inmates. Free licence privileges have also been extended to the operation of receiving sets in schools, where such sets are used for educational broadcast purposes. The number of free licences as at 31 March of each of the last five years was: 1949, 1,951; 1950, 2,043; 1951, 2,274; 1952, 2,428; and 1953, 2,533.

A penalty is attached to the operating of unlicensed radio apparatus.

Chapter 18. SECTION 18—LAND TENURE, SETTLEMENT, VALUATION, ETC.

Table of Contents

18 A—GENERAL

18 B—CROWN LANDS

18 C—MAORI LANDS

18 D—SURVEYS AND MAPS

18 E—VALUATION OF LAND

18 A—GENERAL

OCCUPATION OF LAND.—The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories comprising Cook and associated islands and Tokelau Islands, and exclusive of the trust territory of Western Samoa, but inclusive of the minor islands since these form parts of land districts, is 66,390,700 acres. Of this total, 43,321,602 acres were assessed in 1953 as being in occupation, including reserves and Maori lands leased, but excluding areas within borough boundaries, holdings of less than 1 acre in extent, and Maori land held on the communal system.

The number of holdings and percentages of total holdings in occupation, grouped according to size, as returned in each of the years 1941, 1946, 1949, and 1952, are given below.

Area, in Acres	Number of Holdings				Percentage of Total
Area, in Acres	1941	1946	1949	1952	1941	1946	1949	1952
1 and under 10	11,265	11,380	11,463	12,363	13.04	13.20	1316	13.69
10 and under 50	14,585	14,014	13,611	13,716	16.89	16.25	15.63	15.19
50 and under 100	12,739	12,812	12,962	13,460	14.75	14.86	14.89	14.91
100 and under 200	16,646	16,699	17,250	18,104	19.27	19.36	19.81	20.05
200 and under 320	9,861	9,862	10,084	10,308	11.42	11.44	11.58	11.42
320 and under 640	10,202	10,392	10,653	11,083	11.81	12.05	12.23	12.27
640 and under 1,000	4,154	4,154	4,215	4,382	4.81	4.82	4.84	4.85
1,000 and under 5,000	5,883	5,882	5,827	5,866	6.81	6.82	6.69	6.50
5,000 and under 10,000	544	556	538	535	0.63	0.64	0.62	0.59
10,000 and under 20,000	294	287	278	276	0.34	0.33	0.32	0.31
20,000 and under 50,000	145	145	144	143	0.17	0.17	0 17	0.16
50,000 and over	55	56	51	52	0.06	006	006	0.06
Totals	86,373	86,239	87,076	90,288	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00

Although approximately 44 per cent of holdings in 1952 were less than 100 acres in extent, the total area of such holdings represented only a little over 3 per cent of the occupied land of New Zealand. A further 20 per cent of the holdings ranged between 100 and 200 acres, but the aggregate area of these amounted to less than 6 per cent of the total. At the other end of the scale it is found that 65 per cent of the occupied land was held in areas of 1,000 acres and upwards, although the number of such holdings was only a little over 7½ per cent of the total. Holdings of 5,000 acres and upwards, of which there were 1,006 in 1952, accounted for 39 per cent of the total area of occupied land.

The total acreage of holdings in each group is given in the following table.

Area of Holdings, in Acres	1941	1946	1949	1952
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
1 and under 10	52,525	52,938	53,053	56,401
10 and under 50	374,038	356,797	344,548	346,400
50 and under 100	925,878	936,146	949,958	989,287
100 and under 200	2,330,867	2,338,315	2,417,342	2,536,230
200 and under 320	2,476,209	2,468,817	2,527,401	2,584,876
320 and under 640	4,614,325	4,697,290	4,823,068	5,011,073
640 and under 1,000	3,307,731	3,302,224	3,349,984	3,470,297
1,000 and under 5,000	11,517,582	11,498,507	11,377,539	11,367,370
5,000 and under 10,000	3,707,175	3,793,591	3,661,138	3,670,182
10,000 and under 20,000	4,133,400	4,012,385	3,891,586	3,870,948
20,000 and under 50,000	4,406,409	4,408,209	4,457,035	4,404,001
50,000 and over	5,042,198	5,214,789	4,864,847	4,912,638
Totals	42,888,337	43,080,008	42,717,499	43,219,703

The following additional details not normally obtained in the annual collection were collected under the special Census of Agriculture in 1950:

Holdings at 31 January 1950	Number	Percentage of Total
Occupied by Maoris	4,655	5.16
Worked on share system	2,678	2.97
Lying entirely idle and unused	2,270	2.51
Status of occupier—
Owner	55,088	61.01
Lessee	17,844	19.77
Manager	2,532	2.80
Partner	1,242	1.33
Shareworker	2,303	2.55
Part owner, part lessee	11,281	12.49
Totals	90,290	100.00

Condition of Occupied Land.—The land in occupation in New Zealand at 31 January 1953 was classified according to condition and use as follows.

	Acres	Percentage of Total
* Includes areas also sown with grasses and clovers.
In principal cereal crops and crops for threshing^*	391,678	0.91
In green, root, and other crops^*	738,885	1.71
In fallow	173,626	0.40
In sown grasses and clovers—
Cut for hay, seed, or ensilage	1,000,607	2.31
Not cut for hay, seed, or ensilage	16,574,439	38.26
In vineyards and orchards	22,604	0.05
In passion-fruit vines	96
In hop vines	611
In market gardens and nurseries	17,060	0.04
In private gardens and pleasure grounds	92,457	0.21
In plantations	949,533	2.19
Total area in cultivation	19,961,596	46.08
Unimproved land	23,360,006	53.92
Total area in occupation	43,321,602	100.00

Information collected in 1950 in conjunction with the World Census of Agriculture showed that 60 per cent of the area under sown grasses was stated as being capable of cultivation by ploughs or discs. Of the total area in occupation, 34 per cent was considered to be capable of being so cultivated.

Land in cultivation (under crop and in pasture) forms the subject matter of the Section on agricultural and pastoral production immediately following. An indication of the condition and geographical distribution of unimproved land is afforded by the following table, which relates to the position at 31 January 1953.

Land District	Phormium (New Zealand Flax)	Tussock and Naturally Established Native Grasses	Fern, Scrub, and Second Growth	Standing Native Bush	Barren and Unproductive Land	Total, Unimproved Occupied Land
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
North Auckland	2,556	125,959	855,809	298,794	81,993	1,365,111
South Auckland	925	69,334	1,004,067	399,411	90,115	1,563,852
Gisborne	125	74,200	239,175	158,678	21,459	493,637
Hawke's Bay	329	315,007	346,071	127,022	44,851	833,280
Taranaki	12	9,124	199,917	228,168	14,616	451,837
Wellington	7,530	481,519	672,343	295,958	93,286	1,550,636
Marlborough	4,985	1,365,001	278,897	124,938	280,896	2,054,717
Nelson	2,692	192,816	363,071	230,866	13,835	803,280
Westland	6,209	55,543	211,967	357,823	120,363	751,905
Canterbury	3,726	4,155,605	288,898	152,920	534,224	5,135,373
Otago	3,277	5,225,359	581,948	332,880	418,838	6,562,302
Southland	6,685	1,229,541	426,803	94,277	36,770	1,794,076
Totals	39,051	13,299,008	5,468,966	2,801,735	1,751,246	23,360,006

Tenure of Occupied Lands.—The area of land in occupation as at 31 January 1953, classified according to tenure, was as follows.

	Acres
Crown land (including leases and licences)	18,456,462
Freehold (including all land held on deferred payment)	21,688,591
Leased from private individuals	3,176,549
Leased from public bodies
Leased from Maoris
Total occupied area	43,321,602

Lands in occupation are not strictly comparable with Crown lands alienated or in process of alienation, for certain lands which were never made waste lands of the Crown have passed into the hands of Europeans. It must also be remembered that not all of the freehold land is in occupation, while (as stated previously) holdings within boroughs or under 1 acre in extent are excluded from the annual statistics.

PUBLIC AND SCENIC RESERVES, PUBLIC DOMAINS, AND NATIONAL PARKS.—The major legislation in relation to the reservation of land, Crown or private, for scenic, thermal, or historic reserves, has been hitherto contained in the consolidating Scenery Preservation Act 1908 and its amendments of 1910, 1915, 1926, 1933, 1938, and 1940. The reconsolidation, amendment, and improvement of the statute law relating to these kinds of reservations and to public reserves and to public domains has engaged the attention of the Lands and Survey Department in recent years. The Reserves and Domains Act 1953 gave effect to these contemplated measures, consolidating and amending the Public Reserves and Domains Act 1928 and the Scenery Preservation Act 1908. The main objective of the legislation is to provide for the general administration and overall policy control of all reserves.

The National Parks Act 1952 consolidated and amended the law relating to national parks. It provides for the establishment of a National Parks Authority whose general functions are to—(a) advocate and adopt schemes for the protection of national parks and for their development on a national basis, (b) recommend the enlargement of existing parks and the setting-apart of new ones, (c) recommend the manner of allocation of moneys voted by Parliament for the administration, maintenance, and improvement of national parks, (d) exercise such powers and duties as the Act confers upon it, and (e) generally control in the national interest the administration of all national parks in New Zealand.

Each national park is controlled and managed by a National Park Board, which has power, subject to the prior consent of the Authority, to fix fees for camping or picnicking within the park.

Since the National Parks Authority was constituted its functions and policy have been made public and are being carried into effect. During the year two new parks were created—the Mount Cook National Park and an area (as yet unnamed) comprising mainly the catchment basins of Lakes Waikaremoana and Waikareiti.

The policy of the Authority includes encouragement, when the need has been established, for the provision of suitable hostels and accommodation houses, camping grounds, etc., by the Tourist Department, private interests, or in special circumstances, by national park boards. The erection of mountain huts by recognized clubs for the use of club members in national parks where there are mountaineering, ski-ing, or other regular or seasonal activities, will be facilitated. Taking of specimens of all kinds from the parks will be prohibited except for scientific, educational, or like purposes, but it is intended to encourage scientific surveys and signpost interesting features. The Authority intends to foster the publication of descriptive booklets to interpret the parks and their geology, botany, and zoology in simple terms, and to encourage the production of films to teach the importance of national parks to both young and old persons.

The Reserves and Domains Act 1953 replaced with amendments both the Scenery Preservation Act 1908 and the Public Reserves and Domains Act 1928. New provisions have been incorporated relating to historic reserves, the purpose of which is to preserve in perpetuity as historic places for the use, benefit, or enjoyment of the public such places, objects, and things as are of historic, archaeological, scientific, educational, or other special interest. Otherwise the main changes relate to the procedure for constituting reserves, changing the purposes of reservation, revoking reservations, and the appointment of various Boards and other administering bodies, and provide that a notice by the Minister of Lands published in the Gazette will replace the former procedure requiring the issue of Orders in Council.

Provision is made for the appointment of an officer of the Department of Lands and Survey as the Director of Reserves, and for the appointment of rangers for reserves generally, and not only for scenic reserves.

The provisions relating to public reserves in the Act do not extend to State forest land and are to be read as subject to any other enactment or trust dealing with any particular reserve or class of reserves.

The existing provisions are re-enacted that land reserved for a specified purpose must be held and administered for that purpose only, and that a local authority may declare land vested in it to be a public reserve. Domains and recreation reserves may be leased to any local authority for development for recreational purposes for terms of up to thirty-three years, with or without right of renewal. Temporary licences to occupy reserves, including scenic reserves, may be granted for terms not exceeding five years.

New provisions regarding recreation reserves include increasing the number of days on which admission charges may be made from twenty to forty, increasing the number of consecutive days on which exclusive use of the reserve is granted from three to six days, and provide that with the consent of the Minister buildings may be erected on the reserve for Plunket rooms, rest rooms, children's play centres, kindergartens, and community centres used for non-profit making purposes, and that portions may be set aside as camping grounds.

The purposes of scenic reserves are also defined in general terms in the Act as the preservation, for the benefit and enjoyment of the public, of suitable areas possessing such qualities of scenic interest that their preservation is desirable in the public interest. They are to be preserved as far as possible in their natural state and the public are to have freedom of entry and access, subject to such restrictions and prohibitions as are necessary for the preservation of the natural features of the reserves.

The Minister is authorized to mark and protect historic places, to promote excavations and scientific investigations for the discovery and preservation of historic relics, chattels, and other things, and to take necessary steps to manage and preserve historic reserves and to make them accessible under proper conditions to the public.

WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES.—The Wildlife Act 1953, consolidating with amendments the Animals Protection and Game Act 1921–22, provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries are now to be termed wildlife refuges, and a new provision authorizes occupiers of any land in a wildlife refuge to carry out certain operations necessary for carrying on the normal use of the land.

LAND TRANSFER AND DEEDS REGISTRATION.—Under the land transfer system introduced in 1870 the title to land is not affected by the execution of documents. Registration is the fundamental principle, and it is only on registration that any interest passes. The Land and Deeds Registry assumes all responsibility for the registration, and any person named in the register as taking an interest under a registered instrument acquires a practically indefeasible title.

The land transfer system of title by registration has great advantages over the older system of title by deeds, even when the deeds are duly registered. The state of a land transfer title can be ascertained by a search of the register with very much greater facility than can the state of a title under the deeds system, and the powers vested in Registrars under the Land Transfer Act enable them to keep the register simple, clear, and free from doubts; the simplicity of searching and of the preparation of instruments under the land transfer system enables transactions with land under that system to be carried out at less cost than under the deeds system; and under the land transfer system there is the State guarantee of a practically indefeasible title, as mentioned previously.

These considerations led to the passing in 1924 of the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act, which had for its object the bringing under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act of all land alienated by the Crown and not already under the provisions of that Act, except lands held by Maoris under their customs and usages.

The work of bringing all land titles under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act as required by the Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act 1924 has been completed for all practical purposes. There are in each district, however, several titles that it has been considered unwise to deal with at present owing to grave doubts as to ownership, or for some other reason.

The Land Transfer Act 1952, which came into force on 1 January 1953, consolidated the Land Transfer Act 1915 and its amendments. This Act assembles the existing legislation into one Act, but makes very little change in the law.

Deeds Registration.—Provision has existed since 1841 and is now contained in the Deeds Registration Act 1908 for the registration of deeds and instruments affecting land which is not subject to the provisions of the Land Transfer Act. Registration is not essential to the validity of the instrument, but it is highly important as a record and to secure priority. The Act provides that every deed shall be void as against any person claiming for valuable consideration under any subsequent deed duly registered, unless the earlier deed was registered before the subsequent one. The Department is not responsible for the form or matter of the instruments registered beyond seeing that they are duly stamped and contain a sufficient description of the land to identify it. Provision is made for the deposit of instruments in the Deeds Registry Office for safe custody and reference, and such deposit operates as a release from any covenant for production. The Deeds Index and all recorded and deposited instruments are open to public inspection, and certified copies may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fees. (This system of deeds registration is now for all practical purposes obsolete.)

Information as to transactions under the Deeds Registration Act for each of the years 1942–43 to 1952–53 is given in the following statement.

Year Ended 31 March	Deeds	Fees
	Recorded	£
1943	263	205
1944	261	236
1945	196	187
1946	221	200
1947	139	152
1948	135	148
1949	79	100
1950	61	73
1951	84	88
1952	42	51
1953	46	52

Land Transfer.—Information as to applications to bring land under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last five years is given in the next table.

Year Ended 31 March	Number	Area		Value
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Town and Suburban	Country	Value
		Acres	Acres	£
1949	4	1	477	740
1950	9	7	35	5,830
1951	10	5	322	5,654
1952	20	25	48	3,841
1953	27	3	109	5,431

Certificates of Title Issued.—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the last five years.

Year Ended 31 March	In Lieu of Crown Grants	Under Transfer Act of 1924	Ordinary	Total
1949	910	130	16,262	17,302
1950	901	355	18,400	19,656
1951	940	301	20,55	21,794
1952	1,553	133	21,977	23,663
1953	2,746	34	19,983	22,763

The table next following shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during each of the last eleven years.

Year Ended 31 March	Town and Suburban Properties			Country Properties			All Properties: Total Consideration
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Area	Consideration	Number	Area	Consideration	All Properties: Total Consideration
		Acres	£		Acres	£	£
1943	22,893	8,505	17,251,884	4,764	733,198	6,883,486	24,135,370
1944	26,779	9,825	24,563,740	6,922	1,404,834	13,581,418	38,145,158
1945	26,377	9,684	21,359,326	6,907	1,282,036	11,099,582	32,458,908
1946	31,239	10,938	25,393,089	6,821	1,310,557	12,961,052	38,354,141
1947	34,685	12,221	27,208,158	8,309	1,844,048	17,764,342	44,972,500
1948	32,080	11,419	25,039,505	6,721	1,756,588	15,413,013	40,452,518
1949	30,494	10,954	24,802,843	6,070	1,691,743	13,607,159	38,410,002
1950	33,182	10,822	27,629,179	5,876	1,783,387	13,033,530	40,662,709
1951	49,880	14,063	61,536,970	8,058	1,457,706	17,822,818	79,359,788
1952	46,145	12,084	73,164,868	10,464	1,848,602	35,964,546	109,129,414
1953	39,325	10,008	65,460,961	9,053	1,616,781	35,241,475	100,702,436

The numbers of transfers shown in the table relate only to transfers of land on sale—i.e., they do not include transfers of land from trustees to beneficiaries or to new trustees, transfers of mortgages, easements, etc.

Land-transfer transactions were on a particularly heavy scale during the second half of 1943, but following the introduction of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 they fell away considerably in the first two months of 1944. The totals for the year ended 31 March 1944, however, showed a substantial increase over the previous year, both town and suburban and country properties contributing to the increase. In the following year the numbers of transactions in regard to both town and suburban properties and country properties were only slightly below the 1943–44 figures, but in both instances there was a marked fall in the amount of consideration, 13 per cent in the case of the former and 18 per cent in the latter. In 1945–46 a substantial increase was shown in the number of town and suburban properties transferred, with a corresponding increase in the amount of consideration, while country properties showed a blight decrease in number but a noticeable increase in the amount of consideration. Further substantial increases were recorded in 1946–47, particularly in relation to country properties, but slight recessions were recorded in 1947–48 and in 1948–49. This downward movement was arrested in 1949–50, and in 1950–51 transfers of town and suburban properties increased by 16,698 (50 per cent) and the amount of consideration by £33,907,791 (123 per cent). Country transfers increased by 2,182 (37 per cent) in number and by £4,789,288 (37 per cent) in the amount of consideration. The large increase in transfers in 1950–51 was contributed to by the exemption of town and suburban properties from control by Order in Council operative from 23 February 1950 and by the relaxation of control on farm lands by the enactment of the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950, which came into force on 1 November 1950.

Whereas the number of transfers registered during 1951–52 did not reach the record figure established in the previous year, the amount of consideration involved reached the record level of £109,129,414. This figure represented an increase of 38 per cent on the total for 1950–51, and was 33 per cent greater than the previous highest figure of £81,790,063 recorded in 1921. The total for 1952–53 showed a fall of £8,426,978 from the total for the previous year.

Town and suburban transfers during 1951–52 showed decreases in both number registered and area, but a substantial increase of £11,627,898, or 19 per cent, in the amount of consideration involved. The 1951–52 year was the first complete one since the enactment of the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950. The effect of the relaxation of control on farm lands brought about by this legislation is evidenced in the large increases in the number, area, and value of country transfers registered. The increases amount to 2,406 in number, 390,896 acres in area, and £18,141,728 in consideration, representing percentage increases of 30 per cent, 27 per cent, and 102 per cent respectively.

This was followed in 1952–53 by decreases in all categories from the previous year, very slight as far as the consideration for country properties is concerned, but amounting to £7,703,907, or 11 per cent, for town and suburban properties. The numbers for town properties fell by 6,820, or 15 per cent, and country properties by 1,411, or 13 per cent, the total areas involved showing sympathetic movements.

As all classes of properties are included, land-transfer figures do not give a precise indication of any changes that may take place in property values. In the case of town and suburban properties, however, the numbers involved are sufficient to smooth out changes from year to year in the proportions of different classes of property included in the total. The average amount of consideration per town and suburban property transferred in 1939–40 was £627, and this rose by successive stager to £917 in 1943–44, the year in which the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act was introduced. In 1944–45 the average fell to £810, a decrease of £107 as compared with 1943–44, while the low point for subsequent years was £781 in 1947–48. Increases were recorded in the next five years, the averages being £813 in 1948–49, £833 in 1949–50, £1,234 in 1950–51, £1,586 in 1951–52, and £1,665 in 1952–53.

Further particulars relating to country properties from the year 1942–43 onwards are contained in the next table, but in this instance freehold properties only have been taken into account. From these figures in conjunction with those of the preceding table it will be seen that leasehold properties form a very small proportion of the total transferred in any one year. As indicated previously, very diverse types of property are included in the figures, and the averages should not be taken for more than they purport to show. This is particularly so in the case of country properties, where the number of transactions is comparatively small.

Year Ended 31 March	Number	Area	Consideration	Average Value per Transaction	Average Value per Acre
		Acres	£	£	£
1943	4,390	607,686	6,583,057	1,500	10.83
1944	6,399	1,209,138	13,106,993	2.048	10.84
1945	6,339	1,045,833	10,504,313	1,657	10.04
1946	6,212	1,063,738	12,091,127	1,946	11.37
1947	7,498	1,466,565	16,631,882	2,218	11.34
1948	6,038	1,462,982	14,539,097	2,408	9.94
1949	5,501	1,289,341	12,663,627	2,302	9.82
1950	5,336	1,268,763	12,288,885	2,303	9.69
1951	7,419	1,161,926	16,885,982	2,276	14.53
1952	9,655	1,514,289	34,010,459	3,523	22.46
1953	8,285	1,343,131	33,049,714	3,989	24.61

Monthly statistics of transfers on sale of land registered under the Land Transfer Act are available and are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The following analysis shows, for 1952–53, transfers of country freehold properties classified by area groups.

Size Group (Acres)	Number	Area	Consideration	Consideration per Acre
		Acres	£	£
Under 30	3,939	28,450	7,732,175	271.781
30 and under 40	222	7,810	678,915	86.929
40 and under 50	261	11,698	962,155	82.250
50 and under 100	1,117	81,104	5,107,022	62.968
100 and over	2,746	1,214,069	18,569,447	15.295
Totals	8,285	1,343,131	33,049,714	24.606

LEGISLATION CONCERNING LAND SETTLEMENT AND SALE OF LAND.—The legislation governing land-settlement policies had, prior to the advent of the Second World War, been contained in the Land for Settlements Act 1925 and previous Land for Settlement Acts. These enactments allowed for the acquisition of suitable areas of privately owned land for closer settlement either by purchase or exchange or by compulsory means.

Although there was no limit to the amount of freehold land which a person could hold at any time, both the Land Act 1924 and the Land for Settlements Act 1925 prescribed limits as to the area of Crown land a person could acquire. In determining these limits regard was also taken of the area of privately owned or leased land held by such persons.

Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943.—This Act embodied the powers of the previous enactments, but in so doing it widened very considerably the scope for the acquisition of land for settlement purposes and at the same time it provided for the control of both sales and leases of land. Its application in regard to the former aspect was given on page 370 of the 1951–52 issue, and a brief outline of the main provisions in respect of the control of sales and leases, together with the determination of the land value, etc., was given on pages 361–362 of the same issue.

The Act established a Court of record called the Land Sales Court, and a number of district Land Sales Committees. The Land Valuation Court Act 1948, however, abolished both the Court and the Committees, as from 1 January 1949, and established the Land Valuation Court and Land Valuation Committees, which exercise the powers and functions previously held by the Land Sales Court and the district Land Sales Committees. All transactions for the disposal of any land, whether by way of sale, transfer, or lease, were required to have the consent of the Court before they could be completed. Each application to the Land Valuation Court for consent was referred

to a Land Valuation Committee, which, in considering it, was enjoined to have regard to the desirability of facilitating the settlement of discharged servicemen and of preventing undue increases in the price of land, the undue aggregation of land, and its use for speculative or uneconomic purposes.

Contracts entered into on or after 23 February 1950 for the sale or leasing of any land, not being farm land, were exempted from control under Part III of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 by the February 1950 amendment to the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Regulations 1949. The position in regard to the relaxation of the control of sales of farm lands is described under the next heading.

Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950.—As from 1 November 1950 this Act replaced the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 and its amendments.

The principal purpose of the 1950 Act was to lift completely the controls imposed on the price at which property could change hands, at the same time protecting as far as possible the rights of ex-servicemen to a degree of preference for those farms coming on to the market and considered suitable for their rehabilitation. By Order in Council contracts; entered into on or after 23 February 1950 for the sale or lease of any land, not being farm land, had been exempted from control, and the purpose of the new Act was to extend this privilege as from the operative date of the Act to all contracts in respect of farm land as well. All such contracts still required the consent of the Land Valuation Court, and the definition of “1942” basic value was retained because of the fact that eligible and graded ex-servicemen who were to be assisted on to properties through the Rehabilitation Board would be settled on the basis of 1942 values.

The power to acquire land compulsorily for ex-servicemen settlement was retained also; in fact, it was extended to cover the acquisition of leases of West Coast settlement lands.

In other respects the legislation followed on a similar pattern to the previous enactments, but provision was made that the Act should remain in force until 30 June 1952 only and then expire.

Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952.—This Act, which in effect replaced the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950, has the objectives of providing for the closer settlement of farm land, for the acquisition of farm land that is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production, to prevent the undue aggregation of farm land, and to require that for a period of three years from the passing of the Act persons acquiring farm land shall personally reside on and farm the land.

For the purposes of the Act the current market value of any land, estate, or interest in land at any time is to be the sum determined by an order of the Land Valuation Court as being the sum which the land might be expected to realize at that time if offered for sale, unencumbered by any mortgage or other charge thereon, on such terms and conditions as a bona fide seller might reasonably be expected to require and as a willing but prudent and informed purchaser might reasonably be expected to accept.

Part I relates to the taking of farm land for settlement (including a lease or licence of Crown land or a lease of West Coast settlement land) and gives power to the Minister of Lands to do so if he is of the opinion that additional farm land is required for the settlement of landless discharged servicemen and others requiring land on which to establish themselves in farming, and that sufficient land cannot be acquired for that purpose by voluntary negotiation. The Minister in such a case may, on the recommendation of the Land Settlement Board, take any farm land that is, in his opinion, suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production.

Land is not to be taken from any owner unless he owns farm land in fee simple or on lease perpetually renewable or on lease in perpetuity which, in the aggregate, amounts to three or more economic farms or could provide for these by subdivision.

The owner also has the right to retain an area of land which is the equivalent of two economic farms (or which could by subdivision provide these) and also is sufficient to provide (a) a separate economic farm for each child of the owner under twenty-one years of age at the time, and (b) at the Minister's discretion, for each child of the owner over the age of twenty-one years who, at the time, is in the Minister's opinion likely to follow farming as a career. In every case the owner shall be entitled if he so desires to retain his homestead.

Objections to the taking of land may be made, and provision is made for the hearing of the objection by the Land Valuation Committee or the Land Valuation Court, which may allow or disallow it either unconditionally or subject to such conditions as the Court thinks fit.

Provision is also made for the payment of compensation for any land or estate or interest in the land so taken. If the offer of compensation made by the Minister is not accepted the amount of compensation payable will be that prescribed by order of the Land Valuation Court, which shall be final as regards the amount awarded. Another provision deals with compensation in respect of mortgaged lands.

Part II deals with the control of sales and leases of farm land to prevent undue aggregation and to ensure personal residence. The Act applies to sales of freehold farm land, to leases of farm land for terms of three years or more, to sales of the lessees' interest under leases granted under the West Coast Settlement Reserves Act 1892, and to transfers of Crown land which, under section 208 of the Land Act 1924, do not require the consent of the Land Settlement Board, as well as to options for such sales and leases.

The consent of the Land Valuation Court is not required where the purchaser or lessee owns no other farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee for any person or created any trust in respect of any farm land, and either intends to reside personally on the land and farm it exclusively for his own use and benefit or has been exempted by the Minister from the requirement of personal residence. The Minister is entitled, on considering all the circumstances, to dispense with the requirement of personal residence in any case, and if he declines to do so, the purchaser or lessee is entitled to apply to the Court, which may dispense with personal residence requirements, either absolutely or subject to conditions.

All sales and leases to which Part II of the Act applies are prohibited unless they are entered into subject to the consent of the Land Valuation Court (application for consent is to be made within one month) or, in cases where no question of aggregation or personal residence arises, an appropriate declaration is deposited within that time in the Land Transfer Office or the Deeds Register Office.

The Land Valuation Committee may dispense with the requirement of personal residence if it is satisfied that (a) the production of the land will be substantially increased if it is acquired by the purchaser or lessee and the land is not suitable or adaptable for closer settlement or (b) having regard to the purpose to which the purchaser or lessee proposes to devote the land and to his ability to achieve that purpose, its acquisition by him will be in the public interest.

The matters to be considered by the Court or Committee in determining whether undue aggregation would result are briefly (a) whether the farm land already owned, leased, held, or occupied in fee simple or under any tenure of more than one year's duration, by the purchaser or lessee is sufficient to support him, his wife, and any dependent children in a reasonable manner and reasonable standard of comfort; (b) whether, having regard to land so held, etc., the acquisition of additional land could, judged by ordinary and reasonable standards, be considered excessive; (c) the nature of the use to which the purchaser proposes to devote the land and his ability to achieve that purpose; (d) whether the acquisition would be in or against the public interest; and (e) such other matters as, in the particular case, the Court or Committee considers relevant.

Part III of the Act deals with miscellaneous and machinery matters.

Applications to Transfer Under Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950.—In the 1953 issue particulars were published of applications to transfer lodged under the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950, the period covered being from 1 November 1950 to 31 March 1952. The Act expired on 30 June 1952. Following is a schedule showing the number of applications to transfer received from 1 April 1952 to date of expiry of the Act, 30 June 1952.

Registry	Applications Received
Auckland	368
Hamilton	322
Gisborne	32
Napier	52
New Plymouth	104
Wellington	202
Blenheim	26
Nelson	54
Hokitika	11
Christchurch	163
Dunedin	118
Invercargill	84
Total	1,536

During the life of the Act a total of 11,578 applications to transfer were lodged. The following summary shows how these were spread over the various registries.

Registry	Applications Received During Life of Act
Auckland	3,032
Hamilton	2,435
Gisborne	264
Napier	485
New Plymouth	760
Wellington	1,222
Blenheim	142
Nelson	456
Hokitika	86
Christchurch	1,156
Dunedin	884
Invercargill	656
Total	11,578

The following return shows the number of appeals lodged during the period 1 April 1952 to 30 June 1952.

Registry	Number Brought Forward From Previous Year	Number Lodged	Dismissed	Allowed in Part	Allowed in Full	Withdrawn	Referred Back to Committees or Adjourned	Total Number Disposed of	Number Remaining to be Disposed of
Auckland	1	1				1		1	1
Hamilton		2				1	1	2
Gisborne
Napier
New Plymouth
Wellington	11		3	3	3	2		11
Blenheim
Nelson
Hokitika
Christchurch
Dunedin	2		1			1		2
Invercargill
Totals	14	3	4	3	3	5	1	16	1

18 B—CROWN LANDS

THE Crown lands are now administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948 and its amending Acts of 1950, 1951, and 1952. The principal Act consolidated into one Act all previously existing legislation relating to the lands of the Crown and also made certain amendments thereto. The Acts so consolidated and amended were the Land Act 1924, the Land for Settlement Act 1925, those provisions of the Education Reserves Act 1928 which relate to education reserves administered by a Land Board, the Hanmer Crown Leases Act 1928, the Small Farms Act 1932–33, and the amendments to those Acts. It also repealed, but did not re-enact, the Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Act 1915, the Hutt Valley Lands Settlement Act 1925, the Deteriorated Lands Act 1925, the Fruit Farms Settlement Act 1910, and the amendments to those Acts. The distinction that existed between Crown land subject to the various enactments mentioned was abolished by the new Act.

The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands, who is the Permanent Head of the Department of Lands and Survey.

New Zealand is divided into twelve land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands. The Act abolished the former Land Boards and vested their powers, rights, obligations, etc., in a central authority entitled the Land Settlement Board. This Board consists of the Minister of Lands (Chairman), the Director-General of Lands (Deputy Chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the Valuer-General, a representative of the State Advances Corporation, the Director of Rehabilitation, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, a representative of the New Zealand Returned Services' Association, and not more than two other persons to be appointed by the Governor-General.

The duties of the Board are broadly defined in the Act as follows:

It shall be the duty of the Board to carry out the provisions of this Act for the administration, management, development, alienation, settlement, protection, and care of Crown land; and to carry out all negotiations for the purchase of land by-the Crown under this Act, and the performance and completion of all contracts of purchase so entered into by the Crown.

To replace the former District Land Boards, the Land Settlement Board was required to appoint one or more Land Settlement Committees for each land district, and sixteen of these Committees have been set up. Each Committee consists of three members, including the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as Chairman. The Board may also appoint as an associate member of any Committee any person who in the opinion of the Board possesses expert knowledge of advantage to the Committee in the execution of its functions, but associate members have no voting powers. The Committees have no functions expressly set out in the Act, but the Board has wide powers of delegating to Committees any of its functions.

METHODS OF ACQUIRING CROWN LAND.—A selector may purchase for cash, or on deferred payments, or may select on renewable lease. The normal practice is for applications to be invited for any vacant Crown lands, and for the successful applicant to be selected by ballot, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Under legislation introduced by the Land Amendment Act 1950 any urban or commercial or industrial land may be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price. Every applicant must be of the age of seventeen years or upwards, and may apply for Crown land solely for his own use or benefit, and not directly or indirectly for the use or benefit of any other person. Two or more persons may make application to purchase or take on lease or licence as joint tenants in common. No application for Crown land will be granted if, having regard to the land already owned, leased, held, or occupied under any tenure of more than one year's duration, the acquisition of additional land would, in the opinion of the Board, amount to undue aggregation of land. An application will also be refused if the Board considers that the land is intended to be used for speculation or for uneconomic purposes.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

Farm land or urban land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of thirty-three years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. The board may, however, determine that any specified land may be taken on renewable lease only, but without the right of acquiring the fee simple.
Commercial and industrial land—(a) On renewable lease for thirty-three years; (b) on lease for any term, but so that the aggregate term, including the renewals (if any), does not exceed fifty years. These lands may be now acquired in the same manner as urban or farm land, including the right of freehold.
Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for a term of thirty-three years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding twenty-one years.
Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding five years.
Land for communal grazing—The Board may grant a lease or licence for any Crown land to any person or group or association of persons, or to any body corporate, for use as communal grazing. The term is for a period not exceeding thirty-three years, with or without a right of renewal and subject to such conditions as the Board may decide.
Unclassified land—Where in the opinion of the Board any Crown land available for disposal cannot properly be classified as farm land, urban land, commercial or industrial land, or pastoral land, the Board may sell or grant a lease for any term not exceeding thirty-three years, with or without a right of renewal, perpetual or otherwise, for the same term.

Every holder of a lease or licence is required to effect within a certain specified period such improvements as the Board determines. In most cases the lessee or licensee of any farm or pastoral land is required to commence to reside on the land within one year after the date of his licence.

LAND DEVELOPMENT.—The Land Act empowers the Land Settlement Board to carry out such development works as may be required to improve the quality or condition of any Crown land or to make it fit for settlement. This includes the erection of buildings, and the Board may carry on all usual farming activities on land developed or being developed until the time is appropriate for the disposal of the land on permanent tenure.

The Board may also make advances or readvances to lessees or licensees of Crown land to assist them in the development of their holdings. Purposes for which advances may be made include erection, improvement, etc., of buildings; clearing, draining, fencing, cultivation, grassing; provision of electric power, telephone services, and water; purchase of fencing materials, fertilizers, implements, etc.; and purchase of live-stock.

The Government announced in March 1954 that while land would continue to be purchased and developed for the settlement of A grade ex-servicemen as long as there was the necessity, a start had been made with the settlement of civilians by the introduction of a general land settlement scheme.

SELECTIONS UNDER SETTLEMENT CONDITIONS.—As stated earlier, the Land Act 1948 consolidated all enactments relating to lands of the Crown and abolished the distinctions between ordinary Crown land (that is, land subject to the Land Act 1924), settlement land, Education reserve endowments, and small farms land; all these lands are now simply Crown land subject to and administered under the Land Act 1948. The numerous tenures under which Crown land could be held (approximately forty different tenures) are replaced by four principal ones—sale for cash, sale on deferred payments, renewable lease, and pastoral lease or licence.

The following table shows details of the various freehold selections during the year 1952–53, together with totals for 1951–52.

Freehold	Number of Selectors	Total Area Selected	Purchase-price
Crown lands—		Acres	£
Farm land	289	7,644	77,869
Urban land	393	136	96,986
Commercial or industrial land	15	14	12,225
Lands freeholded pursuant to section 67, Land Act	1	3	2
Totals, 1952–53	698	7,797	187,082
Totals, 1951–52	628	12,985	238,596

Corresponding details concerning selections made under leasehold tenures are now given for similar periods.

Leasehold	Number of Selectors	Total Area Selected	Annual Rental	Annual Instalment
* Areas and rentals not included, as licences are on royalty basis only.
Crown lands—
Renewable lease—		Acres	£	£
Farm	280	133,739	29,455	370
Urban	30	13	228	59
Commercial or industrial	1	1	4
Pastoral leases	5	72,354	1,357	54
Pastoral occupation licences	2	13,600	118
Deferred-payment licences—
Farm	106	15,472		10,664
Urban	338	406		11,900
Commercial or industrial	28	404		5,670
Special leases under section 67, Land Act	15	6,611	452
Special leases under section 165, Land Act^*	14
Grazing and other leases, section 68, Land Act	1,223	62,597	8,257	7,849
Totals	2,042	305,197	39,871	36,566
Endowment lands—
Westport Harbour Board endowments	1	2	2
Special leases under section 165, Land Act^*	2
Sundry tenures	10	295	580
Grand totals, 1952–53	2,055	305,494	40,453	36,566
Grand totals, 1951–52	1,912	1,624,122	56,420	19,996

It is interesting to note that in both freehold and leasehold selections the numbers have increased over those published last year, when there were 628 and 1,912 cases respectively. However, the areas involved have shown a decrease, the most marked being in respect of the leasehold selections. This is occasioned by the fact that there was little business involving the pastoral areas during the current year, whereas well over 1,000,000 acres in this category were dealt with last year. The total number of selections for the year is 2,753 over 313,291 acres, the respective figures for last year being 2,540 and 1,637,107. The figures embrace farm, urban, and industrial lands and include temporary tenancies.

CROWN LAND HELD UNDER LEASE OR LICENCE.—Since the Land Act 1948 came into operation on 1 April 1949 any new leases issued have been under that Act. The following table shows the leases current as at 31 March 1953. Part (a) gives details of those leases which have been issued under the Land Act 1948, while Part (b) shows the leases issued under Acts prior to the Land Act 1948 and which were still current at 31 March 1953. The numbers of leases in the second Part will gradually diminish as the leases concerned expire and lessees on renewal are given a new lease under the Land Act 1948.

The following table summarizes the year's operations in the various tenures under the Land Act 1948. The total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1953 was only 58 less than at the same time last year, the area being only 105,534 acres less. This is due to the fact that the number of new leases and licences issued under the Land Act 1948, mainly from selections, renewals, or conversions, almost equalled the number of those freeholded, paid-off, converted, or expired.

Tenure	Number	Area	Annual Rent	Annual Instalments (Including Improvement Loadings)
* Area and rentals not included, as licences on royalty basis only.
(a) Tenures Under the Land Act 1948
Crown land—
Renewable leases—		Acres	£	£
Farm	2,121	1,284,056	193,523	4,411
Urban	379	254	2,501	89
Industrial	16	24	578
Pastoral leases	77	1,582,792	18,170	116
Pastoral occupation licences	36	686,886	4,391
Deferred-payment licences—
Farm	664	226,474		61,030
Urban	618	630		19,795
Industrial	44	1,254		8,296
Special leases (section 67, Land Act)—
Renewable—
Farm	13	1,299	455	446
Urban	2	7	28
Non-renewable—
Farm	8	1,912	175
Urban	3	10	258
Licences for removal of minerals^*	60
Flax leases	1	38	1
Miscellaneous licences	4,701	346,252	28,643	115
Totals, Crown land	8,743	4,131,888	248,723	94,298
Endowment lands—
Leases under section 169, Land Act	5	692	41
Sundry tenures	87	90,713	3,553
Totals, tenures under Land Act 1948	8,835	4,223,293	252,317	94,298
(b) Tenures Under Acts Prior to the Land Act 1948
Crown land—
Renewable leases	6,676	1,865,292	215,477	4,299
Leases under section 5, Discharged Soldiers' Settlement Amendment Act 1921–22	104	20,695	6,493	243
Special tenure leases	909	271,736	50,919	1,095
Leases in perpetuity	6,645	1,349,227	154,119	39
Perpetual leases	108	5,650	751
M.D.L.C. leases	422	9,584	1,086
Pastoral Regulation licences (mining districts)	244	44,354	1,169
Small grazing-run leases	523	1,743,520	49,825	80
Pastoral run licences	464	5,770,130	53,239	65
Education reserves: Public Bodies' Leases Act	1,807	226,341	40,871	168
O.R.P. licences	129	30,287	2,944
Deferred-payment licences	1,462	316,409		44,500
Miscellaneous licences	1,762	374,372	13,849	27
Small-farm leases	73	2,731	851
Agreement, sale, and purchase, Waikato Land		Acres	£	£
Settlement Society	14	1,247		1,613
Hanmer Crown leases	148	326	715
Cheviot grazing farm leases	15	21,227	4,963
Leases under Education Lands Act—
Leases	399	121,003	25,959	250
Temporary tenancies	77	423	3,354
Sundry leases	36	4,022	1,282	47
Totals, Crown land	22,017	12,178,576	627,866	52,426
Endowment lands—
Westport Harbour Board endowment	601	14,029	1,726
Otago University endowment	9	69,442	2,257
Lower Clutha River Trust	7	27,197	752
Thermal Springs licences	95	102	358
Sundry other endowments	92	117,660	3,561	29
Totals, tenures under Acts prior to Land Act 1948	22,821	12,407,006	636,520	52,455
Grand totals, all tenures	31,656	16,630,299	888,837	146,753

LEASES AND LICENCES FREEHOLDED OR CONVERTED TO OTHER TENURES.—Eleven lessees and licensees converted their existing tenures to new tenures available under the Land Act 1948. The area involved, all of which related to farming land, totalled 12,336 acres. During the previous financial year twelve conversions totalling over 5,034 acres were recorded. Particulars of the transactions which were involved during the current year are as follows, the details being in respect of those conversions where action has been completed.

Conversions to Other Tenures	Number	Area
Conversions to—
Renewable leases—		Acres
Farm (section 126, Land Act)	10	12,249
Deferred-payment licence—
Farm (section 127, Land Act)	1	87
Totals	11	12,336

Although the number of lessees and licensees who applied during the year ended 31 March to freehold their holdings was not as great as it has been during the two previous years, it is evident from the following particulars that there are many who are desirous of acquiring freehold titles. During the year 854 applications were completed, the area involved being 145,677 acres and the purchase prices paid totalled £742,331. These figures do not relate to the actual number of applications lodged, nor do they include particulars of deferred-payment licences paid off. Last years' figures were 1,364 cases over 272,335 acres and involved a total purchase price of £1,498,967. Details are given in the following table.

Leases and Licences Freeholded	Number	Area	Purchase Price
For cash—		Acres	£
Crown lands	601	86,986	366,959
Endowment lands	8	8	9,705
On deferred payments—
Crown lands	244	58,682	362,650
Endowment lands	1	1	3,017
Totals	854	145,677	742,331

PURCHASE OF LAND FOR SETTLEMENT.—The Land Act 1948 authorizes the Land Settlement Board to purchase private land or the interest of any lessee or licensee in any Crown land or Maori land for the purposes of settlement as farming, urban, commercial and industrial, or pastoral land. The Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 also authorized the purchase of privately-owned lands, and, in addition, gave power to acquire farm land compulsorily for the settlement of ex-servicemen. This latter power was also contained in the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950, which expired on 30 June 1952. By section 3 of the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952 power is given to the Minister of Lands, under certain conditions, to take any farm land suitable for settlement, where additional farm land is required for settlement of landless discharged servicemen and others requiring land on which to establish themselves in farming (see p. 403).

ASSISTING PRIVATE PURCHASE OF LAND.—Where the Land Settlement Board is satisfied that the area of Crown land held by any lessee or licensee is too small to be successfully occupied as a single unit, it may authorize the making of an advance to enable him to purchase the interest of a lessee or licensee in any other Crown land which can be conveniently farmed with the land already held.

LAND FOR DISCHARGED SERVICEMEN.—Authority is contained in the Land Act 1948 for the granting of a lease or licence over Crown land to a discharged serviceman without competition, The Act also provides that where there are simultaneous applications for Crown land and, in the opinion of the Land Settlement Board, there are two or more applicants who are equally suitable to be allotted the land, an applicant who is a serviceman or a discharged serviceman or the wife or widow of a serviceman or discharged serviceman shall have preference over all other classes of applicants.

Land is acquired by the Crown for the purposes of settling ex-servicemen under the following methods:

By the purchase of privately owned properties:
By the setting apart for the purposes of the Act of Crown lands subject to the Land Act 1948:
By the resumption by the Crown of land already held under Crown lease or licence:
By the provisions of section 3 of the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952 giving power to the Minister to take farm land under certain conditions. The owner has the right to retain an area which is, or will provide, the equivalent of two economic farms and, in addition, will provide for an economic farm for each of his children under twenty-one years of age and, at the Minister's discretion, for each child of the owner over twenty-one years who is likely to follow farming as a career.

The following table contains particulars of land acquired for development and for the settlement of ex-servicemen during the year ended 31 March 1953, and from the commencement of the scheme to 31 March 1953; also shown are those areas made available for settlement and the balance on hand at the latter date. The figures do not include particulars relating to ex-servicemen who have been assisted by way of rehabilitation loans to purchase established farms on their own account. Further information concerning the settlement of ex-servicemen on the land will be found in Section 9B, “Rehabilitation”.

Land for Settlement of Ex-servicemen	Year Ended 31 March 1953		From Inception to 31 March 1953
Land for Settlement of Ex-servicemen	Area	Estimated Number of Units	Area	Estimated Number of Units
* Areas and units acquired since the inception of the scheme have been reconciled and adjustments made to the totals on account of surveys and amendments to utilization. † Comprising some properties or portions thereof used for the following purposes: (a) For settlement of Maori ex-servicemen by the Maori Affairs Department; (b) for experimental purposes by the Department of Agriculture; (c) areas unsuitable for farming used for afforestation purposes by the New Zealand Forest Service; (d) for adjustment of boundaries with adjoining owners; (e) areas requiring long-term development; (f) areas for settlement of other than Grade A ex-servicemen.
	Acres		Acres
Purchased by voluntary negotiation	37,478	85	975,913	1,903
Acquired compulsorily under Part II of Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 and Part I of the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950	1		118,986	379
Acquired compulsorily under section 51 of Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943 or section 31 of Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950	4,513	14	163,787	565
Properties where ex-servicemen substituted under section 31 (3) (b) of Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950	6,849	30	17,390	79
Totals, 1952–53	48,841	129
Totals, 1951–52	98,543	252
Totals, inception to 31 March 1953			1,276,076^*	2,926^*
Less areas utilized^†			112,914	139
Balance			1,163,162	2,787
Areas of Crown land set aside as suitable for ex-servicemen			301,653	1,077
Total area for ex-servicemen			1,464,815	3,864
Allotments made to ex-servicemen at 31 March 1953—
(a) On fixed charges (2,629 units)	Includes 79 substitutions under section 31
(b) On wages with promise of permanent allotment on completion of development (77 units	Includes 79 substitutions under section 31		1,053,798	2,706
Balance area on hand for allotment on completion of development			411,017	1,158

Rent under the small farms renewable lease is based on the unimproved value of the land at the date of the lease or renewal, and in the case of discharged servicemen is calculated at the rate of 2 per cent of such unimproved value for the first year and 3 per cent for the balance of the first term.

The amount of the value of the improvements on the land at the date of the lease is deemed to have been advanced to the lessee and is secured by mortgage of the lease, the mortgage being secured to the State Advances Corporation, which extends interest concessions and gives the same terms as are given in respect of mortgages of freehold properties. The State Advances Corporation also has power to make advances on its usual terms for stock, chattels, or further improvements.

Provision was made in the Land Amendment Act 1950 for the granting of suspensory loans in cases where an ex-serviceman was settled on Crown land after the commencement of the Servicemen's Settlement Act 1950 and had been granted rehabilitation assistance for the purpose. This loan, which was not to exceed the difference between the 1942 value and the current market value, was not enforceable so long as the purchaser resided personally on the land and farmed it exclusively for his own use, etc. If the purchaser carries this out for ten years, the loan is discharged.

18 C—MAORI LANDS

DEFINITION AND KINDS OF MAORI LANDS.—Maori land is of two kinds—namely, customary land and Maori freehold land. Customary land is land which has never been the subject of a Crown grant and is held by Maoris under the customs and usages of the Maori people. It is land in respect of which the ancient customary Maori title as recognized by the appropriate provisions of the Maori Land Act 1931 has not yet been extinguished. Such land, since it has not been Crown-granted, remains vested in the Crown, subject, however, to the customary title of the Maoris, and to their right to have the customary title transformed into a freehold title by the Maori Land Court. There is little of this class of land now left in New Zealand.

Customary land has always been restricted from alienation except in favour of the Crown. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown, and in all statutes since passed the alienation of customary land to private individuals has been prohibited, and this prohibition is now extended to the Crown. Maori freehold land is the land held by Maoris under an ordinary freehold title, though subject to certain restrictions on alienation and other special incidents which are unknown to the ordinary law.

Whether land is Maori or European land depends upon the beneficial ownership of it, and not merely on the legal ownership. If land is held by a European in trust for a Maori, it is Maori land; if it is held in trust by a Maori for a European, it is European land. There are, however, four exceptions to this:

When land has once become European land it never again becomes Maori land unless by special enactment.
Land purchased by a Maori from the Crown for a pecuniary consideration is not Maori land. This does not include an exchange of land, with or without a payment of money by way of equality of exchange.
Land held by a Maori in severalty may be declared to be European land by the Maori Appellate Court.
Under certain circumstances (see page 309 of 1942 Year-Book) the Maori owner may have been declared a European.

Even though one of many Maori owners may sell, the land remains Maori land until all have disposed of their interests, or until the purchaser has had his interests partitioned off. The term “Maori” includes a half-caste, or a person intermediate in blood between a Maori and a half-caste.

The Maori Land Act 1931 and the Maori Purposes Act 1931 were consolidations, with amendments, of previously existing legislation.

The Maori Affairs Act 1953 replaced most of the provisions of the 1931 Acts and, in addition, amended the law relating to Maori lands in many ways. The Maori Trustee Act 1953 forms another part of the plan for the consolidation of the law relating particularly to Maoris and Maori land. These two Acts are closely related.

By virtue of the Maori Affairs Act 1953 the problem of “uneconomic interests” in Maori freehold land is left to a large extent to the discretion of the Maori Land Court, and only those interests which cannot be otherwise satisfactorily dealt with will be vested in the Maori Trustee.

The Maori Purposes Act 1953 provides for the winding-up of the East Coast Maori Trust.

BOARD OF MAORI AFFAIRS.—The Board of Maori Affairs constituted under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 consists of the Minister of Maori Affairs, the Secretary for Maori Affairs, the Director-General of Lands, the Valuer-General, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture, the member (if any), of the Executive Council representing the Maori race, and three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The functions of the Board include, inter alia, the following:

The control of the development and settlement of Maori land or land owned or occupied by Maoris.
The control of expenditure on farming operations undertaken by the Maori Trustee.
The control of investments by—(a) the Maori Trustee, and (b) the East Coast Commissioner.
The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown.
The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Maori Housing Act 1935. as amended in 1938.

MAORI LAND COURT.—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other Judges as the Governor-General may think fit to appoint. All powers of the Court may be exercised by a single Judge, but there are certain important powers vested exclusively in the Chief Judge. Commissioners are appointed who exercise such jurisdiction of a Judge as the Governor-General authorizes. The chief matters within the jurisdiction of the Court are—

The investigation of title to customary land, and transforming it into Maori freehold land.
The exclusive power of partitioning land among the owners.
The sanctioning of exchanges for other Maori land and European land.
Granting probates of wills and succession orders to Maoris.
Making orders for the adoption of children.
Appointing trustees for Maoris who are minors or under other disability.
The incorporation of the owners of Maori land.
The determination of various claims as between Maoris.
To grant confirmation of alienation of Maori land.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the Court. With certain exceptions the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

MAORI TRUSTEE.—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and function with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralized by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

By the Maori Land Amendment Act 1952 the Maori Trustee took over much of the powers, functions, and property of the former Maori Land Boards abolished by that Act.

The Maori Trustee may be appointed executor of the will of a deceased Maori or administrator of an intestate Maori estate. He may also be appointed trustee to manage the property of Maoris who are minors or suffer from some other legal disability, and is statutory trustee of the estates of Maori mental patients. The Maori Trust Office Regulations 1954 prescribe the rates of commission and fees chargeable by the Maori Trustee and the rates of interest payable in respect of moneys held by him in his Common Fund.

In the past the Maori Trustee has been engaged in fairly extensive farming operations principally in the East Coast district, but this activity is now being discontinued, the control of the various farms and stations being handed back to the interested Maoris.

In addition to the administration of Maori reserves, situated mainly in Taranaki, and in Nelson, Greymouth, and other South Island localities, the Maori Trustee has taken over from the Maori Land Boards the administration of large areas of Maori land elsewhere. Most of these lands are, like the Maori reserves, vested in the Maori Trustee, who is responsible for leasing them and distributing the proceeds to the owners. Another function taken over from the Maori Land Boards is the collection and distribution to owners of rents from most other Maori land under lease.

The Maori Trustee has extensive lending powers used principally for the settlement and improvement of Maori land. Most advances are made on the security of Maori land.

The following table contains a summary of the financial position of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March 1952 and 1953. The particulars of assets and liabilities are for the twelve months ended in those years.

—	As at 31 March
—	1952	1953
Assets—	£	£
Cash	158,391	68,091
Investments—
Government securities	1,816,780	1,905,409
Local body debentures	3,975	102,551
Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft	448,427	500,005
Land, buildings, and miscellaneous	177,231	116,586
Totals	2,604,804	2,692,642
Liabilities—
Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors	2,114,055	2,210,185
Reserves and Appropriation Account	475,723	473,083
Sundry creditors, etc.	15,026	9,374
Totals	2,604,804	2,692,642

POWERS OF ALIENATION.—The ordinary provisions as to alienation of Maori land do not affect the power to dispose of land by will, but a Maori cannot will to a European except it be a husband or wife or other relative of the person making the will. A Maori cannot dispose of customary land, whether by will or otherwise. No alienation of Maori land by a Maori has any effect until it is confirmed by the Maori Land Court.

The Court, before confirming an alienation, must satisfy itself, inter alia, that it is not contrary to the interests of the Maori alienating; that no Maori is rendered landless by the alienation; that the consideration is adequate; that the purchase money is paid or secured; and that the alienation is not otherwise prohibited by law.

A lease cannot be for a longer term than fifty years, and a mortgage must have the approval of the Minister of Maori Affairs and confirmation by the Maori Land Court.

With regard to Maori freehold land, the Court during 1952–53 approved of new leases comprising 19,092 acres to Europeans and 16,976 acres to Maoris, the previous year's figures being 22,534 and 10,264 acres respectively. It confirmed transfers (apart from sales to the Crown) affecting 16,430 acres of freehold land to Europeans and 3,954 acres to Maoris in 1952–53, the corresponding 1951–52 figures being 8,805 and 2,411 acres respectively. During the year ended 31 March 1953 timber-cutting rights were confirmed by the Court in respect of 28,353 acres.

PURCHASE OF MAORI LAND FOR THE CROWN.—Since 5 April 1935 the duty of undertaking, controlling, and carrying out all negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown, and the performance and completion of all contracts entered into, is imposed upon the Board of Maori Affairs.

Pending any purchase by the Crown the Governor-General may, by Order in Council, prohibit alienation other than to the Crown. Upon the purchase being completed the land is proclaimed Crown land, and is subject to administration under the Land Act 1948. Where the land is subject to lease when purchased, there may be extended to the tenant the option of purchasing the land from the Crown or having a renewable lease granted to him.

The area of Maori land still held by Maoris in the North Island is estimated at 3,750,000 acres and in the whole of New Zealand at 4,000,000 acres. In many cases the Maoris are utilizing their land for pastoral and dairying purposes. Other lands are being farmed for them by the Maori Trustee and by the East Coast Commissioner.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT.—The main activities in new development during 1952–53 have been in the Rotorua, Waikato - King Country, and Northland districts. In Rotorua the pumice lands lend themselves to development by machinery at low costs and with a swift response; in the Waikato - King Country considerable areas are being brought back to production by clearance of noxious weeds; and in Northland the pressure of a large Maori population makes development worth while.

In general there is evidence that the standard of Maori farming has recently improved. Increased numbers of farmers are making provision for supplementary winter and summer fodder as well as recognizing the value of rationed grazing by the use of the electric fence. The establishment of training farms in certain areas has shown good results.

In 1952–53, 62 Maori settlers (including 22 ex-servicemen) were settled on economic holdings.

Since the commencement of development to 31 March 1951, 222 settlers had repaid advances and their lands had been released from the provisions of Part I of the Maori Land Amendment Act 1936. There were 21 and 52 properties released in 1951–52 and 1952–53 respectively.

Certain statistics on Maori land development are now given.

Item		1951–52	1952–53
* Not available. † Butterfat production during 1950–51 season was 6,219,266 lb.
Number of settlers actively engaged in farming under departmental supervision		1,531	1,470
Settlers established during year		36	62
Settlers released from control during year		21	52
Settlers actively farming, but under relaxed supervision		195	211
Properties where occupier has sole title (either as owner or lessee)		427	453
Properties where occupier has no sole title		1,104	1,017
Total area gazetted under the Act	Acres	211,166	202,282
(a) Pastures farmed (including some areas not actually gazetted)	Acres	136,991	139,383
(b) Area in rough feed	Acres	^*	1,849
(c) Area in commercial or domestic crops	Acres	^*	1,836
(d) Area in course of development	Acres	^*	2,811
(e) Area undeveloped but suitable for development	Acres	^*	35,202
(f) Area not suitable for development	Acres	^*	31,827
Area grassed during year	Acres	^*	2,526
Butterfat production during season^†	lb.	6,605,952	^*
Wool production	Bales	2,283	2,354
Estimated carrying capacity of total area gazetted when fully developed—
(a) Dairy cows	Number	^*	60,000
(b) Sheep	Number	^*	102,000
Number of full-time workers on farms		1,303	1,296
Number of part-time workers on farms		699	742
(a) Casual outside work		^*	546
(b) Permanent outside work		^*	196
Value of land (unimproved)	£	^*	635,047
Value of improvements on the land	£	^*	2,621,742

18 D—SURVEYS AND MAPS

INTRODUCTORY.—The surveys of Crown lands, Maori lands, land purchased under the former Settlements Acts and the Land Act 1948, lands acquired under the Lands Settlement Promotion Act 1952, and lands acquired or taken for public works, are executed under the authority of the Minister of Lands, and are carried out by staff and contract surveyors registered by the Survey Board under the provisions of the Surveyors Act 1938, which came into operation on 1 July 1939 This Act provides that in order to undertake surveys all registered surveyors must hold annual practising certificates, issued by the Secretary of the New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.

The surveys of private lands for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act are carried out by private surveyors similarly registered.

Statutory authority for the surveyor to enter upon any land and to place survey marks thereon is contained in several Acts, and the wilful destruction of these marks is subject to a severe penalty.

All surface surveys are made in accordance with regulations laid down and are subject to field check (if thought necessary) and to office examination prior to approval and deposit.

The standard of length is the chain of 22 Imperial yards divided into 100 links, and all linear measurements have to be expressed in terms thereof, and areas in acres, roods, and perches, with decimals of a perch. Standard comparison bands are available in each District Office, as well as at the office of the Surveyor-General.

SURVEY SYSTEM.—Control Survey: Until the abolition of the provincial system of government in 1876 the surveys of New Zealand were conducted by nine survey departments, each independent of the other, and working on no common system. At that date an amalgamation into one department was accomplished. Several of the provincial services had conducted their surveys on a trigonometrical basis, but, as the others were building one survey on another by traverse on magnetic or other azimuthal bearings, without any reference to true meridian or the independent check of triangulation, a state of considerable confusion and uncertainty had arisen in the survey records.

In these circumstances it was necessary to devise a system that would rapidly bring the surveys under control and record, so that settlers might be placed in secure possession of their land, and the Crown be safe to issue titles on reliable plans and descriptions.

The plan adopted was to divide the country into twenty-eight districts, designated “meridional circuits.” At the initial or main station of each the astronomical meridian was determined from observations of circumpolar stars, and the latitude from observations of stars north and south of zenith. Lines of bearings on the true astronomical meridian of the initial station were extended throughout its circuit to the plains and valleys where surveys were in progress. Within three years these standard bearings had been so extended as to enable all the surveys to be conducted on the true meridian of their respective circuits; for, following immediately on this operation, a base line was measured, and a minor triangulation of two- and three-mile sides, starting from one of the stations of the standard bearing, was spread over the country wherever most required for the check and connection of the settlement surveys. In this way New Zealand was placed very quickly under a system of correct recordable survey, readily adjusted to the requirements of a population rapidly spreading over areas widely apart. The intervening spaces have since been filled in, and the network of triangles is a continuous chain extending over the Islands from north to south, a distance of 1,100 miles. Simultaneously with the minor triangulation of the country, a topographical survey was carried on, giving the positions of rivers, plains, mountains, forests; best lines for future roads; altitudes of valleys, passes, and mountains; and generally a correct representation of the features of the country, to a scale of 2 inches to the mile.

Sectional: Each meridional circuit was subdivided into squares with sides of 1,000 chains in length, the meridian and perpendicular through the initial station being taken as the starting point. These squares, called “survey districts,” were further divided into sixteen squares called “blocks,” with sides of 250 chains in length. The sections for sale or lease were superimposed upon these and numbered consecutively in each block. Thus each section has for the purpose of record and title registration a complete identification by means of its number, the number of the block, and the name of the district. Unfortunately, it was not found practicable to incorporate in this system the sections which had been alienated prior to 1876; and the provincial registration districts—parishes, hundreds, Crown grant districts, squares, etc.—were perpetuated.

In general, sections were surveyed before selection or disposal, and in these cases the sections were set off with due regard to the topography, thus making each section as far as possible a farm unit with good access, water supply, and those other factors which make for the economical working of a farm.

The boundary lines of the sections were marked at all corners by stout pegs and lockspits, with additional marks where lines were long and straight. In bush the lines were cut out and similarly marked at corners.

The main object of the survey is to enable the settlement of lands to proceed on a system which will give the settler the possession of a definite piece of land without fear of future rival claims. The Crown, which guarantees titles, is also freed from embarrassing claims for compensation caused by overlapping boundaries.

Office Computation and Records: The triangulation of each circuit was computed as plane, neglecting the curvature of the earth, and the triangulation stations were co-ordinated on the meridian and perpendicular passing through the initial station. Road and sectional surveys were made by traverses with theodolite and chain, rigidly connected to the triangulation stations, and the traverse points were similarly co-ordinated. All surveys were thus subject to complete mathematical check, and could be recorded by direct plot from co-ordinates. Areas generally were mathematically deduced, graphic methods being used only for those portions bounded by irregular lines such as streams. All surveys were recorded on index maps, on scales varying from 4 inches to a mile in rural districts to 1 inch to 1 chain in urban districts. The original survey plans, field notes, and co-ordinate tabulations are all carefully stored in fireproof strong-rooms and are readily available to surveyors requiring the use of the information contained.

In a new country it is of the first importance that all surveys should stand the mathematical test of reduction to the meridian and perpendicular of a governing trigonometrical survey, for, unlike the surveys of old countries, where time-honoured landmarks and a settled population conserve boundaries, the surveys of a new country have no such aid, but, instead, have to create boundaries, in the unoccupied wilderness, which at best can only be marked by perishable surface marks. Then, again, the frequent changes of ownership of land in New Zealand facilitated by the Land Transfer system, and the responsibility of the Government in guaranteeing all titles under it, are cogent reasons why the rigid mathematical system of reduction of traverse to the meridian and perpendicular of the stations of a trigonometrical survey should be adopted and maintained.

GEODETIC SURVEY.—Increasing Accuracy: On completion of the original triangulation in the meridional circuits it was found that there were considerable discrepancies in the lines on the boundaries of the circuits, which were common to two or more. These discrepancies were caused principally by two factors—the accumulation of observational errors in the triangulation and the want of a common standard of length in the measurement of the bases. These differences were not sufficiently large to cause any embarrassment while traverses were made with the gunter chain and early pattern theodolite, but on the invention (by a New Zealander, Mr. A. Fairburn) of the long steel tape in the early “seventies,” and the increased accuracy of later model theodolites, part of the value of the triangulation was impaired. Thus, while the network of permanent marks still controlled the position of boundaries, the field traverses of equal or even greater accuracy than the triangulation sides could no longer be used as definite checks.

First Order Triangulation: Early in this century it was decided to throw over the country a network of large triangles with a high degree of accuracy and from this to recompute the original minor triangulation to conform. In 1904 twelve steel bands were obtained, each with a Board of Trade certificate as to its correct length at a defined temperature and tension. Base lines were selected, and five in the North Island were measured between 1909 and 1914, when the outbreak of the First World War stopped further progress. In 1922 work was resumed, to be again stopped by the depression in 1931. After five years' cessation this work was resumed in 1936, the first order network observations being completed by the end of 1941, when it was necessary to divert the staff engaged thereon to the urgent task of topographical mapping for the Army. One of the three selected base lines in the South Island was measured temporarily to provide a more adequate control for the plotting of the topographical map series in the Southland district.

Field operations of the geodetic triangulation were completed in 1948, when all the necessary longitude fixes were made. The measurement of the base lines in the South Island was completed in the 1947 season.

The observational work has been done to an accuracy well within the limits set by the International Association of Geodesy for work of the highest precision.

Second and Third Order Triangulation: It was originally anticipated that the old minor triangulation could be utilized after readjustment to conform to the new first order, but after attempting to do this it was found that larger corrections than could now be tolerated were being introduced into the old work. In some instances this was undoubtedly due to actual displacement of old stations, but in the majority of cases the fault lay in the old triangulation not being of sufficiently high standard. It was therefore necessary to re-observe the old work, and this has been done in three of the circuits to date.

In this way accurate geographical results over New Zealand will be moulded into one harmonious whole on a co-ordinated system and on a basis which gives the correct relation of one part to another, with no possibility of overlapping where different circuits join.

In most districts, over selected areas, the geodetic survey party has simultaneously broken down the first order triangulation into second order and, where necessary, third order triangulation. Until this latter work has been completely related and adjusted to the main network it cannot be brought into general use for land-survey purposes. At present its use is limited to the control of the topographical map series.

Astronomical Positions: Latitude and azimuth observations have been taken in conjunction with the first order triangulation, about one station in every three being so observed. Longitude observations by wireless telegraphy have been made at stations 100 miles apart, so that in conjunction with latitude and azimuth these stations may be used for Laplace equations to control the entire triangulation.

Precise Levelling: Approximately 540 miles of precise levelling have been carried out for the purpose of correlating the level data of irrigation and drainage and other engineering works. This type of levelling has been carried out in accordance with international standards of accuracy—namely, 0.002 feet or 0.024 inches per mile.

These levels are at mean sea-level datum determined from the tidal records of the principal tidal stations or of tide gauges established specially for that purpose. The traverses are referenced at approximately ten-mile intervals by fundamental bench marks and at approximately one-mile intervals by permanent bench marks.

This work is being further extended to meet the requirements of national drainage, irrigation, hydro-electric, and river-control development, where related and co-ordinated levels in terms of a fixed datum are essential.

STANDARD SURVEYS.—In order to more adequately correlate and redefine old boundary marks for land-title purposes and to provide a permanent standard of reference for future surveys in cities and boroughs where land values are high, and on highways and on main arterial roads where modern road surfaces have eliminated survey marks, a precise survey is carried out, all intersections being referenced with permanent standard marks, normally concrete blocks protected by an iron cover.

These surveys are of two classes—(1) those in the cities and boroughs, being of standard of accuracy of 2 inches to the mile, the cost of which is borne partly by the local authority concerned and partly by the Lands and Survey Department, and (2) those carried out on highways and arterial roads to a lesser standard of accuracy for the purpose of referencing survey marks lost or obliterated by road works and surfaces.

These standard traverses will in the future be correlated with precise levelling traverses, thus providing a standard level datum for engineering works.

AERIAL SURVEY AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING.—The incidence of war emphasized the need for up-to-date topographical maps of New Zealand. The use of the aerial photograph for the production of topographical maps had at the same time revolutionized the methods of production, requiring the introduction of an entirely new technique.

Up to 1936 several thousand square miles of topographical mapping had been carried out by plane-table methods in scattered localities throughout the country. With the introduction of the aerial photograph for mapping purposes in 1935, a co-ordinated mapping policy was laid down by the Army authorities. A revised map series on a scale of 1 mile to an inch based on an approved map grid was adopted, and an annual output fixed by a co-ordinating committee set up to control the mapping policy of New Zealand.

Two plotting machines were acquired by the Department, and at the outbreak of war in 1939 an area of 1,000 square miles had been mapped on a scale of 1 inch to the mile in the Hawke's Bay district, one map sheet being published in March 1939.

During the war period the Department was made responsible for topographical mapping for military purposes. All the available resources of the Department and the services of a private aerial mapping company were concentrated on the production of maps in this connection.

Owing to post-war activities staff previously employed on topographical mapping was engaged on other survey work mainly connected with land settlement. In 1949 the Department was able to resume its mapping operations in the Rotorua-Taupo region, and to date has completed 2,600 square miles of large-scale mapping in this area.

Extensive use is made of the aerial photographs for other than purely mapping purposes. All types of land and engineering development, investigations into geological resources, afforestation, and town and rural planning are now based on data extracted from the aerial photographs. The Department is responsible for the maintenance of a complete library of aerial photographs, which are made available for all national purposes. All orders for photography required by any Department of State are co-ordinated and priorities for such photography fixed by a co-ordinating committee. By such co-ordination it is expected that a basic photographic coverage of the whole country will be completed in the next few years.

Since the war additional plotting equipment for the production of maps from aerial photographs has been acquired, and, as staff is trained and becomes available, mapping operations will be extended to meet all national requirements.

TIDAL SURVEY.—The tidal work carried out by the Department at the commencement of the survey operations in New Zealand consisted of determinations of mean high-water mark (H.W.M.) for the purpose of defining the boundary of land abutting on tidal waters.

Later the adoption of mean sea-level as the datum of reference for the heights shown on the maps of trigonometrical and precise levelling surveys led to a more accurate system of tidal observations being initiated; but it was not until 1909 that a complete tidal survey was inaugurated, at the request of the Admiralty, to include the predictions of the times and heights of high and low water of the ports of Auckland and Wellington in the Admiralty Tide tables.

The tidal observations are made mainly by self-registering tide-gauges, in which a curve is traced which shows the height of the water at any time above an arbitrary datum. This curve is decomposed, by a process devised by Lord Kelvin, and known as “harmonic analysis,” into its harmonic elements. These components are now computed for the ports of Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Lyttelton, Dunedin, Bluff, and Westport, and from them the predicted times and heights of high and low water are obtained by means of the tide predictor at the Tidal Institute, University of Liverpool, and published in advance in the “New Zealand Nautical Almanac.” the Admiralty Tide Tables, and several of the maritime publications of foreign nations.

The seven ports for which tide tables arc prepared serve as standards of reference on which to base, by means of tidal difference, the times and heights of high and low water of all the other ports in New Zealand.

GEOGRAPHIC BOARD.—The principal functions of the New Zealand Geographic Board, established under the New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946, are as follows:

To adopt rules of orthography and nomenclature in respect of place names in New Zealand.
To examine cases of doubtful spelling of place names, and determine the spelling to be adopted on official maps.
To investigate and determine the priority of the discovery of any geographic feature.
To collect original Maori place names for recording on official maps.
To determine what alien names appearing on official maps should be replaced by British names.
To investigate and determine any proposed alteration of a place name.

The Board, which replaced the honorary Geographic Board previously in existence, consists of the Surveyor-General, two representatives of the Maori race, a representative of the New Zealand Geographic Society, a representative of the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and two other persons.

MISCELLANEOUS.—The Department, in addition to the activities outlined in the preceding paragraphs, carries out many miscellaneous functions, among which are the drawing of maps and diagrams for special publications, the periodic preparation of maps for census and electoral purposes, the copying of maps and plans by photostat process, the preparation of aerial photograph mosaics and enlargements for departmental purposes, compilation of maps and data for town and regional planning purposes, the control and administration of the subdivision of land in counties required for housing, the preparation of special topographical maps for land settlement, engineering and scientific development, the preparation of maps for air navigation requirements, the production of all maps for the Armed Services, and many other cognate duties requiring the services of the surveyor or the draughtsman.

PUBLICATIONS.—Reports: An annual report of the departmental activities is published as a parliamentary paper, C-1A. At regular intervals a publication called “The Records of the Survey” is issued, the latest volume being numbered five. The publication of professional papers is now discontinued, these being incorporated in the Records.

Maps.—Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices of the Lands and Survey Department. All maps for sale are listed in the “Catalogue of Maps” published by the Department. The catalogue lists maps under the following headings:

GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS MAPS.—General Maps New Zealand are small-scale maps of New Zealand and larger scale maps which are not included in the cadastral and topographical section of the catalogue.
Pacific Islands Maps are of islands within the territories of New Zealand, the trust territory of Western Samoa, and Norfolk Island.
Miscellaneous Maps are maps which have been prepared for special purposes, and in general include those of interest to mountaineers and tourists.
CADASTRAL MAPS.—The following series are published by the Department, these maps showing land title boundaries and land designations:
1. Survey District Series—1 inch to 1 mile.
  2 inches to 1 mile.
2. County Series—1 inch to 1 mile.
3. Town Map Series—At various scales from 40 inches to 8 inches to 1 mile.
TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS.—The following medium and large scale maps are published:
1. 1:63,360—1 inch to 1 mile.
2. 1:25,000.
3. 1:15,840—4 inches to 1 mile.
4. 1:10,000 to 1:2,000—Street maps of towns.
The 1:63,360 series now covers approximately half of the country and embraces most of the settled areas. The 1: 25,000 series is as yet restricted to the closely settled areas at the main centres of population. The 1: 15,840 series is confined to certain areas of undeveloped lands which are being developed as farmlands.
MOSAIC MAPS.—The sheet lines of the mosaic maps conform to the sheet lines of the 1: 25,000 topographic series. The mosaic maps are gridded and show place names and are published at scale 1: 25.000 and at scale 1: 15,840 (4 inches to 1 mile).
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS.—Aeronautical charts published include—
1. Aerodrome approach and landing charts.
2. Plotting charts at scales 1: 1.000,000 and 1: 3,000,000.
3. Aeronautical charts 1: 500,000.

18 E—VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL.—The necessity for fixing equitable land values arises in many of the relations of the General Government and local governing authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following:

The levying of land tax.
The apportionment of Hospital Boards' and other similar rating levies over contributory local authorities.
The levying of rates by local authorities.
The advancing of money on mortgage by Government Departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act.
The assessing of stamp, death, and gift duties.
The fixing of prices payable by lessees to the Crown for acquiring the freehold of Crown lands.
In assessing the compensation payable where land is taken under the Public Works Act, the Servicemen's Settlement Act, and certain other statutes.
In estimating the prices payable in alienations of Maori lands.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE.—Prior to 1896 the valuing of land was not conducted on a uniform basis. Each State Department and local authority employed as valuers such persons whom it thought fit, and estimates of values by different authorities varied considerably. To bring about some order the Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Department of State charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the General Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1925 (which consolidated previous legislation), as amended in 1926, 1927, 1933, 1940, 1945, 1946, 1948, and 1949, and in the Land Valuation Court Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by District Valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate to the best of his ability (1) the unimproved value of the land contained therein, (2) the value of the buildings (if any) or other improvements (if any) upon such land, and (3) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, nor to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local-body expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the “unimproved value.”

“Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land.

The “capital value” is the sum of the “unimproved value” plus the value of “improvements.”

Notwithstanding the repeal of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943, from 1 November 1950 the revaluations of county lands intended to come into force not later than 31 March 1951 were completed as if that Act had continued in force. Authority for this procedure was conferred by section 38 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1950.

THE VALUATION ROLL.—The Valuation of Land Act directs the preparation of a valuation roll for each district over which a local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth in respect of each separate property the following particulars:

The name of the owner of the land, and the nature of his estate or interest therein, together with the name of the beneficial owner in the case of land held in trust:
The name of the occupier within the meaning of the Rating Act:
The situation, description, and area of the land:
The nature and value of the improvements:
The unimproved value of the land:
The capital value of the land:
Such other particulars as are prescribed.

Revision of Rolls.—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at such dates as the Governor-General in Council from time to time directs. Previously there were no fixed periods between revisions. Since the necessity for revision depended upon the extent to which values had moved since the previous revision, the periods between revisions varied considerably between old-established and currently-developing districts. The considerable changes in land values over recent years have caused a wider realization of the need for up-to-date valuations, and it has now been provided that all revisions of district valuation rolls made after 31 March 1947 must be again revised within five years unless the Governor-General in Council directs otherwise.

There is provision that in the revaluation of a borough rating on the unimproved value the Governor-General in Council may direct that the revision is to be confined either to the unimproved values only or to the value of improvements only, with consequent adjustments of the capital values.

Alterations During Currency of Rolls.—At any time between the revisions of district rolls the Valuer-General may readjust, correct, or bring up to date the entries therein in consequence of—

Any improvements being added to or removed from the land:
Any change in the ownership or occupancy of the land:
Any amended valuation being made on the requirement of the owner of the land:
Any land being omitted from the roll, or the name of the owner or the description or other particulars of the land being erroneously entered therein:
Any subdivision of the land:
Any lease or any other terminable charge or interest affecting the respective interests of the respective owners.

In new valuations as a consequence of (c) or (e), the aim is to preserve uniformity with the existing roll values of comparable parcels of land.

The Supplementary Roll.—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. The supplementary roll may be used for the same purposes as the district roll except that it may not be used for the assessment of land tax or local rates. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government Departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and death duties—are entered on the supplementary roll, but not on the district roll. There is generally a right of objection to such special valuations procedurally similar to the objections discussed under the next heading.

Objections to Valuations.—When a district valuation roll is revised the Valuer-General addresses to each owner, and also to the owner concerned when any particular valuation in that roll is altered, a notice showing the new valuation and naming a date before which all objections (in writing) to the values must be lodged. In the case of a revision of a district roll the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, only the owner has a right of objection.

The Valuer-General refers any objections to his District Valuers for reconsideration. He may then decide (1) of his own motion to refer the objection to the Land Valuation Court. (2) to alter the valuation to the extent claimed, (3) to alter the valuation to such extent as is agreed upon with the objector, or (4) to decline to alter the valuation. If his decision is either (2), (3), or (4), he serves notice of it on the objector, and on the owner if other than the objector. Either of these may notify the Valuer-General within fourteen days that he desires the objection to be heard by the Land Valuation Court. If no such notice is received the Valuer-General's decision is deemed to be assented to, and the roll is amended, if necessary, to give effect to his decision.

LAND VALUATION COURT.—The Land Valuation Court Act 1948 established the Land Valuation Court, transferred to that Court the jurisdictions previously exercised by Assessment Courts under the Valuation of Land Amendment Act 1945, and abolished the latter Courts. Under the new legislation the Court consists of three members appointed by the Governor-General in Council, one of whom is the Judge of the Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Valuation of Land Act the Court hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952.

The Act also established Land Valuation Committees which, in the exercise of their powers and functions, are subject to the general jurisdiction of the Court. A local authority may appoint a person, other than a member or paid officer of a local authority, to be an additional member of the Land Valuation Committee exercising its functions in the district of that local authority. This provision is limited to cases where objections to valuations of property situated in that local authority's district are being heard.

The Valuer-General files with a Registrar of the Land Valuation Court a list of objections, including those which of his own motion he has decided to refer to the Court and those which the objectors desired to be heard by the Court. Copies of the objections are filed with the list. The Registrar refers the objections to the appropriate district Land Valuation Committee for hearing, and the Committee embodies its determination in each case in a formal order which,

after a lapse of fourteen days, is sealed by the Registrar and becomes an order of the Court. Within the period of fourteen days, however, either the Crown representative, or any one affected by the order, may appeal to the Land Valuation Court, or the Court of its own motion may amend the order. Except that the Judge of the Court may on the application of any party to proceedings, or of his own motion, state a case for the opinion of the Court of Appeal on a question of law, the decisions of the Land Valuation Court (either decisions of the Court itself or orders of the Committees sealed by the Registrar) are final.

In the case of an objection to a valuation being allowed, the new valuation dates back to the date at which the valuation objected to would have been effected had no objection been lodged.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Land Valuation Court's order, he may, within fourteen days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may within fourteen days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within thirty days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING.—The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the unimproved value is framed.

Owing to the heavy decline in values during the early nineteen-thirties, and the impracticability of a universal revaluation, the provision enabling new valuations to be made was availed of by many owners with the object of reducing their rate payments. In order to maintain rating equity the Valuation of Land Amendment Act 1933 authorized local authorities to levy rates upon a proportionate part (not being under 75 per cent) of values upon the roll. Where an individual owner had obtained a revaluation, the lower of either the new figure or the proportionate part of the previously existing figure was taken. Since 1945 the right of objection to such a new valuation is limited to the claim that uniformity has not been preserved with existing roll values of comparable parcels of land.

The Urban Farm Land Rating Act 1932 (amended in 1933, 1935, and 1944) provides for rating relief for farm lands subject to rates levied by Borough (or City) Councils, Independent Town Boards, and certain Road Boards. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farm lands lower than the values for the same lands appearing on the district valuation rolls. There are rights of objection to such valuations, either to a specially constituted Assessment Court where the valuations are to appear on a farm land roll, or to a Magistrate if special rateable values are being assessed for the ordinary rating roll. The values are generally revised at five-yearly intervals.

A heritage of the days of independent valuations by local authorities is the provision by which they can rate on the annual (rental) values of properties within their areas, these values being assessed by the local authorities' own valuers. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 per cent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 per cent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 per cent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or trienially.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND.—General valuations of land for the whole of New Zealand were made periodically up to the year 1897–98. Since that year no general valuations for the whole country have been made, but portions are revalued from time to time. As previously mentioned, however, it is now provided that every revision of a district valuation roll made after 31 March 1947 shall be followed by a further revision within five years, unless

such revision is postponed by the Governor-General in Council. The figures in the following table, showing valuations over a number of years, therefore represent general valuations up to 1897 only, while for subsequent years the figures include the latest valuation available of each division.

GROSS CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES

As at 31 March	Capital Value (Land and Improvements)	Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)	As at 31 March	Capital Value (Land and Improvements)	Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
* Provisional.
	£	£		£	£
1878	99,566,679	62,573,868	1929	655,906,887	344,757,796
1885	113,270,649		1930	664,571,181	338,887,411
1888	111,137,714	75,497,379	1931	667,911,212	331,634,774
1891	122,225,029	75,832,465	1932	662,829,264	321,798,700
1897	138,591,347	84,401,244	1933	653,707,517	314,556,174
1902	154,816,132	94,847,727	1934	650,362,355	309,770,390
1905	197,684,475	122,937,126	1935	637,604,203	301,137,513
1907	236,644,536	149,682,689	1936	635,801,798	295,695,574
1909	271,516,022	172,759,948	1937	632,229,720	287,844,804
1911	293,117,065	184,062,798	1938	636,362,641	282,326,015
1913	340,559,728	212,963,468	1939	652,898,894	282,806,212
1915	371,076,683	230,705,147	1940	660,524,008	278,880,855
1916	389,164,729	241,322,255	1941	673,118,250	277,541,575
1917	405,466,071	251,087,708	1942	681,921,681	276,884,859
1918	421,383,373	260,921,812	1943	684,180,966	276,881,168
1919	445,533,445	275,988,409	1944	688,794,796	277,038,582
1920	470,093,697	290,880,264	1945	697,365,953	277,494,868
1921	518,584,318	317,631,245	1946	710,425,005	279,214,040
1922	544,503,376	329,174,337	1947	746,412,384	284,274,437
1923	553,403,794	330,790,991	1948	796,037,683	291,617,238
1924	568,500,653	333,869,581	1949	889,268,331	307,152,159
1925	587,349,575	339,310,260	1950	985,879,820	324,465,347
1926	603,250,306	341,047,952	1951	1,112,746,940	349,159,931
1927	618,264,093	341,519,107	1952	1,314,494,995	394,136,584
1928	631,454,676	335,217,075	1953^*	1,536,275,000	450,303,000

The table shows a continuous decrease in land values from 1929 to 1943. Probably the lowest point in real values was reached about 1934, and the decreases shown after that year merely indicate that the new valuations being made were still at levels lower than the existing pre-depression figures. After 1943 land values were stabilized through the operation of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943, and the increases shown to 1950 mainly reflect the writing into new valuations of increases which had occurred prior to 1943.

The lifting of land sales control on urban properties from 23 February 1950 was reflected in the 1951 general revaluations of boroughs and cities. County revaluations did not, however, reflect the transition to a free market basis until the 1952 revaluations, the effect of the higher basis having been postponed twelve months as provided for by section 38 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1950.

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up to date has the effect in the above table of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes. Consequently, the movements in the table cannot be regarded as indicative of the trends in land values at any given time. Rural land values are generally dependent on the prices received for our exports of primary products, and these prices are also the major influence affecting the country's economy and to some extent price levels generally. If it were not for the irregular periodicity of revisions of valuations, the movements in unimproved values in the preceding table could be expected to follow the trends of export prices shown in Section 36, though with less exaggerated movements and perhaps an upward bias due to improved efficiency in farming methods, growth of population, improved internal transport, and other facilities, etc.

Capital values are influenced not only by the prices of primary products (in so far as they affect the unimproved value included in the capital value and indirectly by their effect on price levels generally), but also by the amount of activity in the building and construction industry.

The values shown in the foregoing table and in that following are the gross values; they include the value not only of rateable properties, but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

GROSS VALUES

As at 31 March	Number	North Island		South Island		New Zealand
As at 31 March	Number	Capital Value (Land and Improvements)	Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)	Capital Value (Land and Improvements)	Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)	Capital Value (Land and Improvements)	Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
		£	£	£	£	£	£
Counties
1948	129	247,745,879	102,332,521	123,192,813	64,482,772	370,938,692	167,415,293
1949	129	274,237,441	105,579,267	127,359,704	63,773,378	401,597,145	169,352,645
1950	129	303,181,716	109,402,568	138,793,192	66,159,388	441,974,908	175,561,956
1951	129	324,862,948	112,457,552	147,559,201	66,669,032	472,422,149	179,126,584
1952	129	372,863,236	123,257,865	186,332,065	73,875,225	559,195,301	197,133,090
Boroughs
1948	134	297,233,268	87,793,543	120,586,038	34,644,646	417,819,306	122,438,189
1949	134	346,941,201	99,076,380	132,119,856	36,801,975	479,061,057	135,878,355
1950	134	379,021,605	104,843,295	154,936,331	41,979,086	533,957,936	146,822,381
1951	134	447,995,267	120,478,603	180,826,087	46,962,625	628,821,354	167,441,228
1952	134	526,961,851	138.560,428	209,276,292	54,191,592	736,238,143	192,752,020
Independent Town Districts
1948	29	5,753,086	1,450,685	1,526.599	313,071	7,279,685	1,763,756
1949	29	7,011,100	1,605,298	1,599,029	215,861	8,610,129	1,921,159
1950	29	7,880,182	1,688,750	2,066,794	392,260	9,946,976	2,081,010
1951	28	9,774,107	2,316,844	1,729,330	275,275	11,503,437	2,592,119
1952	29	17,065,111	3,945,159	1,996,440	306,315	19,061,551	4,251,474
Grand Totals
1942		460,828,500	179,174,197	221,093,181	97,710,662	681,921,681	276,884,859
1943		463,469,474	179,191,184	220,711,492	97,689,984	684,180,966	276,881,168
1944		466,892,602	179,335,535	221,902,194	97,703,047	688,794,796	277,038,582
1945		473,372,283	179,701,239	223,993,670	97,793,629	697,365,953	277,494,868
1946		483,837,330	181,281,576	226,587,675	97,932,464	710,425,005	279,214,040
1947		513,590,129	186,069,652	232,822,255	98,204,785	746,412,384	284,274,437
1948		550,732,233	192,176,749	245,305,450	99,440,489	796,037,683	291,617,238
1949		628,189,742	206,260,945	261,078,589	100,891,214	889,268,331	307,152,159
1950		690,083,503	215,934,613	295,796,317	108,530,734	985,879,820	324,465,347
1951		782,632,322	235,252,999	330,114,618	113,906,932	1,112,746,940	349,159,931
1952		916,890,198	265,763,452	397,175,662	128,300,342	1,314,494,995	394,136,584

RATEABLE VALUES.—The values quoted earlier in this Section relate to gross values (i.e., the value of all property, whether exempt from local rating or not). The following summary indicates rateable values for counties, boroughs, and independent town districts as at 31 March 1952.

—	North Island		South Island		New Zealand
—	Capital Value (Land and Improvements)	Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)	Capital Value (Land and Improvements)	Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)	Capital Value (Land and Improvements)	Unimproved Value of Land (Included in Previous Column)
	£	£	£	£	£	£
Counties	335,211,688	115,185,179	172,399,530	70,725,859	507,611,218	185,911,038
Boroughs	476,530,555	125,088,959	187,524,539	49,420,984	664,055,094	174,509,943
Town districts (independent)	15,985,551	3,678,734	1,802,785	280,490	17,788,336	3,959,224
Totals	827,727,794	243,952,872	361,726,854	120,427,333	1,189,454,648	364,380,205

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 1 April 1952, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts as at 31 March 1952.

Local Authority District	Area	Population	Rateable Property Values
Local Authority District	Area	Population	Capital Value	Unimproved Value	Value of Improvements
* Less than 0.05 per cent.
Percentage Distribution
Counties	99.5	37.1	42.7	51.0	39.0
Boroughs	0.5	61.2	55.8	47.9	59.3
Town districts (independent)	0.0^*	1.7	1.5	1.1	1.7
Totals	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0

It will be observed that there is a closer correlation between value of improvements and population distribution than in the case of unimproved values and population distribution, with capital values consequently taking up an intermediate position.

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the Local Authorities Handboook, where similar data are also given for dependent town districts and for road districts.

Chapter 19. SECTION 19—PRODUCTION: GENERAL

Table of Contents

ESTIMATES of the value, and of movements in the volume, of physical production have been made in New Zealand for many years, considerably antedating the technique of national income estimates. The latter, of course, take into account the value of the tertiary services of transport, commerce, administration, social services, etc., as well as physical production; the earlier series were concerned only with the last named. The estimates of physical production in this Section are based in the main on the production data which appear in the seven Sections following.

GROSS FARMING INCOME.—Farming occupies such an important position in the economic structure of New Zealand that statistical information relating to farm production is vested with special interest. Statistics of quantitative farm production and prices received by farmers constitute the basic data used in the computation of estimates of aggregate receipts from sales of farm produce. The figures do not purport to show the aggregate net income from firming after all expenses of farm operations have been met. They are intended to afford an indication of the income available to farmers as a whole to meet current expenses of farm operation, living costs, interest payments, and all other costs. The estimates have recently been revised to take into account the real income or loss represented by changes in the numbers of livestock on farms as between the various years.

Except in the cases indicated in the next paragraph, no attempt has been made to exclude from the scope of the compilations that portion of marketable farm produce which may be consumed on the farm. Similarly, that portion of farm produce which is sold to other farmers as material for further farm production is in general included. For example, the value of production of grass seeds is included under the heading “Agricultural Produce,” although—except for exports—almost the whole of this crop is used for the sowing or renewal of pasture lands. An exception, however, occurs in the case of stud stock sold for breeding purposes, no data being available on which to base an estimate of the aggregate annual value of such sales. With this exception, the totals shown for all farm produce thus represent the total income (including receipts from sales to other farmers), plus certain allowances for farm produce used on the farm. On the other hand, products of kitchen gardens and of other activities more intimately associated with the home than with the farm do not come within the ambit of this inquiry.

Production of green-fodder crops, turnips, and mangolds is not included. The view taken is that production of these crops is a normal and essential part of farm routine to be regarded more in the nature of a farm cost than as production of a saleable commodity. Consequently, the unknown—but, it is believed, very small—proportion sold of the total production of this class of farm produce is omitted from the totals shown. It is arbitrarily assumed that in the case of production of grasses and clovers 20 per cent where cut for hay, and 5 per cent where cut for ensilage, and in the case of grain crops cut for chaff, 25 per cent of the total crop, comes within the scope of this inquiry, the remainder being omitted for reasons similar to those advanced in the case of green fodder, etc.

The division into the three groups—(1) Agricultural, (2) Pastoral, and (3) Dairying, Poultry, and Bees—has been made entirely on the basis of the nature of the produce.

The principal items included in the agricultural group are wheat, oats, and other grain crops, grass seeds, potatoes, onions, tobacco, linen flax, orchard produce, and produce of market gardens, nurseries, hop gardens, etc. The prices at which the various commodities are valued are, in general, the prices received by farmers in the early months of the year, when the crops are harvested.

The estimated cost of sacks, cases, and other containers is excluded, as also are transport charges from farm to market and commission on sales. The fact that the cost of containers is excluded might be regarded as a departure from the general practice adopted in this computation of omitting to take account of costs incurred on the farm. It should be noted, however, that price quotations for some important classes of agricultural produce—e.g., wheat—are in ordinary commercial practice on a “sacks extra” basis, so that the exclusion of the value of containers in the case of other crops has the merit of consistency.

The principal items included in the pastoral group are livestock and wool production. Slaughterings of livestock have been assessed on the basis of values (alive) at freezing works, deductions being made to cover the cost of transport from farm to works, saleyards, etc., and of commission on sales of livestock. The value of store stock or young lambs sold by one farmer to another is counted only once—that is, when sold for slaughtering as fat stock.

It should be mentioned that the value of all livestock production, including bobby calves, cull cows from dairying herds, and pigs, is included in the pastoral group.

Wool production is valued at the average prices realized at sales or appraisals held during each season, the aggregate arrived at representing the value of cool produced in each season at average sale or appraisal prices ruling during that season. No adjustments are made to cover the unknown increase or decrease in the total ultimate return from the season's production owing to higher or lower prices realized for wool carried over and sold in a subsequent season. Deductions have been made to cover the cost of transport of wool to selling centres, and of woolpacks.

The estimates for the pastoral group have been revised to take into account the value of real income represented by changes in the numbers of livestock held on farms, which in individual years may represent a marked accretion or reduction in terms of real income.

The largest individual item included in the dairying, etc., group is the pay-out to suppliers by butter, cheese, and dried milk, etc., factories during each of the dairy seasons shown. An estimate of the value of human consumption of raw milk (at farm-gate prices) is also included, together with the value of butter produced on farms for home use or for sale. The available data permit of only a rough estimate of the value of poultry products, which, with bee products, are included in this group mainly for purposes of convenience.

The following table shows figures of gross farming income (in millions of £N.Z.) arrived at for each of the twenty-four production years for which the information is available. It also shows the relative contributions of the three groups in each year, in the form of percentages of the total of all farm production.

Production Year	Agricultural Produce		Pastoral Produce		Produce of Dairying, Poultry, and Bees		All Farm Produce
Production Year	Value	Per Cent	Value	Per Cent	Value	Per Cent	Value	Per Cent
	£(m.)		£(m.)		£(m.)		£(m.)
1928–29	7.3	11	35.8	52	25.5	37	68.6	100
1929–30	7.4	12	29.4	48	24.4	40	61.2	100
1930–31	6.7	15	18.9	44	17.9	41	43.5	100
1931–32	6.5	17	14.0	37	17.4	46	37.9	100
1932–33	6.9	18	14.6	38	16.5	44	38.0	100
1933–34	7.0	14	24.8	50	17.8	36	49.6	100
1934–35	6.0	13	22.3	48	18.3	39	46.6	100
1935–36	7.4	13	27.7	47	23.9	40	59.0	100
1936–37	7.2	10	39.5	53	27.9	37	74.6	100
1937–38	7.3	10	34.0	48	29.8	42	71.1	100
1938–39	8.2	12	29.9	43	30.8	45	68.9	100
1939–40	9.4	13	31.2	42	33.8	45	74.4	100
1940–41	9.6	11	39.9	46	36.6	43	86.1	100
1941–42	10.6	13	38.5	46	35.1	41	84.2	100
1942–43	12.0	14	390	46	33.9	40	84.9	100
1943–44	13.4	16	38.6	45	33.2	39	85.2	100
1944–45	14.8	15	46.0	46	40.0	39	100.8	100
1945–46	14.5	15	45.6	47	36.4	38	96.5	100
1946–47	150	14	53.5	46	44.9	40	113.4	100
1947–48	15.0	11	68.4	50	52.1	39	135.5	100
1948–49	17.4	12	71.1	48	58.4	40	146.9	100
1949–50	17.8	10	99.2	55	64.2	35	181.2	100
1950–51	18.5	6	200.1	69	71.8	25	290.4	100
1951–52	17.3	8	110.3	53	82.2	39	209.8	100

In the course of the compilation of the indices of volume of total production given later in this Section index numbers have been compiled showing the movements in volume of farm production. For the compilation of these index numbers a computation has been made for each of the seasons 1928–29 to 1951–52 showing what the aggregate annual value would have been, had 1938–39 prices been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production; for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates. The coverage of the pastoral production series includes allowances for changes in the numbers of livestock on farms.

In the following table index numbers of value and volume on the base: 1938–39 (= 100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year changes.

Production Year	Agricultural		Pastoral		Dairying, etc.		All Farm Produce
Production Year	Value	Volume	Value	Volume	Value	Volume	Value	Volume
1928–29	89	107	120	79	83	72	100	79
1929–30	90	105	98	83	79	78	89	83
1930–31	82	113	63	79	58	80	63	84
1931–32	79	105	47	79	56	83	55	84
1932–33	84	136	49	86	54	96	55	96
1933–34	85	119	83	91	58	102	72	99
1934–35	73	104	75	90	59	99	68	96
1935–36	90	123	93	93	78	104	87	101
1936–37	88	111	132	97	91	109	108	104
1937–38	89	106	114	101	97	105	103	104
1938–39	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
1939–40	115	119	104	93	110	107	108	102
1940–41	117	126	133	114	119	115	125	116
1941–42	129	128	129	110	114	109	122	111
1942–43	146	139	130	106	110	102	123	108
1943–44	163	148	129	102	108	96	124	105
1944–45	180	160	154	110	130	105	146	113
1945–46	177	142	153	113	118	92	140	107
1946–47	183	152	172	108	146	102	161	110
1947–48	183	144	221	114	169	104	193	113
1948–49	212	156	230	112	190	113	210	117
1949–50	217	150	332	122	208	117	263	123
1950–51	226	153	669	122	233	123	421	126
1951–52	211	145	369	123	267	124	303	126

The phenomenal increase in the price of wool in the 1950–51 season, coupled with the rise in the price of livestock slaughtered, resulted in the value of the Pastoral group showing an increase of 102 per cent over the previous year's figure, despite the volume being unchanged. In 1951–52 the fall in the price of wool adversely affected the Pastoral group value, while the reduced yield of wheat and fruit resulted in a decline in value and volume of the Agricultural group.

THE SPREAD IN PRICE LEVELS.—The statistics quoted under the previous headings illustrate the growth in farm production since the 1928–29 season, and the changes in gross farming income. While the fall in gross farming income between 1928–29 and 1932–33, despite a considerably enhanced volume of farm production, suggests in itself a period of difficulty for the farming community, the divergence between price levels of farm products, most of which are sold in overseas markets, and internal price levels generally is the real crux of the agrarian problem in lime of depression. Prices of farm products are particularly sensitive, since the demand for and the supply of most products of the soil arc not easily equated. Changing demand conditions for farm products do not readily result in compensatory supply changes, nor do changing supply conditions readily bring about compensatory demand changes. The slack is normally taken up through fluctuating prices. On the other hand, the cost of debt charges does not fluctuate so readily, while prices of services and of manufactured goods in normal times are also less sensitive than prices of farm products.

FARM PRODUCTION: EXPORTS AND NEW ZEALAND CONSUMPTION.—Estimates of the relative importance of exports and of consumption within New Zealand in the disposal of farm produce have been compiled by utilizing the statistics of gross farming income, in conjunction with statistics of trade in farm products.

In the paragraphs covering the statistics of gross farming income it is explained that these estimates were framed on the basis of “on the farm” values in order that they might indicate the gross receipts by the farmer, after making provision for transport charges and other expenses incurred in the marketing of produce.

In compiling the statistics of the relative importance of the New Zealand market and of export markets for farm products the value of exports has been assessed at the “farm” value of the commodities concerned, and not at the f.o.b. declared value for export. This adjustment has been made in order to ensure that both sets of statistics from which the comparison is made are on the same value basis. It will be realized, then, that the statistics of value given in this statement indicate the gross returns to the farmer from farm products exported and from consumption of such products within New Zealand.

The statistics of the return to the farmer in respect of New Zealand consumption of farm produce have been obtained by deducting exports from total production. In these compilations exports of milk products have been converted to a butterfat equivalent, the return to the farmer being computed on the basis of butterfat pay-out; while the slaughterings represented by exports of meat products have been taken as the basis on which to estimate the farmer's receipts from exports of meat. In instances where statistics of stocks are available adjustment has been made for the carryover from one season to another. It has been assumed that stocks of wool, frozen meat, and butter and cheese carried over are held for export, and that stocks of wheat and oats are subsequently consumed within New. Zealand.

Since the estimates of New Zealand consumption are the residual element in the process of compilation, any lack of correspondence between the statistics of production and of trade will affect the accuracy of these estimates. Statistics of production relate to the production year for each commodity, or group of commodities, coming within the scope of this investigation. In many instances the production years do not cover identical twelve-monthly periods, so that the aggregate of production of farm produce includes statistics for a number of yearly periods ending in different months. Exports during any one year do not consist entirely of commodities produced within the same twelve-monthly period to which the export statistics relate. Since the estimates of gross farming income include changes in the number of livestock on farms, it follows that the resultant increase or decrease in the total production is necessarily included in the residual New Zealand consumption figure. The effect of these various factors is, however, minimized by taking averages for three seasons rather than for individual seasons.

The following table, based on the averages of statistics for three production and three export seasons, shows the division of gross farming income into returns from exports of farm produce and from consumption of such produce within New Zealand.

Three Production Years	Annual Average Gross Farming Income From			Percentages of Gross Farming Income From
Three Production Years	Total Production	Exports	New Zealand Consumption	Exports	New Zealand Consumption
	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	Per Cent	Per Cent
Agricultural Produce
1928–29 to 1930–31	7.1	0.7	6.4	10	90
1933–34 to 1935–36	6.8	0.8	6.0	12	88
1936–37 to 1938–39	7.6	0.8	6.8	11	89
1943–44 to 1945–46	14.2	3.6	10.6	25	75
1944–45 to 1946–47	14.8	3.1	11.7	21	79
1945–46 to 1947–48	14.8	2.2	12.6	15	85
1946–47 to 1948–49	15.8	2.2	13.6	14	86
1947–48 to 1949–50	16.7	2.6	14.1	16	84
1948–49 to 1950–51	17.9	2.4	15.5	13	87
1949–50 to 1951–52	17.9	3.1	14.8	17	83
Pastoral Produce
1928–29 to 1930–31	28.0	18.6	9.4	66	34
1933–34 to 1935–36	24.9	19.3	5.6	78	22
1936–37 to 1938–39	34.4	26.8	7.6	78	22
1943–44 to 1945–46	43.4	36.5	6.9	84	16
1944–45 to 1946–47	47.6	40.3	7.3	85	15
1945–46 to 1947–48	54.4	47.0	7.4	87	13
1946–47 to 1948–49	62.1	54.0	8.1	87	13
1947–48 to 1949–50	78.1	66.6	11.5	85	15
1948–49 to 1950–51	122.7	101.2	21.5	82	18
1949–50 to 1951–52	136.5	114.8	21.7	84	16
Dairying, Poultry, and Bees
1928–29 to 1930–31	22.6	15.2	7.4	67	33
1933–34 to 1935–36	20.0	14.7	5.3	73	27
1936–37 to 1938–39	29.5	20.4	9.1	69	31
1943–44 to 1945–46	36.5	24.2	12.3	66	34
1944–45 to 1946–47	40.4	27.5	12.9	68	32
1945–46 to 1947–48	44.5	30.1	14.4	68	32
1946–47 to 1948–49	51.8	35.6	16.2	69	31
1947–48 to 1949–50	58.2	40.1	18.1	69	31
1948–49 to 1950–51	64.8	44.9	19.9	69	31
1949–50 to 1951–52	72.7	49.4	23.3	68	32
All Farm Produce
1928–29 to 1930–31	57.7	34.5	23.2	60	40
1933–34 to 1935–36	51.7	34.8	16.9	67	33
1936–37 to 1938–39	71.5	48.0	23.5	67	33
1940–41 to 1942–43	85.1	57.0	28.1	67	33
1941–42 to 1943–44	84.8	56.2	28.6	66	34
1942–43 to 1944–45	90.3	61.5	28.8	68	32
1943–44 to 1945–46	94.1	64.3	29.8	68	32
1944–45 to 1946–47	102.8	70.9	31.9	69	31
1945–46 to 1947–48	113.7	79.3	34.4	70	30
1946–47 to 1948–49	129.7	91.8	37.9	71	29
1947–48 to 1949–50	153.0	109.3	43.7	71	29
1948–49 to 1950–51	205.4	148.5	56.9	72	28
1949–50 to 1951–52	227.1	167.3	59.8	74	26

Of the total gross farming income during the twenty-four production years 1928–29 to 1951–52, 69 per cent came from exports of farm produce, while 31 per cent was accounted for by consumption of such produce within the country.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION.—Complete statistics covering all phases of production are not available, and in compiling the following statistics estimates of production have been made in several cases where direct data are not obtainable. Since statistical information as to production in each of the major productive activities is readily available, the items for which estimates must be made are, with the exception of one group of commodities, relatively unimportant. Although the value of products made in the home—e.g., home-made clothing, jams, kitchen-garden products, etc.—must, in the aggregate, account for a considerable annual value, it is impossible to estimate with any reasonable degree of accuracy the value of such production, which is, on this account, omitted from the statistics of the value of production.

It should be noted that production of material commodities only is taken into consideration in these statistics.

The general principle followed in assessing values has been to value products as near as possible to the actual point of production'. For example, livestock is valued at “on the hoof” prices, while values at the factory are used in the case of factory products. In some few cases, however, reliable data as to values at or near the point of production cannot be obtained; and in these cases export valuations or wholesale-price quotations have been used in assessing values. Although absolute uniformity of treatment in the basis of valuation as between different commodities has not been possible, the basis of valuation gives comparable aggregate values for the period covered. The statistics thus afford a fairly accurate indication of fluctuations in the value of production from year to year, although the absolute figures for any individual year must be regarded as an approximation only.

Since the basis of valuation is (as far as possible) at the point of production, transport costs are only partly represented in the values shown, while the accretions to the value of commodities caused by the services of retailers and other distributors of finished products are not included in the statistics.

In classifying the value of production into the principal groups care has been taken to avoid duplication, products of one group which constitute the raw material of another group being counted once only. For example, the gross value of agricultural products in 1951–52 is estimated at £41,800,000; but, as the major part of these products was utilized for the purpose of adding value to livestock, the net value only (£18,300.000) is classified under the heading “Agricultural,” since livestock and livestock products are included in either the “Pastoral” or the “Dairying, etc.,” group.

Products have been classified into the groups to which they most logically belong from a production point of view, butter and cheese, for example, being classified under “Dairying, etc.,” and not as factory products. The figure shown under the heading “Factory” is the aggregate value added to materials by the process of manufacture, excluding industries which are already included in other groups (e.g., butter and cheese making, meat freezing, fish curing, and sawmilling). As a result of the inclusion of these industries processing farm products in the appropriate farming subgroups, the values for these sub-groups and for the farming group shown in this series naturally differ from the corresponding values in the gross farming income series. The total value of output of factory industries is included in cases where the materials are produced in New Zealand and are not already included as production in some other group.

The estimates of value of production from the year 1900–01 onwards are quoted in the following table and are in terms of New Zealand currency. A global estimate such as this, is, from its nature, subject to amendment from time to time as additional data on production become available and improvements in technique are effected.

VALUE OF PRODUCTION

Year	Agricultural	Pastoral	Dairying Poultry, and Bees	Total Farming Groups	Mining	Fisheries	Forestry	Factory	Building and Miscellaneous	Totals (All Groups)
	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)
1900–01	4.1	12.2	3.7	20.0	2.9	0.1	2.0	5.4	3.5	33.9
1905–06	4.3	17.2	5.3	26.8	4.2	0.1	2.6	6.8	5.3	45.8
1910–11	4.0	20.4	7.4	31.8	4.6	0.2	2.8	8.1	5.9	53.4
1915–16	7.6	31.1	11.5	50.2	4.8	0.3	1.9	9.7	5.4	72.3
1920–21	8.8	29.4	26.2	64.4	3.1	0.4	4.6	18.6	8.4	99.5
1921–22	9.5	28.3	21.8	59.6	2.9	0.5	4.5	17.2	8.7	93.4
1922–23	8.1	30.8	25.2	64.1	3.0	0.4	4.5	18.0	10.3	100.3
1923–24	7.1	32.7	24.6	64.4	3.2	0.5	4.7	19.2	11.9	103.9
1924–25	8.1	43.3	26.2	77.6	3.1	0.5	4.8	20.8	12.7	119.5
1925–26	8.4	32.0	25.2	65.6	3.2	0.6	4.7	22.3	14.0	110.4
1926–27	8.8	31.8	24.7	65.3	3.5	0.5	4.0	23.0	14.8	111.1
1927–28	9.6	38.5	27.2	75.3	3.6	0.5	3.5	22.8	13.9	119.6
1928–29	9.9	42.4	29.3	81.6	3.6	0.5	3.4	24.0	13.1	126.2
1929–30	9.1	35.6	28.4	73.1	3.7	0.6	3.6	25.6	13.9	120.5
1930–31	8.8	24.4	22.2	55.4	3.6	0.5	2.9	23.3	11.5	97.2
1931–32	8.0	19.2	21.9	49.1	3.4	0.4	1.7	18.6	10.1	83.3
1932–33	8.9	20.3	21.2	50.4	3.4	0.4	1.7	17.7	10.1	83.7
1933–34	8.7	31.7	22.5	62.9	3.5	0.4	2.0	18.6	110	98.4
1934–35	7.9	28.0	23.0	58.9	3.8	0.4	2.6	20.7	10.3	96.7
1935–36	9.2	33.8	28.8	71.8	4.0	0.4	3.0	23.2	11.4	113.8
1936–37	8.8	46.3	33.3	88.4	4.0	0.5	3.6	26.7	12.7	135.9
1937–38	8.6	40.1	35.1	83.8	4.2	0.6	4.1	30.0	13.1	135.8
1938–39	9.2	36.7	36.0	81.9	4.4	0.6	4.0	30.5	14.7	136.1
1939–40	10.1	38.0	37.9	86.0	4.9	0.6	4.4	33.5	15.4	144.8
1940–41	10.1	47.8	40.8	98.7	5.1	0.6	4.5	37.1	14.4	160.4
1941–42	11.2	46.5	39.6	97.3	5.4	0.6	4.5	41.2	14.8	163.8
1942–43	12.6	47.8	38.2	98.6	5.3	0.6	5.0	45.2	35.5	170.2
1943–44	14.0	47.2	37.7	98.9	5.7	0.7	5.3	49.4	15.9	175.9
1944–45	15.4	56.1	44.9	116.4	5.8	0.7	5.4	52.0	16.4	196.7
1945–46	15.1	56.4	41.3	112.8	6.0	0.9	6.1	55.6	190	200.4
1946–47	15.6	64.9	50.9	131.4	6.4	1.0	6.6	61.7	23.1	230.2
1947–48	15.7	80.4	58.9	155.0	6.3	1.1	8.7	70.8	24.4	266.3
1948–49	18.5	84.0	66.3	168.8	6.9	1.2	10.5	77.0	27.8	292.2
1949–50	18.7	117.4	72.8	208.9	8.2	1.4	10.9	84.5	31.1	345.0
1950–51	19.4	214.3	81.6	315.3	9.4	1.4	12.8	97.4	36.8	473.1
1951–52	18.3	134.3	95.3	247.9	9.4	1.5	16.1	110.0	41.4	426.3

Total production was valued at £426,300,000 in 1951–52, and showed a decrease of £46,800,000, or 10 per cent, as compared with the previous year. Compared with the pre-war year 1938–39, there has been an increase of £290,200,000, or 213 per cent.

The total estimated value of farm production for 1951–52 was £247,900,000, a decrease of £67,400,000, or 21 per cent, on the previous year's figure. In comparison with the year 1938–39 farm production increased in value by £166,000,000, or by 203 per cent. The increase in volume of farm production over this period amounted to 26 per cent, so that the main factor contributing to the increase in value over 1938–39 was higher prices.

The dairying and factory groups with record output showed considerable increases of £13,700,000 and £12,600,000 respectively over the previous year. The pastoral group, due to a big drop in the price of wool and accordingly a drop in the price of livestock, showed a substantial decrease of £80,000,000 on the previous year.

It should be borne in mind that the amount shown as factory production in the value of production statistics does not include the value of production in the industries processing primary products. Production in such cases is credited to the appropriate primary-production group (dairying, pastoral, forestry, etc.).

VOLUME OF PRODUCTION.—The method of computation of the volume series is somewhat involved and is based on figures of physical volume of output where available (as for practically all farm, mining, forestry, and fishery production). For factory industries, quantity figures—either of products or of materials used—have been utilized where available, and in the case of other factory industries an estimate of volume of production is assessed by applying to the cost of materials used or of products, an index of wholesale prices of the principal materials or products of the particular industry. In the case of some of the industries where the above methods were not applicable a figure closely indicative of volume movements has been arrived at by assessing the number of man-hours worked.

Information as to the number of dwellinghouses erected, classified according to size, is normally available, and from a consideration of this data, value figures for other classes of building activity have been converted into equivalent dwelling or room units. The composite total of actual and equivalent dwelling or room units is a sufficiently reliable indicator of actual volume of building production to permit of its incorporation in an index measuring the year-to-year movement in the volume of total production. Similarly, for those physically productive occupations (representing only a small percentage of aggregate production) not included in any of the groups mentioned above, a reasonably close approximation of movement is afforded by a consideration of the numbers of men engaged, with allowance for changes in working hours and also for the relative productive output of different classes of labour.

The following table gives figures of value, and index numbers of value and volume of production, for the principal headings.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION

Base of index numbers: 1938–39 (=100)

Year	Farm			Factory^*			Total (Including Other)
	Value		Index Number of Volume	Value		Index Number of Volume	Value		Index Number of Volume
	Total	Index Number	Index Number of Volume	Total	Index Number	Index Number of Volume	Total	Index Number	Index Number of Volume
* Excluding factory industries included in other groups.
	£(m.)			£(m.)			£(m.)
1930–31	55.4	68	84	23.3	76	65	97.2	71	78
1931–32	49.1	60	84	18.6	61	56	83.3	61	75
1932–33	50.4	62	96	17.7	58	57	83.7	61	83
1933–34	62.9	77	99	18.6	61	59	98.4	72	87
1934–35	58.9	72	96	20.7	68	69	96.7	71	87
1935–36	71.8	88	101	23.2	76	76	113.8	84	93
1936–37	88.4	108	104	26.7	88	90	135.9	100	99
1937–38	83.8	102	104	30.0	98	95	135.8	100	100
1938–39	81.9	100	100	30.5	100	100	136.1	100	100
1939–40	86.0	105	102	33.5	110	110	144.8	106	105
1940–41	98.7	121	116	37.1	122	114	160.4	118	113
1941–42	97.3	119	111	41.2	135	117	163.8	120	110
1942–43	98.6	120	108	45.2	148	122	170.2	125	109
1943–44	98.9	121	105	49.4	162	129	175.9	129	108
1944–45	116.4	142	113	52.0	170	132	196.7	145	114
1945–46	112.8	138	107	55.6	182	136	200.4	147	112
1946–47	131.4	160	110	61.7	202	146	230.2	169	118
1947–48	155.0	189	113	70.8	232	159	266.3	196	123
1948–49	168.8	206	117	77.0	252	163	292.2	215	129
1949–50	208.9	255	123	84.5	277	174	345.0	253	137
1950–51	315.3	385	126	97.4	319	183	473.1	348	141
1951–52	247.9	301	126	110.0	361	191	426.3	313	143

A measure of relative productivity is afforded by the next table, which gives figures and index numbers of value and volume of production in total and per head of population.

VALUE AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTION

Year	Mean Population Year Ended 30 June	Value of Production				Volume of Production
		Total	Per Head	Index Numbers 1938.39 (= 100)		Index Numbers 1938.39 (= 100)
		Total	Per Head	Total	Per Head	Total	Per Head
* Not available.
		£(m.)	£
1900–01	812,010	33.9	41.7	25	50	^*	^*
1905–06	929,066	45.8	49.3	34	59	^*	^*
1910–11	1,050,014	53.4	50.9	39	61	^*	^*
1915–16	1,150,372	72.3	62.8	53	75	^*	^*
1920–21	1,258,313	99.5	79.1	73	94	^*	^*
1925–26	1,399,583	110.4	78.9	81	94	^*	^*
1930–31	1,504,022	97.2	64.6	71	77	78	84
1935–36	1,568,432	113.8	72.6	84	86	93	96
1937–38	1,598,570	135.8	85.0	100	101	100	101
1938–39	1,616,650	136.1	84.2	100	100	100	100
1939–40	1,636,680	144.8	88.5	106	105	105	103
1940–41	1,634,238	160.4	98.1	118	117	113	111
1941–42	1,631,375	163.8	100.4	120	119	110	109
1942–43	1,639,407	170.2	103.8	125	123	109	108
1943–44	1,641,433	175.9	107.2	129	127	108	106
1944–45	1,673,378	196.7	117.5	145	140	114	110
1945–46	1,729,195	200.4	115.9	147	138	112	105
1946–47	1,779,129	230.2	129.4	169	153	118	107
1947–48	1,816,938	266.3	146.6	196	174	123	110
1948–49	1,853,049	292.2	157.7	215	187	129	112
1949–50	1,890,752	345.0	182.5	253	217	137	117
1950–51	1,927,212	473.1	245.5	348	292	141	118
1951–52	1,970,491	426.3	216.3	313	257	143	117

MARKETING OF PRIMARY PRODUCE.—Prior to the First World War, internal arrangements for the marketing of primary produce destined for export were the subject of individual negotiation between producers and intermediaries. Government assistance in the marketing of primary products, however, had been given in many ways since organized settlement began, such as by monetary grants, by research and instruction, and by inspection and regulation in the public interest. Organized bulk marketing commenced in 1915 with the establishment of the Imperial Government Supplies Department in Wellington as agent for the New Zealand Government in controlling the export of the various items of primary produce, notably meat, wool, butter, cheese, hides and skins, etc. After the termination of Imperial bulk purchasing by March 1921 producers of meat and dairy produce viewed more favourably participation in some form of common marketing organization, though wool producers were much less favourably disposed, owing to the different circumstances pertaining in regard to overseas markets for wool.

In 1922 and 1923, therefore, attempts to gain at least some of the advantages of organization were apparent in the establishment in the former year of the Meat Producers Board under the authority of the Meat Export Control Act, and of the New Zealand Dairy Produce Control Board in 1924 under the Dairy Produce Export Control Act of the later year mentioned. Other such Boards established include the Honey Export Control Board (1924), the Fruit Export Control Board (1924), the Kauri Gum Control Board (1925), the New Zealand Poultry Board (1933), and the Wheat Committee (1936).

The effect of the economic depression of the early “thirties” affected the operations of the Boards so seriously that after an investigation by a Royal Commission, an Executive Commission of Agriculture was created in 1934 by virtue of the Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934. The Commission was granted very wide powers, including those to take over the functions of various existing Boards, and to make regulations for the improvement of marketing methods in order to improve the prices at which farm produce was being sold.

In respect of the direct control and marketing of primary produce, the Executive Commission of Agriculture was superseded by the Primary Products Marketing Department in 1936, though it continued to function in an advisory and regulatory fashion, being, among other things, responsible for the zoning of dairy factory supply areas.

The Meat Producers Board arranged for the grading, handling, and storage of meat for shipment and the regulation of shipping, while no valid contract for shipment by exporters could be made without the approval of the Board This practice continued until the early stages of the Second World War, when recourse was again made to bulk purchase between Governments, the Marketing Department taking over the export of meat.

The Dairy Board in a similar manner became responsible for the control of shipping in respect of dairy produce. As an experiment in 1927 it endeavoured to make use of its London office as the sole agent for the sale of butter and cheese, including the fixation of prices by the London agency in conjunction with distributors. This experiment was abandoned shortly thereafter, but a modified form of marketing organization was adopted in the early depression years by the preparation of a list of licensed wholesalers to whom allocations of dairy produce were made. Further plans for the more complete control of export marketing by the Board were rendered void with the establishment by the Government of the Primary Products Marketing Department (later becoming the Marketing Department) under the Primary Products Marketing Act 1936. The Department was empowered to acquire primary products and market these either in New Zealand or overseas. During the ensuing period up to the outbreak of war the operations of the Department were confined to dairy produce, while throughout this period and subsequently, payments to butterfat producers were based on the guaranteed-price scheme. Concurrently with the control of marketing of dairy produce for export the Department assumed the responsibility of marketing such products within New Zealand.

Legislation in 1937 established the Internal Marketing Division of the Primary Products Marketing Department, and the original Department became the Export Division of the Primary Products Marketing Department. The functions of the Internal Marketing Division were rapidly expanded in various directions, and it took over the processing and marketing of New Zealand standard lemons (1939); guaranteed a minimum price for kauri gum (1937); provided a minimum guarantee for eggs and undertook an advisory service for the trade (1937); and in 1940 became responsible for the administration of regulations setting up egg floors in the four main centres and in Hastings.

In 1942 it became necessary to set up floors in most of the provincial centres and these have continued to operate. The marketing of eggs became the sole responsibility of the National Egg Marketing Committee in 1951, but the committee continued to use the Department as its agent. The Poultry Industry, however, has set up its own marketing organization and took over completely at the end of 1953. In 1938 regulations administered by the Division were introduced regulating the sale and disposal of bobby calves, but in 1953 the New Zealand Dairy Board took over the administration of these regulations. In 1938 also the Minister of Marketing assumed the powers of the Honey Export Control Board. Honey in blended and packed form was distributed both within the country and to overseas markets, in 1953 this becoming the responsibility of the Honey Marketing Authority. Upon the outbreak of war in 1939 and by agreement with the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, but actually commencing duty in 1940, the staff of the Fruit Export Control Board was taken over, the Board retiring from active participation, but remaining as an advisory committee. The growers were given a fixed return for their fruit, the Government undertaking to sell the whole crop within New Zealand and to bear whatever losses were consequent upon such policy.

The existence of the Marketing Department was thus a factor in achieving a smooth changeover to a system of bulk-purchase agreements covering meat, dairy produce, wool, hides, tallow, etc., between the United Kingdom and New Zealand Governments. This procedure was to remain a dominant feature of marketing during the war and immediate post war years. Shipping and storage difficulties associated with wartime conditions also led to the export of meat becoming a function of the Marketing Department.

In the case of wool the Government utilized the services of organizations already in existence for the bulk sale of this product. General administration and the financial aspects were dealt with, however, by the Marketing Department.

The Meat Pool, Meat Industry Stabilization, and Dairy Industry Stabilization Accounts received the benefit of price increases occurring during the war years (the first mentioned, of increases in meat prices up to December 1942; the second, thereafter). The surpluses remaining in the two latter accounts, after payment of subsidies, etc., designed to keep down farm production costs, constituted reserves intended to maintain producer incomes during periods of falling prices and, in the case of the Meat Pool surplus, for the future use of the industry. The Finance Act 1950 amalgamated the Meat Pool and Meat Industry Stabilization Accounts to form the Meat Industry Reserve Account.

The present position may be summarized as set out hereunder. The Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 provides for the establishment of Marketing Authorities for the purpose of regulating the marketing of primary products (exclusive of dairy produce, wheat, potatoes, apples, pears, tobacco, wool, livestock, or meat). Those products excepted are at present the subject of separate Acts.

Marketing Authorities may be established by regulation on the recommendation of the Minister of Agriculture, who is not to recommend the making of such a regulation unless he is satisfied that a majority of the producers of the primary product concerned, are in favour of the establishment of an Authority regulating the marketing of that particular product.

It is provided that in the exercise of its functions, a Marketing Authority is to comply with the general trade policy of the Government and any directions given by the Minister pursuant to the policy of the Government.

In 1947 the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act was passed, the effect of which was to transfer the marketing of dairy produce from the Marketing Department to the Dairy Products Marketing Commission (which includes Government and producer representation) established by the Act. The Commission was given the task of determining the guaranteed price to be paid out to producers, while the general conditions to be taken into account in its determination were also specified.

The Dairy Products Marketing Commission negotiates with the overseas buyers (e.g., United Kingdom Ministry of Food) in respect of contract prices and quantities of export dairy produce, acquires and provides for the handling of the New Zealand dairy production, determines the guaranteed prices to be paid to local producers for dairy produce, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The amendment Act of 1953 empowered the Commission to acquire shares in overseas marketing companies and to delegate to a committee the control of the marketing of milk powder intended for export. The Commission is authorized to join with the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Company in setting up the Milk Powder Committee for this purpose.

In respect of meat, by arrangement with the Government in early 1948, the Meat Producers Board resumed the regulation of shipping and physical handling of meat and became responsible for the purchase of meat for export and the payment to the freezing companies for such meat. In negotiation of prices, contracts, etc., for the sale of meat and meat products overseas the representatives of the Board acted as advisers in association with the representatives of the New Zealand Government, but for the 1953–54 season's prices the Meat Producers Board was authorized to conduct the price negotiations with the United Kingdom Ministry of Food. The United Kingdom Government agreed to this procedure subject to the New Zealand Government vouching for the accuracy of any cost statistics used by the Board's representatives. Meat destined for local consumption is not dealt with by the Meat Producers Board.

The minimum-price system created by the Joint Organization for the disposal of war surplus stocks of wool was continued by the operations of the Wool Disposal Commission, which was prepared to buy, at minimum reserve prices, wool from current clips offered at public auction but in respect of which prices failed to exceed the reserve fixed. By the Wool Commission Act 1951 the Wool Disposal Commission was abolished and a Wool Commission authorized, with the principal function of assuring minimum prices for greasy, scoured, and growers' slipe wool in accordance with the table of minimum prices (effective only after agreement with the Minister), for New Zealand wool sold in New Zealand or the United Kingdom at auction sales approved by the Commission. The Wool Disposal Account was abolished and its moneys, together with those standing to the credit of the Wool Industry Deposit Account, were transferred to the Wool Commission Account which was established by the Act. The marketing of wool is carried out by public auction, though a charge on the proceeds of sales is retained by the Wool Commission sufficient to cover, administration costs and the amount of the levy imposed by the Wool Industry Act 1944. The latter amount is expended by the Wool Board for the benefit of the industry as a whole.

The Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948 set up the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board, which consists of five persons, two appointed by the Government, two nominated by the industry, and a Chairman appointed by Government after consultation with representatives of the industry. In this case the Board does not itself declare the average price to be paid for apples and pears, its powers being limited in this respect to making recommendations to the Minister of Marketing, who declares the cost of production. The Minister then, after consultation with the Board, declares the average price to be paid for apples and pears, and this price may vary by 6d. more or 6d. less than the cost of production figure. The variation up or down is determined by various tests set out in the Act. The Apple and Pear Board formerly did not employ its own staff, except for secretarial and investigational duties, the physical functions in assembly, distribution, and marketing being carried out by the Marketing Department as the agent of the Board. It has, however, from 1 December 1953 set up a complete organization and has taken over the physical functions of marketing.

The Milk Act 1944, as amended in 1951, set up a Central Milk Council under whose general direction were to be established local milk authorities of various types according to conditions. The Marketing Department, and later the Department of Agriculture, acted as the administrative agent of the Council. It also administered the National Milk Scheme under which local supply associations of farmers contract to supply the requirements in given areas at prices fixed from time to time by agreement between the industry representatives and the Government. The scheme controlled prices and allowances for processing and distribution at all stages from the farm gate to the consumer. The Milk Amendment Act 1953, however, further implemented the Government's policy of divorcing marketing of primary products from direct Government control. It provides for the setting-up of the New Zealand Milk Board to replace the Central Milk Council, with powers considerably greater than those of the Council, and for this reason one extra Government member was appointed to the Board. The Board has its own officers and operates the National Milk Scheme and treatment stations owned by the Crown, and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk.

The Central Milk Council Account is also replaced by the Milk Industry Account. While subsidies are payable from the Consolidated Fund the Board may make a levy on milk for the purpose of providing for its operations if the Minister of Agriculture approves.

The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the Board, and the appointment of wholesalers authorized to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the Board. The Board replaced the Potato Advisory Committee of the Marketing Department from November 1950.

The Egg Marketing Authority Regulations 1953 transferred to the Egg Marketing Authority the power to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in substantially the same manner and extent as those powers were exercisable by the Minister and the Department of Agriculture under the Egg Marketing Regulations 1951.

The Egg Marketing Authority consists of seven members—four producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives.

The principal function of the Authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The Honey Marketing Authority Regulations 1953 established the Honey Marketing Authority which undertakes the task of packing and marketing honey within New Zealand and overseas, hitherto carried out by the Marketing Division of the Department of Agriculture under the supervision of the Honey Marketing Committee.

There was previously in existence a Honey Export Control Board, set up in 1924, the powers of which were assumed by the Minister of Marketing in 1938. The same year regulations were made to provide for a levy at the rate of ½d. per pound on honey sold by beekeepers within New Zealand, subject to certain small exceptions. At a later date regulations under the Marketing Acts set up the Honey Marketing Committee which at first was advisory in nature, but some years later was given virtually executive powers. The latest regulations, made under the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953, now amalgamate all the foregoing provisions and provide for a Honey Marketing Authority, which is to assume control of honey for export and either directly or through agents operate the blending plant at Auckland. The levy referred to is to be continued at the rate of 1d. per pound and the funds paid into the Honey Industry Account, which will be administered by the Authority for the benefit of the industry in general. The greater part of the funds hitherto obtained from this levy has been applied to subsidizing the return received by those whose honey has been exported through the Honey Marketing Committee.

The Authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, one appointed by the National Beekeepers' Association (Inc.), and one member appointed by the Government to watch the interests of the consumer.

The Citrus Marketing Authority Regulations 1953 provides for the Citrus Marketing Authority with the principal task of selling fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand at prices related to cost of production and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The Authority will also assume control of the system, formerly operated by the Marketing Department, which is built up on the assembly and packing of fruit at Kerikeri, Auckland, Tauranga, and through an agent at Gisborne. The Authority has a membership of five, four of whom arc to be nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture to represent the consumers.

The Citrus, Egg, and Honey Marketing Regulations were validated and confirmed by the Primary Products Marketing Confirmation Act 1953.

The sole authority for the importation of oranges, bananas, pineapples, and lemons was, from 1938 to 1950, the Marketing Department. The sole right to import citrus fruits (in practice except lemons, unless at the request of the Government), bananas, and pineapples, however, passed to a newly formed company, Fruit Distributors, Limited, on 1 January 1951.

With the industry bodies, such as the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board, Egg and Honey Marketing Authorities, assuming direct control of the marketing of their produce, the remaining functions of the Marketing Department did not justify the retention of a separate Government Department and provision was made in the Marketing Amendment Act 1953 for the abolition of the Marketing Department and the transfer of its remaining functions to the Director-General of Agriculture.

As outlined earlier, the establishment of the Milk Board, and various Marketing Authorities, together with the arrangements made for the processing plants mentioned below, has resulted in these remaining functions being separated from the Department of Agriculture. A small non-profit-earning trading company is to run the three trading, storage, and primary produce processing installations at Auckland, Pukekohe, and Motueka. The company will run the plants under charter for five years, and it is then planned to convert the private into a public company.

BULK PURCHASE OF PRIMARY PRODUCE BY UNITED KINGDOM GOVERNMENT.—The deterioration in the European situation during 1938 and 1939 had led to the formulation of plans in the United Kingdom and New Zealand for the supply of foodstuffs and other produce in the event of war. These plans, which were put into effect shortly after the outbreak of war, envisaged the United Kingdom Government becoming the sole purchaser of imported foodstuffs, and the Marketing Department becoming the authority in New Zealand responsible for the bulk purchase and shipment of the various food and other products.

In general the arrangements for the purchase of produce were to continue for the duration of the war and a subsequent period to be agreed upon, except in the case of wool, where the period was fixed for the duration of the war and one season's clip thereafter. The bulk purchases of wool terminated with the sale of the 1945–46 season's clip, but early in 1944 long-term contracts were entered into in regard to butter, cheese, and meat, the period covered in the original agreement being the four production seasons 1944–45 to 1947–48. At the beginning of the 1946–47 season the period of the contracts was extended to 31 July 1950, with arrangements to confer in 1948 on the desirability of a further extension. As a result of conferences held in 1948 new long-term agreements were entered into covering the period to the end of the production year which terminates in 1955. These agreements are referred to later under their respective headings.

The principal products which came within the bulk-purchase plan which commenced at the outbreak of the Second World War were wool, dairy produce, meat, tallow, and woolly sheep skins. A brief history of the contracts entered into in regard to the three main items—wool, dairy produce, and meat—and of the principal changes that have taken place since the inception of the scheme is given on pages 319–326 of the 1950 issue of the Year-Book. In the following pages only recent years are dealt with in the text together with ten-year summary tables.

WOOL.—In the case of wool the contract commenced with the 1939–40 season's clip and was for the duration of the war and one season's clip thereafter. It was subsequently agreed that the “duration of the war” related to the “global” war, so that, following the cessation of hostilities in August 1945, the sale of the 1945–46 season's clip marked the end of the contract obligation of the United Kingdom Government. All wool not required for manufacture in New Zealand was covered by the terms of the contract.

As a result of the dislocation of normal trading conditions caused by the war huge surplus stocks of wool purchased under contract from Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand had accumulated by the end of the contract period. The total stocks of United-Kingdom-owned wool at 30 June 1945 were estimated at 3,245,000,000 lb., including 540,000,000 lb. (or 17 per cent) from New Zealand. Owing to the increased world consumption of wool, the surplus stocks were disposed of at a much faster rate than was anticipated, being at a rate of approximately 2,000,000 bales each year.

The problem of dealing with and disposing of the accumulated surplus in a manner that would not detrimentally affect future prospects of the trade resulted in the formation of a partnership between the Governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. A Joint Organization was formed and incorporated in England as a private registered company, the capital consisting of eight shares, of which four were held by the nominees of the United Kingdom, two by nominees of the Government of Australia, and one each by nominees of the Governments of New Zealand and South Africa. The company had three subsidiaries acting on its behalf, one in each of the three wool-producing countries. The subsidiary in New Zealand was the New Zealand Wool Disposal Commission established under the Wool Disposal Act 1945. This Act, which came into force on 1 January 1946, approved the agreement entered into between the four Governments and established the necessary machinery for the carrying-out of the functions of the Joint Organization in New Zealand.

The Joint Organization bought, held, and sold wool as agent for the four Governments. The post-war wool clips were not acquired by it by way of bulk contracts—the method adopted by the United Kingdom Government during the war—but these, and existing surplus wool, were auctioned as before the war, subject to a system of minimum or reserve prices, at which the Organization itself would buy if no other buyer bid that price or better. Reserve prices were fixed prior to the opening of each wool season, or at such other times as might be required, not by the Joint Organization, but by representatives of the four Governments. The price-fixing powers of the Joint Organization were limited to the making of “minor” changes in the general price level.

Stocks of wool taken over by the Joint Organization for disposal in 1945 amounted to 10,407,000 bales, the New Zealand share of this wool comprising 1,777,000 bales. By 31 July 1951 all stocks held in New Zealand were liquidated with the exception of 4,494 bales. These were later disposed of at United Kingdom auctions in early 1952.

A total final profit of £19,748,187 was estimated to accrue to New Zealand as its share from the sale of wool under the Joint Organization scheme. Most of this amount has been invested in Government securities, and is to be expended for the purposes set out in the Wool Commission Act 1951.

The operating expenses of the Joint Organization were borne equally by the woolgrowers and the Joint Organization. The share of the woolgrowers was paid from a contributory charge on all sales of current clip wool at auction sales or sales to the Joint Organization at reserve prices. The share of the Joint Organization was met by a deduction from the sales of wool held by it. The rate of the contributory charge in New Zealand was 7½ per cent for 1946–47 season, 5 per cent for 1947–48 and 1948–49, 2½ per cent for 1949–50, and ½ per cent for the 1950–51 season, this percentage being calculated on the sale value of all wool produced in New Zealand. In the case of scoured wool the rate was charged on the greasy equivalent, and in the case of sheepskins on the value of the wool on the skins.

The Wool Commission set up by the Wool Commission Act 1951, and replacing the Wool Disposal Commission, was given the necessary powers to complete the winding-up of the Joint Organization referred to in the Wool Disposal Commission Act 1945 (now repealed). The objective of the 1951 Act is to ensure that during each wool-selling season the growers selling greasy, scoured, and growers' slipe wool at auction sales will receive for their particular types of wool at least the minimum prices prescribed from time to time in the table of minimum prices prepared by the Commission. This table is not to become effective except by agreement with the Minister of Marketing. The Commission is authorized to approve auction sales in New Zealand or the United Kingdom for the purposes of the Act and, where wool is sold at less than the minimum price at an approved sale, to supplement the sale price so as to increase it to the minimum price; alternatively, the Commission may buy such wool at a price not greater than the minimum price. Provision is also made in the 1951 Act for a charge on wool sufficient to cover the costs of administration of the Act and the levy imposed by the Wool Industry Act 1944. As stated above, there was no charge imposed on the sale value of wool for seasons 1951–52 to 1953–54 to cover administration costs, the only amount deducted being the 3s. 6d. (now 4s. 6d.) levy per bale contributed to the Wool Board for its wool promotion purposes. All moneys standing to the credit of the Wool Disposal Account and the Wool Industry Deposit Account were transferred to the Wool Commission Account established by the Act.

Statistics of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand (compiled from information supplied by the New Zealand Wool Commission) are given below in two sections. The first table gives a summary of the transactions that took place during the seasons 1947–48 to 1952–53 and for 1953–54. Actual total quantities and values are shown as recorded at sales, no attempt being made to allow for variations in quality or in the relative quantities of the various types of wool sold from season to season. Besides price movements, therefore, the average value per pound of wool sold shown in this table includes variations on account of these additional factors.

WEIGHT, SALE VALUE, AND AVERAGE VALUE PER POUND OF GREASY WOOL SOLD AT AUCTION

Season	Weight of Greasy Wool Sold	Sale Value	Value Per Pound	Season	Weight of Greasy Wool Sold	Sale Value	Value Per Pound
	lb.(000)	£(000)	d.		lb.(000)	£(000)	d.
1947–48	280,729	29,375	25.11	1951.52	314,896	52,734	40.19
1948–49	287,211	30,882	25.81	1952.53	311,902	60,022	46.19
1949–50	297,886	47,138	37.98	1953.54	317,093	66,392	50.25
1950–51	293,737	107,509	87.84

In the next table details of a wool price index on base 1949–50 (= 1000) are given. This index has been compiled in an attempt to eliminate all but the price factor in movements of average wool values during the seven seasons. A description of the make-up of this index is given in the March 1952 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Season	Price Per Pound on Floor, Greasy^*	Index Numbers^† Base: 1949.50 (= 1000)	Season	Price Per Pound on Floor, Greasy^*	Index Numbers^† Base: 1949–50 (= 1000)
* Average of selected types. † Based on price on floor, clean.
	d.			d.
1947–48	25.62	676	1951.52	41.59	1088
1948–49	26.10	686	1952.53	47.07	1219
1949–50	37.98	1000	1953.54	50.83	1310
1950–51	87.47	2299

The following table shows the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per pound of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production for seasons 1938–39 to 1953–54 inclusive. The reserve prices mentioned earlier are also given for the seasons 1946–47 to 1953–54—e.g., an overall average greasy reserve price of 24d. per pound represented a range of prices over the various qualities of fleece wool from 44½d, for finest wools down to approximately 20d. for coarsest wools. In the first season of operation 1951–52, the Wool Commission bought in 1,600 bales of wool, which were subsequently sold at a profit.

Season Ended 30 Jane	Total Wool Production (Greasy Basis)	Average Price Per Pound (Greasy Basis)	Reserve Price Per Pound of Greasy Wool	Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
* Minimum floor price. † Eestimate.
	lb.(million)	d. per lb.	d. per lb.	£m.
1939	327.7	9.17		12.5
1940	310.0	12.85		16.6
1941	331.5	12.87		17.8
1942	345.0	12.88		18.5
1943	340.0	14.58		20.7
1944	330.0	14.60		20.1
1945	372.0	14.61		22.6
1946	365 0	14.51		22.1
1947	367.0	17.83	16.23	27.3
1948	362 0	25.11	16.23	37.9
1949	367.0	25.81	16.98	39.5
1950	390.0	37.98	16.98	61.7
1951	390.0	87.84	19.10	142.7
1952	407.0	40.19	24.00^*	68.2
1953	4180	46.19	24.00^*	80.4
1954	424.5^†	50.25	26.00^*	88.9^†

DAIRY PRODUCE.—In previous issues of the Year-Book there is an account of the earlier bulk purchasing agreements, the following paragraphs relating only to agreements made in 1948 and later years.

Negotiations in June and July 1948 between the United Kingdom Ministry of Food and the delegation representing the Dairy Products Marketing Commission resulted in a new long-term agreement (incorporating the unexpired term of the then current contracts) for the period throughout 1948 and up to 31 July 1955. Agreement was also reached at these discussions in respect of prices for the 1948–49 season, followed by discussions in 1949 at which prices and quantities for the 1949–50 season were agreed upon. The salient features of the 1948 agreement for the ensuing seven-year period were as follows:

All purchases are to be f.o.b. New Zealand ports and the responsibility for providing shipping for transport to rest with the United Kingdom Government:
Payment is to be made in sterling in London as to 97½ per cent on shipment and as to the remaining 2½ per cent within sixty days after the date of the last bill of lading. If the lifting of available supplies is unduly delayed, the United Kingdom Government is to make interim payments:
Prices, terms, and conditions of sale set out in the agreement are to apply throughout the period, unless before 1 May in each year either party requires reconsideration for the ensuing season. Price variations in any one season are to be subject to a maximum of 7½ per cent above or below the previous season's price:
The United Kingdom Government and the New Zealand Dairy Products Marketing Commission are to consult and agree upon the ratio of butter production to cheese production for the season and the quantities of butter and cheese which will be reserved for sale to other countries during the production season.

The agreement for the season 1947–48 had provided that New Zealand was to be at liberty to reserve for sale at her own discretion from that season's production up to 1,500 tons of butter and 1,000 tons of cheese. From this free allocation the Dairy Products Marketing Commission

could, and did, sell direct, or through exporters acting as its agents, to other countries for the purpose of maintaining connections in those markets where New Zealand has in the past enjoyed an established trade, and of exploring new markets which arc considered to hold prospects of permanent trade in the future. These free allocations are in addition to sales to specified colonies permitted by the United Kingdom Ministry of Food agreements with the Governments of the colonies concerned.

For the 1948–49 season sales of butter and cheese to the United Kingdom Government, inclusive of the amounts for the colonies as above, were to be confined to not less than 97 per cent of the exportable surplus of butter and cheese, calculated on a butterfat basis. There were no changes from the above quantities involved in the agreement for the 1949–50 season. For the 1950–51 season the agreement announced in April 1951 provided for a full 7½-per-cent increase in price for finest- and first-grade butter and a proportionate increase for finest- and first-grade cheese. There were no increases in the prices paid for second-grade butter or cheese or for whey butter. The quantity to be shipped was not to be less than 90 per cent in butterfat equivalent of exportable surplus with a maximum export of 12,000 tons of cheese to markets outside New Zealand and the programmed countries, the United Kingdom having the right to reopen the question of quantity during the season. Payment was also to be made in London as to 100 per cent on shipment in lieu of the former 97½ per cent.

Agreement reached for the 1951–52 and 1952–53 seasons provided for a 7½-per-cent increase in the price to be paid for New Zealand butter and an appropriate increase in the price for cheese. For 1953–54 the increase was approximately 4 per cent. In respect of quantities, up to 15 per cent of the exportable surplus of butter and cheese could be reserved for sale to other countries in 1951–52; for 1952–53 the corresponding figures were 12½ per cent of butter and 10 per cent of cheese; and for 1953–54, 10 and 7½ per cent respectively.

The question of long-term contracts for the sale and purchase of the exportable surplus of milk powders was also discussed in 1949 and an agreement reached by which the Ministry of Food undertook to purchase specified percentages of the exportable surplus of buttermilk powders and skimmed roller milk powder from participating dairy factories for the six-year period 1 August 1949 to 31 July 1955. For 1952–53 the prices for first-quality products were as follows, second grades being 5s. less: spray skim-milk powder in tins, 91s. sterling per hundredweight; roller skim in bags, 75s. 6d.; and roller buttermilk in bags, 65s. For 1953–54 the corresponding prices were 84s. 6d., 70s., and 60s., respectively, a decrease of 7½ per cent.

Discussions are to take place in June in London as to whether the United Kingdom - New Zealand bulk purchase dairy contract is to be continued for the 1954–55 season.

The following table shows the contract price in sterling per hundredweight of butter and cheese over the period 1943–44 to 1953–54.

Season	Butter										Cheese
	Creamery						Whey				Finest and First Grade (91 Points and Over)		Second Grade
	Finest Grade (93 Points and Over)		First Grade (90–92½ Points)		Second Grade		First Grade		Second Grade		Finest and First Grade (91 Points and Over)		Second Grade
* Excluded from contract price, as the processing of this butter into dehydrated butterfat in New Zealand for export to the United Kingdom was being considered. First-grade butterfat was purchased at 156s. 9d. sterling per hundredweight. All whey butter was shipped frozen to the United Kingdom, dehydration being discontinued at the request of the Ministry of Food.
	s.	d.	s.	d.	s.	d.	s.	d.	s.	d.	s.	d.	s.	d.
1943–44	143	1½	141	10½	138	1½	^*		^*		85	6¼	83	6¼
1944–45	150	6	149	3	145	6	142	6	138	6	89	0	87	0
1945–46	150	6	149	3	145	6	142	6	138	6	89	0	87	0
1946–47	175	0	173	9	170	0	167	0	163	0	102	6	100	6
1947–48	205	0	203	9	200	0	197	0	193	0	118	0	116	0
1948–49	235	0	233	9	230	0	227	0	223	0	133	0	131	0
1949–50	252	6	251	3	247	6	244	6	240	6	141	6	139	6
1950–51	271	6	270	3	247	6	244	6	240	6	151	0	139	6
1951–52	292	0	290	9	282	0	272	0	267	0	161	6	151	6
1952–53	314	0	312	9	304	0	294	0	289	0	176	0	166	0
1953–54	326	0	324	9	316	0	306	0	301	0	182	6	172	6

Agreement on Guaranteed Price Procedure Between New Zealand Government and New Zealand Dairy Board.—An agreement on future guaranteed price procedure between representatives of the Government and the Dairy Board (after consultation with the Dairy Products Marketing Commission) was approved in June 1952 and published as parliamentary paper H-49, 1952. The principal features of the agreement are described below.

1. The purpose of the guaranteed price scheme is to stabilize the income of the dairy farmer and to give him some certainty as to probable farm income in any production season.
2. Over a long period of years the guaranteed price scheme must be to a large extent self-balancing. The existing reserves, wisely used, will help to cushion price falls over a number of years; and in the interests of national economy and for the welfare of the dairy industry, if and when reduction becomes necessary, prices to producers for butter and cheese should be reduced gradually and in harmony with reductions on real income borne by other sections of the community.
3. In giving effect to the preceding clause there may be periods when overseas price recessions will lead to deficits in the Dairy Industry Account. The Government has stated categorically that in such circumstances the existing statutory obligations as to the guarantee of prices will be honoured. This is understood as a statement that the existing provisions of the Act will be applied so that the dairy farmer will at least receive a price sufficient to meet costs and to maintain himself and his family in a reasonable state of comfort, and the necessary moneys will be made available by the Government.
4. The desirability of discussions annually to consider whether the scheme is working in the interests of the industry and of the country as a whole was affirmed; and in particular to determine whether modification or amendments are desirable in the light of economic circumstances, marketing conditions, or practical considerations.
1. Having regard to present economic circumstances and to the balances likely to be accrued in the Dairy Industry Account as at 31 July 1952, unless otherwise agreed by the Dairy Board, it was agreed until the end of the 1954–55 season to use for the benefit of suppliers and for dairy companies the full realizations received for butter and cheese in each season.
  In arriving at this conclusion the parties had in mind that trading in overseas markets demands every effort on the part of the dairy farmer and dairy factory to produce and process a product of highest quality. The Dairy Division of the Department of Agriculture and the Dairy Board are at present engaged in a campaign aimed at securing this result, and it is inevitable that additional capital expenditure will be required both on the farm and in the factory, particularly in the initial period.
2. For these specific purposes it was agreed—
  1. That a payment under section 22 (2) (6) of the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947 be made to all dairy companies on the basis of ¾d. per pound for all butterfat received for manufacture into butter and cheese during the dairy companies' 1951–52 financial year, such payment to be in the form of a non-interest-bearing loan for approved capital expenditure. The loan will be cancelled upon production of a certificate, signed by the company's auditor, that the moneys have been expended on such approved capital expenditure:
  2. The Dairy Products Marketing Commission recognizes the validity of a claim made by the Dairy Board that farmers will be required to incur additional capital expenditure on the farm for the purposes stated above, and when fixing the guaranteed price for the 1952–53 season the Commission will take appropriate action to meet this requirement:
  3. If on calculating the guaranteed price on existing standards and methods for any of the 1952–53, 1953–54, and 1954–55 seasons it appears probable that the realizations from sale of butter and cheese would exceed the guaranteed price so calculated, the Commission before fixing the price will confer with the Dairy Board with a view to determining by agreement how the full estimated realizations for the year shall be used in accordance with clause 2 (a) above:
  4. Except as provided for below, should the movement of costs as measured by the Dairy Products Marketing Commission according to the present standards justify a price in excess of realizations, then the Commission shall determine and pay such price.
1. In March 1955 (or at any time that it is clear to the Commission and the Board that the total balance in the Dairy Industry Account may fall below £20 million) the parties to this agreement will again meet to review the operation of the scheme, to discuss any desirable amendment to the procedure operating at that date, and to arrange for the ascertainment of new cost standards and the period to which they may be applied.
2. After the date of the operation of new standards as determined in accordance with paragraph 3 (a) above, the price fixed by the Dairy Products Marketing Commission shall not in any event be lower than 95 per cent of the price indicated by the new cost standards. If at any time, and not later than 1960, it appears that the total funds in the Dairy Industry Account may fall below £10,000,000, there shall be consultation between the parties with a view to agreement to meet the position in the interests of the industry.
3. The Dairy Products Marketing Commission shall consult with the Dairy Board as to the advisability and procedure to be followed in any adjustment to the present standards in the guaranteed-price costs structure. Moreover, in any adjustment of the output per labour unit between the present standards and the standards to be adopted after 1955 due regard shall be had to allocating a proper share of the increased efficiency in output per labour unit to the credit of the dairy farmer.
4. The parties to the agreement were convinced of the urgency and importance of the need for increased capital investment in butter and cheese factories during the next few years. Considerable expansion of capital is required for the rebuilding and extension of existing factories, renewal of capital equipment, and modernization of manufacturing equipment.

Some portion of Dairy Industry Account funds could profitably be invested in dairy factories for the processing of by-products, as these will assist toward a diversification of products and an improved economic balance within the industry that will be of advantage in giving flexibility in marketing.

For these purposes it was agreed between the Dairy Products Marketing Commission and the Dairy Board that a Loans Application Committee, domiciled with the Dairy Board, be set up consisting of three representatives each of the Commission and the Dairy Board, the Chairman of such Committee to have a deliberative vote only. The Director of the Dairy Division of the Department of Agriculture is to be co-opted in an advisory capacity. The Loans Application Committee will recommend the approval of loans to the Dairy Products Marketing Commission, and only those loans approved by the Committee may be granted by the Commission. The interest rate on all such loans is 3½ per cent per annum; this rate is to apply until further notice.

Security for such loans is by irrevocable order from the dairy company or companies concerned giving the Dairy Products Marketing Commission authority to deduct the necessary repayment moneys from future purchases by the Commission. Such authority is to be accompanied by a supply agreement between shareholders and their parent company sufficient to ensure that future butterfat supply is adequate to provide repayment of the loan at an approved annual rate and over an approved period of years. The Committee may, at its discretion, waive the requirement of a supply agreement.

Loan applications will only be received in respect of future capital expenditure, and existing loans will not be recommended by the Loans Application Committee for refinance.

Guaranteed Prices for Butter and Cheese.—The fixed prices in pence per pound of butter and cheese for export payable to dairy factories under the Marketing Act 1936 and, as from the 1946–47 season, under the Dairy Products Marketing Commission Act 1947, are as follows, the figures given including total farm- and factory-costs allowances.

Season	Creamery Butter				Cheese
Season	Finest, 94 Points and Over	Finest, 93.93½ Points (Basic Grade)	First 92.92½ Points	Second Grade	Finest, 94 Points and Over	Finest, 93.93½ Points	First, 92.92½ Points (Basic Grade)	Second Grade
NOTE.—First grade (90–91½ points) creamery butter is 0.5d. higher than second grade; first grade (91–91½ points) cheese was 0.1875d. higher than second grade up to and including the 1950–51 season and 1.1375d. for the later seasons.
	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.
1943–44	16.384	16.259	16.1965	15.509	9.35225	9.321	9.196	8.946
1944–45	18.185	18.060	17.9975	17.310	10.36025	10.329	10.204	9.954
1945–46	19.059	18.934	18.8715	18.184	10.78425	10.753	10.628	10.378
1946–47	21.562	21.437	21.3745	20.687	12.08825	12.057	11.932	11.682
1947–48	23.977	23.852	23.7895	23.102	13.24825	13.187	13.062	12.812
1948–49—
Aug. 1948-May 1949	24.723	24.598	24.5355	23.848	13.68225	13.651	13.526	13.276
June-July 1949	25.8687	25.7437	25.6812	24.9937	14.20485	14.1736	14.0486	13.7986
1949–50—
Aug. 1949-April 1950	25.9944	25.8694	25.8065	25.1194	14.40195	14.3707	14.2457	13.9957
May-July 1950	26.5924	26.4674	26.4045	25.7174	14.68275	14.6515	14.5265	14.2765
1950–51—
Aug. 1950–14 Feb. 1951	27.2839	27.1589	27.0964	26.4089	15.10845	15.0772	14.9522	14.7022
15 Feb. 1951-July 1951	28.715	28.59	28.5275	27.84	15.81425	15.783	15.658	15.408
1951–52	30.9316	30.8066	30.7441	30.0566	17.3125	17.2150	17.0000	15.8000
1952–53	32.6622	32.5372	32.4747	31.7872	18.4125	18.3150	18.1000	16.9000
1953–54—
Aug. 1953–14 Sept. 1953	32.6622	32.5372	32.4747	31.7872	18.4872	18.3897	18.1747	16.9747
15 Sept. 1953-July 1954	34.4782	34.3532	34.2907	33.6032	19.4505	19.353	19.138	17.938

In addition to the guaranteed price payments, payouts are to be made from realizations of the sale of butter and cheese in the 1951–52 and 1952–53 seasons, in accordance with the agreement by which the full proceeds received from the sale of these commodities up to the end of the 1954–55 season are to be used for the benefit of suppliers and/or dairy companies.

It was decided to make the following distribution surpluses thus accruing from the 1951–52 and 1952–53 seasons:

A monthly payment to dairy farmers during the 1952–53 season of ⅝d. per pound of butterfat used in the manufacture of butter and cheese. This payment is to assist with capital expenditure on dairy farms and comprises ⅜d. per pound from the 1951–52 surplus, and ¼d. per pound from the 1952–53 surplus:
A monthly payment to dairy farmers during the 1953–54 season of ⅜d. per pound of butterfat used in the manufacture of butter and cheese unless, during the 1952–53 season, there occurs any material alteration in any of the factors on which the estimated next trading surplus for the season was based. This amount of ⅜d. is to be made from the 1952–53 surplus:
Payments to dairy companies as interest-free loans for approved capital expenditure, such amounts to be cancelled on production of certificates that the moneys have been expended on approved capital works, at the following rates: ¾d. per pound of butterfat received for manufacture into butter and cheese during the 1951–52 and 1952–53 seasons.

The prices quoted in the preceding table enabled efficient dairy' companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in pence per pound of butterfat for butter or for cheese manufactured over the same period. Also given is the average payout per pound of butterfat supplied for seasons up to 1948–49, the amounts shown including farm-costs and farm-labour allowances, and of average net revenue for later seasons.

Season	Price Per Pound of Butterfat Used for—
Season	Butler-making (Basic Price)	Cheese-making (Basic Price)	Butter-making (Average Payout or Net Revenue)	Cheese-making (Average Payout or Net Revenue)
* Additional amounts at the rate of ⅝d. per pound 1952–53 and ⅜d. per pound 1953–54 are also payable (see text above). † Not yet available.
	d.	d.	d.	d.
1943–44	17.257	19.257	17.597	19.655
1944–45	19.377	21.377	19.790	22.055
1945–46	20.394	22.394	20.568	22.884
1946–47	23.391	25.391	23.691	25.753
1947–48	25.907	27.907	26.229	27.945
1948–49—
August 1948 to May 1949	26.751	28.751	27.369	29.190
June 1949 and July 1949	28.146	30.146	27.369	29.190
1949–50—
August 1949 to April 1950	28.244	30.244	28.720	30.785
May 1950 to July 1950	28.972	30.972	28.720	30.785
1950–51—
August 1950 to 14 February 1951	29.678	31.678	30.568	12.425
15 February 1951 to July 1951	31.407	33.407	30.568	12.425
1951–52	33.655	36.155	34.106	36.764
1952–53^*	35.670	38.670	35.916	38.958
1953–54^*
August 1953 to 14 September 1953	35.834	38.834	^†	^†
15 September 1953 to July 1954	37.984	40.984	^†	^†

The structure of the basic price per pound of butterfat for butter manufacture over the period is given in the next table.

Season	Working Costs	Capital Charges	Labour Reward	Total Price Per Pound Butterfat
	d.	d.	d.	d.
1943–44	6.107	3.240	9.450	17.257
1944–45	6.757	3.240	10.920	19.377
1945–46	7.254	3.240	11.440	20.394
1946–47	8.015	3.240	13.676	23.391
1947–48	10011	3.240	14.196	25.907
1948–49—
August 1948 to May 1949	10.179	3.240	14.872	26.751
June 1949 and July 1949	10.179	3.240	16.267	28.146
1949–50—
August 1949 to April 1950	10.199	3.240	16.345	28.244
May 1950 to July 1950	10.199	3.240	17.073	28.972
1950–51—
August 1950 to 14 February 1951	10.905	3.240	17.073	29.678
15 February 1951 to July 1951	10.905	3.240	18.802	31.407
1951–52	12.342	3.240	19.613	33.655
1952–53	12.451	3.240	21.519	35.670
1953–54—
August 1953 to 14 September 1953	12.615	3.240	21.519	35.834
15 September 1953 to July 1954	12.615	3.240	23.669	37.984

The total price given in each case is the figure arrived at after adding the three units allowed respectively for farm working and maintenance, capital charges, and labour reward, but after subtracting a return fixed at 1.540d. per pound of butterfat, this being a standard allowance for pigs. The price for butterfat for cheesemaking was 2d. a pound higher in each year from 1937–38 to 1950–51. For 1951–52 this price was 2½d. higher, and for 1952–53 and 1953–54, 3d. higher, than the price of butterfat for butter manufacture.

MEAT.—As in the case of dairy produce, details of bulk purchasing agreements, etc., for earlier years may be found in previous issues of the Year-Book, the account presented now relating only to 1948 and later years.

An agreement was signed in 1948 covering the period October 1948 to 30 September 1955, the general scope of this long-term contract for the purchase of the exportable surplus of meat (after providing for domestic consumption and quantities to be mutually agreed upon for supply to other markets) being as follows:—

The arrangement covers the total available supplies of beef, veal, mutton, and lamb, and the frozen sundries and edible offals thereof. All products named are to be as normally graded for export and available for shipment in the period i October 1948 to 30 September 1955:
During the first four years of the agreement the quantity of pig meat covered by the contract is to be the total available supplies, the United Kingdom to negotiate in advance the quantities required in the final three years:
The prices are to be reviewed annually, but are subject to a maximum annual variation of 7½ per cent above or below the previous year's price (see, however, text following):
Purchases are to be on an f.o.b. basis, and the responsibility of providing freight rests with the United Kingdom Government. Payment is to be made in sterling in London as to 97½ per cent on shipment and the remaining 2½ per cent within sixty days after the date of the last bill of lading. If the lifting of available supplies is unduly delayed, the United Kingdom Government is to make interim payments:
The United Kingdom Government will progressively resume the importation of chilled beef from New Zealand as and when the shipping position permits.

Negotiations on meat prices for the 1951–52 season resulted in the United Kingdom Ministry of Food agreeing to make a special adjustment on all prices in view of certain circumstances and to pay an average price increase of 15 per cent for lamb and approximately 10 per cent for mutton for the 1951–52 season. Beef prices were also substantially increased.

During the negotiations for the 1952–53 season's prices, alterations were made to the conditions of the long-term agreement in so far as they affected the annual price variations. It was agreed that for the remaining period of the existing long-term contract (which was due to expire at the end of the 1954–55 season), variations in prices on account of movement in prices paid to other countries supplying the United Kingdom would be limited to 10 per cent instead of 7½ per cent. However, if costs of production in New Zealand were proved to have moved by more than 10 per cent, the limitation would not apply and prices might move to the extent that costs had altered. The negotiations resulted in an overall average price increase of 12½ per cent, and ranged from 15 per cent for lamb, quarter beef, and porkers, to 20 per cent for wethers, 7½ per cent for edible offal, and no increase for ewe meat and baconers.

The contract prices for the 1953–54 season show an increase of 7½ per cent for lamb and lamb offals, and an average increase of approximately 5½ per cent for mutton and mutton offals (varying according to weight and quality). Prices for frozen beef have been increased by 5½ per cent, while the premium of £26 10s. a ton for chilled beef is to remain, and a new classification of frozen beef, “baby beef”, is to receive a premium of 13s. 4d. per 100 lb. over prime frozen beef.

It was announced by the Government in March 1954 that New Zealand had accepted the United Kingdom Government's offer to cancel the bulk purchase agreement for meat on 30 September 1954, a year before the contract was due to expire.

A review of the contract prices under the bulk-purchase agreements for the period 1943–44 to 1953–54 is given in the following table. All prices are in sterling per pound. Where seasons are combined, this indicates that there was no change during the seasons concerned.

Item	Season
Item	1943–44	1944–45 and 1945–46	1946–47 and 1947–48	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53	1953–54
* These prices were increased to 12.5349d. and 7.3420d. respectively for the period 23 April to 30 September 1951.
Lambs—	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.	d.
Downs (23–36 lb.)	6.75	8.5	9.1375	10.8375	11.6503	12.4003	14.3866	16.25	17.47
Canterbury (23–36 lb.)	6.6875	8.4166	9.0478	10.7312	11.5361	12.2861	14.2002	1606	17.26
Cross bred (23–36 lb.)	6.5625	8.25	S.8687	10.5187	11.3076	12.0577	13.9362	15.81	16.99
Seconds (23–36 lb.)	6.25	7.8333	8.4208	9.9875	10.7366	10.7366	12.4341	15.03	16.16
Wethers—
Prime (48 lb. and under)	5.0625	5.75	6.1812	7.3312	7.8811	7.8811	8.8336	10.60	11.61
Seconds (56 lb. and under)	4.4375	4.9166	5.2853	6.2687	6.7389	6.7389	7.3039	8.76	9.46
Ewes (49–56 lb.)	3.5	3.6666	3.9416	4.675	5.0256	5.0256	5.4906	5.49	5.54
Quarter beef—
Ox and heifer G.A.Q.—
Hinds	4.9375	5.8333	6.2708	7.4375	7.9953	9.0343^*	12.25	14.09	14.86
Fores	3.125	3.4166	3.6728	4.3562	4.6829	5.2916^*	9.5625	11.00	11.60
Ox and heifer F.A.Q.—
Hinds	40	4.5833	4.927	5.8437	6.2820	6.2820	10.75	12.36	13.04
Fores	3.0625	3.3333	3.5833	4.25	4.5687	4.5687	8.6875	9.99	10.54
Cow G.A.Q.—
Hinds	3.8125	4.3333	4.6583	5.525	5.9394	5.9394	8.0574	9.27	10.14
Fores	30	3.25	3.4937	4.1437	4.4545	4.4545	6.3555	7.31	8.48
Porkers—
Full carcases (first quality)	7.725	8.0833	8.9927	10.6701	11.4702	14.4702	19.2	23.57	23.57
Sides (first quality)	7.875	8.4167	9.3635	11.11	11.9432	14.9432	20.8125	25.95	25.95
Baconers—
Full carcases (first quality)	7.7875	8.1666	9.0853	10.78	11.5885	14.5885	17.2672	18.19	18.19
Sides (first quality)	8.625	9.0834	10.1052	11.99	12.8892	15.8892	20.2906	20.94	20.94

The f.o.b. prices (i.e., for bare meat only) paid to the exporters and freezing companies by the Meat Producers Board as agent for the marketing authority, the New Zealand Government, are fixed by the Meat Producers Board in consultation with the Government; until recently factors such as contract prices, encouragement or discouragement of certain types of meat by means of price differentials, costs of production and movements therein being taken into account. From the commencement of the 1951–52 season meat producers are to receive the full amount of the proceeds from meat exported (this is similar to the procedure in respect of dairy produce).

To the bare meat prices are added allowances for pelts, fat, and wool in the case of lamb and mutton, and for fat and hides in the case of beef; deducted from the totals are the killing and freezing, processing, buying and administration, interest and insurance charges. The resultant prices are the basis of those paid to producers. Up to the 1949–50 season a true opening schedule could be established as the meat, by-products (except wool, which was taken in at a determined figure), processing, and freezing charges were all fixed beforehand. Since that season it has not been possible, owing to producers being paid the full market values for by-products and the de-control of processing charges, to compile an opening schedule with the same accuracy. During the currency of each season a nominal schedule of prices, based on the fixed f.o.b. meat prices and the current market for by-products with due allowance for processing and freezing charges, is issued as a guide to producers selling stock to meat operators.

As the fat stock prices include allowances for pelts, wool, fat, and hides, adjustments to them are therefore made by the exporters and freezing companies during the currency of the season on account of wool growth and values.

The schedules for the 1943–44 to 1953–54 seasons are given below.

Item	Season
Item	1943–44	1944–45	1945–46	1946–47	1947–48 and 1948–49^*	1949–50	1950–51 ^†	1951–52	1952–53	1953–54
* Schedule unchanged from 1947–48 except for boner beef, which rose to 31s. † Owing to the late commencement of the season, figures quoted arc the effective opening prices issued in December 1950. ‡ From 1947–48 to 1952–53 price is given for 720 lb. and under, and from 1953–54, 880 lb. and under.
Price of Lamb, Wether, and Ewe Mutton, in Pence per Pound
Lambs—
Downs (36 lb. and under)	8½	9	9½	10	11⅛	11½	19	16¾	19½	20¼
Canterbury (36 lb. and under)	8½	9	9½	10	11⅛	11½	19	16¾	19½	20¼
Cross bred (36 lb. and under)	8¼	8¾	9¼	9¾	10⅞	11¼	18¾	16½	19	19¾
Seconds (36 lb. and under)	7¾	8¼	8¾	9⅛	9⅞	10½	17¾	15	18¼	19
Wethers—
Primes (48 lb. and under)—
North Island	5¼	5¾	5¾	6½	7⅛	7½	10½	10	11¼	12½
South Island	5	5¼	5½	6¼	6⅞	7¼	10	9	10	11⅝
Seconds (56 lb. and under)—
North Island	4½	5¼	5¼	5¾	6⅜	6¾	9½	9	10½	12½
South Island	4¼	5	5	5½	6⅛	6½	9	8½	10	12
Ewes (56 lb. and under) (N.I.)	3⅛	3⅝	3⅝	4⅛	4¾	5⅛	7½	6½	6	7½
Price in Shillings and Pence, Per 100 lb. of Beef
Quarter beef—
Ox, heifer, baby beef										117 0
Ox—
G.A.Q. (840 lb. and under)^‡	34 0	40 0	42 0	46 0	51 0	57 0	70 0	91 0	100 0	104 0
F.A.Q. (all weights)	29 0	35 0	37 0	40 0	43 0	49 0	58 6	67 0	88 6	92 0
Heifer—
G.A.Q. (840 lb. and under)^‡	33 0	39 0	41 0	45 0	50 0	56 0	70 0	91 0	100 0	104 0
F.A.Q. (all weights)	28 0	34 0	36 0	39 0	42 0	48 0	58 6	67 0	88 6	92 0
Cow, G.A.Q. (all weights)	27 6	33 6	35 6	38 0	41 6	47 6	58 0	64 6	75 0	73 0
Boner beef (cow)	22 0	23 0	23 0	26 0	28 6	34 0	48 0	50 0	75 0	60 0

The substantial increases shown for recent years were largely due to higher allowances for skins, wool, and hides involved in the determination of opening prices. The 1950–51 season was the first season since 1938–39 in which pelt prices were not stabilized, while the allowance for wool reflected the substantial increase in values recorded in sales for those years. The 1952–53 figures showed the effect of more stable wool prices and the higher f.o.b. meat prices.

TALLOW.—Bulk purchase by the United Kingdom of all surplus tallow available for export commenced during the 1939–40 season. Provision was made for the normal entitlement of export (not exceeding 4,000 tons) to India. On completion of the contract, arrangements were made through the Price Tribunal for the fixation of local prices for tallow conforming to the corresponding prices for export and incorporated in the Purchase of Tallow Order 1940. The sterling cost and freight price (less freight charge) was converted into New Zealand currency and, after deduction of 4s. 6d. per ton to cover administrative and interest charges, became the purchase price at f.o.b. from the New Zealand manufacturers.

The difference between subsequent contract prices and those payable to local manufacturers was paid into the Meat Pool and Meat Industry Stabilization Accounts (later the Meat Industry Reserve Account).

The exportable surplus of tallow was contracted for by the United Kingdom for each season from 1939–40. While the United Kingdom agreed to accept the whole exportable surplus for 1950–51, it also stated that New Zealand would be free to sell the exportable surplus of edible tallow to other markets if such were available. For 1951–52 the contract permitted the export of an amount (not exceeding 4,000 tons) of tallow to India. Though there had been some increases in the purchase price from New Zealand manufacturers during the period 1945–46 to 1949–50, commencing from the 1950–51 season full payments were made to the manufacturers—i.e., world parity for tallow sent to markets outside the United Kingdom and contract rates for tallow sent to the United Kingdom. The contract system was terminated as from the end of the 1951–52 season, and the export of tallow is now on a trader-to-trader basis.

A table showing the contract prices obtained for tallow during the period in which the contract system operated (1939–40 to 1951–52) is given on page 427 of the 1953 Year-Book.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES.—In the preceding pages reference is made to amounts paid in to the various primary produce accounts, these normally accruing from the surpluses obtained after deducting from the contract or sterling prices received for primary produce the amounts paid to producers by way of guaranteed prices, purchase prices, etc.

The following table shows the balances remaining in the various farm industry reserves during the period quoted, the source of the data being the parliamentary paper B-5, 1953.

Balances as at 31 July	Dairy Industry Stabilization Account	Meat Industry Reserve Accounts	Wool Capital Account^*	Wool Contributory Charge^†	Wool Retention Moneys
* Profits from disposal of wool stocks taken over by Wool Disposal Commission at the end of the war. † This was a levy on all wool sold at auction. ‡ As at 30 September from 1948. § Estimated total credited to individual wool retention accounts for 1950–51 wool season.
	£(N.Z.)	£(N.Z.)	£(N.Z.)	£(N.Z.)	£(N.Z.)
1942		749,801
1943		1,883,547
1944	1,066,599	4,317,432
1945	4,675,446	9,159,084
1946	4,703,240	12,201,928
1947	8,907,459	18,222,140	5,046,287 Dr.	1,165,402
1948	12,663,487	25,628,635^‡	1,047,385 Dr.	2,592,618
1949	15,331,087	29,535,660	5,181,539 Cr.	4,205,416
1950	18,449,547	35,337,273	12,933,244 Cr.	5,563,391
1951	23,037,189	37,255,651	19,608,187 Cr.	6,166,721	32,755,151^§
			Wool Commission Account
			(30 June)
1952	23,584,778	40,429,379	£26,672,685	28,117,210
1953 (estimated)	24,022,000	38,700,000	£27,613,367	21,786,961

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry from public funds. In addition, agricultural and pastoral production is assisted financially by grants to the agricultural colleges. A more detailed survey of subsidies generally is given in Section 36.

Subsidies reached their peak during the war and immediate post-war years, details of which are available in earlier issues of the Year-Book. In more recent years there has been a considerable curtailment of this type of assistance to farmers.

The following table shows the payments during the last three years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Refer text of following paragraph.
	£	£	£
Carriage of lime	363,904^*	424,252^*	406,713^*
Carriage of fertilizers	86,262	261,633	94,880
Imported phosphatic fertilizers	275,717^*	161,897^*
Stock Act: compensation and incidental expenses	24,680	79,607	79,925
Milk marketing: compensation for loss of production from compulsory tuberculosis test	1,008	52,185	49,170
Meat Act: compensation	17,074	18,036	18,580
Grants to agricultural colleges	119,480	146,836	150,317
Subsidies to Rabbit Boards	277,797	346,402	370,494
Grants to Rabbit Boards	200,800	342,000	353,000
Cow-testing organizations	23,333	38,333	37,333
Destruction of wild pigs	1,942	1,788	1,946
Destruction of kea	261	216	268
Veterinary Services Council	42,080	39,139	43,596
Maize	1,652^*
Potatoes and onions	42,023

In certain cases there is an agreement between the farmers' organizations and the Government that certain proportions of the subsidy paid can be recovered from the various stabilization or reserve accounts of the farming industry. In the above table the items to which this arrangement applied during the period covered are indicated by asterisks. The total amount recovered in each of the three (July) years was £475,000 in 1950–51, £426,000 in 1951–52, and £426,298 in 1952–53.

Comment on some of the more important items is necessary to explain their origin and significance.

Fertilizer and Lime Subsidies.—The transport of lime has been subsidized for many years to encourage its wider use. The present system was introduced in 1947, the former system of free railage for 100 miles having previously been withdrawn.

The present system, which has been amended slightly several times, is designed to encourage lime use by assisting farmers remote from limeworks. In very broad terms the road transport subsidy is granted at the rate of 4d. per ton-mile for distances of from 4 to 20 miles and after that, 6d. per ton-mile. This applies to deliveries direct from works to farm. For deliveries by road after carriage by rail, the rate is 4d. for 4 to 10 miles, and after that 6d. For deliveries by rail only, the farmer pays the full charge for the first 15 miles and receives a rebate of 75 per cent of the remainder of the rail charge.

These figures reflect several trends, the most important of which is the substantial increase in lime usage, with an increasing proportion in areas remote from works. This has been counteracted to some extent by the opening of new works in localities previously dependent on long rail hauls.

Of the total cost, 85 per cent is borne by the Farm Stabilization Accounts and the balance by the Consolidated Fund. These proportions represent approximately the shares which should be respectively borne by the export and locally consumed portions of farm produce.

The subsidy on the transport of fertilizer has been introduced owing to the inability of the railways—mainly in the Auckland and Taranaki districts—to cope with the seasonal demand for fertilizers. Assistance has been given to the farmer to the extent of the difference between the actual cost by auxiliary transport and what the cost would have been by normal rail delivery. Recent improvements in the rail position make it probable that the subsidy will be discontinued in the near future.

The subsidy on imported phosphatic fertilizer between July 1949 and May 1951 was designed to redress in some measure the wide disparity in the price of these materials and that of locally made superphosphate.

Other Items.—Most of the remaining subsidies represent attempts to deal with specific problems of disease and pest control which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups. Under this heading come such items as compensation for diseased stock under the Meat Act and Stock Act, grants and subsidies to Rabbit Boards, and destruction of kea and wild pigs. Subsidies of this nature are mostly charges against the vote of the Department of Agriculture. They are not recoverable except in the case of compensation paid for diseased stock under the Meat Act and Stock Act, where a partial recovery is obtained by the sale of by-products from condemned stock. In the case of the compensation paid for loss of production from cows condemned under an amendment to the Stock Act 1945 from herds supplying town milk, the whole charge is met from vote “Milk Marketing.”

The subsidy on potatoes and onions during the period of operation was in respect of supplies grown under Government contract but not actually sold, either through excess supply or difficulties of transport from the South Island.

Chapter 20. SECTION 20—FARM PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

20 A—GENERAL

20 B—CROPS

20 C—LIVESTOCK

20 A—GENERAL

NEW ZEALAND is a pastoral country. Of the 43,000,000 acres occupied by farm holdings of one acre and over situated outside borough boundaries, sown pastures cover 18,000,000 acres and pastures of tussock and other native grasses a further 13,000,000 acres. These grasslands support 5,400,000 cattle (of which 1,960,000 are dairy cows in milk) and 36,200,000 sheep. After allowing for 10,000,000 acres taken up by areas in fern, scrub, and second growth, standing bush, and barren and unproductive land, approximately 2,000,000 acres are left, this comprising areas in field crops, private gardens, market gardens, orchards, plantations of trees, fallow land, areas in flax, etc. Of the field crops, cash crops such as wheat, oats, barley, peas, linseed, and potatoes account for 318,000 acres, and green fodder and root crops for winter and summer supplementary feed for stock, 715,000 acres. In addition, a further 98,000 acres are annually sown under wheat, oats, barley, and maize for the purposes of green fodder, or chaff, hay, and ensilage. From this an indication is obtained of the importance of the grazing animal in the economy of this country.

The natural tussock grassland, which occurs mainly on the hilly and mountainous country to the east of the Main Divide of the South Island, is used for extensive pastoral farming, where the main product is wool and in some instances store sheep, while on the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are additional products. The third type of grassland, that sown after ploughing, is found on the flat and gently undulating country of both Islands and is used mainly for the production of meat and dairy produce. It is in the latter area that considerable progress has been made over the past thirty years. Here farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers and phosphatic fertilizers and lime. However, the advent of the blower, and, more particularly, the use of aircraft for top-dressing hill pastures, has resulted in considerable areas of surface-sown grassland being top-dressed in the last two years. This treatment of country otherwise inaccessible to normal top-dressing methods is expected to result in considerable improvement to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

With the development of the country's water resources for hydro electricity most farming districts have been reticulated with electricity, which is being put to a variety of uses on the farm, but by far the most important is that of providing power for milking machinery. For instance, in the dairying districts of the North Island there are approximately 82,000 electric motors, which is 67 per cent of the total number used on farms in New Zealand.

The North Island.—Because of the temperate climate, which makes possible the grazing of stock outside all the year round, many parts of the North Island have proved very suitable for dairying. Nearly 84 per cent of the total dairy cows in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, the Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Manawatu, and Horowhenua districts. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. The area saved for this purpose in these dairying districts comprises approximately 71 per cent of the total area saved in New Zealand. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is associated with dairying, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

Various forms of sheep farming are carried on throughout the Island, but it is most concentrated on the eastern section from the Wairarapa, through Hawke's Bay, to the hill country north of Gisborne. Approximately half of the sheep in the North Island are in this section. Extensive sheep farming is the main feature, the receipts from the sale of store sheep and store cattle contributing a considerable portion of the farm revenue.

Where climatic and soil conditions are favourable, orchard areas, market gardens, and other specialized types of farming are found. The Pukekohe district, 30 miles south of Auckland, provides that city with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both cities with these vegetables. Further large areas are utilized for these purposes in Hawke's Bay, around Hastings, from where also comes the largest contribution of canned or processed vegetables.

In certain particularly warm areas of the Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne. The main orchard area is located at Hastings, where there are approximately 3,000 acres of pip and stone fruits.

It is in the North Island that the principal areas of undeveloped land remain, these being situated mainly on the central plateau. The State is active in developing some of this land for farming.

The South Island.—Sheep farming is carried on in practically all parts of the Island. On the tussock grasslands, particularly on the higher parts, extensive sheep farming is practised. Merino and half-bred flocks predominate, with emphasis on the production of fine wool. Because of the comparatively severe climate—hot, dry summers and cold winters with occasional heavy snow-storms—there is a considerable risk of heavy sheep losses. On the easier hill country, in addition to returns from wool, a considerable portion of the revenue comes from the sale of store sheep, which are purchased by the farmers on the plains and undulating country for fattening and for flock-replacement purposes.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 91 per cent of New Zealand's wheat acreage, 90 per cent of the area in oats, and 86 per cent of the barley acreage are in these districts. Associated with cereal production is fat-lamb raising, for sheep and lambs are fattened on the majority of these farms. On account of the dry summers and relatively severe winters considerable areas (approximately 73 per cent of the New Zealand acreage) of rape, kale, turnips, and swedes are grown for summer and winter supplementary feed.

Dairying is very localized and is concentrated near the cities to cater for whole-milk requirements. Districts where herds are run for dairy-factory supply are the plains areas of Southland, parts of Nelson and Westland, and Banks Peninsula, in Canterbury.

Market gardening is carried on near the cities, and on the rich soils near Christchurch some 2,400 acres are devoted to this purpose; also to the immediate south of Oamaru and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin there are other areas aggregating 1,200 acres. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

With the warm climate and more frost-free areas, the Nelson and Motueka districts are the most important orchard districts in the country, as well as being the centre of New Zealand's tobacco-growing industry. Around the Alexandra and Roxburgh districts in Central Otago, with its almost continental climate, is situated New Zealand's major stone-fruit-growing areas.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.—The Department of Agriculture has existed as a separate Department since 1893. In 1953 it was, however, formally constituted by virtue of the Department of Agriculture Act 1953. The principal functions of the Department as set out therein are—(a) to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; (b) to promote and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

Under the control of the Minister of Agriculture, the Department of Agriculture provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of primary production. Under a Director-General of Agriculture there are Directors of Divisions of Animal Industry, Animal Research, Dairy, Extension, Horticulture, and Marketing.

While the service is primarily educative, it also carries out important inspection work. Under the Animal Industry Division all meat killed at meat-export slaughterhouses and abattoirs is inspected by qualified officers, and periodical inspections are carried out at registered slaughterhouses. The registration of town-milk-supply premises is a function of the Division, and the necessary inspection and supervision are carried out by its officers. A comprehensive service, diagnostic and remedial, is provided in regard to the health of all classes of livestock. Cattle are examined for tuberculosis and other bovine troubles, and the Department's officers have power to condemn diseased stock. All stock exported and imported is examined by the veterinarians of the Department. Special instruction and advice are given in poultry-keeping, swine husbandry, and wool growing and handling. Among other activities, the Department is concerned with the control of rabbits and noxious-weed destruction.

The Animal Research Division, which was formed in 1939, works in co-operation with the Animal Industry, Dairy, and Extension Divisions, and is also in active collaboration with other institutions engaged in animal research, notably the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and Massey and Canterbury Agricultural Colleges. The Division has well-equipped laboratories at Wallaceville and at its research station at Ruakura, an important function of the former being the provision of a diagnostic service to the officers of the Animal Industry Division, while the latter is concerned mainly with animal nutrition and breeding.

Instruction in the manufacture of butter, cheese, etc., is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy produce is inspected and graded before shipment, a close supervision being also exercised over the moisture content of butter and cheese, as well as over the weights of such produce; dairy-farm premises are inspected; herd testing is promoted, and a system of semi-official testing of purebred dairy cows is in operation. Milk samples are tested for dairy companies and farmers. The Division has been also responsible for the administration of market-milk treatment.

The Extension Division is concerned with research and advisory work in soil management, crop and pasture production, and farm management. A field staff of instructors in agriculture acts as a link between the research stations and farmers, and also carries out co-operative field trials and demonstrations on farmers' properties. The Division has special sections devoted to seed certification and agronomy, field experimental work, agrostology, farm management and economics, fertilizers and lime, rural sociology, home economics, farm engineering and machinery, and farm forestry. The Division controls the following stations: Seed-testing Station, Palmerston North; Rukuhia Soil Research Station, Hamilton; Experimental Area, Marton; Phormium plantations, Moutoa; Flock House Farm of Instruction, Bulls; Winchmore Irrigation Station, Ashburton; and Invermay Agricultural Research Station, Taieri.

The Horticulture Division is charged with orchard instructional work, instruction to beekeepers and tobacco-growers, and the inspection of fruit and trees imported and offered for sale. It also inspects orchards and apiaries, inspects fruit for export, and grades export honey. The Te Kauwhata Horticultural Station, in the lower Waikato district, is mainly devoted to vine growing and wine making, and the Levin Station in the Wellington district to research, mainly relating to small-fruit production. There are also several other smaller experimental and demonstration areas.

The instructional work on agriculture covers a comprehensive field, farmers being assisted by visits or by letters of advice. Numbers of farmers also co-operate with the Department in conducting experiments on their farms. The New Zealand Journal of Agriculture is published monthly, and bulletins are frequently issued. Any farmer may obtain advice regarding his soil, have seed examined for germination capacity and purity, milk tested for butterfat content or for the presence of disease, plants identified, and diseases of either animals or plants described and remedies suggested, all these services being rendered free of charge. Among other responsibilities of the Department is the registration of livestock brands, slaughterhouses, dairies, dairy factories, fertilizers, orchards, nurseries, market gardens, apiaries, etc.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH.—Under the supervision of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research the Department devotes a large part of its activities to the promotion of agricultural research. In carrying out its programme the Department initiates and encourages the organization of co-operative research in industry, hence research associations have been formed which are subsidized by the Department and assisted by its staff in order to make the best possible use of the available resources.

The work of the branches of the Department covers nearly every phase of agriculture. The Botany, Crop Research, and Plant Diseases Divisions, together with the Fruit Research Station, all assist farmers, fruitgrowers, nurserymen, and gardeners in their specialized spheres to eliminate (or to reduce the destructive effect of) all types of plant diseases and insects, to increase yields, and to improve the strains of various plants. The Animal Ecology Section conducts research on rabbits and other pests, and suggests control measures. Regional survey work is carried out to obtain information on native and introduced mammals and birds.

The improvement of New Zealand pastures, through studies of plant breeding, pasture ecology, plant chemistry, etc., is the aim of the Grasslands Division. Overseas species are plot-tested, and studies are made with a view to increasing yields of clover seed, etc. The Entomological Research Station has made a major contribution to pastoral farming in devising a method of controlling grass grub; in addition, it handles a wide range of insect problems in agricultural crops. The Soil Bureau is responsible for a soil survey of New Zealand and carries out research on the relationship of the soil to problems of agriculture, forestry, and engineering; problems of phosphate fixation and the uptake of phosphate by plants are also being investigated.

Among the incorporated research associations is the Dairy Research Institute (N.Z.) (Inc.), concerned with nearly every aspect of dairy production—utilization of products, farm efficiency, diseases, and hygiene. Much experimental work in this direction is carried out at Massey Agricultural College. Another association is the New Zealand Fertilizer Manufacturers' Research Association (Inc.), which tests experimental fertilizers and studies the production, distribution, and effect of fertilizers.

The Wheat Research Institute, the Tobacco Research Station, and the Hop Research Station are subsidized by industry and controlled by the Department. The Wheat Research Institute seeks improvement in the quality of bread by flour and wheat tests. A moisture-testing service aids farmers to determine when crops are ready for harvesting. The Tobacco and Hop Research Stations investigate the use of fertilizers, control of diseases, and general management, and test new varieties in their respective fields.

The Value of Agricultural Research.—The Dairy Research Institute has achieved such results as great improvements in cheese starters, the manufacture of dried butterfat, and the discovery and control of bacteriophage; while the Wheat Research Institute has been responsible for improvement in wheat, flour, and bread quality by the breeding of Cross 7, Yielder, Hilgendorf, and other wheats, and by devising methods of utilizing sprouted wheat and controlling the vitamin B content of flour.

Corky pit of apples and other deficiency diseases of fruit have been overcome, and investigations in transport have vastly improved the quality of fruit arriving in the United Kingdom. Transport investigations in meat resulted in consignments of chilled beef sent from New Zealand to the United Kingdom arriving in excellent condition.

A soil survey of the whole of New Zealand has been completed, and the problems of mineral deficiency diseases such as bush sickness and dopiness have been solved. Tobacco research has resulted in the area devoted to this crop being doubled, simultaneously with the doubling of the yield per acre, and the industry has become one of the most prosperous of the rural industries. Effective control has been secured over a wide range of plant diseases. Ball smut and loose smut of cereals have almost disappeared, and dry rot of brassicas has materially lessened. A system of certifying spray materials effective against a wide range of diseases of horticultural and garden crops has been devised. A most effective culture to promote lucerne growth has been found and maintained. Numerous serious insect pests have been brought under control, and the diamond-back moth, white butterfly, and codling-moth are not the menace they formerly were; subterranean caterpillar also has been checked and, more recently, grass-grub, the most costly insect of all, has capitulated to the newer chemical insecticides.

The work of the Crop Research and Grasslands Divisions has resulted in the development and expansion of a profitable farm-seeds industry. Chewings fescue seed, which lost its germination during sea transport, can now be shipped overseas with confidence, following the development of a seed-drier and airtight packaging by the Dominion Laboratory. Rape and turnip seed, hitherto imported from overseas, is now produced locally and exported, as the result of breeding and selection work done by the Crop Research Division, which, in addition, has improved the quality of oats, barley, lupins, carrots, and lucerne seeds. Research into the breeding of new strains of pasture plants, and into the utilization and management of pastures, has done much to enable New Zealand farming to lead the world in grassland and bring its per-acre yield of meat and dairy produce to levels not attained elsewhere. Improved methods of pasture establishment, together with the use of chemical sprays, have done much to control the noxious weeds that seriously reduced farm production in 1926 and the years that followed.

CLASSIFICATION OF HOLDINGS BY FARM TYPES.—The annual collection of agricultural and pastoral statistics in 1950 was conducted as part of the World Census of Agriculture. Detailed regional information, in conformity with the usual practice, was published in the Statistical Report on the Agricultural and Pastoral Production of New Zealand for the season 1949–50, but additional tables will be published as results are received from the special punch-card-machine tabulations. A detailed type classification for farm holdings was evolved for use in 1949–50, and provisional figures as to the number of holdings of the various types in the several land districts (each Island separately) are presented in the following tables.

Type Group	North Island Land Districts
Type Group	North Auckland	South Auckland	Gisborne	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Total, North Island
Idle and unused	712	329	53	52	30	171	1,347
Grazing areas	871	546	106	225	150	342	2,240
Residential	1,173	437	354	503	205	772	3,444
Plantations	29	53	1	6	6	17	112
Phormium (N.Z. flax)	2					3	5
Dairying	10,130	11,314	1,108	1,365	4,368	4,979	33,264
Sheep farming	1,129	2,410	945	2,504	783	4,386	12,157
Arable cropping	9	13	93	97		81	293
Beef cattle	387	228	25	46	34	82	802
Poultry	346	72	81	75	39	148	761
Horse raising	50	44	7	19	12	38	170
Pig raising	37	41	7	10	11	28	134
Horticultural	973	324	128	659	36	302	2,422
Mixed farming	68	75	107	62	30	85	427
Timber cutting	14	20	3	1	13	7	58
Other holdings	377	150	38	28	51	98	742
Totals, all holdings	16,307	16,056	3,056	5,652	5,768	11,539	58,378

Type Group	South Island Land Districts							New Zealand Totals
Type Group	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago	Southland	Total, South Island	New Zealand Totals
Idle and unused	52	216	149	162	213	201	993	2,340
Grazing areas	58	192	50	645	465	344	1,754	3,994
Residential	143	368	112	1,524	696	423	3,266,	6,710
Plantations	3	82	3	48	18	8	162	274
Phormium (N.Z. flax)	1	2	2	1	1	10	17	22
Dairying	393	1,014	408	1,985	1,163	1,540	6,503	39,767
Sheep farming	740	529	137	3,598	3,146	2,957	11,107	23,264
Arable cropping	176	51		1,940	210	118	2,495	2,788
Beef cattle	9	75	159	65	69	62	439	1,241
Poultry	31	36	7	331	256	30	691	1,452
Horse raising	2	7	1	223	41	33	307	477
Pig raising	7	11	7	38	17	13	93	227
Horticultural	96	806	13	833	422	23	2,193	4,615
Mixed farming	73	77	7	739	246	165	1,307	1,734
Timber cutting		5	4		5	3	17	75
Other holdings	43	104	55	154	119	93	568	1,310
Totals, all holdings	1,827	3,575	1,114	12,286	7,087	6,023	31,912	90,290

In certain tables given in Sections 20B and 20C of this volume, reference is made to regional areas, and it is appropriate that at this point some description should be given of this new designation.

For purposes of analysis of the New Zealand part of the 1950 World Census of Agriculture, counties with some affinity as to farming types, etc., have been grouped to form what have been designated “Regional Areas.” The following sets out in detail the content of these.

Regional Area	Counties Included
Northland	Mangonui, Whangaroa, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangarei, Hobson, Otamatea, Rodney, Waitemata, Eden.
South Auckland	Manukau, Franklin, Raglan.
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands	Waikato, Waipa, Otorohanga, Hauraki Plains, Piako, Matamata.
Cape Colville	Great Barrier, Coromandel, Thames, Ohinemuri.
Central Plateau	Tauranga, Rotorua, Taupo, Whakatane.
Western Uplands	Kawhia, Waitomo, Taumarunui, Ohura, Whangamomona, Clifton, Kaitieke, Waimarino.
Taranaki	Taranaki, Inglewood, Egmont, Stratford, Eltham, Waimate West, Hawera.
East Cape	Opotiki, Matakaoa, Waiapu, Uawa, Waikohu, Cook.
Hawke's, Bay	Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Waipawa, Waipukurau, Patangata.
Rangitikei	Patea, Waitotara, Wanganui, Rangitikei, Kiwitea, Pohangina.
Manawatu	Dannevirke, Woodville, Oroua, Manawatu, Kairanga, Horowhenua, Pahiatua.
Castlepoint	Weber, Akitio, Castlepoint.
Wairarapa	Eketahuna, Mauriceville, Masterton, Wairarapa South.
Featherston	Hutt, Makara, Featherston.
Nelson	Waimea, Takaka, Collingwood, Buller, Murchison, Inangahua.
Marlborough	Sounds, Marlborough, Awatere, Kaikoura.
Westland	Grey, Westland.
North Canterbury	Amuri, Cheviot, Waipara.
Foothills	Ashley, Oxford, Tawera, Selwyn.
Canterbury Plains	Kowai, Rangiora, Eyre, Malvern, Paparua, Springs, Ellesmere.
Christchurch	Waimairi, Heathcote, Halswell.
Banks Peninsula	Mount Herbert, Akaroa, Wairewa.
Mackenzie	Mackenzie.
South Canterbury	Ashburton, Geraldine, Levels, Waimate, Waitaki.
Otago	Waihemo, Waikouaiti, Peninsula, Taieri, Tuapeka.
Central Otago	Maniatoto, Vincent, Lake.
Southern	Bruce, Clutha, Southland, Wallace.
Remainder	Chatham Islands, Stewart Island.

FARM MACHINERY ON OCCUPIED HOLDINGS.—Advantage was taken of the organization provided for the 1950 Census of Agriculture to obtain details of farm machinery on a much wider scale than ever before attempted in this country. In the following table, which gives detailed results of the collection, figures are quoted for farm machinery on occupied holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries as at 31 January 1950. This table does not include those items which are regularly collected. Later figures for these are shown under subsequent headings.

—	Number
Threshing mills	347
Tinmills	279
Header harvesters	3,121
Chaffcutters	1,352
Reapers and binders	8,509
Hay sweeps	24,244
Hayrakes (including side delivery and dump rakes)	26,439
Hay stackers	11,701
Hay balers and presses	4,263
Mowers	39,666
Drills—
Combine	14,243
Ridger	6,008
Ploughs—
Mouldboard	53,596
Disc	8,695
Mole drain	2,322
Harrows—
Tine (number of sets)	46,296
Disc (number of sets)	29,336
Chain (number of sets)	30,726
Cultivators—
Inter-row	10,338
Field	12,053
Manure sowers and spreaders	31,534
Rollers	16,744
Potato planters	828
Potato harvesters	1,067
Spraying machines (power-driven)	1,692
Motor lorries and trucks	25,419
Motor cars	48,285
Farm carts and drays	41,646
Agricultural tractors—
Diesel oil—
Crawler type—
Number	1,307
Horsepower	42,606
Wheel type—
Number	1,217
Horsepower	39,530
Petrol driven—
Crawler type—
Number	1,794
Horsepower	41,056
Wheel-type—
Number	24,524
Horsepower	544,016
Kerosene (paraffin) driven—
Crawler type—
Number	653
Horsepower	16,449
Wheel type—
Number	5,423
Horsepower	130,852
Number of shearing sheds	21,551
Night-pen capacity of sheds	4,030,650
Number of flocks machine-shorn	31,136
Number of flocks blade-shorn	7,490
Number of wool presses	18,846
Number of sheep dips—
Bath dips	13,250
Spray dips	254
Number of herds machine-milked	35,084
Number of herds hand-milked	35,782
Power used in driving milking machines—
Electric motors	31,269
Internal-combustion engines	4,409
Other power	88
Number of cream separators	54,421

The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where a comparison is available for the years 1947 to 1952.

—	1947	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Not available. † This item covers only those machines actually used for threshing wheat or oats during the year specified. ‡ 1953 (estimated) 52,495.
Milking machines	32,596	33,461	34,114	36,368	37,204	37,563
Cream separators	48,194	48,457	48,451	54,421	^*	^*
Shearing machines—
Plants	14,564	15,468	16,392	18,791	19,473	20,810
Stands	33,907	35,448	36,952	40,536	42,298	44,472
Agricultural tractors	21,156	23,423	27,447	34,918	40,310	45,734^‡
Rotary hoes and garden tractors	1,646	2,253	2,660	3,093	3,812	4,380
Electric motors	82,721	88,282	94,047	110,683	116,549	123,439
Internal-combustion engines	23,109	24,922	26,199	29,926	29,046	29,052
Threshing machines^†	1,641	1,708	2,024	1,900	2,218	1,965

The figures for 1952 show a continuation of the trend towards more intensive mechanization of farm work that has been in evidence over a considerable period. During the war and early post-war years this movement was retarded through inability to procure the necessary equipment, but there has been a considerable speeding up in the last six years. Particularly noticeable are the increases in agricultural tractors and electric motors. The movement in the number of threshing machines for threshing wheat and oats is accounted for by considerable variation in the areas planted in these crops.

Milking Machines.—Information concerning milking machines on farms was first collected in 1919, in which year there were 7,577 plants recorded. Since that year the use of milking machines has expanded rapidly, although, as might be expected, the rate of increase slowed down somewhat during the war period. During the six years from 1933 to 1939 milking machines increased at an average rate of 770 per year, while during the six-year period 1940–46, the average increase was 430 per year. The subsequent six years showed increases of 791, 865, 653, 2,254, 836, and 359 respectively. Of the 1,905,534 cows in milk on 31 January 1952, 1,799,375, or 94 per cent, were on holdings employing milking machines. In 1951 the corresponding percentage was 94 and in 1942, 87.

The following table shows for the years 1940, 1951, and 1952 the number of farms with milking machines, and the aggregate cow capacity thereof, classified according to size of plant—i.e., cow capacity. It is known that cows in milk were recorded on 70,873 of the 90,290 holdings covered by the 1950 collection. Machine milking was carried out on 35,154 farms and hand milking on 35,719.

Number of Machines	Individual Cow Capacity	Number of Farms			Aggregate Cow Capacity
Number of Machines	Individual Cow Capacity	1940	1951	1952	1940	1951	1952
One	1	288	1,575	1,734	288	1,575	1,734
	2	6,320	7,443	6,976	12,640	14,886	13,952
	3	9,040	8,312	7,573	27,120	24,936	22,719
	4	8,684	9,660	9,565	34,736	38,640	38,260
	5	1,584	1,979	2,005	7,920	9,895	10,025
	6	1,508	4,077	4,872	9,048	24,462	29,232
	7	36	271	274	252	1,897	1,918
	8	139	1,963	2,519	1,112	15,704	20,152
	9 and over	45	652	824	482	7,142	8,895
Totals, one machine		27,644	35,932	36,342	93,598	139,137	146,887
Two		739	522	506	5,552	4,658	4,848
Three		83	44	34	957	457	422
Four		22	6	11	358	84	142
Five and over		13	10	8	352	238	256
Grand totals		28,501	36,514	36,901	100,817	144,574	152,555

A point of interest in the table is that while the total number of farms in 1952 with milking machines rose by 8,400 compared with 1940, the number of farms with multiple plants dropped from 857 to 559. On the other hand, single-unit plants of 6-cow capacity and upwards showed a greater relative increase than those below that number.

The following table shows, by size of herd in milk, both the number of farms equipped with milking machines and farms with dairy cows in milk but no milking plant. It will be noted that the only decreases in farms with milking machines are confined to the larger herds, which would appear to be associated with the fall in multiple plants referred to earlier.

Size of Herd (Cows in Milk)	Farms With Milking Machines			Farms Without Milking Machines
Size of Herd (Cows in Milk)	1940	1951	1952	1940	1951	1952
* These totals for 1951 and 1952 include 273 and 357 cases respectively of farms with milking machines but no cows in milk. Comparable figures are not available for 1940.
Under 5	715	1,217^*	1,569^*	22,755	25,959	26,001
5 and under 10	1,222	1,430	8,790	4,073	3,578
10 and under 20	1,648	3,033	3,037	5,784	1,525	1,331
20 and under 30	4,462	4,465	4,213	2,032	371	323
30 and under 40	5,345	5,675	5,452	562	70	75
40 and under 50	4,497	5,368	5,227	174	13	18
50 and under 60	3,330	4,417	4,433	74	5	5
60 and under 70	2,707	3,540	3,665	30
70 and under 80	1,803	2,373	2,512	37	8
80 and under 90	1,176	1,677	1,726
90 and under 100	842	1,085	1,105
100 and under 125	1,101	1,549	1,551
125 and under 150	416	512	566
150 and under 200	289	278	315
200 and over	170	103	100
Totals	28,501	36,514	36,901	40,238	32,024	31,331

Agricultural Tractors.—During the ten years from 1942 to 1952 the number of agricultural tractors employed on holdings of 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries rose from 13,967 to 45,734, an increase of 227 per cent. These figures do not include rotary hoes or garden tractors, which likewise showed an increase from 813 in 1942 to 4,380 in 1952, an increase of 439 per cent.

The increase in tractors has been accompanied by a decrease in the number of horses employed on farms, particularly those described as “draught and three-quarter draught.” The total number of horses in 1952 was 173,922, of which 57,434 were classed as draught or three-quarter draught, 20,300 as spring-cart or light artillery (including half-draught), 74,530 as hacks or light working horses, and 21,658 as thoroughbred or other. Comparable figures for 1942 were 248,597, 118,054, 44,586, 71,509, and 14,448 respectively. The number of agricultural tractors increased from 45,734 in 1952 to an estimated total of 52,495 in 1953, whereas the total number of horses fell from 173,922 to an estimated 158,065.

In the following table, which gives particulars of tractors and horses as at 31 January of the years shown, horses described as “thoroughbred or other” have been excluded. The number of holdings on which tractors were located in 1952 was 38,434 out of a total of 90,288, whereas horses were present on 50,629 holdings. In 13,162 cases there were tractors but no horses, 25,357 cases in which there were horses but no tractors, while both tractors and horses were present in 25,272 instances.

—	Tractors, but No Horses		Tractors and Horses		Horses, but No Tractors
—	One Tractor	More Than One Tractor	One Tractor	More Than One Tractor	Horses, but No Tractors
1948	4,823	457	14,169	1,590	39,812
1949	5,887	623	15,893	2,013	37,057
1950	7,784	874	19,300	2,708	33,511
1951	9,448	1,255	20,330	3,556	30,316
1952	11,447	1,715	20,941	4,331	25,357

The 6,046 cases in 1952 in which there were more than one tractor were made up as follows: Two tractors, 5,110; three, 720; four, 157; five or more, 59.

Threshing Machines.—Information collected in conjunction with the monthly threshing returns shows that a total of 1,965 machines (1,852 header harvesters, 62 threshing mills, and 51 tinmills) were engaged in threshing either wheat or oats in 1952, as compared with a total of 1,129 machines in 1942. The increase in the total number of machines so used during the ten-year period is accounted for by the change in harvesting methods that has taken place, the mobile header harvester, which was first employed in New Zealand in the harvest of 1930, having largely supplanted the stationary threshing mills.

The header harvester is used more extensively in connection with the wheat crop, many varieties of which are very well suited to heading, than in oats threshing, where the threshing mill still plays a part of major importance. In 1952 header harvesters threshed 94.4 per cent of the wheat yield from 95.2 per cent of the grain area. Threshing mills and tinmills accounted for 3.6 per cent and 2.0 per cent of the yield and 3.0 per cent and 1.8 per cent of the area respectively. Figures on a similar basis for oats are: header harvesters, 79.5 per cent of yield and 81.8 per cent of area; threshing mills, 12.5 per cent of yield and 10.7 per cent of area; and tinmills, 8.0 per cent of yield and 7.5 per cent of area.

Of the 1,965 machines engaged in threshing wheat or oats in 1952, 1,312 (1,264 header harvesters, 26 threshing mills, and 22 tinmills) were located in the Canterbury Land District, which produced 63 per cent of the total wheat yield and 47 per cent of the oats yield. In Otago there were 235 machines, made up of 212 headers, 9 threshing mills, and 14 tinmills, while Southland recorded 209 machines (179 headers, 18 threshing mills, and 12 tinmills).

The following table shows the average yield per acre of wheat according to the type of threshing machine used for the last five seasons. The percentages of threshing by each type of machine are also shown.

Wheat	Header Harvesters		Threshing Mills		Tinmills		Totals
Wheat	Percentage of Total Yield	Average Yield Per Acre	Percentage of Total Yield	Average Yield Per Acre	Percentage of Total Yield	Average Yield Per Acre	Percentage of Total Yield	Average Yield Per Acre
		Bushels		Bushels		Bushels		Bushels
1947–48	84.27	35.43	11.26	42.79	4.47	39.75	100.00	36.31
1948–49	87.95	39.95	7.27	45.17	4.78	43.42	100.00	40.44
1949–50	90.82	38.82	6.42	46.35	2.76	39.85	100.00	39.26
1950–51	92.58	42.85	4.57	52.32	2.85	45.80	100.00	43.29
1951–52	94.41	42.69	3.60	50.74	1.99	47.84	100.00	43.03

The foregoing analysis for 1951–52 is based on a total of 3,816 crops, covering approximately 77 per cent of the total wheat area.

There would appear to be a tendency for header yields to be lower than the yields of crops threshed with threshing mills and tinmills, but in the absence of such related matters as soil types, etc., no definite conclusions can be drawn. It is mainly on the heavier soil types that threshing mills and tinmills have been retained. This is particularly so in the case of the soft-chaffed wheats, Dreadnought and Hunters, which, on the whole, are direct headed only on lighter land.

A similar analysis to that given for wheat is now shown for oats. The number of crops covered in 1951–52 was 2,498, which represented approximately 73 per cent of the oats area threshed.

Oats	Header Harvesters		Threshing Mills		Tin mills		Totals
Oats	Percentage of Total Yield	Average Yield Per Acre	Percentage of Total Yield	Average Yield Per Acre	Percentage of Total Yield	Average Yield Per Acre	Percentage of Total Yield	Average Yield Per Acre
		Bushels		Bushels		Bushels		Bushels
1947–48	40.98	36.60	42.41	53.18	16.61	47.84	100.00	44.16
1948–49	56.82	43.12	24.41	55.75	18.77	53.52	100.00	47.48
1949–50	63.34	46.56	23.62	56.74	13.04	52.25	100.00	49.35
1950–51	66.87	46.78	20.83	62.73	12.30	57.51	100.00	50.62
1951–52	79.48	52.26	12.55	63.41	7.97	57.00	100.00	53.81

20 B—CROPS

As indicated in the general remarks included in the introductory portion of the preceding subsection, grassland products account for a very high proportion of the farm output of New Zealand. It must not be assumed, however, on this account that cropping is of minor importance in the economy of New Zealand. Practically the whole of the internal requirements in respect of agricultural products are grown within the country, the only exceptions of note being tropical or subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, bananas, etc. In most years also it has been found necessary to import certain quantities of wheat, local production being insufficient for the country's needs.

Fruit is grown on a considerable scale, home requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones being satisfied by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of New Zealand, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities with a favourable climate. In addition to satisfying local demand, a substantial export trade in apples—and to a lesser extent in pears—is carried on in normal times.

In rural New Zealand and in many urban localities the kitchen garden supplies a very considerable proportion of family requirements of vegetables, while there is a substantial area planted in market gardens, both inside and outside borough boundaries. The major commercial cash vegetable crops are potatoes and onions. Local supplies of potatoes were previously adequate, but in recent years production has fluctuated, with a surplus in one year and perhaps a shortage in the next. In most recent years the production of onions has also been more than sufficient for local requirements. Although the importance of vegetable growing in agricultural production cannot be measured (a considerable, though unknown, proportion being non-commercial), it will be realized that this branch of crop production is of some consequence in that the requirements of the people are supplied from New Zealand production.

Coincident with the growth of the stock-raising industries, there has been a considerable increase in areas sown for supplementary fodders. While practically throughout the whole of New Zealand animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full twelve months of the year, the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. The supply of supplementary fodders is adequate both in quantity and in quality, so that New Zealand imports animal-feeding stuffs to a very minor extent only.

Hay and ensilage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialize in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover hay, and ensilage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal of pasturage requires the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seeds, which are now grown almost entirely in New Zealand. There is a small import of certain classes of seeds, but this is almost negligible in relation to requirements; on the other hand, an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds has been developed.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.—Grain growing is localized to a considerable extent, the Canterbury Land District, with its fertile plains, supplying in 1952–53, 57 per cent of New Zealand's wheat yield, 49 per cent of the oats threshed, and 74 per cent of the barley yield. Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the South Auckland and Gisborne districts. The commercial growing of peas is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Otago, Canterbury alone producing over half of the total yield. The districts of Canterbury, Otago, and Southland supplied in 1952–53, 86 per cent of the total production of grass seeds. The Canterbury district produces the bulk of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in the North and South Auckland districts.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions, while access to markets is also an important factor, particularly in respect of small fruits. The Nelson district is famed for its apple orchards, a high percentage of the crop from this district normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. In several other districts commercial orchard production is successfully carried on; special mention may be made of citrus culture in certain northern districts.

Grape growing is of importance in North Auckland and Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is mainly confined to the Waimea County, in the Nelson district, hop growing also being largely concentrated in this area.

A detailed analysis of arable cropping farms in 1949–50 was undertaken as part of the World Census of Agriculture. In the following table the number of arable cropping farms in each regional area is given and shows clearly the dominance of the South Island, which contributes 89–48 per cent to this type of farming.

Regional Area	Principally Arable Cropping	Arable Cropping							Special Cropping Units	Grass Seed Production	Other Arable Holdings	Total Arabic Holdings
Regional Area	Principally Arable Cropping	With Sheep	With Dairying	With Beef	With Horse Raising	With Poultry	With Horticulture	With Mixed Farming	Special Cropping Units	Grass Seed Production	Other Arable Holdings	Total Arabic Holdings
* Not available separately. Areas are included in the total.
No.							Area
North Island													Acres
Northland	7		1									8	550
South Auckland	1		1									2	85
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands			1									1	^*
Cape Colville
Central Plateau	6		2					1				9	345
Western Uplands	1											1	^*
Taranaki
East Cape	68	7	3			6		5		4		93	4,728
Hawke's Bay	62	3	2	1			1	1	1	20	5	96	3,477
Rangitikei	11	9	2					3	3	1		29	4,218
Manawatu	16	2	2					1	3	2	2	28	2,175
Castlepoint
Wairarapa	11	1	1					2	1	3		19	1,984
Featherston	3	1	2									6	453
Totals	186	23	17	1		6	1	13	8	30	7	292	18,065
South Island
Nelson	24	3	2					5		12	5	51	3,524
Marlborough	58	40	7	3			2	23		30	13	176	37,745
Westland
North Canterbury	13	50						5		7	4	79	31,898
Foothills	26	31	7					12		11	2	89	28,056
Canterbury Plains	317	281	58		2	6		90	8	15	32	809	89,682
Christchurch	52	4	6				3	4	2	2	2	75	2,824
Banks Peninsula	2	1						1		1		5	1,291
Mackenzie	3	7	1						1	4		16	7,750
South Canterbury	249	451	56		1	3		115	4	42	27	948	291,498
Otago	12	8	1					3		3	2	29	3,705
Central Otago	21	31						2		8	4	66	71,927
Southern	24	25	4	2				4		84	8	151	148,226
Totals	801	932	142	5	3	9	5	264	15	219	99	2,494	818,126
N.Z. totals-Number	987	955	159	6	3	15	6	277	23	249	106	2,786
Acreage	119,899	437,504	17,898	1,558	1,594	1,339	241	68,958	1,264	162,557	23,379		836,191

Commencing with the year 1952–53 the annual collection of farming statistics has been based on a sample survey whereby only one farmer in seven provides the basic statistics.

Statistics for 1952–53 are quoted out to the nearest whole number, but this practice has been followed merely for the sake of convenience. In actual fact the final digits in each case are meaningless.

The total area devoted to each crop in the 1952–53 season and the percentage area in each land district are given in the following table.

Name of Crop	Area	Land District Percentages
Name of Crop	Area	North Auckland	South Auckland	Gisborne	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago	Southland
For threshing—	Acres
Wheat	127,225				1		7	3	1		65	12	11
Oats	49,087				1		3	2	1		55	12	26
Barley	55,334				2		5	6	5		74	7	1
Maize	5,973	5	21	60	14
Peas	27,265			2	2		4	21	2		57	9	3
Linseed	21,385										81	11	8
Other crops	7,705						1	3			55	33	8
For chaff, hay, or ensilage—
Oats	32,009				1	2	6	5	3		37	26	20
Grasses and clovers	783,570	14	36	2	3	11	8	1	2		12	5	6
Lucerne	93,570		11	1	6	1	3	5	2		50	20	1
Green fodder—
Oats	39,782	2	2		3	1	4	6	3		56	18	5
Rape	149,875				5		3	2	1		51	27	11
Kale (including chou moellier)	108,811	2	7	1	23	4	25	1	1		17	8	11
Other crops for chaff, hay, ensilage, or green fodder	44,239	3	6	1	4	2	7	5	2		31	23	16
Root crops—
Swedes	170,871	2	16		2	5	8		1		7	23	36
Turnips	207,208	2	6		1	1	4	1	2	1	51	14	17
Turnips and rape	46,808				1	1	4	1			24	19	50
Potatoes	18,305	10	3	2	6	1	19	1	2		44	7	5
Other root crops	5,723	12	10	2	8	3	26		1		17	20	1
Grasses, clovers, and lucerne for seed	123,467			1	4		2	6	1		49	13	24
Tobacco	3,168								100
Linen flax	1,525										86		14
Other field crops	8,265	2	5	14	38		4	9	7		19		2
Orchards	21,464	20	10	3	18		3	3	19		8	15	1
Market gardens	15,489	26	7	3	15	1	17		8		13	10
Grape, passion fruit, hop vines, and nurseries	3,418	26	14		16	3	8	22			5	6

BUSHEL WEIGHTS.—For statistical and other purposes it is at times necessary to convert bushel units to a weight basis. For New Zealand produce conversion is effected by using the following weights per bushel for the commodities mentioned.

Produce	Weight of Bushel
	lb.
Wheat	60
Oats	40
Barley	50
Maize	56
Peas	60
Ryecorn	56
Beans	65
Grass seed	20

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION.—A general summary of the areas under cultivation during each of the last eleven years is given in the following table. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside borough boundaries.

In addition to the areas shown as under cultivation there is a considerable area of occupied land still unimproved. In 1952–53 the total area of unimproved occupied land was 23,360,006 acres. Cultivated land accounted in 1952–53 for 46 per cent of the total area in occupation, unimproved land accounting for the remaining 54 per cent. The area in phormium—a productive asset—is included in the total of unimproved land, while an appreciable proportion of tussock and other naturally established native grasses is of considerable economic utility, particularly in the South Island, where it is used for extensive pastoral farming.

Year	Pasture Land^*	Field Crops	Plantations	Orchards	Lying Fallow	Other Cultivated Land	Total Cultivated Land
* Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or ensilage, which have been included in field crops. † Approximate.
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
1942–43	16,992,343	1,911,833	851,258	19,190	110,000^†	96,426	19,981,050
1943–44	16,774,304	1,965,670	859,737	19,196	110,000^†	101,092	19,829,999
1944–45	16,619,713	2,013,214	867,450	19,614	110,000^†	102,058	19,732,049
1945–46	17,036,822	1,839,589	861,008	18,235	121,033	90,555	19,967,242
1946–47	17,013,057	1,984,395	869,959	18,253	123,654	94,545	20,103,863
1947–48	17,088,810	1,904,377	871,356	18,667	122,812	96,892	20,102,914
1948–49	17,033,734	1,985,381	884,077	18,667	100,270	106,070	20,128,199
1949–50	17,164,957	1,931,393	908,360	18,853	90,819	114,448	20,228,830
1950–51	17,042,347	2,061,429	902,164	19,722	114,536	111,032	20,251,230
1951–52	16,797,344	2,062,910	915,835	19,973	143,367	109,598	20,049,027
1952–53	16,574,439	2,131,170	949,533	21,464	173,626	111,364	19,961,596

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS.—The areas under each of the principal field crops for the last five years have been as follows.

Crop	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Including turnips and rape mixed. † Excluding wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas fed off.
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
Wheat	148,653	128,240	147,008	91,837	135,736
Oats	194,850	161,553	133,596	126,093	120,878
Barley	70,807	70,525	58,535	54,637	69,288
Maize	12,448	12,329	11,665	10,338	9,421
Peas	49,813	41,744	22,536	24,728	27,265
Linseed	7,738	7,544	16,224	24,437	21,385
Linen flax	4,717	2,791	173	1,869	1,525
Potatoes	18,940	17,794	16,804	13,276	18,305
Turnips and swedes^*	384,125	390,056	402,350	398,072	424,887
Mangolds	3,066	2,547	2,283	2,069	2,005
Onions ^*	1,175	887	1,053	1,135	1,405
Tobacco	3,484	3,376	3,324	3,152	3,168
Green fodder ^†	261,591	298,168	289,852	279,755	277,012
Grasses, clovers, and lucerne for seed	160,057	148,083	212,099	196,378	123,467
Grasses and clovers for hay or ensilage	601,384	580,369	660,689	742,072	783,570
Lucerne for hay or ensilage	47,224	52,042	68,622	78,907	93,570
Other crops	15,309	13,345	14,616	14,155	18,283
Totals	1,985,381	1,931,393	2,061,429	2,062,910	2,131,170

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops for grain or fodder. It should be noted that a considerable portion of the area under certain crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff or is fed off. In regard to peas it should be noted that areas of this crop for domestic consumption in the form of green peas are included under market gardens and crops for processing.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS.—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per acre of the principal grain and seed crops during the last five years are set out in the following table.

Year	Wheat	Oats	Barley	Maize	Peas	Linseed
Areas For Threshing
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
1948–49	146,707	78,300	58,707	6,588	49,152	7,738
1949–50	125,159	52,645	56,793	7,240	41,319	7,544
1950–51	144,763	35,808	46,154	6,119	21,701	16,224
1951–52	89,955	45,561	46,064	6,449	24,379	24,437
1952–53	127,225	49,087	55,334	5,973	27,265	21,385
Total Yields
	Bushels	Bushels	Bushels	Bushels	Bushels	Cwt.
1948–49	5,958,026	3,718,597	2,256,362	357,270	1,195,196	55,406
1949–50	4,899,668	2,620,252	2,433,835	463,033	1,242,730	69,002
1950–51	6,271,928	1,827,953	1,902,432	362,533	625,784	148,099
1951–52	3,890,167	2,469,530	2,182,175	381,835	730,288	222,269
1952–53	4,525,298	2,385,129	2,139,886	349,194	614,417	194,444
Yields Per Acre
	Bushels	Bushels	Bushels	Bushels	Bushels	Cwt.
1948–49	40.61	47.49	38.43	54.23	24.32	7.16
1949–50	39.15	49.77	42.85	63.95	30.08	9.15
1950–51	43.33	51.05	41.22	59.25	28.84	9.13
1951–52	43.25	54.20	47.37	59.21	29.96	9.10
1952–53	35.57	48.59	38.67	58.46	22.54	9.09

It was the practice prior to 19.40 to import considerable quantities of small seeds, but during the war years it became necessary to make an effort to raise the full domestic requirements in this direction within New Zealand. The success of the effort is exemplified in the total areas planted in other crops for seed (i.e., crops other than the principal crops stated above, wheat, oats, barley, maize, peas, and linseed together with lupins), which rose from 342 acres in 1938–39 to 6,674 acres in 1942–43. Although there has been some reduction from the peak figure of that year, the area was still substantial in 1951–52, which was the last year of full enumeration, being 5,862 acres. These figures covered rape, kale, white-fleshed turnips, swedes, mustard, beans, and ryecorn, together with a variety of smaller areas relating to crops such as onions, vetches, tares, radish, silver beet, red beet, carrots, pumpkins, marrows, leeks, cauliflower, cabbage, parsnips, etc. It was found in most instances that the locally produced seed was fully up to, and indeed in some cases superior to, the standard of that previously imported. It has been shown, for instance, that swede and turnip crops grown from locally produced seed have been comparatively free from the widespread dry-rot disease which formerly attacked these crops when grown from imported seed.

WHEAT.—Wheat is the most important grain crop grown in New Zealand. The industry enjoys a sliding scale of Customs duties levied on imports of wheat and flour, and also regulation of prices on a basis that is calculated to give the grower a satisfactory return for his produce.

Further efforts in encouraging wheatgrowing with a view to making New Zealand entirely self-sufficient in respect of requirements of wheat and wheaten products were initiated by the Government in 1936. An Order in Council which came into force in March of that year prohibits the importation of wheat or wheaten flour, except under permit granted by the Minister of Industries and Commerce. With a view to reducing imports of Grade A wheat necessary for mixing purposes, the Wheat Research Institute has been endeavouring to encourage the growing in New Zealand of better-quality varieties which do not require blending with imported wheat. The Institute has already achieved satisfactory results, its most outstanding success being the development of a Tuscan variety known as Cross 7. Though not grown on a commercial scale until 1935–36, Cross 7 has for the last eleven seasons held pride of place in the area grown for grain. Second and fourth places are taken by Fife Tuscan and Tainui respectively; these types also having been evolved by the Wheat Research Institute.

Despite the protection and encouragement given to wheatgrowers, the results have, in the main, been disappointing. Appreciable increases occurred in the four seasons 1939–40 to 1942–43, but since then there has been an irregular decline in sowings until the lowest point, which occurred in the season 1951–52, when only 89,995 acres were harvested. In the 1952–53 season the area increased to 127,225 acres, that is by over 41 per cent, but unfortunately the average yield dropped owing to adverse climatic conditions, and the total yield of 4,525,298 bushels was only 17 per cent higher than in the 1951–52 season.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat during the last twenty-five years, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Wheat Committee.—Control of the importation of wheat and flour and of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Committee. The operations of this Committee, which consists of representatives of flour-millers, wheatgrowers, and bakers, with the Minister of Industries and Commerce as Chairman, and his nominee from the Department of Industries and Commerce as Deputy Chairman, are governed by the Board of Trade (Wheat and Flour) Regulations.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Committee through the agency of the grain merchants acting as brokers for the Committee. The Committee is responsible for the importation of any wheat and flour and the distribution of imported poultry wheat in the North Island; in the South Island poultry wheat is not controlled. Its functions include arrangements for the processing of wheat and the sale of flour to merchants, bakers, pastrycooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand approximates 12 million bushels—some 8 million bushels being required for flour, and the balance for poultry food and resowing purposes. Over the past five seasons the annual local production of wheat has averaged 5,109,000 bushels, while imports have over the same period averaged 6,500,000 bushels.

Varieties of Wheat.—The choice of wheat varieties for sowing is influenced by their suitability to local conditions of climate, soil type, etc. Wheatgrowers receive valuable guidance regarding suitable varieties as the result of research work and field trials undertaken by the Wheat Research Institute and the Department of Agriculture. Particulars regarding varieties of wheat were obtained covering 79 per cent of the total area of wheat threshed for the harvest of 1952. Of the three groups of varieties, Tuscan accounted for 95.9 per cent of the area and 96.2 per cent of the yield; Hunter's, 0.5 per cent of the area and 0.6 per cent of the yield; and Pearl, 3.6 per cent of the area and 3.2 per cent of the yield. Of the individual varieties, Cross 7, previously referred to, produced 72.7 per cent of the total yield, while Fife Tuscan produced a further 7.4 per cent. These two varieties accounted for 73.6 per cent and 7.9 per cent of the total area respectively.

OATS.—The area under oats has declined fairly steadily during the past decade, the greatest decrease being in oats for chaff, hay, and ensilage. This decline is parallel with the replacement of horses by machinery. During the first five years of the decade (1943–48) the average area under oats for all purposes was 199,640 acres, and of this figure the proportion for chaff, etc., was 45 per cent, whereas for the last five years (1948–53) the comparable figures are 147,394 acres and 32 per cent. Taking the same two 5-yearly periods the average area under oats for chaff, etc., has declined by 48 per cent.

The yield per acre of oats threshed for grain, etc., does not show any definite trend during the past ten years, but fluctuates between 45 and just over 54 bushels, depending on seasonal conditions. On the other hand the yield per acre of oats for chaff, hay, and ensilage shows a fairly steady increase from about 1¾ tons for the first few years to almost 2¼ tons for the season 1952–53.

The total yield, comparing the average per season for the five years 1943–48 with the average per season for the five years 1948–53, shows, in the case of oats threshed for grain, etc., a decrease of over 9 per cent and, in the case of chaff, etc., a decrease of nearly 42 per cent.

The total and average yields of oaten grain and of chaff, hay, or ensilage for the five seasons ending with 1952–53 were as follows.

Season	Grain		Chaff, Hay, or Ensilage
Season	Total Yield	Average Per Acre	Total Yield	Average Per Acre
	Bushels	Bushels	Tons	Tons
1948–49	3,718,597	47.49	122,518	1.82
1949–50	2,620,252	49.77	100,183	1.86
1950–51	1,827,953	51.05	80,971	1.98
1951–52	2,469,530	54.20	84,366	2.12
1952–53	2,385,129	48.59	71,700	2.24

Varieties of Oats Threshed.—An analysis of the threshing returns relating to the season 1951–52 gave the following percentage distribution of varieties of oats threshed (no later figures are available).

Variety of Oats Threshed	Average Yield Per Acre	Percentage of Total Area	Percentage of Total Yield
	Bushels	Per Cent	Per Cent
White	60.93	67.92	76.90
Algerian	38.06	22.71	16.07
Dun	38.21	6.89	4.90
Black	46.32	2.48	2.13
All varieties	53.81	100.00	100.00

BARLEY.—Prior to 1945 considerable quantities of barley were imported, mainly for use as stock food, but the quantities imported since then have declined considerably. Outstanding increases in the area planted were recorded in each of the four years ending in 1947–48, the area threshed in that year (63,398 acres) and the yield of grain (2,087,900 bushels) exceeding all previous figures. In each of the succeeding two years there was a moderate decline in sowings, but record average yields resulted in new production records. In 1950–51 there was a sharp fall in the area harvested, followed by a further slight fall in 1951–52, but a record average yield (47.37 bushels per acre) resulted in the total yield (2,182,175 bushels) being little below the record figures of 1948–49 and 1949–50. The area threshed in the season 1952–53 was 55,334 acres, an increase of 20 per cent on the previous season. However, at the same time, the yield per acre dropped to 38.67 bushels, and the total yield of 2,139,886 bushels was actually slightly less than the comparable figure for 1951–52.

Of the total area grown, 80 per cent was threshed for grain in 1953, the remaining 20 per cent being used for stock fodder (mostly feeding off).

Malting varieties account for approximately 86 per cent of the area sown in barley.

PEAS.—The table shown earlier relating to “Grain and Seed Crops” reveals that both the area and total yield of peas have fallen considerably during the last five years. This trend is also shown in the export figures for the commodity. In 1949 nearly 850,000 bushels were exported, whereas by 1952 the amount had fallen to approximately 630,000 bushels.

POTATOES.—The production of potatoes has previously been adequate to meet the home market, but in recent years there have been considerable fluctuations, a surplus in one year being followed by a shortage in another. The problem of the disposal of surplus quantities is rendered difficult by import restrictions on New Zealand potatoes entering Australia, although certain quantities were admitted in 1940 and again in 1950 owing to shortages of supplies in that country. Strangely enough, in each of the years mentioned the area in potatoes in New Zealand was comparatively small, but particularly high yields resulted in surplus quantities being available.

Low acreages in 1940–41 and 1941–42 coincided with an increased demand in the form of requirements for the Armed Forces, and the Government entered into contracts with growers (continued after the war, but limited to main-crop potatoes), all potatoes produced under these contracts being paid for. This had the desired effect, and the area planted rose from 15,201 acres in 1941–42 to 29,774 acres in 1944–45. Since then the trend has been downward, and a low area in 1948–49, combined with a comparatively low yield, resulted in potatoes being in short supply towards the end of the season, and 3,181 tons were imported from Australia. The area planted in 1949–50 was 1,146 acres less than in 1948–49, but a particularly heavy crop produced an increase of. 25,798 tons in the total yield.

In 1950–51 the area further receded to 16,804 acres, but the 1951–52 crop was the lowest in area and yield for many years with 13,276 acres producing 69,841 tons, necessitating heavy importations from Australia to the extent of 31,337 tons up to the end of September 1952. The 1952–53 season showed an improvement with 18,305 acres yielding 94,652 tons. The yield per acre was lower than usual at 5.17 tons, and it was necessary to import 7,012 tons during the year ended September 1953.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of seven members, three of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, three nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Association (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal functions of the Board are to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the Board may impose a levy not exceeding 13s. per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the Board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

Figures for area and yield for the last five years are as follows.

Year	Area	Total Yield	Yield Per Acre
	Acres	Tons	Tons
1948–49	18,940	109,644	5.79
1949–50	17,794	135,442	7.61
1950–51	16,804	119,778	7.13
1951–52	13,276	69,841	5.26
1952–53	18,305	94,652	5.17

The 1951–52 yield was made up of 45,678 tons of table potatoes, 20,882 tons of seed potatoes, and 3,281 tons of pig, etc., potatoes. The corresponding quantities in 1950–51 were 90,043 tons, 22,632 tons, and 7,103 tons.

Since 1936 special statistics of areas and yields of potatoes, classified according to varieties as well as by origin of seed planted (Government certified or otherwise), have been compiled annually. The information is obtained from a special collection from growers in July, by which time the bulk of the crop has been harvested. The inquiry is limited in the main to growers of 2 acres and over, but the resultant details which cover approximately 50 per cent of the total potato acreage can be taken as representative of the crop as a whole. “Government certified” seed is that for which a Government certificate has been issued in respect of purity, etc. Seed obtained from the ensuing crop cannot be so designated unless the requisite certificate is issued by the authorities. The following table gives particulars of this special collection for each of the last five years available. Similar information for individual varieties is published in the annual Report on Farm Production Statistics.

Year	Government Certified			Uncertified			Not Stated			Totals
Year	Area	Total Yield	Yield Per Acre	Area	Total Yield	Yield Per Acre	Area	Total Yield	Yield Per Acre	Area	Total Yield	Yield Per Acre
	Acres	Tons	Tons	Acres	Tons	Tons	Acres	Tons	Tons	Acres	Tons	Tons
1947–48	5,902	47,815	8.10	5,406	37,288	6.90	339	2,224	6.65	11,647	87,327	7.50
1948–49	5,459	35,696	6.54	4,783	26,423	5.52	626	3,957	6.32	10,868	66,076	6.08
1949–50	5,310	43,794	8.25	3,742	26,593	7.11	517	3,619	7.00	9,569	74,006	7.73
1950–51	5,116	43,108	8.43	2,999	20,471	6.83	508	3,139	6.18	8,623	66,718	7.74
1951–52	4,853	29,354	6.05	3,313	18,062	5.45	684	3,497	5.11	8,850	50,913	5.75

The table plainly indicates the superior yielding capacity of certified seed. The average yield per acre over the five years for certified seed was 7.50 tons, as compared with 6.36 tons for uncertified seed. The advantage of 1.14 tons per acre in favour of crops from certified seed represents a yield superiority of almost 18 per cent. It is also of interest to note the increasing use of certified seed. Of the areas for which the information was supplied in 1938–39 the proportion of certified seed used was 35.5 per cent, as compared with 54.8 per cent in 1951–52.

ONIONS.—Areas in, and yields of, onions for the last five years are as follows.

Year	Area	Total Yield	Yield Per Acre
	Acres	Tons	Tons
1948–49	1,175	10,674	9.08
1949–50	887	8,386	9.45
1950–51	1,053	9,644	9.16
1951–52	1,135	10,336	9.11
1952–53	1,405	12,510	8.90

In earlier years the production of onions was rarely sufficient to supply domestic requirements. As onions are a semi-perishable commodity it was found convenient to export in the flush of the New Zealand season, and to obtain supplies from overseas later in the year. However, a considerable improvement has been effected in the keeping qualities of the varieties grown, and no onions were imported into New Zealand during the eight calendar years ended 1952, while over the last five years exports have averaged 1,785 tons annually.

LINSEED.—The area under this crop has fluctuated considerably over a long period. In 1917–18 an area of 1,456 acres was recorded under linseed. This rose to 12,119 acres in 1923–24, dropped to 2,800 acres in 1929–30, and rose again to 12,200 acres in 1930–31. After further fluctuations the area planted fell away to 354 acres in 1942–43, then rose in successive years to a peak of 18,728 acres in 1947–48. Then followed a recession for two successive years to less than half the 1947–48 acreage. The area in 1950–51 showed a firm increase to 16,224 acres, followed by a new record high level of 24,437 acres in 1951–52, and a slight recession to 21,385 acres in 1952–53.

The 1952–53 area gave a yield of 194,444 cwt. of seed at an average of 9.09 cwt. per acre. Areas for the last five years are as follows.

Year	Area
	Acres
1948–49	7,738
1949–50	7,544
1950–51	16,224
1951–52	24,437
1952–53	21,385

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS.—Although grass is the main crop of the farmer in New Zealand, at certain periods during the year the pastures need supplementing in order that the grassland may not become unduly exhausted, and also in order to maintain stock in a satisfactory condition. In mid-winter the grass is at a low stage of productivity generally, while under dry summer conditions it loses part of its nutritive value. During these periods it is necessary that some extra feed should be provided, and this is usually done either by cutting the grass for hay or ensilage when there is an ample surplus on the pastures during the flush of the growing season, or by the provision of green fodder or root crops.

The following table gives detailed figures of the areas of the supplementary fodder crops available during each of the last five years.

Year	Chaff, Hay or Ensilage		Green Fodder		Root and Other Crops for Feeding to Stock	Total Area of Fodder Crops
Year	Cereal Crops	Grasses and Clovers, Including Lucerne	Cereal Crops	Other Crops	Root and Other Crops for Feeding to Stock	Total Area of Fodder Crops
* These two items total 97,704 acres—separate figures not available.
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
1948–49	69,098	648,608	67,358	262,252	389,353	1,436,669
1949–50	55,058	632,411	75,752	298,593	394,871	1,456,685
1950–51	42,477	729,311	75,483	290,687	406,613	1,544,571
1951–52	41,477	820,979	53,399	280,104	401,774	1,597,733
1952–53	^*	877,140	^*	277,012	429,205	1,681,061

In 1952–53 grasses and clovers cut for hay or ensilage totalled 783,570 acres and lucerne 93,570 acres. Oats was the only cereal crop utilized in any quantity for this purpose, the area of oats cut for chaff, hay, or ensilage being 32,009 acres. Oats also was the principal cereal crop fed off to stock, amounting to 39,782 acres. The principal green-fodder crops apart from oats are rape (149,875 acres) and kale, including chou moellier (108,811 acres). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in New Zealand, the total area sown in these crops in 1952–53 being 424,887 acres (including 46,808 acres of turnips and rape mixed). Other root crops included 2,005 acres of mangolds.

GRASS SEED.—The total area of grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for seed during the 1952–53 season was 123,467 acres, as against 196,378 acres in 1951–52. Canterbury, Otago, and Southland land districts between them provided over 86 per cent of the area cut in 1952–53.

The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, distinguishing the principal varieties, during each of the five years 1948–49 to 1952–53, are given in the table following.

Crop	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Acres
Rye-grass—
Perennial	51,226	43,712	81,927	49,136	28,770
Italian	4,095	3,461	9,946	7,572	4,241
Short-rotation (H₁)	8,629	8,001	12,647	13,753	9,319
Cocksfoot	6,680	4,915	7,288	8,987	4,272
Chewings fescue	19,436	17,755	14,831	15,791	14,437
Crested dogstail	7,913	5,690	7,751	8,234	7,110
Red clover (including cow-grass)	22,296	20,075	18,710	14,724	5,959
White clover	27,303	29,512	43,329	63,513	27,754
Other grasses and clovers	12,479	14,962	15,670	14,668	21,605

Large quantities of grass seed have been exported during recent years, expecially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. In 1947 a considerable amount of grass seed was exported to various continental countries, particularly to Belgium. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 10B of this issue.

PASTURE GRASSES.—Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend right on to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in co-operation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilizers, etc. The results are made available per medium of the Journal of Agriculture and such allied publications, as well as by special pamphlets which are distributed without charge. The farmer is thus enabled to avail himself of, and profit by, highly specialized knowledge and experience. In addition, a constant endeavour is being made not only to improve existing strains by such measures as seed certification and the provision of pedigree seed, but also to evolve new strains. At the beginning of the year 1953 there were 17,819,149 acres under artificially sown grasses (including 1,000,607 acres cut for seed, hay, or ensilage during the season), and in addition 13,299,008 acres of occupied land still remained in tussock or naturally established native grasses, making a total of 31,118,157 acres of grassland being farmed.

The following table shows the respective areas occupied by artificially sown grasses and by tussock and other naturally established native grasses during the five years specified.

Year	Artificially Sown Pasture Grasses^*		Tussock and Other Naturally Established Native Grasses	Total Area Under Grass^*
Year	Cut for Seed, Hay, or Ensilage	Not Cut for Seed, Hay. or Ensilage^†	Tussock and Other Naturally Established Native Grasses	Total Area Under Grass^*
* Includes lucerne. † Includes approximately 250,000 acres also sown with crops.
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
1948–49	808,665	17,280,112	13,543,915	31,632,692
1949–50	780,494	17,411,243	12,930,717	31,122,454
1950–51	941,410	17,282,604	13,112,688	31,336,702
1951–52	1,017,357	17,028,726	13,250,474	31,296,557
1952–53	1,000,607	16,818,542	13,299,008	31,118,157

TOP-DRESSING (PASTURE LANDS).—Top-dressing in New Zealand is carried out mainly on cattle-grazing areas, including, of course, dairy farms; the North Island, which contains 87 per cent of the total cattle, accounted in 1952–53 for 77 per cent of the area top-dressed.

The following table shows particulars of areas of grassland top-dressed during the last five years.

Year	Area Top-dressed
Year	With Artificial Fertilizer Only	With Lime Only	With Both Artificial Fertilizer and Lime	Total Area Top-dressed
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
1948–49	2,981,899	584,427	1,496,086	5,062,412
1949–50	3,754,295	589,608	1,394,524	5,738,427
1950–51	4,155,943	649,490	1,521,311	6,326,744
1951–52	4,361,241	664,541	1,436,401	6,462,183
1952–53	4,941,697	626,372	1,597,834	7,165,903

Since 1946 supplies of artificial fertilizer have been coming to hand in greater quantities than during the war years, and the area top-dressed with artificial fertilizer in 1952–53, including cases where lime also was used, was 6,539,531 acres, an increase of 741,889 acres over the 1951–52 figure. A noticeable feature was the increased use of lime during the period that phosphatic fertilizers were in such short supply.

The activities of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in the treatment of experimental plots from the various aspects of soil and crop requirements, and the subsequent data published thereon, have been an important factor in conveying to the farmer the many advantages to be derived from the scientific treatment of pastures.

While top-dressing in the past has been practically confined to sown grasses on the fiat and gently undulating country, recent years have seen the application of fertilizer to the surface-sown hill-country pastures in increasing quantities, first by the use of the blower and later by broadcasting from aircraft. The latter method particularly has expanded very rapidly since experimental work was first carried out in 1948 by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council. Further information in this connection is contained in Section 15.

GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS.—The figures for market gardens, plantations, etc., for the last five years are shown below. State gardens and plantations are covered by these figures. It should be noted that the statistics relate only to holdings of 1 acre or upwards outside boroughs.

Year	Market Gardens	Nurseries	Private Gardens, etc.	Plantations
	Acres	Acres	Acres	Acres
1948–49	13,436	1,249	83,822	884,077
1949–50	13,440	1,587	97,641	908,360
1950–51	13,984	1,191	93,971	902,164
1951–52	13,534	1,273	92,942	915,835
1952–53	15,489	1,571	92,457	949,531

Market Gardens.—The mobilization of large numbers of troops for home-defence purposes early in 1942, the presence of considerable numbers of Allied servicemen in New Zealand, and the demand for vegetables for members of the Allied Forces in the South Pacific, resulted in a considerable expansion in vegetable production during the 1942–43 season, followed by further increases in 1943–44 and 1944–45. With the passing of this special demand for vegetables, the area in market gardens fell from 16,826 acres in 1944–45 to 13,161 acres in 1945–46.

Additional information collected in 1950 showed that the 13,440 acres recorded in that year were distributed as follows: Gooseberries, 146 acres; black currants, 154 acres; red currants, 26 acres; raspberries, 830 acres; other small fruits and berries, 331 acres; and vegetable crops, 11,953 acres.

The Commercial Gardens Registration Act, which came into force on 1 May 1943, provides for the compulsory registration of all areas of half an acre or over of certain specified vegetables for sale for human consumption. The following vegetables are covered by the Act: asparagus, bean, beetroot, Brussel sprouts, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower (including broccoli), celery, cucumber, leek, lettuce, marrow, melon, parsnip, pea, pumpkin, radish, rhubarb, silver beet, spinach, squash, sweet corn, tomato. The annual report of the Department of Agriculture states that the total area of commercial gardens registered under the Act was 19,077 acres at 30 September 1953, the number of growers being 2,826. The difference between this area and the corresponding figure in the preceding table would be largely accounted for by the fact that areas within borough boundaries are included in the registration figures.

Nurseries.—Since 1939 owners of nurseries raising for sale certain specific trees, shrubs, and plants have been required to register their nurseries before being permitted to sell plants. The number of nurseries so registered at 31 December 1952 totalled 466, a decrease of 33 on the previous year mainly as a result of small and uneconomic tree-production nurseries ceasing operations.

The 1,587 acres recorded under nurseries on holdings of 1 acre and over outside borough boundaries in 1950 were divided into the following categories: flowers and ornamental shrubs, 812 acres; forest-tree seedlings, 352 acres; seedling fruit trees, 255 acres; and vegetable seedlings, 168 acres.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY.—A great impetus to the planting of fruit trees was given by the discovery that tracts of land, principally in the Nelson land district, which formerly were regarded as being practically useless, were eminently suited for growing fruit, particularly apples. For a time considerable areas of this and other land were annually added to New Zealand's orchards, but the acreage then declined until it became stabilized in the neighbourhood of 25,000 acres. However, a further decline set in after 1935–36, and continued until 1945–46, the area in that year showing a decrease of 6,837 acres as compared with the 1935–36 total of 25,072 acres. It will be noted from the figures given below that there has been a slow but steady increase since 1945–46. These figures refer to orchards of a quarter acre or over on holdings of one acre or more situated outside borough boundaries.

The following table shows the area outside borough boundaries which has been returned as under fruit trees at each of the last eleven annual enumerations.

Year	Acres
1942–43	19,190
1943–44	19,196
1944–45	19,614
1945–46	18,235
1946–47	18,253
1947–48	18,667
1948–49	18,667
1949–50	18,853
1950–51	19,722
1951–52	19,973
1952–53	21,464

The production of apples predominates, this crop accounting for over half the total area in orchards. The percentages (estimated) of trees under production of the principal kinds of fruit in commercial orchards are as follows: apples, 53.1; pears, 6.8; stone fruits, 31.9; lemons, 2.9; other citrus, 4.4; other tree fruits, 0.9.

The Orchard Levy Act 1953 provides for the levying in each year of an amount not exceeding £2 10s. on occupiers of orchards by the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, for use as required in assisting and developing the industry. Authority also exists for the imposition of a special orchard levy in the case of apple, pear, quince, peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, cherry, citrus, and other orchards for the purpose of controlling any specified disease within a certain district. Neither levy is payable in respect of any orchard with fewer than 120 fruit trees.

Commercial orchards registered at 31 March 1952 numbered 4,169, of which 2,163 were taxable and 2,006 non-taxable.

The latest figures available show that the relative sizes of taxable orchards in New Zealand were—

Acres	Number
1 to 5	1,076
6 to 10	590
11 to 15	261
16 to 20	116
21 to 25	50
26 to 50	59
Over 50	11

The number of trees in commercial orchards—i.e., orchards with 120 trees or more—at 31 March 1952, according to the principal varieties, was as follows: apple, 1,080,000; pear, 138,000; quince, 18,500; peach, 319,500; nectarine, 33,000; apricot, 122,000; plum, 148,500; cherry, 25,500; lemon, 58,000; orange, 37,000; grapefruit, 51,000; mandarin, 2,000.

The growing of outdoor grapes is chiefly confined to the districts situated between the North Cape and Hawke's Bay, the total area returned in vineyards in 1953 being 1,140 acres. The greater portion of the crop is used for winemaking, several wines of excellent quality being manufactured.

Marketing of Apples and Pears.—Upon the outbreak of war in 1939, by agreement with the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation, the Marketing Department assumed the functions of the Fruit Export Control Board established under the Fruit Control Act 1924. The Board retired from active participation, but remained as an advisory committee. The growers were given a fixed return for their fruit, the Government undertaking to sell the whole crop within New Zealand and to bear any losses consequent upon such policy. This action was taken owing to the loss of export markets resulting from lack of shipping space on account of war conditions. The Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948 and its amendments of 1950 and 1951 established the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board consisting of five members, two of whom are nominated by the New Zealand Fruitgrowers' Federation. The principal functions of the Board are the purchase and sale of apples and pears and matters incidental thereto, including export arrangements.

The Act provides that before 31 March in each season the Minister of Marketing, after consultation with the Board, shall declare an average price to be paid to growers for apples and pears grown during that season. This price is based on the standard cost of production. Thus the total amount paid by the Board for fruit purchased by it from growers in any season is the average price multiplied by the total quantity of fruit purchased. The actual prices paid by the Board to individual growers are fixed by the Board having regard to varieties, grades, quality, etc., of the fruit supplied.

If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the Board exceed the amount which the Board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the Board, is retained as a reserve fund. If sales in any season realize less than the amount the Board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. All apples and pears are not purchased by the Board, the Act making provision for certain private sales by growers in accordance with regulations issued thereunder. Details of the volume and value of apples exported during recent years will be found in Section 10B of this issue.

Marketing of Citrus Fruits.—The Citrus Marketing Authority Regulations 1953 set up the Citrus Marketing Authority, replacing the Marketing Division of the Department of Agriculture, with which was associated the Citrus Marketing Committee, in the assembly, treatment, packing, and marketing of New Zealand citrus fruit.

The Authority consists of five persons, four of whom are nominated by the New Zealand Citrus Council and representing the producers, and one person appointed by the Minister of Agriculture to represent the consumers.

The Authority controls the present system which is built up upon the assembly and packing of fruit at Kerikeri, Auckland, Tauranga, and, through an agent, at Gisborne. The Authority has power to acquire fruit coming within the scope of the regulations, and either directly or through agents arrange for its packing and for its distribution and final sale. This industry is entirely dependent upon market conditions.

The principal task is to sell fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand at prices related to cost of production, and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products such as fruit juice and lemon peel.

HOPS.—According to returns covering holdings of 1 acre or over outside boroughs there were 611 acres under hop vines in the season 1952–53. In addition, there are certain areas in boroughs, and the annual report of the Department of Agriculture states that the gross area was 618 acres during the 1951–52 season.

Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County. Production per acre usually ranges between 1,200 lb. and 1,500 lb., and the aggregate crop is usually sufficient to satisfy local requirements as well as to provide a surplus for export. Production in the 1951–52 season was 872,000 lb., compared with 1,250,000 lb. in the previous year, providing a surplus for export of only 340 bales (99,000 lb.), compared with 975 bales in 1950–51.

TOBACCO.—Although the cultivation of tobacco leaf on a commercial basis was initiated comparatively recently, the industry has made marked progress and growers are becoming increasingly familiar with the methods and plant required for the production of cured leaf acceptable to manufacturers. Since the establishment of the Tobacco Board in 1936 production has risen from 1,197,161 lb. in 1935–36 to 4,088,189 lb. in 1951–52. Commercial tobacco growing is confined to those to whom licences are issued by the Tobacco Board established under the Tobacco Growing Industry Act 1935 to control the industry. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco.

The following particulars relating to tobacco production have been taken from the annual report of the New Zealand Tobacco Board. It should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 1 acre or over situated outside borough boundaries, as is the case with most of the statistics contained in this Section.

Season	Number of Growers	Area Planted	Production
		Acres	lb.
1947–48	661	4,322	4,770,827
1948–49	619	4,393	5,000,470
1949–50	541	3,899	4,711,613
1950–51	529	3,904	5,436,314
1951–52	496	3,648	4,088,189

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 98.71 per cent and air-dried leaf for 1.29 per cent of the 1951–52 crop.

Shortage of labour continues to be a major factor militating against the expansion of the industry, and in a number of cases has been responsible for a reduction in areas. Mechanization of the industry on the growing side continues to increase. Picking and tying, however, are still done by hand.

PHORMIUM.—Large areas in various parts of New Zealand are covered with phormium, or New Zealand flax, the fibre of which is largely used for ropemaking, etc. An area of 39,051 acres was returned as under phormium on occupied holdings in 1952–53.

LINEN FLAX.—As a result of the exigencies of war, an entirely new industry was inaugurated in New Zealand—the growing of linen flax. Linen fibre is extensively used commercially, but assumed special importance as an essential war commodity. As the United Kingdom had previously imported 90 per cent of her requirements, mainly from Russia, attention was of necessity paid to the possibility of obtaining supplies elsewhere. Investigations into the growing of linen flax in New Zealand were first instituted in 1936, and much valuable research work was carried out by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in collaboration with the Department of Agriculture. These investigations demonstrated the possibility of the establishment of the industry in New Zealand, and led to an officer being sent abroad to study the industry at first hand and to purchase the necessary processing machinery for an experimental factory.

Though 403 acres of linen flax were grown in 1939–40, the industry was not established on a commercial basis till the 1940–41 season, when 13,118 acres were grown under contract to the Crown in response to a request received from the United Kingdom Ministry of Supply. This was increased to 21,067 acres by 1942–43, but subsequently declined until with the cessation of hostilities it fell to approximately 4,500 acres. There has since been a further decline, the area recorded in 1952–53 being only 1,525 acres.

SEED CERTIFICATION.—Commencing with the certification of seed potatoes and seed wheat in 1928, the Department of Agriculture has extended its activities in this direction to include such crops as perennial rye-grass, Italian rye-grass, Short-rotation (H₁) rye-grass, cocksfoot, timothy, brown-top, Phalaris tuberosa, white clover, cow-grass (broad red clover), Montgomery red clover, subterranean clover, oats, barley, ryecorn, sweet blue lupins, onions, chou moellier, rape, kale, turnip, and swede seeds.

The scheme was introduced to provide the buyer of certified seeds with a guarantee that the produce of such seeds would be true to type and free from seed-borne diseases.

In the early stages of the scheme, certification, which has relationship only to the type of the plant and not to the purity or germination of the seed itself, was based on the identification of superior strains of seeds appearing in certain districts as a result of natural selection. At the same time, however, a programme of scientific plant selection was instituted by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in an endeavour to improve still further the naturally occurring strains. The results of this selection work now form the basis of seed certification as applied to most of the above-mentioned types.

The task of raising seed of artificially selected strains involves in the first instance the testing of a large number of individual plants of the particular species. Only the plants giving the best performance under trial are resown for further multiplication, possibly half a dozen out of thousands.

These plants are then seeded together to produce small quantities of seed of the selected strain. This seed, in turn, is multiplied until sufficient is available to sow areas on a field scale. At this stage the Department of Agriculture takes over the material available and multiplies the seed under contract with selected farmers.

The resultant seed is distributed by the Department, sales being made through the mercantile firms to those farmers most favourably situated to make the best use of it for further seed production. From this stage the selected strain is multiplied under the Department's certification scheme through the stages of certified “Pedigree” seed and certified “Mother” seed to certified “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” seed. These seeds are sold through the usual commercial channels.

While in the lower classes of some varieties of certified seed at the present time there may be included also seed from natural strains, the proportion of the latter is being steadily reduced. The purpose of the various classes is to obtain the greatest bulk of good-quality seed in the “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” class in the shortest time. Thus, while the higher grades are important to seed producers, farmers sowing for pasture purposes only need not concern themselves with other than certified “Standard” or “Permanent Pasture” seed.

20 C—LIVESTOCK

SUMMARY OF LIVESTOCK.—Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the Report on the Farm Production Statistics issued annually by the Census and Statistics Department. This publication also contains the summary tables appearing in parliamentary paper H-23, which is devoted exclusively to a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns. It should be noted that, unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in the tables in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

Commencing with the year 1952–53, the annual collection of farming statistics has been conducted on a sample basis whereby only one farmer in seven provides the basic figures. This sample is a fixed one, on account of the large number of items to be surveyed, and the fact that the larger farming units must on this account all be included. The statistics in respect of 1953 or 1952–53 are quoted out to the nearest whole number, but this practice has been followed purely for the sake of convenience. In actual fact the final digits in each case are meaningless in respect of these years. The response on the part of those farmers included in the sample survey has been excellent.

The numbers of livestock of various kinds at each of the last five annual enumerations were as shown in the following table. Horses, dairy cows in milk, total cattle, sows, and total pigs are as at 31 January; sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed are for the season ending in the year stated; while breeding ewes and total sheep are as at 30 April for the years 1949–50 and 30 June for the years 1951–53.

—	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
* Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre. † At 30 April. ‡ At 30 June.
Horses	196,055	194,877	183,972	173,922	158,065
Dairy cows in milk	1,746,753	1,850,089	1,898,197	1,905,534	1,962,492
Cattle (including dairy cows)	4,722,836	4,954,906	5,060,024	5,164,689	5,445,963
Sheep shorn during season	30,277,551	31,533,232	32,251,297	33,901,691	34,794,489
Lambs shorn during season	5,624,895	6,339,709	7,017,989	6,705,190	7,111,900
Lambs tailed during season	19,805,885	21,169,576	21,238,461	21,814,024	22,162,270
Sheep (including lambs)^*	32,844,918^†	33,856,558^†	34,786,386^‡	35,384,270^‡	36,192,935^‡
Breeding ewes^*	21,499,703^†	21,881,467^†	22,638,491^‡	22,963,340^‡	23,781,376^‡
Pigs (total)	544,841	555,245	564,335	565,723	627,830
Breeding sows	68,305	74,509	75,053	77,747	81,162

In the following tables the figures of livestock are given for each land district for the latest available year.

Land District	Horses	Dairy Cows in Milk	Total Cattle	Breeding Sows	Total Pigs
North Auckland	23,850	447,692	938,952	19,878	146,798
South Auckland	31,192	726,999	1,526,502	32,536	241,756
Gisborne	11,422	44,319	399,431	2,144	16,873
Hawke's Bay	12,287	51,819	464,472	1,903	15,023
Taranaki	10,032	247,781	466,397	6,894	61,376
Wellington	23,566	238,621	953,626	9,669	76,483
Marlborough	2,708	14,253	60,426	807	6,196
Nelson	2,672	32,688	84,043	2,107	19,687
Westland	1,387	13,222	53,456	921	8,102
Canterbury	16,829	62,600	215,925	2,682	23,114
Otago	11,813	34,578	123,595	800	5,845
Southland	10,307	47,920	159,138	821	6,577
Totals	158,065	1,962,492	5,445,963	81,162	627,830

Land District	Sheep Shorn	Lambs Shorn	Lambs Tailed	Breeding Ewes^*	Total Sheep^*
* Includes sheep in boroughs.
North Auckland	1,426,565	444,985	846,959	884,740	1,371,362
South Auckland	3,824,497	1,241,261	2,591,983	2,750,678	4,003,893
Gisborne	2,080,980	753,091	949,978	1,225,664	2,109,615
Hawke's Bay	4,533,042	1,312,402	2,648,292	2,961,955	4,598,473
Taranaki	1,067,031	389,884	673,828	692,291	1,070,591
Wellington	7,129,032	2,388,198	4,296,644	4,582,351	7,253,390
Marlborough	1,003,245	93,308	485,033	617,744	1,060,769
Nelson	412,443	38,915	207,259	254,385	429,044
Westland	83,131	8,834	75,555	63,334	79,965
Canterbury	5,534,442	252,598	3,776,678	4,141,035	5,994,933
Otago	3,919,860	104,223	2,426,525	2,650,809	4,225,841
Southland	3,780,221	84,201	3,183,536	2,956,390	3,995,059
Totals	34,794,489	7,111,900	22,162,270	23,781,376	36,192,935

The next table shows the proportion of the various kinds of livestock in each land district. The figures reveal that the dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island, which has 87 per cent of the total cattle and 89 per cent of the dairy stock. Localizing the dairying industry still further, it is found that over half the milking cows of New Zealand are in the area comprised of the land districts of North and South Auckland. Taranaki and Wellington are practically equally important as regards the number of cows in milk; between them they account for nearly one-quarter of the total.

Taking the number of beef cows two years old and over as a guide to beef production, Wellington Land District easily leads with over one-fifth of the New Zealand total. South Auckland is second, followed by Hawke's Bay, Gisborne, and North Auckland in that order. These five districts together depasture 82 per cent of cows reserved for beef production.

Pig farming is largely an adjunct of dairy farming, and consequently the distribution of swine closely follows that of dairy cattle. Taranaki, however, which is mainly a cheese-producing district, has 12.6 per cent of New Zealand's milking cows, but only 9.8 per cent of the pigs, while Nelson, Westland, and Canterbury, which together have only 5.5 per cent of the cows in milk, have 8.1 per cent of the pig population.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The land districts of major importance are Wellington, Canterbury, Hawke's Bay, Otago, South Auckland, and Southland in that order, these six districts accounting for 83 percent of the total sheep population in 1953.

The location of each class of livestock is now given, the figures showing the percentage distribution in each land district.

Land District	Dairy Cows, Two Years Old and Over (in Milk)	Cows and Heifers, Two Years Old and Over (Other Than for Dairying)	Total Cattle	Breeding Sows	Total Pigs	Total Horses	Sheep Shorn^*	Lambs Shorn^*	Lambs Tailed^*
* Sheep shorn, lambs shorn, and lambs tailed during 1952.53, remaining particulars for stock as at 31 January 1953.
North Auckland	22.81	10.66	17.25	24.49	23.38	15.09	4.10	6.26	3.82
South Auckland	37.04	18.25	28.03	40.09	38.51	19.73	10.99	17.45	11.70
Gisborne	2.26	14.55	7.33	2.64	2.69	7.23	5.98	10.59	4.29
Hawke's Bay	2.64	17.06	8.53	2.35	2.39	7.77	13.03	18.45	11.95
Taranaki	12.63	4.30	8.56	8.49	9.77	6.35	3.07	5.48	3.04
Wellington	12.16	22.00	17.52	11.91	12.18	14.91	20.49	33.59	19.38
Marlborough	0.73	1.59	1.11	0.99	0.99	1.71	2.88	1.31	2.19
Nelson	1.67	1.19	1.54	2.60	3.14	1.69	119	0.55	0.94
Westland	0.67	1.15	0.98	1.14	1.29	0.88	0.24	0.12	0.34
Canterbury	3.19	3.88	3.96	3.30	3.68	10.65	15.91	3.55	17.04
Otago	1.76	2.23	2.27	0.99	0.93	7.47	11.27	1.47	10.95
Southland	2.44	3.14	2.92	1.01	1.05	6.52	10.85	1.18	14.36

SHEEP.—Although the first permanent establishment of sheep took place in 1834, when a small flock of Merinos was brought from Sydney and landed on Mana Island, it was not till the early 1840's that flocks were established in the Canterbury and Wellington districts. Other districts followed soon after. These original flocks were Merinos, but experience showed that this breed was not suited to the wetter parts of the North Island. In many districts in the South Island, however, they became firmly established in the high country, where the Merino or Merino crossbred are the only sheep capable of standing up to the extremes of climate. In the following two decades a number of English breeds were imported, notably Romneys, Southdowns, Lincolns, and English and Border Leicesters. The Merino ewe furnished the foundation of the crossbred stock which made Canterbury mutton and lamb famous on the British meat markets. Towards the end of the last century systematic inbreeding of Merino-longwool half-bred sheep resulted in the evolution of the now world-known Corriedale breed. The Romney Marsh has, however, long been the most popular sheep, particularly in the North Island.

The number of breeding ewes reached a new record level of 21,881,467 in 1950, while the total number of sheep, 33,856,558, was only 118,054 below the record figure of 1945. As from 1951 the date of collection was changed from 30 April to 30 June. The change in the date of collection made it difficult to assess the relative increase in sheep numbers compared with 1950, but the actual increase between 30 April 1950 and 30 June 1951 has now been estimated at over three and a quarter millions. This substantial increase has been followed by over half a million increase in sheep numbers between 30 June 1951 and 1952, bringing the total number of sheep up to a record level of 35,384,270, while further record totals were again established in 1953 with 23,781,376 breeding ewes and 36,192,935 total sheep.

The special farming type classification made in 1949–50 as part of the World Census of Agriculture shows the following break up by regional areas of those farms where 50 per cent or more of the farm enterprise was given over to sheep. Of all the farm types this classification shows the most equal balance between the North and South Islands, though the diversity of sheep farming with other agricultural pursuits is very evident in the South Island.

NUMBER OF SHEEP FARMS, BY REGIONAL AREAS, 1949–50

Regional Area	Principally Sheep	Sheep							Other Sheep Holdings	Total Sheep Farms
		With Beef Stock	With Dry Dairy Stock	With Dairy Stock	With Cropping	With Poultry	With Horticulture	With Mixed Farming		Total Sheep Farms
		With Beef Stock	With Dry Dairy Stock	With Dairy Stock	With Cropping	With Poultry	With Horticulture	With Mixed Farming		No.	Area
											Acres
Northland	442	282	12	34		1		14		785	699,643
South Auckland	542	130	23	50				10	1	756	464,330
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands	648	97	70	42		1	1	13	5	877	399,398
Cape Colville	85	15	18	5			1	2	2	128	117,496
Central Plateau	166	59	34	13				11	1	284	265,071
Western Uplands	980	297	48	57	1			11	1	1,395	1,442,304
Taranaki	265	27	79	30	1	4		31	2	439	234,952
East Cape	582	272	11	36	6	5	1	27	5	945	1,751,473
Hawke's Bay	1,619	157	18	87	22	1	1	49	33	1,987	2,098,902
Rangitikei	1,528	78	22	114	30	1	1	42	4	1,820	1,616,668
Manawatu	1,149	39	47	119	17		2	35	5	1,413	709,578
Castlepoint	256	8		10						274	396,046
Wairarapa	530	22	3	39	4			33	5	636	628,843
Featherston	293	14	11	23				11	2	354	515,160
Nelson	404	34	2	57	8		7	13	4	529	446,117
Marlborough	568	18	4	23	73		1	30	23	740	1,785,507
Westland	65	64	1	2				4	1	137	197,646
North Canterbury	405	4		10	93			64	20	596	1,323,947
Foothills	231	2	2	16	38	1		33	15	338	1,045,148
Canterbury Plains	222	3	5	17	129	2		32	16	426	268,438
Christchurch	31	1		1	2			3		38	22,422
Banks Peninsula	216	18	2	18	3	2	1	9	2	271	178,298
Mackenzie	230	4		5	23		1	14	10	287	1,476,035
South Canterbury	1,242	8	3	127	559	21	4	212	56	2,232	3,350,892
Otago	696	8	4	80	36	4	3	73	34	938	1,640,281
Central Otago	565		1	15	40	3	4	23	10	661	3,789,679
Southern	2,853	70	8	309	160	3	1	352	152	3,908	3,368,001
Remainder	74									74	177,370
Totals, Number	16,887	1,731	428	1,339	1,245	49	29	1,151	409	23,268
Acreage (000)	24,621	2,981	151	493	741	20	24	1,080	298		30,410

In the following table sheep distribution is shown by Islands, the figures including sheep in boroughs.

Year	North Island	South Island	Total Sheep at 30 April
* As at 30 June.
1940	17,179,875	13,883,000	31,062,875
1941	17,971,470	13,780,190	31,751,660
1944	19,010,618	14,189,680	33,200,298
1945	19,215,240	14,759,372	33,974,612
1947	18,245,561	14,436,238	32,681,799
1948	18,495,543	13,987,595	32,483,138
1949	18,600,068	14,244,850	32,844,918
1950	19,131,660	14,724,898	33,856,558
1951	19,912,858	14,873,528	34,786,386^*
1952	20,161,285	15,222,985	35,384,270^*
1953	20,407,324	15,785,611	36,192,935^*

The following table shows the number of rams, wethers, breeding ewes, dry ewes, and lambs in New Zealand for the last five years.

Year	Rams	Wethers	Breeding Ewes	Dry Ewes	Lambs	Totals
* As at 30 June. † Ram, ewe, and wether hoggets. ‡ Not available.
Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
1949	12,576		323,704	6,966	239,379	582,625
1950	12,129		319,077	6,249	245,369	582,824
1951^*	11,606		323,471	5,774	239,660^†	580,511
1952^*	12,828		331,180	5,937	248,485^†	598,430
1953^*	^‡		^‡	^‡	t	^‡
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but not Entered in Flock Book
1949	559,009	953,746	5,818,439	211,161	2,134,263	9,676,618
1950	568,697	982,843	6,324,524	232,664	2,414,339	10,523,067
1951^*	588,243	910,977	4,793,956	162,912	1,893,598^†	8,349,686
1952^*	587,545	2,393,105	17,804,304	356,554	6,522,338^†	27,663,846
1953^*	^‡	^‡	^‡	^‡	^‡	^‡
Crossbred Sheep
1949	11,337	1,521,667	15,357,560	417,115	5,277,996	22,585,675
1950	13,856	1,493,416	15,237,866	404,507	5,601,022	22,750,667
1951^*	21,577	1,768,415	17,521,064	302,170	6,242,963^†	25,856,189
1952^*	31,713	586,051	4,827,856	88,243	1,588,131^†	7,121,994
1953^*	^‡	^‡	^‡	^‡	^‡	^‡
Totals
1949	582,922	2,475,413	21,499,703	635,242	7,651,638	32,844,918
1950	594,682	2,476,259	21,881,467	643,420	8,260,730	33,856,558
1951^*	621,426	2,679,392	22,638,491	470,856	8,376,221^†	34,786,386
1952^*	632,086	2,979,156	22,963,340	450,734	8,358,954^†	35,384,270
1953^*	639,550	2,660,768	23,781,376	444,624	8,666,617^†	36,192,935

Because of changes in the 1952 questionnaire, figures for non-stud sheep are not comparable with those for the preceding years. Sheep previously classified as crossbreds now appear under the distinctive breed where a particular strain is predominant. The figures for Romneys in the table on the next page illustrate very markedly the effect of this change in method of classification. The statistics of breeds of sheep are now (from 1952 onwards) being collected at five-yearly intervals.

The average size of the flocks was 983 in 1949, 1,008 in 1950, 1,010 in 1951, 1,008 in 1952, and 1,022 in 1953. The subdivision of the large estates of the pioneering days and the practice of running small flocks on dairy farms, the latter a typical feature of recent activities, has resulted in a decrease in the average size of flocks as compared with earlier days. Since the beginning of the present century, however, there has been little variation. An upward tendency was evident between 1939 and 1945, owing no doubt to the decrease in dairy stock during the war period. Decreases in 1947 and 1948 have been followed by slight rises, probably as a result of increases in wool prices. A classification according to size shows the following position.

Size of Flocks	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
1 to 100	7,133	6,753	6,547	6,906	3,826
101 to 200	7,133	6,753	6,547	6,906	3,009
201 to 500	7,181	7,094	7,104	7,088	6,883
501 to 1,000	8,200	8,231	8,729	8,635	8,703
1,001 to 2,500	8,429	8,980	9,556	9,982	10,463
2,501 to 5,000	1,869	1,942	1,938	1,957	1,989
5,001 to 7,500	387	384	377	353	349
7,501 to 10,000	119	107	107	95	93
10,001 to 20,000	94	86	87	89	100
20,001 and over	11	12	7	8	8
Total flocks	33,423	33,589	34,452	35,113	35,423

The numbers of different classes comprising the flocks in June 1952 are given below.

Breed of Sheep	Stud Sheep Entered in Flock Book	Sheep of a Distinctive Breed Not Entered in Flock Book	Totals
Romney	326,843	22,052,115	22,378,958
Merino	26,049	769,336	795,385
Southdown	153,942	557,467	711,409
Corriedale	46,961	1,458,531	1,505,492
Half-bred	9,151	2,696,044	2,705,195
Border Leicester	14,372	59,356	73,728
English Leicester	4,582	11,679	16,261
Ryeland	4,149	16,829	20,978
Cheviot	5,073	18,898	23,971
Lincoln	3,616	10,494	14,110
Dorset Horn	1,672	6,893	8,565
Other breeds	2,020	6,204	8,224
Totals	598,430	27,663,846	28,262,276
Crossbreds			7,121,994
Grand totals	598,430	27,663,846	35,384,270

WOOL PRODUCTION.—Although fifth in order in actual size of flocks in 1950–51, in point of production of wool New Zealand was the third largest in the world, and ranked second in the list of principal exporting countries. New Zealand specializes in the production and export of crossbred wool, and in this field her only serious competitors are Argentina and Uruguay. With the exception of a small annual consumption by local mills the whole of the wool produced in New Zealand is exported. The quantity on a greasy basis used by local mills prior to the war was from 7,000,000 lb. to 8,000,000 lb. per annum, but this was greatly increased during the war period. By 1946–47 the wartime demand had eased and the quantity had fallen from 17,200,000 lb. in 1943–44 to 13,400,000 lb. It remained about this level until 1951–52, when it fell to 11,000,000 lb.

The following are the figures of estimated production in each of the last eleven seasons, computed on a greasy basis.

Year Ended 30 June	Estimated Production
	lb.
1943	340,000,000
1944	330,000,000
1945	372,000,000
1946	365,000,000
1947	367,000,000
1948	362,000,000
1949	367,000,000
1950	390,000,000
1951	390,000,000
1952	407,000,000
1953	418,000,000

An analysis of wool sold at New Zealand auctions, according to quality groups, is given in the following table.

Quality Group	1948–49		1949–50		1950–51		1951–52		1952–53
Quality Group	Bales	Percentage of Total Sales	Bales	Percentage of Total Sales	Bales	Percentage of Total Sales	Bales	Percentage of Total Sales	Bales	Percentage of Total Sales
60–64's and up	18,652	2.2	15,436	1.7	14,791	1.7	14,129	1.5	13,007	1.4
60's	8,968	1.0	7,818	0.9	9,604	1.1	13,805	1.5	10,253	1.1
58–60's, 58's, and 56–58's	101,644	11.9	105,418	11.8	103,403	11.8	93,266	10.1	91,361	9.9
50–56's and 56's	100,157	11.7	105,845	11.9	112,513	12.8	118,778	12.8	102,987	11.2
52's	74,401	8.7	77,161	8.7	73,311	8.4	60,317	6.5	60,305	6.6
50's	93,722	10.9	97,453	11.0	101,383	11.6	116,044	12.5	117,529	12.8
48–50's	134,553	15.7	140,541	15.8	140,569	16.0	134,337	14.5	145,755	15.9
46–50's and 48's	217,318	25.4	219,056	24.6	208,364	23.8	253,986	27.4	271,066	29.5
46–48's	97,851	11.4	105,773	11.9	98,153	11.2	103,296	11.1	90,805	9.9
46's and lower	9,774	1.1	15,049	1.7	14,206	1.6	19,810	2.1	15,528	1.7
Totals	857,040	100.0	889,550	100.0	876,297	100.0	927,768	100.0	918,596	100.0

The Wool Industry Act 1944 provided for the establishment of the New Zealand Wool Board, replacing the New Zealand Wool Council established under the Wool Industry Promotion Act 1936. The Board's principal concern is the promotion of the wool industry, particularly in regard to markets, scientific and industrial research in relation to wool and sheep with a view to improvement in quality and quantity, and the discovery of new or improved methods of utilization. Specific matters in relation to which the Board may be called upon to exercise certain functions are the production, handling, pooling, appraising, storage, distribution, marketing, and disposal of wool. The Board is empowered to act in combination or association with other bodies established outside New Zealand functioning on similar lines. It is also represented on the Wool Commission established by the Wool Commission Act 1951. For the purpose of providing funds to enable the Board to carry out its functions the Act provides for a levy on all wool produced in New Zealand, the rate of the levy to be fixed each season by the Board (at present 4s. 6d. a bale). This levy is collected by the New Zealand Wool Commission on behalf of the Wool Board.

CATTLE.—The total number of cattle recorded at the enumeration of 1953 was 5,445,963, as against 5,164,689 in 1952. The figures for 1952 and 1953, grouped according to the classification in use, were as follows:

Dairy stock—	1952	1953
Breeding bulls, two years old and over	60,678	63,271
Cows and heifers, two years old and over—
Cows in milk during season	1,905,534	1,962,492
Heifers not yet in milk	70,578	72,320
Cows not in milk during season, but intended to be used again for dairying	38,230	43,159
Heifers—
One and under two years old	388,165	358,524
Under one year old	380,975	428,314
Bulls and bull calves under two years old to be used for breeding purposes	38,460	39,581
Totals, dairy stock	2,882,620	2,967,661
Beef stock—
Breeding bulls, two years old and over	24,714	26,621
Cows and heifers, two years old and over	849,371	961,629
Heifers—
One and under two years old	223,186	227,442
Under one year old	234,044	257,565
Steers, two years old and over	465,245	495,825
Steers and bulls—
One and under two years old	230,023	233,093
Under one year old	255,486	276,127
Totals, beef stock	2,282,069	2,478,302
Totals, cattle	5,164,689	5,445,963

For some time prior to 1933 the development of the beef breeds was somewhat checked, partly owing to the advance taking place in dairying operations and partly through the difficulties of competing with other countries in the British market; but the successful inauguration of chilled beef shipments to the London market led to a marked increase in beef animals. Although the wartime arrangement for the purchase by the United Kingdom Government of New Zealand meat available for export did not include chilled beef, the schedule of prices was so framed that the producers of animals of the type required for the chilled beef trade would not suffer on account of the temporary cessation of the industry. A condition of the long-term contract for the purchase of meat by the United Kingdom Government was that the chilled beef trade was to be progressively resumed as and when the shipping position permitted. Trial shipments were made in 1952 and 1953.

Up to 1935 the breeding of dairy cattle made great progress in New Zealand. From then on, up to 1944, with the exception of 1941, when a slight increase was recorded, a series of successive decreases was experienced in the number of cows in milk. Decreases, although slight, were again recorded in 1946 and 1947, but in each of the succeeding six years substantial increases took place, the total for 1953 (1,962,492) being 56,958 above the previous highest figure of 1,905,534 recorded in 1952.

The following table shows the number of holdings with dairy cows in milk, grouped according to size of herd in milk, for the years 1947 to 1949, 1951, and 1952. Similar information for 1950 and 1953 is not available. The figures relate to holdings of 1 acre and over situated outside borough boundaries.

Year	Number of Cows in Milk											Total Holdings With Cows in Milk
Year	1–9	10–19	20–29	30–39	40–49	50–59	60–69	70–79	80–89	90–99	100 and Over	Total Holdings With Cows in Milk
1947	32,065	5,135	5,499	5,947	4,876	3,522	2,762	1,946	1,314	814	1,891	65,771
1948	32,383	4,786	5,298	5,810	5,133	3,745	2,899	2,016	1,413	878	2,035	66,406
1949	31,821	4,752	5,097	5,827	5,194	3,863	3,100	2,04?	1,486	943	2,064	66,188
1951	32,198	4,558	4,836	5,745	5,381	4,422	3,543	2,375	1,679	1,086	2,442	68,265
1952	32,223	4,366	4,536	5,527	5,245	4,438	3,665	2,512	1,726	1,105	2,532	67,875

Analysing those farm holdings where 50 per cent or more of the enterprise is devoted to dairying, the North Island predominates with 84 per cent of dairy farms, as shown in the following table of dairy farming by regional areas.

NUMBER OF DAIRY FARMS, BY REGIONAL AREAS, 1949–50

Regional Area	Principally Dairying	Dairying								Dry Dairy Cows and Heifers Only	Other Dairy Holdings	Total Dairy Farms
		With Sheep	With Cropping	With Beef Stock	With Poultry	With Pigs	With Bees	With Horticulture	With Mixed Farming			Total Dairy Farms
		With Sheep	With Cropping	With Beef Stock	With Poultry	With Pigs	With Bees	With Horticulture	With Mixed Farming			No.	Area
													Acres
Northland	6,815	154		23	58	14	2	37	55	148	7	7,313	1,485,711
South Auckland	3,165	112	1	4	33	5		19	26	131	8	3,504	395,319
Waikato and Hauraki Plains	6,544	193		4	7	20		7	39	118	4	6,936	967,162
Cape Colville	787	27		1	4	1		2	1	26		849	192,907
Central Plateau	2,065	65	1		18	11	1	23	40	39	3	2,266	439,416
Western Uplands	907	184		2		5		5	30	13	3	1,149	284,159
Taranaki	3,713	77		1	17	15		1	23	123	4	3,974	514,993
East Cape	915	65	13		44	3	2	8	38	18	2	1,108	150,572
Hawke's Bay	594	78	1	1	9	6	1	11	21	8	9	739	87,371
Rangitikei	1,024	187	8	1	5	3		4	17	13	1	1,263	181,504
Manawatu	2,716	178	6		11	10	1	9	19	36	4	2,990	335,070
Castlepoint	15	7			1							23	5,403
Wairarapa	556	72			5	7	1		11	6	3	661	117,093
Featherston	422	41			5	5		1	3	12		489	131,792
Nelson	817	99	4	4	5	7		30	35	11	2	1,014	277,251
Marlborough	324	30	5		1	3			19	5	6	393	75,858
Westland	345	19		9	1	6	3		17	8		408	177,268
North Canterbury	32	3	1		1				1	1		39	2,625
Foothills	50	12	6		6		1		4	3	1	83	13,908
Canterbury Plains	526	19	91		12	12	1	1	51	11	3	727	75,155
Christchurch	223	5	19	1	3	3		3	4	4	6	271	20,697
Banks Peninsula	145	36	1		1	2			4	1	3	193	36,125
Mackenzie	8	3	1			1						13	1,612
South Canterbury	635	75	57	2	39	14	4	2	39	8	10	885	72,107
Otago	439	58	10	1	12	1		2	17	9	9	558	70,880
Central Otago	68	8	1					1	4	1		83	11,777
Southern	1,295	423	2	5	11	11	1	2	70	11	5	1,836	295,814
Remainder	3											3	138
Totals, Number	35,148	2,230	228	59	309	165	18	168	588	764	93	39,770
Acreage (000)	5,190	805	24	28	21	23	1	12	224	74	18		6,420

A similar analysis for beef-cattle farms by regional areas shows the following distribution with the North Island contributing 65 per cent of the New Zealand total for this type of farming.

NUMBER OF BEEF-CATTLE FARMS, BY REGIONAL AREAS, 1949–50

Regional Area	Principally Beef-cattle	Beef-cattle				Other Beef-cattle Holdings	Total Beef-cattle Farms
Regional Area	Principally Beef-cattle	With Sheep	With Dairying	With Arable Cropping	With Mixed Farming	Other Beef-cattle Holdings	No.	Area
* Not available separately. Areas are included in the total.
								Acres
Northland	245	67	3		4	11	330	184,825
South Auckland	69	10	2		1	4	86	22,133
Waikato and Hauraki Lowlands	71	6			1	4	82	20,956
Cape Colville	24	3	1		2	3	33	20,249
Central Plateau	30	11	1			2	44	61,313
Western Uplands	44	13	2			1	60	27,844
Taranaki	16	1			1	4	22	2,287
East Cape	15	9	1				25	28,458
Hawke's Bay	28	7					35	20,483
Rangitikei	22	4	1		1	1	29	11,599
Manawatu	36	3			1	1	41	11,181
Castlepoint	1						1	^*
Wairarapa	5						5	2,352
Featherston	8						8	3,692
Nelson	63	8				4	75	39,130
Marlborough	8	1					9	462,507
Westland	108	44	3		4	1	159	398,477
North Canterbury	3						3	212,855
Foothills	1						1	^*
Canterbury Plains	14						14	3,676
Christchurch	9					1	10	1,294
Banks Peninsula	7	2					9	4,569
Mackenzie	1						1	^*
South Canterbury	29	1		1			31	5,946
Otago	27	4	1	1	1		34	16,663
Central Otago	2	1					3	106,677
Southland	59	20	2		2	1	84	31,688
Remainder	7						7	539
Totals, Number	952	215	17	2	18	37	1,241
Acreage	1,389,252	286,158	6,153	374	12,802	10,565		1,705,304

Most of the leading breeds of the cattle of Great Britain are represented in New Zealand by herds bred on sound lines. Provision was made in the 1950 Census of Agriculture for the collection of breeds of cattle, the first collection of this nature since 1928. The following table shows details by breeds as at 31 January 1950, separate figures being given for dairy and beef stock.

Breed	Number
Dairy Stock
Jersey	2,429,189
Friesian (Holstein)	169,611
Milking Shorthorn	164,640
Ayrshire	93,608
Red Poll	4,503
Others	5,050
Total dairy stock	2,866,601
Beef Stock
Polled Angus	1,393,681
Hereford	456,923
Shorthorn	147,448
Jersey	36,740
Milking Shorthorn	25,696
Red Poll	13,066
Friesian (Holstein)	12,032
Others	2,719
Total beef stock	2,088,305

While a detailed comparison between the two collections is not possible, as the method of collection has altered considerately between the years—e.g., the latest figures provide for a division between stock used for dairying as against stock for beef purposes, whereas this provision did not exist in 1928—a comparison between breed totals, though still not exact, shows some interesting trends, as will be seen from the following table. Details for 1918, the first year in which a similar collection was undertaken, are also included.

Breed of Cattle	1918	1928	1950
* Jersey and other Channel Island breeds. † Milking Shorthorn and Shorthorn combined.
Jersey	361,480^*	1275,738^*	2,465,929
Polled Angus	147,283	355,387	1,396,486
Hereford	294,455	430,451	458,200
Milking Shorthorn	Included with Shorthorn	447,414	190,336
Friesian (Holstein)	202,075	241,692	181,643
Shorthorn	1,665,514^†	417,493	147,448
Ayrshire	51,135	53,097	95,602
Red Poll		7,740	17,569
Guernsey	Included with Jersey	Included with Jersey	1,024
Devon	32	2,237	395
Galloway			274
Other and unspecified	116,653	7,450
Totals, cattle	2,838,627	3,238,699	4,954,906

The most significant feature of the change in breeds, apart from the continued steady gain by the Jersey strain, is the substantial increase recorded by Polled Angus. The rate of increase shown by this breed over the past twenty years rivals the rate of progress made by the Jerseys in earlier years.

Although an exact comparison between Milking Shorthorn and Shorthorn breeds is not possible, it is very evident that both these breeds have lost considerable favour since 1928.

DAIRY PRODUCE.—The. Dairy Industry Act 1908 (a consolidation of previous legislation), with its amendments, may in general terms be described as an Act to regulate the production, collection, treatment, preparation, and manufacture, under proper sanitary conditions, of dairy produce—i.e., milk, cream, butter, cheese, and any other product of milk or cream—intended for sale for human consumption within New Zealand or for export.

Inspectors are empowered to inspect premises used for the production or manufacture of dairy produce. Any defects affecting the cleanliness and sanitation of the premises, or of the plant, machinery, and apparatus used in connection therewith, may be ordered to be remedied to the satisfaction of the inspector, and until so remedied their use in the production of dairy-produce may be forbidden. Inspectors are authorized to condemn any dairy produce considered unfit for human consumption, and the sale of unwholesome milk or other dairy produce is prohibited.

Milk or cream purchased for the manufacture of dairy produce and paid for according to the percentage of butterfat contained therein must have this percentage determined by the Babcock or the Gerber test. Dairy factories are required by regulations under the Act to pay different prices for different grades of milk or cream supplied for the manufacture of dairy produce. Factories are also required to furnish to suppliers a certified annual statement of overrun, and provision is made for an independent investigation by the Audit Department where a supplier is dissatisfied with the statement received.

Dairy produce intended for export must be sound and wholesome in all respects, and must comply with the requirements of the Act as to inspection, grading, and marking. The export of butter containing more than 16 per cent of water or less than 80 per cent of butterfat is prohibited. The export of cheese of which the water-free substance consists of less than 50 per cent of fats wholly derived from milk is also illegal.

Wide powers are conferred to make regulations prescribing matters of detail with regard to the production, manufacture, sale, and export of dairy produce. In particular, regulations may be made for the registration of dairies, the licensing of persons carrying on the manufacture of dairy produce, the registration of brands to be used on dairy produce, and for the inspection, grading, packing, marking, stamping, and labelling of dairy produce.

The Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949, which replaced similar legislation contained in the Dairy Industry Act 1908 and its amendments, provides for the registration of co-operative dairy companies. No dairy company may include in its registered name the word “co-operative” unless it is entitled to be registered as a co-operative dairy company under the Act. A company registered under the Act is authorized to accept or to compel the surrender of shares issued in certain cases, subject to the rights of shareholders being safeguarded. This refers mainly to shareholders who have ceased to supply milk, cream, or butterfat to the company for a specified period. The Act provides for the establishment of the Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal of three members, the functions of which are to fix the fair value of shares surrendered in cases where the company and the shareholder are unable to agree as to the value of the surrendered shares and to fix the terms of repayment by the company.

Production of Dairy Produce.—During 1952–53, and for the third consecutive season, butterfat production in New Zealand established a new record, being estimated at 539 million pounds, an increase of 7 per cent, or 34 million pounds over the 1951–52 total of 505 million pounds. Of this amount, 473 million pounds was supplied to dairy factories for use in manufacture, 33 million pounds more than the previous record of 440 million pounds established in 1951–52. Butterfat production per cow during the season, 274 lb., surpassed all previous years.

Very favourable weather, increases in the number of dairy cows, and the extended use of improved methods, all contributed to the very high figures of butterfat production during the last four seasons.

Variations over the last eleven years in total butterfat production, including estimates for butterfat in milk and cream sold for human consumption, used and lost on farms, etc., arc shown hereunder. The table also gives the number of dairy cows recorded as in milk, on farms of 1 acre or more, outside borough boundaries, and estimates of the average butterfat production per cow “at the pail”, this estimate being based, in the latest year, on data concerning tested herds.

Year	Total Butterfat	Dairy Cows in Milk	Average Production Per Cow	Year	Total Butterfat	Dairy Cows in Milk	Average Production Per Cow
* Provisional.
	Million lb.	(000)	lb.		Million lb.	(000)	lb.
1942–43	407	1,715	234	1948–49	457	1,747	259
1943–44	387	1,648	232	1949–50	471	1,850	252
1944–45	432	1,679	254	1950–51	497	1,898	260
1945–46	373	1,662	222	1951–52	505	1,906	263
1946–47	408	1,658	243	1952–53	539^*	1,962	274^*
1947–48	418	1,714	241

The next table shows the estimated production and disposal of butterfat during each of the last five seasons.

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional. † Including residual fat in skim milk from home separation.
Butterfat used in—	Million	lb.
Creamery buttermaking	299.5	304.7	328.3	346.8	363.8
Cheesemaking.	88.6	93.9	96.6	84.6	96.0
Other milk products	7.9	8.3	7.8	9.0	12.7
Total used in manufacture	396.0	406.9	432.7	440.4	472.5
Human consumption—
Milk and cream as such	36.5	39.8	40.5	41.5	42.9
Milk and cream in ice-cream	0.6	0.6	0.5	0.4	0.4
Farm butter	6.6	5.7	4.9	4.1	3.7
Fed to stock^†	13.0	13.0	13.7	13.5	13.7
Wastage	4.6	4.7	5.0	5.1	5.3
Total production	457.3	470.7	497.3	505.0	538.5

Changes in the usage of butterfat in dairy factories over recent years are indicated by the percentages in the following table.

—	Percentage of Total Butterfat
—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Butterfat received into factories from farms and used for—
Buttermaking	75.6	74.9	75.9	78.8	77.0
Cheesemaking	22.4	23.1	22.3	19.2	20.3
Condensed and dried milk, etc.	2.0	2.0	1.8	2.0	2.7
Totals	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0

Compared with the 1951–52 season, production of creamery butter by dairy factories rose by 5 per cent and cheese production by 12 per cent; output of preserved whole milk and skim milk were, respectively, 24 per cent and 22 per cent greater, but the quantities of buttermilk powder and casein made decreased, buttermilk powder by 24 per cent and casein by 25 per cent. It will be noted, however, that the level of production of these latter commodities is still higher than in the 1949–50 season, and, as regards casein, the 1950–51 season.

Production by dairy factories during the last five seasons is set out in the following table.

—	1948–19	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Tons (000)
Creamery butter	163.0	165.8	178.6	188.7	197.2
Whey butter	2.8	3.0	31	2.8	3.2
Cheese	99.4	105.4	108.5	95.7	107.6
Condensed and powdered whole milk	23.0	23.9	23.5	22.9	28.3
Skim-milk powder	16.6	20.2	26.7	31.8	38.7
Buttermilk powder	1.7	4.0	7.4	7.1	5.4
Casein	5.4	5.3	6.6	9.5	7.1

The actual increases in the volume of production are shown in the next table, in which the above details are converted to an index based on the 1947–48 season (=100).

—	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Butterfat	109	113	119	121	129
Creamery butter	109	111	119	126	132
Whey butter	112	120	124	112	128
Cheese	115	122	126	111	125
Condensed and powdered whole milk	117	121	119	116	143
Skim-milk powder	136	166	219	261	316
Buttermilk powder	131	308	569	546	415
Casein	120	118	147	211	158

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry during the last forty-seven years, and also illustrates the disparity between the growth in the number of dairy cows and that of pigs.

New Zealand's paramount position in the supply of butter, cheese, and milk powder to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table.

IMPORTS INTO UNITED KINGDOM, BY COUNTRY OF EXPORT

Country (of Export)	Butter				Cheese				Milk Powder (Unsweetened)
	1951		1952		1951		1952		1951		1952
	Cwt. (000)	Per Cent	Cwt. (000)	Per Cent	Cwt. (000)	Per Cent	Cwt (000)	Per Cent	Cwt. (000)	Per Cent	Cwt. (000)	Per Cent
New Zealand	3,065	49.7	2,970	57.3	1,963	50.5	1,699	62.1	510	79.6	561	66.0
Australia	668	10.8	278	5.4	293	7.5	298	10.9	58	9.0	176	20.7
Other Commonwealth countries and Republic of Ireland	3	0.1	11	0.2	8	0.2	26	1.0	45	7.0	43	5.1
Canada					235	6.1
Denmark	2,024	32.8	1,739	33.5	245	6.3	311	11.4
Netherlands	360	5.9	115	2.2	233	6.0	239	8.7			24	2.8
France					30	0.8	21	0.8
Switzerland					43	1.1	39	1.4
Italy					44	1.1	36	1.2
Other countries	44	0.7	72	1.4	791	20.4	68	2.5	28	4.4	46	5.4
Totals	6.164	100.0	5.185	100.0	3,885	100.0	2,737	100.0	641	100.0	850	100.0

PIGS.—For some years prior to 1937 a quickening of interest in pig production as an adjunct to dairy farming raised pig numbers considerably above those noted previously, culminating in the record figure of 808,463 in 1936. Subsequent years showed substantial decreases in the number of pigs, although over the last five years the figures have shown a rising trend. The 1953 figure of 627,830 shows a decrease of 180,633, or 22 per cent, as compared with the peak figure of 1936.

As at 31 January	Pigs Under Six Months Old	Pigs Six Months and Under One Year Old	Boars One Year Old and Over	Sows One Year Old and Over	Total Pigs
1949	333,056	130,649	12,831	68,305	544,841
1950	352,708	113,843	14,185	74,509	555,245
1951	349,509	125,883	13,890	75,053	564,335
1952	351,921	122,139	13,916	77,747	565,723
1953	392,872	138,994	14,802	81,162	627,830

Particulars as to pig breeds were collected in 1950, the first time a collection of this nature had been carried out since 1928. The following table shows details by breeds as at 31 January 1950, total figures where comparable also being given for 1918 and 1928.

Breed	1918	1928	1950
Breed	Total	Total	Under 6 Months Old	6 Months and Under 1 Year	Boars 1 Year Old and Over	Sows 1 Year Old and Over	Total
Berkshire	66,610	78,758	17,474	6,084	3,523	9,607	36,688
Large White	7,216	8,555	8,972	2,614	1,326	3,305	16,217
Tamworth	4,400	15,556	15,468	5,799	2,224	6,965	30,456
Large Black			7,587	2,268	924	3,843	14,622
Duroc Jersey			1,224	486	284	511	2,505
Wessex Saddleback			20			2	22
Crossbreds	175,038	476,835	301,963	96,592	5,904	50,276	454,735
Total pigs	253,264	579,704	352,708	113,843	14,185	74,509	555,245

The popularity of the Berkshire breed has declined heavily. In 1924 this breed reached its highest level at 101,179, since when other breeds, notably Tamworth, have come into prominence, while both the Large White and Large Black have also made steady gains. The proportion of crossbred pigs remained relatively constant at 82 per cent between 1928 and 1950.

LIVESTOCK SLAUGHTERING.—The following table shows the numbers of the different classes of livestock slaughtered for food during each of the last eleven September years. The figures are for total killings—i.e., they include export works, abattoirs, rural slaughterhouses, and an allowance for killings on farms.

LIVESTOCK SLAUGHTERINGS (000 CARCASES)

Year Ended 30 September	Sheep	Lambs	Cattle	Calves	Pigs
1943	4,488	11,525	760	1,065	767
1944	4,846	11,096	632	968	727
1945	4,790	11,159	671	973	675
1946	5,410	12,322	694	1,037	656
1947	5,037	11,808	719	1,085	634
1948	4,640	12,373	712	1,174	638
1949	4,807	12,375	662	1,204	675
1950	5,010	12,789	693	1,275	676
1951	4,416	11,694	692	1,311	707
1952	5,925	12,415	743	1,311	685
1953	5,632	12,300	652	1,236	740

Sheep and Lambs.—As the United Kingdom takes the great bulk of the mutton and lamb exported from New Zealand it is interesting to note the extent to which New Zealand contributes to this market in comparison with importations from other countries.

In the calendar year 1938 New Zealand supplied 63 percent of the total frozen mutton imported into the United Kingdom and 50 per cent of the total imports of frozen lamb. Australia, the next largest supplier in 1938, contributed 23 per cent of mutton imports and 29 per cent of lamb imports, while Argentina, which ranked third on the list, supplied 6 per cent and 15 per cent respectively.

That New Zealand has more than maintained her position in this connection in the post-war years is evidenced by the figures for 1952, when New Zealand supplied 80 per cent of both frozen mutton and lamb imported into the United Kingdom, whereas the proportions supplied by Australia were 4 per cent for mutton and 6 per cent for lamb. Imports from Argentina in 1952 amounted to 15 per cent for mutton and 12 per cent for lamb.

Cattle.—New Zealand's frozen beef competes under difficulties with chilled and fresh beef from countries nearer the United Kingdom, with the consequence that the New Zealand share of the United Kingdom's beef imports has been relatively small. However, prospects for expansion brightened considerably when several trial shipments of New Zealand chilled beef were despatched to England in 1933. The experiments proved very successful, and were followed by larger shipments, the quantity shipped in 1938 being 350,606 cwt. During the first nine months of 1939, 311,112 cwt. were exported, but with the outbreak of war the necessity for conserving shipping space resulted in the temporary cessation of the chilled beef industry. The first post-war consignment in the form of a small experimental shipment was made in 1952 and further trial shipments were made in 1953.

The development of the export trade in chilled beef, however, was not made at the expense of frozen beef. Quantities of frozen beef shipped to the United Kingdom in 1937, 1938, and 1939, were 531,160, 544,764, and 672,310 cwt. respectively, as compared with 484,628 cwt. in 1936.

During the war period a considerably greater proportion of beef exports was shipped in boneless form in order to conserve shipping space, and this practice was continued into the immediate postwar years. Also much greater quantities were exported in canned form. Consequently, it is not possible to give an exact comparison with pre-war years. In 1952 New Zealand supplied approximately 15 per cent of the United Kingdom's total imports of beef, as compared with only 7 per cent in 1938.

Pigs.—As in the case of other frozen meats, New Zealand pork in normal times is shipped almost exclusively to the United Kingdom.

In international trade, exports of bacon far exceed those of other pig products, with the United Kingdom normally absorbing most of the exports of other countries. Although New Zealand supplies a substantial proportion of the imports of frozen and chilled pork into the United Kingdom, her contributions of bacon are negligible. It should be mentioned, however, that the major portion of the carcases imported from New Zealand are “baconers,” the curing process being carried out in the United Kingdom.

Calves.—Prior to the outbreak of the recent war, veal production was displaying evidence of rapid development, and exports of veal had increased appreciably, mainly as a result of the expansion of the “bobby-calf” trade.

The term “bobby calf” is defined by regulations as being “all calves that have a live weight of less than 100 lb.”

Meat Production and Disposal.—Meat production for the season ended September 1952 was a record, being nearly 25,000 tons in excess of the previous record total of 577,400 tons reached in 1949–50, and 72,000 tons higher than in 1950–51 when output was affected by the protracted industrial dispute. Carcase meat is shown at bone-in weight.

—	Total Production	Disposals
		Exports to United Kingdom	Other Exports and Overseas Ships' Stores	For Canning	Local Consumption
			Tons	Per Cent	Tons	Tons	Tons	Tons
Beef	173,200	29.9	44,030	15,566	16,654	96,950
Veal	18,900	3.3	2,325	2,200	9,236	5,139
Mutton	153,700	26.6	86,426	7,299	1,601	58,374
Lamb	194,100	33.5	182,554	2,183		9,363
Pig meat—
Pork	12,600	6.7	1,858	2,949		7,793
Bacon and ham	24,400		5,643	3,519		15,238
Chopper	1,900				343	1,557
Total carcase meat	578,800	100.0	322,836	33,716	27,834	194,414
Edible offal	23,400		11,666	482	2,657	8,595
Grand totals	602,200		334,502	34,198	30,491	203,009

Exports to the United Kingdom are as supplied by the New Zealand Meat Producers Board, and relate only to meat shipped on contract to the United Kingdom Ministry of Food. It should be noted that the figure for beef includes approximately 26,600 tons subsequently diverted to the United States of America and 1,500 tons to Hong Kong. Canned meat, equivalent to about 2,100 tons of carcase meat, was also shipped under contract to the United Kingdom Ministry of Food. In addition, nearly 12,700 tons of canned and pickled meats, and 5,000 tons of frozen meat, mainly beef, went to the United Kingdom under open general licence.

The next table shows total meat production and exports to the United Kingdom under Ministry of Food contract for the three September years 1949–50 to 1951–52.

—	Total Production			Exports to United Kingdom (Under United Kingdom Ministry of Food Contract)
—	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
	Tons (000)			Tons (000)
Beef	164.2	159.1	173.2	55.8	42.0	44.0
Veal	21.2	18.1	18.9	15.5	10.4	2.3
Mutton	131.2	109.3	153.7	72.6	51.0	86.4
Lamb	200.6	183.1	194.1	192.2	172.6	182.6
Pig meat—
Pork	11.4	11.4	12.6	3.1	3.1	1.9
Bacon and ham	25.3	25.4	24.4	7.2	7.6	5.6
Chopper	2.2	2.2	1.9
Total carcase meat	556.1	508.6	578.8	346.5	286.7	322.8
Edible offal	21.3	21.4	23.4	12.7	10.3	11.7
Total production	577.4	530.0	602.2
Canned meat (carcase weight equivalent)				7.5	2.1	2.1
Total exports under United Kingdom Ministry of Food contract				366.7	299.1	336.6
Percentage of total production				63.5	56.4	55.9

A decline in exports to the United Kingdom in 1948–49 in the face of increased production was attributable to higher local consumption, caused by the abolition of rationing at the end of the 1947–48 season, and in a lesser degree by the greater needs of a growing population. Local consumption in 1951–52 was 203,000 tons, compared with 205,400 tons in 1950–51, 194,900 tons in 1949–50, and 190,200 tons in 1948–49.

A summary of meat production and local consumption is set out below, together with quarterly estimates. The 1953 figures reveal a decline in production and consumption of approximately 10 per cent.

—	Total Production (Estimated) (Bone-in Weights)
—	Beef	Veal	Mutton	Lamb	Pig Meats	Offal	Total
Year ended 30 September—	Tons (000)
1950	164.2	21.2	131.2	200.6	38.9	21.3	577.4
1951	159.1	18.1	109.3	183.1	39.0	21.4	530.0
1952	173.2	18.9	153.7	194.1	38.9	23.4	602.2
1953	161.3	20.7	143.3	187.5	41.0	20.0	573.8
Quarter ended—
1950—December	27.2	2.4	14.7	27.5	11.2	3.7	86.7
1951—March	34.8	1.0	39.0	90.2	14.3	7.1	186.4
June	59.9	1.4	42.5	63.4	11.4	7.0	185.6
September	37.2	13.3	13.1	2.0	2.1	3.6	71.3
December	25.1	2.9	16.4	23.6	10.8	3.8	82.6
1952—March	40.9	1.1	78.7	118.7	15.7	9.4	264.5
June	72.2	1.8	43.4	49.7	10.8	6.2	184.1
September	35.0	13.1	15.2	2.1	1.6	4.0	71.0
December	25.0	3.1	18.7	18.4	11.5	2.9	79.5
1953—March	39.0	1.2	69.5	105.3	16.3	7.9	239.2
June	68.1	1.7	40.0	61.5	9.7	6.0	187.0
September	29.2	14.7	15.1	2.3	3.5	3.2	68.1

—	Consumption in New Zealand (Bone-in Weights)
—	Beef	Veal	Mutton	Lamb	Pig Meats	Offal	Total
NOTE.—In some cases consumption may exceed production for the period, the balance being drawn from stocks in store.
Year ended 30 September—	Tons (000)
1950	920	4.9	54.3	7.7	27.7	8.3	194.9
1951	99.5	4.9	55.4	9.6	27.5	8.5	205.4
1952	97.2	5.1	58.6	9.3	24.3	8.5	203.0
1953	93.0	4.6	60.0	8.8	20.3	8.2	194.7
Quarter ended—
1950—December	23.6	1.1	14.2	2.7	7.3	2.0	50.9
1951—March	23.3	1.2	13.4	2.5	7.1	2.0	49.5
June	26 1	1.4	14.0	2.4	7.0	2.3	53.2
September	26.5	1.2	13.8	2.0	6.1	2.2	51.8
December	24.4	1.2	14.4	3.0	6.6	1.8	51.4
1952—March	23.5	1.3	14.1	2.5	6.5	2.1	50.0
June	25.3	1.5	14.7	2.2	5.9	2.4	52.0
September	24.0	1.1	15.4	1.6	5.3	2.2	49.6
December	21.6	1.0	15.2	2.6	5.4	1.9	47.7
1953—March	22.9	1.2	13.8	2.2	5.5	1.8	47.3
June	24.0	1.3	15.5	2.1	4.9	2.3	50.1
September	24.5	1.1	15.5	1.9	4.5	2.2	49.6

The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom for the year ended 31 December 1952, by country of export.

Country	Beef		Mutton and Lamb		Pig Meat		Other Meat		Total, All Meat and Meat Products
Country	(000)Cwt.	Per Cent	(000)Cwt.	Per Cent	(000)Cwt.	Per Cent	(000)Cwt.	Per Cent	(000)Cwt.	Per Cent
* Classified in totals above.
New Zealand	667	14.7	5,864	78.9	116	1.8			6,922	32.5
Australia	1,082	23.9	392	5.3	114	1.8	116	4.1	2,622	12.3
Canada									502	2.4
Other British countries and Republic of Ireland	905	20.0	1		247	3.8	548	19.3	1,446	6.8
British whale fisheries									52	0.2
Denmark					3,786	58.0	148	5.2	4,045	19.0
Argentina	1,417	31.3	937	12.6	42	0.6			2,483	11.6
Netherlands					915	14.0	489	17.3	1,523	7.2
Poland					845	13.0			878	4.1
France					39	0.6	144	5.1	212	1.0
Uruguay	111	2.4	10	0.1			2	0.1	157	0.7
Germany					90	1.4			124	0.6
Belgium					17	0.3	34	1.2	113	0.5
Brazil	7	0.2							34	0.2
Sweden									26	0.1
Chile			6	0.1					11	0.1
Paraguay	2	0.1							5
United States of America									4
Other countries									155	0.7
Not classified	334	7.4	225	3.0	313	4.7	1,349	47.7	^*	^*
Totals	4,525	100.0	7,435	100.0	6,524	100.0	2,830	100.0	21,314	100.0

The importance of the part New Zealand plays in the supply of meat to the United Kingdom is shown in the above table, New Zealand being the leading supplier of total meat products; this country's share, 32 per cent, is 13 per cent greater than that of Denmark, the next largest supplier.

HORSES.—The following table gives the number of horses in each class shown, excluding horses in boroughs, figures for which are not available.

—	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
Draught and three-quarter draught	74,004	71,593	65,901	57,434	158,065
Spring cart (including half-draught)	31,380	26,244	22,541	20,300
Hacks and light working horses	73,709	76,829	75,318	74,530
Thoroughbred and other horses	16,962	20,211	20,212	21,658
Total horses	196,055	194,877	183,972	173,922	58,065

Since 1911, when the peak number of 404,284 was recorded, there has been, with two minor interruptions, a continuous decline in the number of horses in New Zealand. The two interruptions referred to occurred in the years 1916–18 and 1936–38, wherein slight increases were recorded.

During the ten years up to 1952 the decrease amounted to 62,533, or 26 per cent. The greater part of this decrease has occurred in draught and three-quarter draught animals, the numbers of which fell from 118,054 in 1942 to 57,434 in 1952, while those described as spring cart (including half-draught) horses fell from 44,586 to 20,300. This decline in the numbers of horses of the heavy type has been accompanied by a marked increase in the use of mechanical traction for farm work, the number of agricultural tractors on farms in 1952 being 45,734, as compared with 13,967 in 1942. In 1953 the total number of horses further declined to 158,065, while agricultural tractors increased to 52,495. This subject is discussed in more detail in Section 20A.

Hacks and light working horses have decreased to a much lesser extent over the period; in fact, mainly as the result of an increase of over 3,000 in 1950, the number for that year was the highest since 1938, but numbers have since receded slightly. The class described as “thoroughbred and other” fell away considerably during the war and early post-war years, but increases were recorded in the years 1948–52.

POULTRY.—A census of poultry has been an ancillary inquiry associated with the census of population from 1861 onwards, with the exception of the censuses of 1896 and 1901. Until 1936, however, poultry kept by Maori households had not been brought within the ambit of the census. The extension of the inquiry to Maori households in 1936 furnished probably the first statistics in existence on this subject. The total poultry flocks of the Maoris, however, are small (91,976 in 1945 and 107,361 in 1936), and their omission from earlier censuses does not appear to have been of significance.

The following table shows the numbers recorded at the last six censuses. All references to fowls, ducks, etc., are intended to cover both male and female birds.

Census	Number of Households Keeping Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or Turkeys	Total Number of Fowls, Ducks, Geese, or Turkeys	Fowls	Ducks	Geese	Turkeys
* Excluding Maori flocks. † Including Maori flocks.
October 1916	134,234	3,465,638	3,141,354	220,808	46,955	56,521
April 1921	145,993	3,991,009	3,491,567	379,988	46,234	73,220
April 1926	158,856	3,781,145	3,308,384	352,030	43,879	76,852
March 1936^*	159,098	3,911,715	3,415,793	351,608	61,418	82,896
March 1936^†	166,354	4,019,076	3,488,516	377,791	66,667	86,102
September 1945^*	152,229	4,378,390	4,006,780	298,399	37,661	35,550
September 1945^†	159,333	4,470,366	4,070,683	319,918	41,903	37,862
April 1951^†	180,723	4,199,590	3,829,481	260,659	58,474	50,976

The comparability of the foregoing figures is affected by two important considerations, the first being that the 1951 figures include only birds aged four months or over, while the 1945 figures Cover birds of all ages. The second factor is that the censuses of 1916 and 1945 were taken in the spring, whereas the other censuses were taken in the autumn. Poultry numbers are subject to considerable seasonal fluctuations, the main breeding season being in the early spring, when there would be considerable numbers of young chickens included in the figures, whereas in the autumn the culling of old birds would have been more or less completed.

Number and Size of Flocks.—Although poultry farming is regarded as a definite branch of the farming industry, a classification as to sizes of flocks indicates that poultry keeping is generally carried on merely as a sideline. The 180,723 households recorded as keeping poultry at the 1951 census show an increase of 13.4 per cent as compared with the 1945 census. Taking only fowls into consideration, it is found that 89.5 per cent of households keeping poultry had less than twenty-five birds, the corresponding percentage in 1945 being 83.8. In 15,535 cases in 1951 the number of birds ranged from 25 to 99, making a total of 174,704 cases, or 98.2 per cent, in which the flocks consisted of less than 100 birds.

Of 366 flocks in which the number of birds was 1,000 or over, 284 ranged from 1,000 to 1,999, 62 from 2,000 to 2,999, 11 from 3,000 to 3,999, and 9 exceeded 4,000. In 1945 the number of flocks of 1,000 or over amounted to 490, but here, as elsewhere, the remarks concerning seasonal fluctuations in poultry numbers made earlier should be taken into consideration. The larger flocks at the time of the 1945 census would be unduly swollen by the inclusion of young chickens held for sale, this being the source from which the small or “backyard” poultry keeper mainly obtains his flock. The average flock in rural districts was 26.3, in urban districts 14.7, and in New Zealand as a whole 21.5 birds.

Poultry Control.—The Poultry Act 1924 provides for the regulating of poultry keeping and of the sale and export of poultry and eggs. Provision is made for the appointment of inspectors, on whom certain powers of entry are conferred for purposes of inspection of poultry or of eggs intended for sale or export. Poultry are required to be kept under sanitary conditions, and cruelty to poultry is made an offence. Every owner of poultry is required to notify an inspector of any outbreak of disease among his flock and to comply with the inspector's directions. It is an offence to sell diseased poultry. The Governor-General in Council is empowered to declare diseases, to appoint ports of export, and to appoint grading stores.

The Egg Marketing Authority consists of seven members—four producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives.

The principal function of the Authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg products in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

In order to provide finance for the organization and development of the poultry industry, the Poultry-runs Registration Act was passed in 1933. The Act makes compulsory the annual registration of every poultry run, which is defined as land used for the keeping of not less than twenty-five head of poultry (hens and ducks not less than six months old) and the production of eggs for sale. The fee payable annually for registration is 2s. 6d. if the flock is in excess of twenty-four but does not exceed one hundred head. For each additional hundred (or part thereof) an additional 2s. 6d. is payable. A Board is constituted for the administration of the Act. Figures supplied by the Board show that the number of poultry runs registered at 31 May 1953 was 6,970, covering an aggregate of 1,304,598 birds.

BEES.—The rich dairy pastures of New Zealand and other localities where cattle raising is carried on extensively are particularly favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey for the local and export markets; thus the North Island, which contains 87 per cent of the cattle population, accounts for 70 per cent of the total apiarists. The export trade is, of course, small when compared with the main primary industries, but is capable of considerable development. It is estimated that the total production of honey during a favourable season in New Zealand if 75 lb. surplus per hive, amounting to 6,400 tons, based on the present registered apiary holdings. The estimated production in commercial and domestic apiaries for the year ended 31 March 1953 was 3,900 tons of honey and 136,500 lb. of commercial beeswax, a decrease of 100 tons of honey but an increase of some 19,500 lb. of beeswax on the previous year's production.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act (referred to later) show that as at 30 June 1953 there were 6,568 beekeepers with a total of 12,530 apiaries and 191,553 established hives. Following is a summary of these registrations showing beekeepers in groups according to the number of hives kept.

Group	1–5 Hives	6–20 Hives	21–50 Hives	51 Hives and Over
Beekeepers	4,260	1,382	374	552
Apiaries	4,342	1,652	678	5,858
Hives established	9,440	14,737	12,496	154,880

Under the Apiaries Act 1927 stringent regulations have been enacted in order to control foul-brood, bee moths, and other diseases of bees. Beekeepers are required to register all apiaries of one or more hives, and it is an offence to keep bees in an unregistered apiary. Only frame hives may be used, box hives being prohibited.

The introduction into New Zealand of bees, and used appliances for the keeping of bees and the harvesting of their products, is prohibited save with the prior consent of the Minister of Agriculture. The consent of the Minister in regard to used appliances is restricted to such appliances as are necessary to serve as containers for bees so introduced.

Exports of honey for the last six years are given below.

	Quantity	Value
Year	lb.	£
1947	80,506	3,053
1948	197,096	7,313
1949	157,262	7,769
1950	852,972	41,958
1951	751,280	34,994
1952	885,598	43,412

There was previously in existence a Honey Export Control Board, set up in 1924, the powers of which were assumed by the Minister of Marketing in 1938. The same year regulations were brought down to provide for a levy at the rate of ½d. per pound on honey sold by beekeepers within New Zealand, subject to certain small exceptions. At a later date regulations under the Marketing Act set up the Honey Marketing Committee which at first was advisory, but some years ago was given virtually executive powers. The latest regulations, made under the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953, now amalgamate all the foregoing provisions and provide for a Honey Marketing Authority, which will assume control of honey for export and will either directly or through agents operate the blending plant at Auckland. The levy referred to above will be continued at the rate of 1d. per pound, and the fund so obtained will be administered by the Honey Marketing Authority for the benefit of the industry in general. The greater part of the funds hitherto obtained from this levy have been applied to subsidizing the return received by those whose honey has been exported through the Honey Marketing Committee.

The Authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, one appointed by the National Beekeepers' Association (Incorporated), and one member appointed by the Government to watch the interests of the consumer.

Chapter 21. SECTION 21—FORESTRY

Table of Contents

NATIONAL FOREST POLICY.—The forest policy is essentially one of conservation and expansion—conservation of the indigenous forests for the threefold purpose of erosion control, maintenance of amenity values, and timber production; and expansion of the exotic forests to enable the conservation of the indigenous forests and provide an additional timber supply. Only by the multiple use of both upland and lowland forests for the preservation of their timber productivity and for the maintenance of their protective, scenic, and recreational values can the objective of the national forest policy be achieved. This objective is that the public should enjoy to the full those economic and social benefits which forests alone can confer.

The salient features of the timber-supply situation are—

Most of the remaining virgin forests are overmature, with new growth being offset by decay and natural deaths.
The problem of regenerating podocarp forests (which supply most of New Zealand's general purpose timbers) has not yet been solved, nor is it likely that a practical solution will be found for any very large area of such forests. Even if the difficulties of natural regeneration could be overcome, or, alternatively, if podocarp forests could be grown artificially in plantation form, they would take 200 to 300 years to mature.
Current timber demands are depleting the virgin indigenous forests at such a rate that without other provision being made New Zealand would soon be faced with a permanent timber famine and would have to rely entirely on imports.
The establishment of exotic forests to supplement and in a large measure to replace the indigenous forests is thus essential to the future well-being of the country.
Fortunately, New Zealand is endowed with a climate which is particularly favourable to the development of several valuable exotic softwood species. Moreover, there, are large areas of land which are marginal for agriculture (or in the past have been so considered) but which are entirely suitable for tree growth.
So favourable are the climatic and soil factors in New Zealand that exotic softwood forests can be grown more quickly and hence more cheaply than in most other countries of the world. As a result New Zealand can look forward confidently to the development of its export trade in timber, woodpulp, newsprint, and other forest products.

FOREST RESOURCES: General.—Most of New Zealand was acquired by the Crown during the early days of settlement, apart from limited areas purchased privately from the Maoris; some land, mostly in the North Island, remained as Maori land. Subsequently the Crown granted freehold and leasehold titles of much tussock grassland country and of accessible forest areas, but it kept in reserve substantial forest areas for future settlement and for timber supplies. Because of the mountainous nature of the country—three-quarters of the land surface lies above the 650-foot contour—and the limited farmable areas therefore available, the lowland and montane country was quickly cleared of forest under this system of settlement. The main mountain areas, however, remained forested, and before they could be deforested to any extent the shortage of indigenous timber reserves became apparent and the dangers of erosion began to show on the steep country that had been cleared. Many of these areas v/ere, therefore, made State forests quite early—this term being used for the first time under the Forests Act of 1874—and upon the formation of the State Forest Service in 1919 were administered by the Forest Service either as permanent or provisional State forests. The latter category included land that might be suitable for farming and which could be taken over for this purpose once the crop of timber had been cut from it. Substantial areas of indigenous forest were from time to time also declared national parks and reserves. By and large the general pattern of distribution of agricultural land and forest became defined about the end of the nineteenth century.

Most of the indigenous State forests, and forests on Maori land and national parks as well, now fall into the category of protection forest; that is, they are required for water and soil conservation, irrespective of what exploitable forest produce they contain.

The dwindling of indigenous timber supplies and the need to replace them was realized early. To provide for the future the State, therefore, commenced small planting operations with exotics at the end of the last century. These continued until the early 1920's, when sufficient experience of the most suitable species and planting sites had been accumulated to allow of a huge expansion of planting both by the State and by afforestation companies. In the peak year of this activity some

50,000 acres were planted. This extensive establishment continued until about the year 1935 when it subsided, and planting of exotic species on a smaller scale was continued by the Forest Service. Latterly this planting has been distributed in the old units as well as in a number of smaller units located in areas of wood scarcity.

The total forest covering at 31 March 1951 is as shown in the following table. It should be noted, however, that the area of forested land has been estimated from very meagre and incomplete information. Reasonably accurate figures are available for indigenous State forests, but the total areas of indigenous forest in other tenures are not yet known. An accurate total forest area figure will not be available until the National Forest Survey referred to on page 503 is completed.

Type of Land	Area, in Acres	Percentage of Forest Area	Percentage of Total Land Area
* The total area of legal State forest is 9,481,000 acres, of which 342,000 acres represents the unplanted area in exotic State forests and 685,000 acres the area of open country (tussock grasslands, etc.) in indigenous State forests. The net forested area only (8,454,000 acres) has been used in the table. The corresponding figure of legal State forest at 31 March 1953 was 9,550,000 acres.
Forested land—
State forest^*	8,454,000	53.2	12.6
Scenic reserves	900,000	5.7	1.4
National parks	1,400,000	8.8	2.1
Maori land	1,500,000	9.4	2.3
Unoccupied Crown land	1,000,000	6.3	1.5
Freehold	2,636,000	16.6	4.0
Totals	15,890,000	100.0	23.9
Land devoted to agriculture	19,244,000		29.0
Other land	31,257,000		47.1
Total land area (including water surfaces)	66,391,000		100.0

Composition of Forests.—Indigenous forests of New Zealand may be divided very broadly into two formations, mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest; the former, in regard to its trees, being a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech (Nothofagus). Between these two formations there are many intermediates, the one gradating into the other.

In general distribution, mixed temperate evergreen forest originally occupied mainly the coastal, lowland, and montane belts, except in the drier areas, where it was replaced by southern beech forest; and the southern beech forest, besides occupying these drier areas, extended above the montane belt to the timber line. The upper altitudinal line of the mixed forest became gradually lower in proceeding from north to south.

Most of the mixed forest has been cut over for timber and cleared for farming purposes, whereas the southern beech forest, because of the difficult topography and the poor soils on which it most frequently grows, is largely intact. The following description gives in more detail the distribution and the present state of the main forest communities.

Kauri forest once occupied much of the area northwards from a line joining Port Waikato to Tauranga, but, except for limited reservations and small pockets, this forest has disappeared. The main secondary species of trees are taraire and tawa. Mixed podocarp forest, the principal podocarp being rimu, and important secondary ones, totara, matai, and miro, extended throughout all three main islands. The heaviest commercial stands were on flat or near-flat sites; in steeper country timber trees thinned out and secondary species became more plentiful. The remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, which will be worked for a few decades to come; some large areas on steep country, such as the Urewera, which can be classed mainly as protection forest; and fairly extensive forests in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island which contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. The main species of broad-leaved trees in these forests are kamahi, tawa, and rata. Kahikatea forest occupied low-lying swampy river silts, but this has almost disappeared to make way for farming.

Bog forests, whose dominant trees are smaller podocarps of the silver-pine group, occupy limited areas mainly in the central North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island. They have largely been cut over, at least once, for posts and sleepers.

Although most southern beech forests can be classified as protection forests, there remain substantial areas in lowland and montane regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, or that still have not been cut over and will be reserved for sustained yield management. Where southern beech forest is present in the lowland and montane belts of the North Island and northern Marlborough-Nelson the species are hard beech (Nothofagus truncata), and black beech (N. solanderi). In the upper belts, red beech (N. fusca) is abundant, but is usually accompanied by the silver beech (N. menziesii), which is the main tree at the highest altitudes, unless conditions are somewhat dry, when mountain beech (N. cliffortioides) replaces it. On the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps there was once a belt of mountain beech forest, but this has been burnt except for pockets. On the western side of the Alps beech forest is absent from the Taramakau River southwards for one hundred miles. In western Otago and Southland silver beech is the main forest tree, with fair areas of mountain beech and small pockets of red beech. At the lower elevations silver beech is extensively milled and much of the forest has disappeared.

Important forest trees at high elevations, and not already mentioned, are kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii) and thin-barked totara (Podocarpus hallii).

In the undisturbed indigenous vegetation there were limited transition areas between tussock grassland and forest proper that carried manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides), and sometimes bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum). With the destruction of much tussock grassland and forest, these belts have extended, and manuka has even occupied extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from any original manuka stands. These stands are important because they are often a stage in succession back to mature forest. Manuka is also a very useful fuel.

Much land now classified as forest consists of a second growth of broad-leaved shrubs and trees which have come in after milling operations or on abandoned farm land.

Exotic plantations of over ten acres in extent now total 890,000 acres, besides which there is a large total acreage of smaller farm woodlots and shelter bells. These areas of exotic species already provide a significant proportion of the country's timber requirements, and before many more decades have passed must supply most of it. In some poorly forested districts shelter belts now provide a large part of the local timber supply.

By far the greatest area of the larger exotic plantations are in the central North Island region. They were established with radiata pine (Pinus radiata) between the years 1925–1935. Other plantations are scattered throughout the country, although there are still some timberless districts without any sizable areas, notably Taranaki, Poverty Bay and the East Coast, and South Canterbury.

National Forest Survey.—For many years past it has been obvious that there is a need for a comprehensive and scientific stocktaking of the indigenous forest resources, both to provide up-to-date information on the extent of remaining timber supplies, and to assess the salient ecological facts upon which New Zealand's long-term indigenous forest policy must be based. The National Forest Survey is a major fact-finding project designed to meet this need. The project was commenced in 1946 and is scheduled for completion, at least as far as its main objects are concerned, by 1956. The survey is based on a combination of aerial photographs and statistically controlled ground sampling. It will result in qualitative descriptions of the many forest associations present in New Zealand forest-type maps, showing their distribution and detailed estimates of the timber volume present. The National Forest Survey is administered by the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua.

FOREST AUTHORITY.—The administration of State Forests and afforestation activities in New Zealand was for many years under the control of the Lands and Survey Department, but in 1919 a separate Forestry Department was formed. This was reorganized in 1920 as a Department of State, called the State Forest Service, and was given statutory recognition and administrative authority by the Forests Act 1921–22, which provided for a Minister of the Crown to hold office as Commissioner of State Forests. The Forests Act 1949 consolidated the previous legislation and changed the title of the Minister to Minister of Forests, and that of the State Forest Service to the New Zealand Forest Service.

The Act provides for the appointment of a Minister of Forests, a Director of Forestry, and Conservators of Forests and other officers. The Minister may delegate such of his powers as he thinks fit. The Act prescribes that the Forest Service shall have under the direction of the Minister exclusive responsibility in carrying out all matters of forest policy affecting State forest land and shall have exclusive control and management of—

All State forest land, whether for the production of timber or other forest produce, or for the protection of the land with a view to water conservation or soil stabilization, or for ensuring the balanced use of the land, or for scientific purposes, or for recreational or amenity purposes not prejudicial to forestry;
The establishment, culture, and maintenance of forests on State forest land, and the harvesting, utilization, transport, sale, or other disposal of forest produce from State forest land;
The granting of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities under the Act;
The enforcement of the conditions of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities granted under the Act or any enactment repealed;
The collection and recovery of all purchase-moneys, rents, fees, royalties, charges, and revenues of the Service; and
Generally the exercise of all powers, authorities, and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister or the Forest Service by the Act.

Central management and control of the Forest Service is exercised by the Director of Forestry, with the head office at Wellington. For the purpose of local administration New Zealand is divided into seven conservancies, each under the control of a Conservator of Forests, who is the territorial representative of the Director of Forestry. Conservancies are subdivided into districts under the charge of Forest Rangers, who are under the direction of Conservators of Forests. Central administration of forest policy is achieved under divisions, each with an Inspector in Charge as principal officer. Five divisions have been set up—namely, management (working plans, silviculture, soil conservation, timber sales, etc.), commercial (logging, sawmilling, and log sales), development (recruitment, training, and research), engineering, and operations (forest law, accountancy, public relations, staff, etc.). One other division, industrial, has as yet only a token staff; and one, public and private forestry, remains yet to be developed. Research has been centralized at the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, and staff training at the Forest Service Training Centre, also at Rotorua.

State Forests.—State forests are administered under the authority of the Forests Act 1949 and the Nassella Tussock Act 1946. The powers conferred by the Forests Act 1949 to deal with forest produce are subject to the provisions of the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Mining Act 1926, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1937. Section 23 of the Mining Amendment Act 1934 provides for the payment to the Crown of compensation for damage to any land vested in the Crown resulting from mining operations. Such compensation in respect of State forests may be claimed by the Minister of Forests from time to time as damage is caused. The Minister of Forests also administers the Waitangi Endowment under powers set out in the Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33.

Mining Privileges and Coal-Mining Rights.—After the coming into force of the Forests Act 1949 a mining privilege or coal-mining right over State forest land may not be granted except with the consent in writing of the Minister of Forests and subject to such conditions as he may impose. Notwithstanding anything in the Mining Act 1926 or in any licence, lease, title, right, privilege, or other authority under those Acts granted after the Forests Act 1949 came into force, no person may cut or remove any timber or other forest produce on or from State forest land except in accordance with the provisions of the Forests Act.

Regulations.—The Forests Act 1949 authorizes the appointment by regulation of committees to advise the Minister of Forests on specified matters. Regulations issued under this authority are the Timber Production Advisory Committee Regulations 1949 and the Sirex Advisory Committee Regulations 1950.

Other regulations in force are the Sawmill Registration Regulations 1942, the Timber Regulations 1948, and the Forest and Rural Fires Regulations 1951. The latter are issued under the authority of both the Forests Act 1949 and the Forest and Rural Fires Act 1947.

Fire Prevention and Control.—A complete coverage of New Zealand with respect to fire prevention and control is now provided by the Forest and Rural Fires Act 1947, the Forests Act 1949, and the Fire Services Act 1949.

The Forest and Rural Fires Act 1947 provides that each County Council is a Fire Authority for the county area under its control, and for the constitution of rural fire districts each to be administered by a committee or by the Minister of Forests as Fire Authority. The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council is the Fire Authority for each soil conservation district. Rural fire districts, soil conservation districts, and urban fire districts are excluded from control by a County Council. The Forests Act 1949 provides for the protection of State forest land not protected by rural fire districts. The Fire Services Act 1949 provides for the protection of urban districts.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.—In the field of production forestry, as distinct from protection forestry, the management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards two ends:

To protect, conserve, and, if possible, perpetuate the remaining indigenous forests of the country.
To create an exotic estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce, and to provide an exportable surplus.

Indigenous Forest Management.—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve regulation and restriction of the permissible annual cut, protection against fire, a careful watch for trespass and the prosecution of offenders caught, rigid insistence on close utilization, both of forests and forest products, and finally block sales of carefully measured and appraised standing timber. Of these measures the last one is particularly important. The system of block sales introduced by the Forest Service in 1921 is in sharp contrast to the previous method of “royalty payment off the saw.” The present system encourages close utilization since the sawmiller is required to pay for all timber measured; the previous one encouraged unnecessary waste both in the forests themselves and in the subsequent milling processes. It is estimated that through this administrative reform the Forest Service has succeeded in conserving some 700,000,000 board feet of timber which would otherwise have been left to rot in the forests or been thrown away in slab heaps. A large part of the indigenous forest officers' work is in the routine administration of the block sale system–i.e., in the careful measurement and appraisal of trees for sale and in the periodic and equally careful inspection of milling operations to ensure that waste is not taking place.

Of equal importance to this policy of “conservation through close utilization” is that of rationing the cut of indigenous timbers. As far as podocarp forests are concerned there is little possibility of these ever being harvested as the foresters would like—i.e., on a sustained yield basis with natural regeneration following logging, an even distribution of age classes, and an annual cut equal in volume to the annual growth. The reasons for this should now be well known. They are, briefly, the over-maturity of most podocarp forests wherein new growth is offset by decay and natural deaths; the tendency of the podocarp forests to give way naturally to a climax hardwood association; the silvicultural intractability of the species, which prohibits significant natural regeneration no matter what system of logging is used; the very great difficulties and exorbitant costs of raising artificial podocarp forests; and finally the extremely slow rate of growth of all species. For these and other reasons it is unrealistic to expect that, once the virgin stands have been exploited, the podocarp forests can ever again make any significant contribution to the timber supply of the country. This is an unpalatable fact to many New Zealanders, but nevertheless it must be faced. As a result the only wise policy which can be adopted is to ration the cut of indigenous timbers so that the remaining supplies, particularly of high quality word, are spread out over the years instead of being liquidated in a very short time. To this end the Forest Service formulates working plans for all major State forests and through them regulates, both by individual forests and by districts, the amount of timber that can be cut annually. Consideration is given to the essential timber requirements of a district and to the extent to which these requirements can be met by the substitution of exotic species.

At the same time the possibility of ultimately regenerating podocarp forests and bringing them into a productive state is far from being overlooked. Research into the silvicultural properties of the species and into the ecology of the natural forest associations is being pursued; and in some instances logging of podocarp forests is being carried out by the Forest Service, with a view, inter alia, to the reservation of seed-bearing trees. Logged areas are protected from fire and grazing, thus encouraging the development of natural second-growth associations which should in time act as a nurse crop for podocarp seedlings.

Parallel to the policy of rationing the cut is that of making long-term log and timber sales. This has the effect of giving stability to sawmilling industries and to the communities dependent upon them. In one or two instances further stability is being sought by the practice of interplanting logged areas to exotic species (mainly Douglas fir and western red cedar), combined where possible with the planting up of adjacent areas of open country. By this means a sustained yield, part exotic part indigenous, can be achieved, and the sawmilling industries and communities can look forward to a life in perpetuity.

In kauri forests plans for management on a sustained yield basis have been disrupted by the reservation of the largest remaining area, Waipoua Forest, as a forest sanctuary. Nevertheless the allowable kauri cut is very strictly rationed; a diameter limit (whereby no green kauri under 36 in. in diameter may be felled) is rigidly enforced; regeneration and advance growth is protected and tended; areas of natural regeneration are acquired; and nursery grown kauri seedlings are planted out. Kauri as a species is more amenable to silvicultural treatment than rimu and, although the technique is not easy, it is possible to convert the present overmature forests into healthy vigorous stands and to manage them in perpetuity on a sustained yield basis. Unfortunately the kauri reserves have now dwindled to insignificant proportions and the work of kauri management can be on a small scale only.

In contrast to both kauri and rimu, the prospects of perpetuating and improving the beech forests of New Zealand are very good indeed. Both the major species, red beech and silver beech, when given the right conditions will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to be worked on a medium length rotation (100 to 130 years); and both show their optimum development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Moreover there are large tracts of virgin forest still intact, and in the case of red beech extensive areas of young pole forest which have originated as a result of fire, windthrow, or mining activities. All the conditions, therefore, are favourable for sustained yield management. The only major difficulty is in localities where red deer are present in large numbers. Under these conditions the beech seedlings are continuously grazed and the development of regeneration is effectively prohibited. Work in the intensive management of the beech forests has been commenced in selected areas. In the case of virgin forests it consists of preparing the ground for the reception of seed; marking seed trees for retention; erecting deer-proof fences; felling and utilizing of merchantable trees; and, finally, felling of remaining trees and shrubs other than the seed bearers. Simultaneously thinning operations are taking place in areas of natural regeneration and in the already established pole stands. On a more extensive scale the regeneration and improvement of the forests is being sought by the reservation of seed bearers and by the imposing of diameter limit restrictions which prohibit the felling of young vigorous trees.

As a result of these measures it is confidently expected that future generations of New Zealanders will become heir to beech forests as healthy and productive as any of the best hardwood forests in the Old World.

Exotic Forest Management.—The establishment of State exotic forests dates from 1896 when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting commenced in 1898, and proceeded at a slow rate until 1922, by which time 47,000 acres had been established. The formation of the New Zealand Forest Service as a separate department of State in the early “twenties” coincided approximately with an “afforestation boom,” and in the period 1923–36 no less than 376,000 acres were planted. Since then plantings have again been on a modest scale and in the period 1937–52 only a further 35,000 acres were established.

In the earlier years the areas selected for planting were often chosen with little consideration of the suitability of the site for tree growing or of the proximity of the forests to existing and future markets. As a result there have been some partial or complete failures, and the geographical distribution of the forests leaves much to be desired. These faults are now being corrected by the establishment of new forests in timber-hungry districts and by the careful selection of areas where the climate, soil, and topography are all favourable to tree growth.

The original plantations contained a great variety of species, most of the common timber trees of the Old World being represented as well as many from the New World, particularly North American conifers and Australian eucalypts. In general, except locally and on very good sites, the European hardwoods such as ash, oak, and sycamore were failures; and of the multitude of eucalypts tried only a few proved suitable for New Zealand conditions. The standard European softwood, Scots pine, was a complete failure, as were many of the American pines, firs, and spruces. Norway spruce promised well for some years, but was finally wiped out by insect attack. Austrian pine was planted extensively in the earlier years and developed into very poor stands; much later similar results were obtained from extensive plantings of the scopulorum variety of ponderosa pine, and even worse results from the wide-scale and indiscriminate attempts to establish Californian redwood. The successes, however, were no less numerous than the failures, and before long it became fairly obvious which would be the most suitable and profitable species. Pride of place went to radiata pine, which showed the ability to grow rapidly on a wide range of sites and to produce fine stands of timber. It became, and still is, the major exotic conifer of New Zealand. Other major species,

planted according to site, are Douglas fir, Corsican pine, and ponderosa pine. Of recent years the “Southern” pines, P. taeda, P. caribaea, and P. palustris have found a place in the more northerly forests. Minor species planted on a restricted scale are larch, lodgepole pine, Pinus strobus, Pinus patula, Cryptomeria japonica, Lawson's cypress, Monterey cypress, and western red cedar. The species distribution is—

Species	Thousands of Acres
Radiata pine	181
Ponderosa pine	73
Corsican pine	59
Douglas fir	44
Others and mixtures	102
Total	459

Descriptions of the most important species and of their silvicultural characteristics are given later in this Section.

In spite of the failures, New Zealand now has a large and valuable exotic forest estate. It is estimated that the annual growth is in the order of 65,000,000 cubic feet. This represents approximately 400,000,000 board feet of timber, or only a little less than the current total yearly consumption. New Zealand is thus well on the way to being nationally self-sufficient from State forests alone; with privately-owned forests taken into account the annual increment is sufficient to meet all local requirements and to give a considerable exportable surplus as well. Quantitatively, therefore, the position of exotic forestry in New Zealand is basically very sound; qualitatively the forests leave much to be desired. Their various shortcomings, due largely to past mistakes, now present problems which will tax the ingenuity of the forestry profession to the utmost. Specifically, management of the State exotic forests is rendered difficult and complex by reason of—

The Bad Age-class Distribution: No less than 65 per cent of the total radiata pine area was planted in one ten-year period; a similar proportion will thus mature in a ten-year period, leading to a temporary over-supply of timber with shortages before and after. The position is much the same with the other major species.
The High proportion of Radiata Pine: Although only 40 per cent of the total area is in radiata pine, the proportion in some individual forests and in some districts is much higher. A greater diversity of species would enable a wider range of forest products to be supplied and would lessen the risk of insect or fungal attack on an epidemic scale.
The Considerable Areas of Low Productivity: The maximum value from the soil is not being obtained in areas which are occupied by poor species such as P. ponderosa var. scopulorum, Austrian pine, some races of lodgepole pine, Australian eucalypts, etc. Their replacement by more valuable species must be undertaken.
The Low Stocking of Many Areas: Two causes are responsible—the practice during the boom afforestation period of planting at a wide initial espacement, and the failure during the same period to plant up gaps in. original establishment. The resultant trees are often open grown and branchy and are producing firewood and pulping material rather than sawlogs.
Lack of Tending: Large areas have received little silvicultural treatment since planting. Low pruning has been carried out on an extensive scale, but thinning, which is essential to the health and well-being of the stands, has been badly neglected. As a result many forests are stagnating and are failing to put maximum increment on the best final-crop trees. High pruning, which in a short rotation species is necessary for the production of clean timber and veneer logs, has also been carried out on a small scale only.

For these reasons management activities in State exotic forests are directed towards getting a better distribution of age classes in the next rotation, which entails felling some stands before they are mature and leaving others to be carried on to over-maturity; towards converting areas of low productivity to well-stocked stands of more valuable species; and above all towards catching up with arrears of thinning. At the same time all these activities must be integrated with utilization projects so that the demand for forest products can be met and forest industries can have continuity of supply; and they must be so planned as to fit in to long-term schemes for sustained yield operation. Working plans, which when approved have Ministerial authority, are prepared for all exotic forests. They not only prescribe detailed planting, thinning, pruning, and felling operations for the next five years but also embody long-term plans of twenty to thirty years or even longer.

Clear-felling activities in State exotic forests commenced on a major scale in 1939, and have been confined almost entirely to radiata pine. In most cases natural regeneration has followed logging, and second rotation crops are now well established. In order to grow high-quality timber, to get the maximum production from the soil, and to lessen the chances of insect or fungal attack, these dense young stands must be thinned early and often. This work is given a high priority.

Production from State exotic forests is now over 6,000,000 cubic feet annually and is increasing rapidly. Sawlogs account for the greatest proportion but many other types of forest produce are produced, notably transmission and telephone poles, fencing posts and battens, mining timbers, stockyard rails, turnip stakes, and firewood. Future production will include not only much greater quantities of saw timber and other forest products, but also large quantities of chemical and ground-wood pulp, and their derived products—newsprint, kraft, and writing papers.

FIRE PROTECTION.—The fire-protection policy of the Forest Service follows from the premise that, notwithstanding the generally favourable climate, fire is the greatest single menace to forests and protection vegetation in New Zealand; within a few hours fire can undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance.

The fire risk in New Zealand cannot be measured by comparing the generally adequate and well-distributed rainfall experienced in most districts with conditions in countries where droughts are frequent and severe and the summers commonly hotter and drier. New Zealand is a mountainous country, and the high winds and strong sunshine, which are characteristics of the New Zealand climate, will dry out the forest vegetation on exposed situations even in the heavy rainfall areas in a remarkably short time,

Although widespread hazardous fire conditions only occur at fairly long intervals there are few seasons during which there are not dry spells or near droughts in some part or other of the country, and very high fire hazards develop. The year 1946 brought the great fires of the central plateau of the North Island, and in 1949 conditions were severe enough in the Auckland Provincial District to cause mortality in a number of native forest species from drought. During 1950 there were numerous forest fires on the West Coast of the South Island, and there was a long continued dry spell in the summer-rainfall districts of the extreme south.

The peculiar and almost unique feature of many New Zealand forest species in being extremely exacting in their requirements for regeneration to take place is of special significance. Forest fires in most countries mean the loss of a crop; in New Zealand a severely burnt forest usually means a destroyed forest. Even the beech species, which will regenerate freely under favourable conditions, can only do so after a severe fire under circumstances which are often quite fortuitous in character. Virgin mixed temperate forests admittedly do not burn readily during normal seasons, but the greater proportion of the remaining forests of this type have been logged for the commercial, species. As cut-over forests they are very inflammable, and when burnt become waste lands.

The consequences of the relatively small fires which occur all over the country every normal season are as serious in the long run, if not more so, than the spectacularly large fires common in some countries, in that the losses are accumulative because of the lack of recuperative powers of most of our forest species from fire damage.

The existing areas of protection vegetation on the headwaters of the main rivers are inadequate for the purposes of soil and water conservation, and unless they are protected and allowed to extend, abnormal flooding with costly river-control schemes will continue to be a heavy drain on the resources of the country.

The history of statutory provisions for the protection of forests from fire is a long one going back to 1874, but it was not until the Forests Act 1921–22 established the present Forest Service that the protection of State forests was put on a satisfactory basis. This Act provided for the constitution of fire districts, and also for the protection of forests which because of administrative difficulties could not be protected by fire districts. The principle of fire districts was later extended to cover private forests and other lands.

This situation was satisfactory as far as it went, but it left large areas of inflammable vegetation over which there was no authority for controlling the lighting of fires during hazardous weather conditions. The need for legislation to deal with fire control on a national scale was realized, but it was not until the disastrous fires of 1946 that there was public support for such legislation, and the Forest and Rural Fires Act was passed in 1947.

The Forest and Rural Fires Act provides for land on which high fire hazards occur annually to be covered by Rural Fire Districts administered by Committees or by the Minister of Forests. The rest of the country, with the exception of certain areas, is placed under the control of County Councils as the Fire Authorities, with powers to declare an emergency during periods of high fire hazard. State forests which are not covered by fire districts are protected by the Forests Act 1949. In effect there is now no area of rural land for which there is not some Authority for the control and prevention of fire.

The Fire Protection Organization of the Forest Service operates over the whole of New Zealand, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, and national parks. The organization has also the responsibility of securing co-ordination and uniformity in the administration of the Forests and Rural Fires Act by other Fire Authorities.

An efficient fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the Department has fire-fighting responsibilities, according to the reeds of each district. This reaches its highest level of organization in the larger exotic forests, where standard Forest Service lookout cabins equipped with fire finders, radio, and telephones are located. Trained fire-fighting crews with modern equipment can be brought into action at a minute's notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial patrols operate during each fire season in the important Rotorua area.

The provision of a fire-hazard prediction and warning service is an essential function of the Fire Protection Organization. A nation-wide network of fire-weather and radio stations is maintained, and the fire-hazard situation in any part of the country is known at the Head Office of the Forest Service in Wellington each day during the season within an hour of the weather observations being taken at the stations. This enables appropriate action, such as advice to Fire Authorities and broadcasting of warnings, to be taken as the circumstances require.

SOIL CONSERVATION.—Through its ownership and control of some 6,000,000 acres of protection forest the Forest Service is deeply involved in the vital national question of conserving soil and water resources. Ever since its inception the Forest Service has insisted that the maintenance of an adequate vegetative cover is the only possible means of preventing accelerated soil erosion and of regulating stream flow. It believes that the root of the problem lie in the headwaters and catchment” of the rivers, and it is there, and not in the lower reaches, that preventative and remedial action must be taken. Downstream engineering, necessary and valuable though it may be, does not strike at the cause of the trouble and can never be anything but a palliative.

In the light of these convictions the policy of the Forest Service in soil-conservation measures is clear cut. It is simply to initiate or encourage any action which would conserve or improve the existing cover, and conversely to prevent or discourage any action which would have the reverse effect. This policy dictates the management activities of all State forests where soil erosion is an important consideration; it is advocated by the Forest Service as the correct policy for all types of eroded land, irrespective of land tenure.

The forest management activities undertaken in protection forests are: protection from fire; prohibition and control of grazing; limitation of sawmilling activities; reservation of secondary species in some logging operations; extermination of animal pests; and, in some cases, artificial re-establishment. Of these, the most important are fire prevention and suppression (discussed earlier) and the control of introduced animal pests. The latter work is undertaken not by the Forest Service, but by the Wildlife Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs. Close liaison, however, is maintained, and the Forest Service gives the Wildlife Branch up-to-date information as to which forest areas are most critically in need of attention. In addition, the Forest Service undertakes its own control measures in exotic forests and in some selected indigenous forest areas.

Co-ordination in forest-protection work is achieved through the Department's representation on the Soil Conservation Council and on the twelve Catchment Boards now operating throughout the country; through the secondment of a professional forest officer to the staff of the Soil Conservation Council; and through the activities of the local land-use committees (representing the Departments of Agriculture and Lands and Survey, and the Forest Service) which recommend the optimum land-use policy for marginal or doubtful areas.

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTRY.—The method first adopted in New Zealand for encouraging the planting of trees for the production of timber was by means of “land grants “—a settler being given a free grant of land if he planted a certain portion of his land with suitable trees. Several large plantations were established in Canterbury by this method, which, however, was abandoned in the “eighties.”

For some years prior to 1931 the Forest Service raised and sold trees to intending planters and further assisted with advice from officers specializing in this branch of forestry activity. In 1931, at the cogent request of the Horticultural Trades Association, the State ceased the sale of trees, and the work of the extension officers became incidental to the other duties of the general staff.

Private Forest Estate.—The area of planted forest owned by afforestation companies, local authorities, and private persons was reported in March 1950 to be 435,600 acres.

Private and local authority ownership is estimated to account for about 100,000 acres of the above, and it was composed mainly of radiata pine with a proportion of longer rotational species. Many of the original plantings have been milled and some are in process of regeneration. Because most of the areas had received little or no care since establishment, the produce has been very knotty, but owing to its greater age (and consequent high heartwood content) it has found extensive use.

Afforestation companies boomed in the 1923–30 period, when huge areas were planted—they are now estimated to cover approximately 335,000 acres. The species used was almost wholly radiata pine. Utilization was commenced some years ago in an endeavour to bring this short-period establishment into a normal series of age gradations, and the cut-over is already being regenerated.

Forest Taxation.—Taxation of forest land and forest income has been under critical review during recent years, and was the concern of a special Committee of Inquiry. Several pressing reforms have been introduced, and a number of further anomalies are expected to be removed. The necessity for these reforms arose from the need to change a tax system based largely on the habit of “devastation cutting” to one which recognized the importance of forest management.

Land tax is levied on the unimproved value and does not include the value of trees growing on the land. However, valuations for death-duty purposes do include the value of growing trees.

Income from the sale of trees is taxable in. the same way as other income with the following exceptions:

Intermittent income such as from the sale of farm woodlots may be spread over a period of five years in order to mitigate the effects of the higher graduated tax.
Expenditure incurred by a farmer in planting and maintaining shelterbelts and woodlots may be offset against income for tax purposes.

RECLAMATION OF SAND DUNES.—Sand-dune fixation which, since 1931, had been in the hands of the Ministry of Works has been transferred to the joint control of the Department of Lands and Survey and the New Zealand Forest Service. The primary objective is the reclamation of land for agricultural and pastoral purposes. Trees are being established by the Forest Service on the protective zone and on such other dunes as have no agricultural or pastoral potential; and existing plantations are being thinned. Some useful forests will result. Sand-dune-reclamation schemes may ultimately embrace a large part of the 290,000 acres of dunes in New Zealand.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES.—The financial objective of the New Zealand Forest Service is to develop sufficient forests which will be free of debt when the production of mature timber commences, and which will then be managed as revenue producing units for the benefit of general Government funds. None of the State exotic forests has yet fully reached this stage, and forest revenue is therefore insufficient to meet the costs of development. The excess expenditure is met from general Government funds and, as far as possible, from current revenue (i.e., taxation, etc.), but the amount involved has been such that loan moneys from the Public Works Account have also been required.

Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry as distinct from the development of State forests for subsequent management is, of course, met in full from the Consolidated Fund.

The excess of expenditure over forest revenue in connection with forest and allied development has been financed as follows during the last five years.

Year Ended 31 March	Excess of Expenditure Over Forest Revenue	Excess Financed from—
Year Ended 31 March	Excess of Expenditure Over Forest Revenue	Loans	Consolidated Fund
	£	£	£
1949	1,338,000	813,000	525,000
1950	1,742,000	1,517,000	225,000
1951	1,130,000	721,000	409,000
1952	1,325,000	983,000	342,000
1953	1,500,000	685,000	815,000

The following table provides a summary of receipts and payments from all sources for the last five financial years.

Item	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
	£	£	£	£	£
Indigenous forests receipts—	Receipts
Timber sales	194,934	244,429	254,553	267,519	236,769
Timber royalties and trespass	27,382	27,732	57,740	56,433	57,418
Leases, grazing	2,822	3,224	3,741	3,965	2,308
Sawmill sites, industrial, etc.	381	500	436	406	369
Miscellaneous	20,247	33,928	23,179	30,439	28,355
Log sales from managed forests	129,983	164,951	174,941	197,765	197,886
Exotic forests: Poles, posts, firewood, log sales, etc.	57,544	204,148	224,758	346,850	480,362
Utilization projects—
Sawn timber	214,366	257,673	478,843	797,920	754,889
Creosoted products	11,677	53,823	80,673	98,632	132,281
Box shooks	187,212	154,255	188,681	237,398	212,837
Miscellaneous	16,168	5,322	2,336	19,227	22,470
Miscellaneous credits	35,960	32,083	35,812	48,477	37,783
Totals	898,676	1,182,068	1,525,693	2,105,031	2,163,727
Allocation of revenue—	Payments
Local authorities	29,219	33,967	44,886	45,537	55,490
General management charges—
Salaries	283,869	366,869	397,645	476,022	535,717
General expenses	168,373	178,979	127,584	154,790	192,269
Land purchase	34,188	22,372	12,418	68,352	42,243
Forestry projects under direct management—
Exotic	1,039,630	1,265,701	1,058,691	1,321,184	1,284,254
Indigenous	157,503	294,158	202,070	213,494	265,683
Utilization: Sawmill, creosote plant, etc.	500,694	676,491	799,330	1,062,598	1,287,005
Pulp and paper making	23,670	85,517	12,343	66,556	1,361
Totals	2,237,146	2,924,054	2,654,967	3,408,533	3,664,022

The revenue from indigenous forests is used to reduce loan moneys required to finance forest activities under the Public Works Account, and statutory allocations of receipts to local authorities are a charge on the Consolidated Fund.

FOREST UTILIZATION: Production of Sawn Timber.—Sawn timber is produced from two entirely distinct but nevertheless complementary resources—the indigenous forests and the exotic forests. From the days of the first European settlement the former have been subjected to destructive cutting, and because of the unduly long cycle of reproduction must from a commercial viewpoint be regarded as largely a wasting asset. Consequently, as far as the indigenous forest is concerned, the sawmilling industry has had to follow a constantly receding forest edge—with the inevitable result that the industry has never been able to achieve any real measure of stability. Thus the production of indigenous timber has been based traditionally on rather primitive mills with poor living conditions for the workers; the forest could not be worked on a continuous cycle that would permit a sawmill to operate successfully on a permanent basis, hence there was no incentive to undertake more than the minimum of capital expenditure.

Up to about twenty years ago virtually the total output of sawn timber was produced in this way. The usual sawing equipment was a circular breaking-down saw for Hitching the logs and a breast bench circular resaw. The characteristics of the product may be summed up by saying that while the quality of the timber itself was probably equal to any in the world the sawing was anything but accurate. The mills in general had a low cutting capacity and seldom did the annual sawn output per mill exceed 2,000,000 board feet. Up to the Second World War the total yearly production of sawn timber in normal years fluctuated around the level of 300,000,000 board feet.

In the “thirties” significant changes began to develop. On the one hand the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, while on the other hand certain forests of exotic species, which had been established about the beginning of the century, had reached an age when cutting could commence. These exotic forests had been planted in conifers from the northern hemisphere to offset the depletion of the indigenous forests. They put on rapid growth under New Zealand conditions and the objective from the outset has been the management of these forests for sustained yield on the basis of permanent forest industries and modern communities with a normal range of amenities. In 1930 the production of exotic species was only 10,000,000 board feet, but by 1939 had risen to 42,000,000 board feet. However, virtually the whole of this production came from farm shelter belts and woodlots and was sawn in the same type of primitive mill as that characteristic of the indigenous forest. The product was used almost entirely for rough temporary work and boxmaking as there was still ample indigenous timber for all better class requirements.

At the end of that decade the first major step was taken in the evolution of sawmilling from a primitive, shifting industry to a stable industry based on permanent, well constructed capital installations with modern equipment and good living and working conditions. The Forest Service established a modern sawmill of Swedish design at Waipa, near Rotorua. This mill has high-speed gang frames with an annual cutting capacity of more than 20,000,000 board feet. The Service subsequently established another mill of this type at Conical Hill, near Tapanui. These mills were designed to serve as demonstration units and to enable the Forest Service to pioneer sawing, seasoning, grading, and merchandising techniques for the logs and timber yielded by the exotic forests. While such mills involve a large capital investment, they are permanent, have a high output with low unit costs, and yield accurately sawn timber. Mills similar in type have been constructed since the Second World War by private enterprise, and the Waipa and Conical Hill mills are also serving as prototypes for the huge sawmill to be erected in connection with the Murupara scheme.

The production of exotic timber is increasing rapidly, and it is gradually finding acceptance for general building purposes and a wide range of other uses. By far the most important of the exotic timber species is radiata pine, which accounts for about 95 per cent of the total cut of exotics; larch, eucalypts, Douglas fir, and a few other species are produced only on a minor scale. Not more than 60 per cent of the country's timber requirements now comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall steadily as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained. In connection with even the indigenous forests, however, it should be noted that the policy of the Forest Service wherever possible is to arrange sales on such a basis as to give mills an operating life long enough to warrant the installation of modern plants and the provision of a good standard of housing and amenities.

Logging methods, too, have been changing from the traditional use of steam haulers and bush tramways, linking bush with mill, to tractor logging and motor-truck haulage of logs, as the latter method permits the working of scattered and lightly-stocked stands of indigenous timber. Roads, too, are an essential feature of exotic forests for fire protection and forest management as well as for log haulage, and tractors are favoured for their dual role of roading and extraction.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past five years; quantities are quoted in board feet (i.e., units of 12 inches by 12 inches by 1 inch).

Species	Year Ended 31 March
Species	1949	1950	1951	1952	1953
Board Feet (000)
Rimu and Miro	216,310	227,051	228,515	225,407	231,564
Matai	29,806	32,829	36,957	36,864	35,638
Totara	13,418	12,840	14,318	17,402	14,159
Kahikatea	17,697	20,066	19,771	20,042	20,642
Beeches	16,867	17,167	17,638	17,972	17,892
Tawa	8,533	9,385	11,152	15,513	15,107
Kauri	1,417	819	1,154	1,630	1,462
Other indigenous	3,141	3,551	3,858	4,284	4,064
Totals, indigenous	307,189	323,708	333,363	339,114	340,528
Exotic pines	157,938	146,537	184,229	224,452	222,340
Larch	430	2,500	2,408	3,798	2,447
Eucalypts	2,226	2,120	3,152	2,864	2,545
Douglas fir	419	1,169	1,875	2,351	2,728
Macrocarpa	1,000	1,237	1,820	1,954	1,916
Other exotic	1,143	1,110	775	710	481
Totals, exotic	163,156	154,673	194,259	236,129	232,457
Totals (all species)	470,345	478,381	527,622	575,243	572,985

Details of the 4,545,000 board feet of “other” timber for the year ended 31 March 1953 are as follows.

Species	Board Feet
Pukatea	631,000
Rewarewa	624,000
Taraire	553,000
Hinau	508,000
Rata	464,000
Mangeao	427,000
Poplar	392,000
Tanekaha	388,000
Puriri	275,000
Other	283,000
Total	4,545,000

Production of Pulp Products.—The pulping industry is only in its infancy in New Zealand. Two private organizations are producing mechanical pulp, the one for the manufacture of fibre, building, and insulating boards, the other for the manufacture of container board, and one company is also producing sulphate pulp for the manufacture of multi-wall bags and for export. Both of these producers are using radiata pine from their own exotic forests for their pulping operations; there is no pulping of indigenous species. One paper mill is manufacturing wrapping paper from imported pulp. In addition, a comprehensive national scheme provides for the early establishment of both a sulphate pulp mill and a newsprint mill (see following). The two sulphate mills and also the ground-wood mill to furnish pulp for newsprint will use exotic species, mainly radiata pine, for their pulpwood requirements.

The quantity of wood pulp produced in New Zealand during each of the last five years has been as follows: 1948, 21,077 tons; 1949, 21,438 tons; 1950, 23,714 tons; 1951, 24,947 tons; 1952, 26,685 tons.

The Murupara Scheme.—Following a visit to New Zealand in 1925 by an overseas pulp and paper expert and successful tests in 1928 to prove the suitability of New Zealand's exotic softwoods for pulp and paper production, the Kaingaroa State Forest was extended to its present size of 284,000 acres. To guard against the vulnerability of a single species to insect and fungal attack, a diversity of species was planted, and the part included in the Murupara Working Circle contains approximately 100,000 acres of radiata pine and areas of several other species totalling a further 100,000 acres.

In 1949 further successful tests were carried out on a commercial scale to prove that resin and other problems associated with making newsprint from radiata pine could be overcome under operating conditions. Favourable reports were also submitted by overseas consultants on the feasibility of the proposal to establish an integrated sawmill and pulp and paper mill to convert the timber from the Murupara Working Circle.

In June 1951 the Government issued a world-wide invitation to organizations commanding adequate technical and financial resources to establish an integrated sawmill and pulp and paper mill for the conversion of an annual log supply of 23,000,000 cubic feet offered from the Kaingaroa State Forest.

The only offer was from the Tasman Group. A committee set up by the Government to examine this offer recommended its acceptance, and the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., Ltd., was formally registered in July 1952 with a provisional directorate of three Tasman Group directors and three Government directors.

For the whole scheme £28,000,000 will be required, £15,000,000 for the company's plant and £13,000,000 for the allied public works, such as the harbour at Mount Maunganui and the railway from Murupara to Edgecumbe. The Government has made arrangements to raise loans in both the United Kingdom and the United States of America to finance overseas purchases of equipment, materials, and services for the Murupara project. Loan moneys for the project as a whole are being raised by the Government, which in turn is lending to the company. It has also been announced that public subscription will be invited in New Zealand when the project is further advanced.

Concurrently with financial negotiations steady progress was made with the planning and design of the project by a firm of Canadian consultants and construction commenced late in 1953. The target date for commencement of production by the pulp and paper mill is mid 1955.

The annual output of the integrated plant available for sale will be 75,000 tons of newsprint, 5000 tons of kraft pulp, and 72,000,000 board feet of sawn timber. It is proposed to start the saw-mil on a one-shift basis towards the beginning of 1955, to allow the logging organization to develop during the period before the pulp and paper mill comes into production.

The plant site is at Kawerau, near Mount Edgecumbe, in the Bay of Plenty district, and has an ample water supply and is well situated for the disposal of effluent into the Tarawera River, which has a direct 12 mile course to the sea from Te Teko. A test bore at Te Teko also gives promise of a good supply of geothermal steam for the project. The logging gangs will be housed in a township of some four hundred houses on the east side of the Kaingaroa Forest at Murupara.

The Kinleith Project.—Another large-scale development in the utilization of exotic forests has resulted from the activities of New Zealand Forest Products, Ltd. This company owns, and operates on, an area of 176,000 acres planted in radiata pine.

Sawmilling operations began in 1939 and were followed by the manufacture of insulating board and later of hardboard.

The company's activities have been considerably expanded in the last few years, and now include a very large mechanized sawmill with an annual capacity of 40 million board feet of sawn timber, and kraft pulp and paper mills with a maximum annual output of 45,000 tons of kraft pulp and 25,000 tons of kraft paper. Some of the kraft pulp is to be exported under contract to Australia. With its developmental programme coming to fruition it is anticipated that a capital investment of approximately £6 million will have been made.

Plywood and Veneer Manufacture.—Four factories are engaged in the manufacture of plywood, and the total output for the year ending 31 March 1953, when reduced to a uniform basis of 3/16 in. thickness, was 31,044,000 square feet. Three other plants produce limited quantities of veneer only.

For the most part logs from the indigenous forests form the basis of the plywood and veneer industry, though the peeling of exotic species, particularly radiata pine, shows a good deal of promise and is likely to increase steadily in importance. Now that the indigenous forests have become so depleted the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers purchasing State indigenous forest to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Other Round and Split Products.—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been required in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, firewood, and a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge timber requirements. Thinnings and small diameter logs from exotic forests should now make useful contributions towards satisfying those needs and justify the operation of commercial-sized preservative treating plants.

Wood Preservation, Grading, and Seasoning.—Apart from the Forest Service creosoting plants intended especially for timber for ground contact use, the more recent establishment of plants by private enterprise for treatment of sawn timber with water-soluble preservatives has permitted far greater use in buildings of the non-durable grades and species from both indigenous and exotic forests. In this country, with its deeply-rooted conservatism in timber use, and accustomed to the extravagant use of indigenous softwood logs carrying a high proportion of heartwood with excellent durability, strength, and stability, and a minimum of defects, such developments, together with those concerned with timber grading and improved seasoning techniques, have inevitably been slow. The significance of correct grading becomes more manifest as the use of exotic timbers extends. Another aspect of the more complete utilization of the sawn products of indigenous softwood logs was the recognition during the “thirties” of a need for accelerated and controlled seasoning in drying kilns. A further impetus has been given to this trend by the expansion of exotic timber utilization, as these woods dry easily and rapidly in kilns.

OVERSEAS TRADE.—New Zealand is self-sufficient in timber resources as far as quantity is concerned, but has always found it necessary to import strong, hard, and durable Australian hardwoods for railway sleepers, poles, cross-arms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc. In addition there has been a traditional demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses and exterior joinery. Other imports are normally limited to Japanese oak for the furniture trade and small quantities of other species for specialty purposes.

While exports have fallen to quite low levels in recent years owing to the absence of any real surpluses of indigenous timber there has been a growing trade with Australia in radiata pine. The export potential is approximately 150,000,000 board feet annually, but the attainment of this level is dependent on the large scale development of the exotic forests in the North Island and is not likely to be realized for many years to come.

Details of overseas trade during the calendar year 1952 are given below.

Exports	Board Feet (000) Sawn Timber	Value in £(N.Z.)
Radiata pine—
Sawn	9,901	324,800
Cases	3,971	173,000
Rimu	2,016	72,400
Matai	168	7,700
Kahikatea	80	3,000
Beeches	433	15,500
Other	54	1,800
Totals	16,623	598,200
Imports
Sawn or hewn timber—
Australian hardwoods—
Sawn	13,674	730,000
Hewn	1,701	80,400
Railway sleepers	5,374	206,500
Logs and poles	10,670	362,100
Douglas fir	14,131	575,200
Oak	2,222	166,100
Cedar	3,460	230,400
Redwood	2,842	199,700
Other logs and poles	718	16,200
Other		191,300
Total		2,757,900

The following table gives a summary of exports and imports for the past five years. The value of imports is the value in country of origin for the year 1952; but for previous years it is the value in country of origin plus 10 per cent.

Calendar Year	Exports of Sawn Timber (New Zealand Produce)		Imports of Timber
Calendar Year	Quantity	Value	Sawn or Hewn	Sleepers	Logs and Poles	Total Value^*
* Inclusive of value of split posts and other items. † Provisional.
	Bd. ft. (000)	£(N.Z.)	Bd. ft. (000)	Bd. ft. (000)	Bd. ft. (000)	£(N.Z.)
1948	22,846	508,900	15,604	22,520	4,839	1,131,500
1949^†	24,592	554,500	26,594	14,162	4,646	1,259,100
1950	14,854	371,600	19,949	9,314	4,430	1,192,700
1951	21,491	733,200	21,439	4,528	4,922	1,379,300
1952^†	16,623	598,200	39,338	5,374	11,478	2,757,900

RESEARCH.—All forestry and forest products research administered by the Forest Service has since 1947 been co-ordinated or undertaken by the Forest Research Institute, Rotorua.

The complexity of the many indigenous and exotic forest problems necessitates the maintenance of an organization such as this, working on the principle of continuity in a co-ordinated programme of investigations.

While the onus is on the Forest Service as the national forest authority to bear the major share of forestry and forest products research, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the University of New Zealand, and private industrial organizations also undertake both applied and pure research in certain aspects of forestry and forest products.

The scope of the research that is being undertaken may be summarized as follows:

Silviculture.—

Intensive study of the ecology of beech, kauri, and podocarp forests leading to the development of systems of silviculture which will provide the basis of sustained yield management.
Establishment of a series of permanent sample plots in commercial exotic forests to study the response to various grades of thinning and to obtain data on growth and yield throughout the rotation.
Research on quality and origin of seed in conjunction with tree type improvement based on genetical principles, involving vegetative propagation of desirable parent stock. Forest soils investigations (in collaboration with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research), with particular reference to the long-term changes in pumice soils, and to the effect of chemical treatments on soils associated with poor tree growth.
Development of national arboreta in geographically representative localities, and a central herbarium of forest vegetation.

Mensuration.—The compilation of volume tables for both standing forests and logs, in respect of both indigenous and exotic species. Yield tables for exotic species; increment studies; research on timber conversion factors and logscaling; and form-class investigations applicable to chief exotic conifers.

Forest pathology.—The investigation of all organisms and factors harmful to the growth of forests, embracing both entomology (including biological control of insect parasites) and mycology, with particular reference to the fungi affecting radiata pine and beech forests.

National Forest Survey.—This subject is treated in detail on page 503.

Forest Products.—Current research is centred upon evaluation of the inherent properties of those timbers, both indigenous and exotic, which must gradually replace the widely-used indrgenous softwoods and imported timbers and forest products. In parallel with the basic studies are those relating to establishment of grading rules, to air-seasoning and kiln-drying, wood preservation, and wood use generally. As the direct result of such research, a number of Codes of Practice and Standard Specifications are being evolved to meet the needs of industry, while the more fundamental aspects are discussed in Forest Service publications and research notes. Some results of specialized work on wood chemistry, paint, and wood preservatives by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and on aspects of utilization of exotic forest timbers by non-Government organizations, are also becoming available. Meanwhile the earlier research work by the Forest Service on the indigenous softwoods indicates the ways in which the dwindling resources may be used most intelligently and economically.

PRINCIPAL FOREST TREES.—A brief description of the chief forest trees with their distribution and the uses of their timber is now given.

Hardwoods.— SILVER BEECH (Nothofagus menziesii): This species is widely distributed throughout both the North and South Islands, particularly in cold, wet, mountainous country, but it is also capable of occupying a very wide range of sites and soils from swamps to dry talus slopes, and from sea level to the timber limits at 4,000 ft. It frequently occurs in admixture with podocarps or with the other beech species but forms pure stands in high altitude forests and in the lowlands of western Southland. In this latter locality it attains its optimum development. In form it is an exceedingly plastic species varying, according to site, from a low branchy shrub to a tall massive tree, total height 80 to 90 ft., branch-free bole to 60 ft. (average 36 ft.), breast height diameter to 72 in. (average for commercial forest 24 to 36 in.). In virgin lowland forest the older trees, circa 350 years, are normally heavily defective. Such stands may carry up to 25,000 board feet per acre, averaging less than 10,000 board feet, but, under management, production of 50,000 board feet per acre on a 120-year rotation is anticipated. In general form and in its silvicultural characteristics under management, silver beech might best be compared with European sessile oak.

The Southland timber (averaging 34 lb. per cubic foot air-dry) is of a pinkish colour when first cut, changing to a light brown with exposure. It is straight in the grain, easily worked, and strong, but not durable in contact with the ground. The principal uses are flooring, interior finish, furniture, bentwood work, agricultural implements, bodies of motor cars, billiard tables, tool handles, dowels, rifle stocks, shoe heels, casks, barrels, cheese crates, and packing cases. The denser silver beech from districts other than Southland air-seasons slowly but satisfactorily under cover, and is suitable for most of the less critical uses where the heavier weight (46 lb.) is not disadvantageous.

MOUNTAIN BEECH (N. cliffortioides): This is the characteristic tree of the drier inland and eastern mountain ranges, though it occurs also on a wide range of sites down to, and including, acidic bog soils and spray-swept coastal cliffs. At high altitudes and in the bogs it is a small stunted tree or twisted shrub, but on favourable lowland sites, particularly in western Southland, it attains a maximum height of 80 ft. with up to 60 ft. of clean evenly tapered bole, with a breast height diameter to 48 in. (average 18 to 24 in.). On such sites it displays rapid growth with a potential rotation period of 90 years. The total life span is less than that for the other beech species, and trees are overmature and defective at approximately 150 years. In many forests mountain beech is aggressive at the expense of other species. As with all the native beeches, heavy seed crops may be expected, particularly within the areas of optimum range, at three to four year intervals normally following hot, dry summers. From the viewpoints of water-shed protection and soil conservation, mountain beech and silver beech are undoubtedly two of the most important trees in the country, but at the same time are the two species most susceptible to damage by exotic browsing animals.

The Southland timber is potentially important as a substitute for silver beech in many uses. It is intermediate in density between Southland silver beech and red beech, sharing with the former the advantages of an excellent density to strength relationship, and reasonable ease of seasoning. Evidence suggests that heartwood is durable in outdoor locations, but the indicated uses meanwhile will be those requiring a tough, straight-grained, and even-textured timber in motor bodies, factory trucks, implement manufacture, gates, handles, and in industrial and domestic flooring. The timber is also very suitable for general building purposes.

BLACK BEECH (N. solanderi): Contrary to previous reports, black beech is of strictly limited occurrence. It has invariably been confused with lowland types of mountain beech to which it bears a close resemblance and with which it hybridizes freely. In the South Island the two species merge and become generally indistinguishable. The type can only be recognized with certainty on lowland sites in Nelson and Marlborough. In the North Island black beech characteristically occupies lower hill slope and valley sites to the east of the main ranges, sites intermediate between the podocarp forests and the main bulk of the beech forests proper. Few, if any, extensive areas of pure black beech forest remain. In its behaviour under management it again resembles mountain beech though growing to a somewhat larger size than the latter. As with all the indigenous beeches, young vigorous trees are marked by smooth light coloured bark, and maturity or over-maturity by the development of rough fissured bark of darker colour.

The timber (49 lb. per cubic foot air-dry) is yellowish-white with black-streaked heartwood, which is extremely durable in the ground. With its additional advantages of high strength, hardness, and excellent wearing properties, the heartwood is suitable for bridge decking, bridge timbers, and

similar purposes, as well as for fence posts. Sapwood clear of defect is suitable for dowels, handles, and bentwood, while other grades are suitable for building. The greatest obstacle to sawing black beech is the high silica content, which causes rapid blunting of saws. Supplies are relatively restricted.

RED BEECH (N. fused): Red beech is a tree of very wide, though discontinuous, distribution from the Thames mountains south almost to Foveaux Strait. In the far south it is clearly beyond its optimum climatic limits and is vigorous only on restricted special sites in western Otago. In the North Island it is generally restricted to montane forest on the inland and eastern ranges, typically in the Ureweras and in the Kaimanawas. The finest red beech forests are those of western Nelson and north Westland. Here the species is most vigorous, regenerates freely, displays its fastest growth, and reaches its maximum size. Red beech is a tall massive tree, total height 100 ft. or more with up to 70 to 80 ft. of clear bole, ranging in diameter to 72 or 84 in., but trees of this size are seldom sound. The average diameter is 40 in. Within its area of optimum range red beech can be managed under a simple uniform clear-cutting system with a rotation of less than 100 years. Second-growth stands have been logged at 62 years. Red beech forests outside this optimum area will, for various reasons, require more skilled management under selection or shelterwood systems, techniques not yet economically possible on any considerable scale.

The timber when first cut is a pinkish-red in colour, turning to a light brown on seasoning; it is hard, strong, easily split, durable, and of about the same weight (about 44 lb. per cubic foot air-dry) as English ash. It is slow seasoning, and requires end coatings and a roof over the stack to prevent sun checks, warping, and internal checking. When good-grade stock is seasoned carefully it is suitable for house construction (framing is installed green), furniture, bentwork, handles, dowels; other established uses are sleepers, bridge timbers, fence posts, mine props, boat building, and flooring (domestic and industrial). Its excellent bending and even-wearing qualities are particularly significant in connection with the last two uses. Material containing sapwood is suitable for parts of buildings and other uses where there is no decay hazard.

HARD BEECH (N. truncata): A tree very similar in general appearance to red beech but normally somewhat smaller. The leaves are more coriaceous and the species favours the drier sites, red beech in the valleys and hard beech on the ridges. In geographic range it extends farther north than any of the other species and occurs in Northland in local association with kauri. Throughout the North Island its general distribution parallels that of red beech but is more markedly discontinuous. In the South Island it is not found outside Marlborough, Nelson, and north Westland. In these areas it occurs in admixture with red beech or, south of Westport, with rimu. This is its area of optimum range. Silviculturally it bears close comparison with red beech though growth rates are not so well known and may prove slower. In stem form it is not quite the equal of red beech. As with all the beeches, satisfactory form is assured only when stands are maintained in a heavily stocked condition, at the expense of volume increment, until height growth is completed. Red and hard beech hybridize readily, but apparently not so freely as do either red or hard beech with either black or mountain beech.

Until recently its timber (48 lb.) was confused with that of the red beech, but it is harder and probably more durable. When first cut it is pinkish in colour. Its uses are the same as those of its near relative, the red beech. This species may be expected to become, with red beech, progressively more important as a local substitute for the durable Australian hardwoods in outdoor applications, as well as providing mining timbers. The timber is slow-seasoning and liable to warp and check unless seasoning technique is correct, with special emphasis upon protection from the sun.

TAWA (Beilschmiedia tawa): A shade-tolerant evergreen tree with graceful willow-like foliage and thin black bark widely distributed throughout the podocarp forests of the North Island and, locally, in coastal forests of Nelson and Marlborough. On certain hill sites and elsewhere, following the logging of the physiognomically dominant podocarps, tawa assumes dominance, but the long-term stability of such tawa forest types is not known. Tawa regenerates freely, though in comparison with the beeches growth appears somewhat slow. Mature trees reach a maximum height of 80 ft., averaging 50 to 60 ft., with breast height diameters up to 48 in., though generally averaging about 20 in. Stem form is not good, the bole tending to be irregular or forked, and logs of length exceeding 20 ft. are seldom obtained. Tawa is important as the most widely distributed species of commercial significance residual in, or developing in, fully exploited podocarp forests. Its ultimate role under more intensive silvicultural management is, as yet, the subject of inquiry.

The timber (46 lb.) is light-brownish-white to cream in colour, hard, straight-grained, strong, but not high in shock resistance. It deteriorates rapidly if left block-stacked in an unseasoned condition, but where rapid air-seasoning under cover is carried out under hygienic conditions degrade is slight. Kiln-drying green from the saw is the preferred, practicable method of seasoning. With its excellent machining and finishing qualities, combined with a high yield of dressing grade timber, tawa is a first-class furniture wood and very suitable also for all other interior woodwork and flooring and turned products such as dowels, rods, handles, and clothes-pegs. Treatment to give immunity from attack by the powder-post borer will extend its popularity for these uses. Lower-grade timber is suitable for framing, dunnage, and hardwood pulp.

Indigenous Softwoods.—KAHIKATEA or WHITE PINE (Podocarpus dacrydioides): This species is widely distributed according to a complicated pattern throughout New Zealand. It occurs on dry sites in hill podocarp forests in association with matai and totara, and on such sites the trees are very large and very old. It occurs, also, in dense stands in swamp forests throughout the country. In the swamps kahikatea is vigorous, seeds freely, regenerates well (in certain localities prolifically), and displays comparatively fast growth. The saplings and poles are usually of excellent form and early develop long clean boles. Mature kahikatea are fine trees frequently exceeding 140 ft. in total height (though considerably less in the far south) with diameters breast height to 72 in. (averaging 30 to 40 in. in the hills and 20 to 30 in. in the swamps). Clear logs to 80 ft. in length are not exceptional. Only one factor has served to prevent the initiation of intensive sustained yield management. The swamps in which kahikatea is vigorous, when drained and developed, are the finest dairy lands in the country.

Logs from most lowland sites consist almost entirely of white sapwood from which long clear lengths in wide widths may be sawn. The timber is light (averaging 29 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), even-textured, of moderate strength, easily worked, and practically odourless; the last quality made it pre-eminent as a container for easily-tainted foodstuffs such as butter. With the advent of the fibreboard butter box the timber has become more readily available for kitchenware, miscellaneous woodware, kitchen furniture, vats, boat building, and house building (after preservative treatment). Heartwood forms a significant proportion of old hill-grown logs; it is yellow, sometimes miscalled “yellow pine,” durable, and is a useful substitute for heart kauri.

KAHIKATEA (Agathis australis): Kauri, the most celebrated of all New Zealand trees, is a species of most restricted distribution with but few outliers outside the Northland and Coromandel Peninsulas, but of the original areas only remnants remain. The giant dominants in virgin forest, up to 20 ft. in diameter with taperless smooth boles reaching to 80 ft. or more, are immensely old and are rightly regarded as national monuments. Yet, of all the native softwoods (saving only kahikatea in the swamps), kauri proves, silviculturally, the most amenable. Regeneration can be secured (by way of nurse crops of Leptospermum or by suitable shelterwood techniques), the species can be handled in forest nurseries, and growth rates are satisfactory. Kauri can be grown as specimen trees in Invercargill 1,000 miles to the south of its natural range. There growth rates exceed those shown by rimu on sites of optimum quality. Under management in the north it should certainly prove possible to grow kauri on a rotation not exceeding 200 years for the production of logs up to 36 in. in diameter. Many minor details in connection with its silviculture remain for solution, but successful domestication of this valuable timber tree can confidently be anticipated.

Production of sawn timber has fallen to about 1,000,000 board feet per annum, of which the major proportion of first-quality timber is used for boat building. Its rapid decline has emphasized the remarkable versatility of a timber whose capacity to yield long clear wides of heart quality has been a byword in world trade. The light yellowish-brown, lustrous heartwood, averaging 36 lb. per cubic foot air-dry, is straight-grained, strong, easily worked and finished, even-textured, remarkably stable and durable under most exacting conditions. It is used in vats for acids, tanning, and brewing, in textile-mill machinery, laundry appliances, butter churns, printers' blocks, and sink benches. A wide range of general uses in building, furniture, bridge, boat, and ship construction has absorbed the other grades “Medium” and “Seconds” (containing sapwood) as well as “Rough Heart” and “Shaky Heart.”

MATAI or BLACK PINE (Podocarpus spicatus): This tree, resembling a hardwood in form though possessing yewlike foliage, occurs throughout New Zealand. In the south its distribution is strictly discontinuous and it occurs as solitary trees or in small stands scattered throughout the rimu forests, the lowland beech forests, and even the eastern grasslands. Here it possesses all the characteristics of

a true relict species. Growth rates are very slow (50 or more rings to the inch), regeneration is rare even on exceptionally favourable sites, the trees are normally of great age (in some stands all exceed 800 to 1,000 years), and the degree of stunting and malformation increases from north to south. The major matai forests lie in the central portions of the North Island where the trees are of better form, total height to 80 ft. (averaging 60 ft.), diameters breast height to 60 in. (averaging 20 to 30 in.), growth rates are better (though seldom exceeding 1/10 in. per annum), and the dominants are younger. But even here regeneration is normally sparse to wanting. Matai forest soils are very fertile agricultural soils and are in demand for farming. Sustained yield management is a possibility only on restricted special quality sites in the north.

The narrow white sapwood band is clearly demarcated from the straw-coloured heartwood, and boards which are partly or wholly sapwood are used principally for flooring (preservative treated), tallow casks, and similar containers. Heart timber, averaging 38 lb. per cubic foot air-dry, has outstanding qualities of being both hard- and even-wearing, durable and dimensionally stable, which make it one of the best flooring timbers in the world for industrial as well as for domestic use; the same properties commend it for decking and sills. Other building uses include weatherboarding, framing timbers, and plywood. Reject logs provide excellent firewood.

MIRO (Podocarpus ferrugineus): Miro is found in close association with rimu throughout the entire range of the latter. It seldom, however, achieves co-dominance and very rarely and locally attains dominance. In comparison with the other major podocarps it is a small tree usually less than 70 ft. in height and 36 in. in diameter (averaging 24 in.). In contrast to the cupressoid foliage of kahikatea and rimu, the miro foliage is of the yew type. The large bright-red drupes are borne regularly and in abundance and are widely distributed by birds. Seedling miro are normally abundant throughout the forests but saplings are rare. Some, as yet unknown, factor prevents survival and satisfactory growth. Growth rates are extremely slow even in comparison with rimu, and it is most unlikely that miro will ever prove a species of commercial significance in managed forests.

This timber resembles rimu in appearance, in the differentiation of three zones in the log (heartwood, intermediate zone, and sapwood), in many of its major properties, grading and uses, and is moreover marketed as rimu in many localities. Miro is stronger and harder than rimu, and is somewhat more liable to warp when handled carelessly.

RIMU or RED PINE (Dacrydium cupressinum): This, the principal timber tree of New Zealand, is likewise the most widely distributed, occurring in quantity from the Northland kauri region south to Stewart Island. It is present in all lowland beech forests and is the dominant tree over wide areas in the North Island and in Westland, though absent from high altitude forests and rare or local over the central eastern portions of the South Island. It is a tall tree up to 100 ft. in height, producing logs 70 ft. or more in length with breast height diameters up to 60 or 70 in., though these dimensions are reached more frequently in the north than in the south, and in the hill country forests rather than on the coastal plains. Despite its abundance, however, rimu has proved, silviculturally, a most recalcitrant species. In the hill forests, most noticeably in the south, there has been no significant regeneration for several centuries, and rimu on such sites appears to be definitely a relict species. Growth rates are very slow. Many of the larger trees exceed 700 years in age, while annual diameter increments, even on select sites, of 1/10 in. are rarely exceeded. Growth is equally slow in the coastal forests where the sparse regeneration obtained after logging is frequently impeded by rising groundwater levels, a consequence of logging. Artificial re-afforestation with rimu is rendered abortive by the high cost of collection of the solitary seeds emplaced at the tips of the terminal twigs, by the dioecious habit of the species, by uncertain germination coupled with slow growth of the seedlings and heavy mortality on transplantation, and by the heavy growth of weed species that develops following logging. Rimu may be maintained indefinitely as a minor constituent of certain lowland beech forests or on select sites in the north of the North Island, but elsewhere the rimu forests are probably a non-renewable resource.

Current high production of rimu timber cannot be sustained for many years, and it is necessary to direct available supplies into those uses in which its properties and grades are used to best advantage. The timber possesses the qualities of even texture, medium density (averaging 37 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), good seasoning, machining, finishing, and painting qualities, and moderate strength and hardness. The light brown sapwood and intermediate zone may be preservative-treated to impart durability; heartwood is moderately durable, dimensionally stable, and often is highly figured. Building construction (practically all components), furniture, and plywood use the bulk of available supplies.

TOTARA (P. totara and P. hallii): These closely related species which hybridize freely are both widely distributed though in very different fashion. The distribution of P. totara, a tall massive tree with thick fibrous bark, up to 100 ft. in height (average 80 ft.) and up to 80 in. in diameter (average 30 to 40 in.), parallels that of matai and, like matai, it is stunted and malformed in the south. P. hallii, a much smaller tree with thin papery bark, is more widely distributed and occurs in both lowland and alpine podocarp and beech forests. In high altitude forests it is frequently no more than a shrub. Growth rates are slow, particularly in the south, though regeneration occurs more abundantly, for P. hallii if not for P. totara, than for matai. Such regeneration, however, is seldom of good form. Remarks on the silvicultural potential of matai apply to P. totara, though prospects are somewhat brighter by virtue of freer regeneration and faster growth (up to ⅕ in. per annum). P. hallii is strictly a minor species of limited commercial importance, though recent growth-rate figures for this colder climate species when grown in the north show some small promise.

Brownish-pink heartwood is readily distinguished from the pale brown sapwood; the latter is regarded as more durable than sapwood of other indigenous softwoods and suitable without preservative treatment for a wide, range of uses in building construction where its relative softness and brittle nature are not restrictive. The latter properties too are virtually the only disadvantages of heart totara which is light (averaging 30 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), easily worked, straight-grained, dimensionally stable, free from warping, and of outstanding durability under the most adverse conditions, in poles, posts, sleepers, and wharf piles. High-grade stock today is required primarily for exterior joinery, while reject logs continue to supply fence posts.

Exotic Softwoods.—DOUGLAS FIR (Pseudotsuga taxifolia): This was introduced in the early days of settlement from the Pacific coast of Canada and the United States of America, where it forms very extensive forests both pure and in mixture with other species. Trees, when growing rapidly, are pyramidal in shape and with very dense, fragrant foliage on numerous, smallish branches. In the best of the Pacific coast forests they reach immense sizes of 300 ft. in height and 40 ft. in girth. The species has been a highly successful introduction, both as an ornamental and as an afforestation tree. Fine old trees and plantations are to be seen along the foothills of Canterbury. Forest Service plantings date back to 1900, although large areas were not established until 1921–30. In all, over 40,000 acres have now been planted in State forests as well as several thousand acres in private, company, and municipal plantations. The forests are successful and healthy from the Rotorua district to Southland, and at altitudes under 1,000 ft. in the south and up to 2,000 ft. in the north. The species grows in a wide range of soils, provided that they are well drained. It is a tree of hill country, and seldom does well on flats and plains; in general it prefers shady slopes. It will grow well in areas of moderately high rainfall, but cannot stand severe frosts.

Plantations put on large volume increments and yield profitable early thinnings for poles and posts. On good-quality sites a height of 80 ft. can be attained in 30 years and a volume of 9,000 cubic feet to a 4 in. top. Only locally collected seed is now used for raising seedlings. In many areas trees or plantations will throw dense regeneration. To produce quality timber and maximum profit, rotations will be at least 60 and probably 80 years or more.

The inherent features of locally-grown Douglas fir are not dissimilar from those characterising the species as grown in its native habitat. Heartwood is formed at a relatively early age, pinkish-brown in colour, with the distinctive Douglas fir smell, and having moderate durability, including resistance to insect borers, in buildings. Sapwood is white. Growth rings are prominent with dense latewood bands contrasting with the more open-texture earlywood zones. In general, a high proportion of latewood in the growth rings is indicative of the higher density strong timber preferred for framing and structural timbers for building; on the other hand a low latewood percentage indicates light timber easily nailed and presenting fewer painting difficulties. The density range is from 27 lb. to 36 lb. per cubic foot air-dry. Thinnings are suitable after preservative treatment for use as poles and posts.

EUROPEAN LARCH (Larix decidua): This tree, one of the few deciduous conifers, is a native of Central Europe. The main New Zealand plantings were made during the years 1900–15; the area established to date totals 7,900 acres, of which 5,460 are located in the North Island and 2,440 in the South Island. Best growth has been obtained on sheltered easy hill slopes at fairly low altitudes and on soils which are deep, well aerated, and moist. On such sites the root system is strongly developed and the bole is tall, clean, and tapering. Exposure to strong winds leads to the development of sabre butts. By the age of 30 years heights of 70 ft. have been attained and volumes per acre are estimated to be approximately 4,000 cubic feet. Seed cones are sparse and fertile seed is not borne until about the age of 25 years. Early plantings were made from stock raised from seed imported from Switzerland, but now sufficiently mature stands are available from which to collect all requirements; one pound of seed produces in the nursery about 18,000 seedlings. Fortunately stands have escaped the serious diseases to which this species is subject in Europe. Being a strong light demander, larch requires early and frequent thinnings to prevent the stands from stagnating; thinnings are likely to be profitable. Only after a thinning that has been too long delayed has wind-throw occurred; otherwise the tree has shown itself to be wind-firm. Rotations will be 70 years or more. The tree never grows to a large diameter, but has characteristically small branches which die early, and can be readily cleared; knot-free timber can thus be produced.

The small diameter logs available at present have been used after preservative treatment, mainly as natural round poles, props, and posts, for which purposes their good strength and form are realized to advantage. Natural rounds without treatment are used also for mine props, rails, and rustic work. Sapwood is light in colour, narrow and clearly defined; heartwood is reddish-brown to light greenish-brown in colour and moderately durable. The timber is of medium density (averaging 35 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), strong and tough, and hence is very suitable for framing in buildings, for gates and other farm timber, and for scaffold planks. The well-defined growth rings with dense latewood present a painting problem, and floors subject to heavy wear tend to wear unevenly.

CORSICAN PINE (Pinus laricio): This tree, native of southern Europe, has adapted itself well to New Zealand conditions. Successful plantations have been established as far north as Waipoua and as far south as the Invercargill district, and from sea level to altitudes up to 2,500 ft. The species has not proved exacting as to soil requirements, although the best stands are at lower altitudes on deep well-drained soils varying in texture from sands to clays. Plantations do not thin themselves naturally, so that early thinnings are imperative if stagnation is to be avoided. Unthinned stands become very liable to wind-throw from an age of 45 years onwards.

Growth rates are slow as compared with radiata pine, but are rapid in comparison with European standards for Corsican pine. The rotation in New Zealand is likely to be 60 to 80 years. Because of the wide variation in tree types which exist, special care must be taken in the selection of élite seed trees. In some localities there is promise of successful regeneration.

No stands have yet been clear-felled, but thinnings have been fully utilized.

Knowledge of this timber is limited mainly to small diameter logs of which the largest are sawn and others used for poles and posts after preservative treatment. Available logs contain only a small core of pink heartwood, and resinous pink knots contrasting with the creamy white sapwood. The timber is slightly denser and harder than radiata pine (averaging about 31 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), generally similar in strength properties, seasoning, machining, and finishing, and very susceptible to sapstain disfigurement during seasoning in both boards and natural round products. Pith is relatively insignificant, knots are smaller and more closely spaced than in radiata pine and the density variation within the log is less. Light and dark bands (earlywood and latewood) in the closely-spaced growth rings do not appear seriously to affect paint coat adhesion in weatherboards or wearing qualities in flooring, for which the timber is mainly used.

RADIATA PINE (Pinus radiata): Almost confined in its natural state to the limited area of the Monterey Peninsula in California it has been a truly remarkable tree for its successful introduction into Southern Hemisphere countries and its widespread use for afforestation. In New Zealand it has been the mainstay of all planting, both on farms and in plantations, and about 500,000 acres have been established with it, or over 60 per cent of the acreage of all species planted. The present cut of timber is almost equal to that of rimu, hitherto the main indigenous building timber, and in the near future radiata pine will be by far the most important timber. It was introduced by the settlers in the early “sixties” and planted mainly for shelter.

By the 1920's its potentialities for afforestation were obvious and it was the species used mainly in the planting of the large areas of pumice country in the “boom” period 1925–30. The central North Island is now its stronghold, but it is grown throughout the length and breadth of the country, though it fares poorly in Northland and on the wind-swept shingle plains of Canterbury. It does well on a wide range of soil types, at altitudes from sea level to 2,000 ft. and in rainfall varying from 30 in to 70 in. per annum. The best stands are in the Rotorua, Nelson, and Tapanui districts, and in sand dunes. Individual trees vary greatly in form, vigour, and in such botanical characteristics as size and shape of cones. The most remarkable feature of the species is its fast rate of growth; on good sites it will reach a height of 130 ft. in 30 years, and in the same period will commonly yield 50,000 board feet of sawn timber to the acre. Diameter growth is equally rapid and annual rings up to 1 in. wide are frequently seen.

Early in the life of stands, dominant trees take the lead and there is a continuous natural thinning so that stands do not stagnate. Seed is produced early and most of it is retained in the thick woody cones that stay on the trees. Natural regeneration usually follows clear-felling and is prolific after fires. Untended stands in the pumice country have been attacked by Sirex noctilio, in places severely. The insects Hylastes ater and Tortrix moth, and the fungi Armillaria mellea and Phomopsis, also attack the species under certain conditions.

The inherent properties of the bulk of sawn timber produced from radiata pine are sufficiently good to justify confidence in the suitability of the timber for a very wide range of uses in building construction, provided that it is properly graded, protected from sapstain disfigurement during seasoning (by chemical dipping or kiln-drying green off the saw), and preservative-treated where a decay hazard may arise in service. In other parts of buildings where the timber is erected after thorough seasoning and remains dry in service, preservative treatment is unnecessary. Sapwood timber is creamy-white, light (average about 28 lb. per cubic foot air-dry), easily dried, machined, and finished, and strong for its weight; there is little heartwood present in logs from 25 to 30 year old trees. Knots, only slightly darker than the rest of the wood, are the main defects; there are long lengths of clear timber between whorls of knots in many logs. Boards containing widely-separated large defects find a logical use in furniture and interior joinery for the “clear cuttings” which they will yield with minimum waste; other boards with smaller dispersed defects are preferred for flooring and weatherboarding. Growth rings are characteristically broad with a gradual rather than an abrupt change from the earlywood to the denser latewood in each ring. In machining and finishing, and in wearing (in service), the timber is largely free from troubles associated with more uneven and textured woods. Nevertheless there is a slight tendency for the customary paint coats on weatherboards showing a prominent “slashgrain” to be eroded away from the latewood bands; special priming treatments to counteract this feature and also the knots are being studied. The pith, in itself a significant defect, and a core of low density wood surrounding it, are taken account of, especially in members graded for strength. Apart from building uses, large quantities of timber are absorbed by boxes and crates, concrete boxing, core-boards and door cores, and a growing export trade. Pulping industries are using increasing quantities of small diameter material which is suitable for both groundwood and chemical pulps for paper as well as fibreboard and container board manufacture. Veneer production from selected logs is growing also.

LODGEPOLE PINE (Pinus murrayana): Lodgepole pine comes from the inland montane regions of Canada and the United States of America where pure forests of the species extend over large areas. It has a wide range of geographical races, several of which have been introduced into New Zealand. It has been used by the Forest Service mainly for the afforestation of high, cold plateau country in the centre of the North Island. Over 16,000 acres have been planted, the greater part between 1926 and 1932. The species is hardy and frost resistant, and can be grown at a higher altitude than any other exotic pine in New Zealand. The best races develop well and indicate that the species has a place in New Zealand forest practice, provided that seed selection is carefully done. Poor races on the other hand produce stunted and excessively branched trees which are unlikely to produce commercial timber. The tree never grows to large diameters and may find its best use in pulpwood. Lodgepole pine is a remarkably early and prolific seeder, and it regenerates profusely; it is in fact already tending to colonize parts of the tussock country of the central North Island. These characteristics may lead to it being grown for protection rather than production purposes.

The characteristics of the timber from local sources are as yet imperfectly known, as production is very small and limited to one or two localities. Timber sawn in North Canterbury has more clearly-defined growth rings and latewood bands than radiata pine, more closely-spaced growth rings due to its slower growth, and carries a significant proportion of heartwood distinguished from the creamy-white sapwood by its light pinkish-brown colour and distinctive smell. Pith is insignificant and knots are smaller, light brown in colour, and more dispersed than in radiata pine. The timber appears in general to be slightly denser and harder than radiata pine, but comments on the grading, seasoning, preservation and uses of the latter are a satisfactory guide to procedure with lodgepole pine.

PONDEROSA PINE (Pinus ponderosa): Ponderosa pine comes from the drier montane areas of western Canada and the United States of America. It is there a composite species comprising a number of geographical races which differ greatly in form and vigour and which extend over a wide area and range of conditions. In New Zealand the tree has been planted on a large scale, both by the Forest Service and by afforestation companies, and on an area basis it is second in importance only to radiata pine. Being a hardy species its main use has been in the afforestation of difficult sites, particularly the “frost flats” of the pumice country where climatic conditions are too severe to permit the establishment of radiata pine. Unfortunately, mainly poor races have been introduced and the ponderosa forests are therefore not of high quality. Some small-scale early plantings were from good races and these now show the possible value of the species. The tree will do well on poor soils and in climates characterized by low rainfalls and cold frosty winters. It grows slowly except on the best sites, and it will require a long rotation to produce mature high-quality timber. Early thinnings have not been profitable. Ponderosa pine in New Zealand is generally healthy but it has shown some susceptibility to Sirex noctilio, Hylastes ater, and Tortrix moths. It does not seed early in life and natural regeneration as yet is almost non-existent.

It is impracticable to give a complete picture of properties and uses as the sawn production to date is small. Timber examined is generally of lower density and slightly weaker than radiata pine, but this may be counter-balanced in graded framing timber by the knots being smaller and more dispersed. The indicated disability of low density core timber with associated low strength and a warping tendency will require attention in grading. Heartwood forms an insignificant proportion of the small-diameter logs which have so far been sawn. Sapwood is whitish and growth rings are not well-defined.

Principal Strength Properties of New Zealand Timbers.—The following table shows the principal strength properties of New Zealand timbers, both indigenous and exotic species. The test samples were in the form of small clear specimens, the air-dry values being adjusted to 12 per cent moisture content. In two of the exotic species, Douglas fir and radiata pine, tests of timber from two different localities are shown.

Common and Botanical Name of Species	Condition at Test	Weight Per Cubic Foot (Pounds)	Modulus of Rupture in Bending (Pounds Per Square Inch)	Modulus of Elasticity in Bending (1,000 Pounds Per Square Inch)	Maximum Crushing Strength Parallel to Grain (Pounds Per Square Inch)	Shear Strength Parallel to Grain (Pounds Per Square Inch)
Indigenous Species
Beech, black (Nothofagus solanderi)	Green	69	9,400	1,750	4,300	1,280
	Air-dry	49	14,500	1,980	8,300	1,870
Beech, hard (Nothofagus truncata)	Green	69	10,300	1,870	4,600	1,420
	Air-dry	48	13,700	2,100	7,000	1,980
Beech, red (Nothofagus fused)	Green	61	9,100	1,720	3,900	1,260
	Air-dry	44	11,400	1,930	7,600	1,850
Beech, silver (Nothofagus menziesii)	Green	55	7,600	1,280	3,400	940
	Air-dry	34	12,200	1,670	6.100	1,420
Black maire (Olea cunninghamii)	Green	75	13,050	1,550	6,000	1,810
	Air-dry	62	17,000	2,020	9,600	2,360
Hinau (Elaeocarpus dentatus)	Green	70	81,800	1,590	4,300	1,380
	Air-dry	45	12,300	1,610	6,600	1,610
Kahikatea or white pine (Podocarpus	Green	51	6,300	960	2,500	810
dacrydioides)	Air-dry	29	9,500	1,140	5,100	1,340
Kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii)	Green	61	5,600	660	2,800	750
	Air-dry	27	6,400	870	4,100	820
Kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa)	Green	55	7,800	1,250	3,400	1,290
	Air-dry	40	10,800	1,420	5,800	1,920
Kauri (Agathis australis)	Green	51	7,800	1,570	3,400	940
	Air-dry	36	13,100	1,890	5,600	1,220
Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile)	Green	57	7,300	1,290	3,100	790
	Air-dry	34	10,900	1,400	7,100	840
Mangeao (Litsaea calicaris)	Green	62	7,600	1,330	3,300	1,030
	Air-dry	39	13,300	1,620	6,600	1,560
Matai (Podocarpus spicatus)	Green	68	9,000	1,230	4,000	1,000
	Air-dry	38	10,800	1,320	6,800	1,600
Miro (Podocarpus ferrugineus)	Green	54	8,400	1,420	3,800	1,150
	Air-dry	36	12,900	1,570	6,600	1,690
Pokaka (Elaeocarpus hookerianus)	Green	65	6,200	1,000	3,200	1,260
	Air-dry	39	10,000	1,100	5,500	1,730
Pukatea (Laurelia novae-zelandiae)	Green	61	4,200	730	2,500	580
	Air-dry	30	11,800	1,700	4,900	1,080
Rata, Northern (Metrosideros robusta)	Green	72	11,300	1,710	5,200	1,610
	Air-dry	55	18,200	2,340	9,200	1,940
Rata, Southern (Metrosideros lucida)	Green	79	13,000	2,150	5,800	1,640
	Air-dry	71	23,000	3,150	11,500	2,570
Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum)	Green	61	7,400	1,220	3,300	910
	Air-dry	37	11,000	1,310	5,400	1,260
Silver-pine (Dacrydium colensoi)	Green	54	6,400	790	3,100	840
	Air-dry	39	8,500	1,070	5,800	1,320
Taraire (Beilschmiedia taraire)	Green	72	8,600	1,410	3,900	1,000
	Air-dry	42	13,000	1,790	6,600	1,910
Tanekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides)	Green	68	9,300	1,390	4,600	1,210
	Air-dry	42	14,100	1,620	6,500	1,400
Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa)	Green	67	9,700	1,590	4,400	1,100
	Air-dry	46	15,700	2,060	8,400	1,780
Totara (Podocarpus totara)	Green	59	6,500	920	3,100	810
	Air-dry	30	7,600	1,070	5,500	1,120
Exotic Species
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), Mac@@	Green	36	6,300	1,100	2,800	830
kenzie County	Air-dry	27	9,050	1,260	4,900	1,220
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), Marlborough County	Green	39	8,000	1,210	3,800	1,030
	Air-dry	36	13,400	2,000	6,600	1,340
Radiata pine (Pinus radiata), Rotorua	Green	58	5,900	1,060	2,600	870
County	Air-dry	28	11,200	1,340	5,600	1,550
Radiata pine (Pinus radiata), New Brighton	Green	51	6,100	910	2,800	1,060
Borough	Air-dry	31	9,300	1,060	4,200	1,370
Macrocarpa (Cupressus macrocarpa),	Green	50	8,000	970	3,800	1,010
Tuapeka County	Air-dry	31	10,900	1,180	5,900	1,620
Larch (Larix decidua), Rotorua County	Green	41	7,500	1,320	3,200	830
	Air-dry	35	13,500	1,740	7,100	2,060

Chapter 22. SECTION 22—FISHERIES

Table of Contents

GENERAL.—The principal characteristics of New Zealand's fisheries are the great length of the coast line, extensive natural harbours, numerous sheltered bays, and narrow continental shelf. Off its more northerly coasts, which come within the influence of the south equatorial current, a rich variety of subtropical fish is found, as exemplified by such species as the flying fish, the sunfish, the swordfish, and several shark species. On the other hand, its southern coasts, washed by the Antarctic drift, are the natural haunt of the fur-bearing seal, and yield varieties of fish which are characteristic of cold-water conditions.

Of the many kinds of excellent edible fishes the most important are the snapper (Pagrosomus auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Dactylopagrus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the west coast of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait and Stewart Island.

The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow water, and, except for groper and ling, fished for by means of deep long lines, most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 40 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast, and up to the present it is not known to what extent these deeper waters may be productive of marketable fishes. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, “hake” or “kingfish,” and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, john-dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet, and seines are also employed principally for the capture of flat fish and snapper. Sardines or pilchards (Sardinia neopilchardus) and other species of the herring family are known to occur in large shoals off some parts of the coast from time to time. There is no regular fishery for these kinds except where they have been periodically netted for bait in the Marlborough Sounds by Cook Strait fishermen. Attempts to commercialize these fish have been unsuccessful mainly because their appearances proved extremely irregular and inadequate in quantity.

In order to ascertain the economic position of the fishing industry an investigation committee was set up, under the Board of Trade Act, in 1937. This committee conducted exhaustive inquiries into all aspects of the industry, and reference to the committee's report (parliamentary paper H-44A, 1937–38) will give detailed information as to the conditions under which the industry then operated.

The fishing industry—that is, “the taking of fish and shell fish for sale”—came wholly under the control of the Marine Department by virtue of the Fisheries Amendment Act 1945, which provides that any boat used in fishing for purposes of sale must be registered, and that the owner of such a boat must be the holder of a licence authorizing the boat to be so used. In addition, any person employed on a fishing boat except as an engineer engaged wholly in connection with the propelling machinery, or wholly as a fireman, or as a cook, must be the holder of a crew licence.

The principal regulations dealing with fisheries are set out hereunder. Two comprehensive series are the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 and the Fresh Water Fisheries Regulations 1951. Under the latter are issued a number of modification notices which deal with particular aspects—e.g., permissible length of different classes offish to be taken—while the various acclimatization societies' rules are issued under the authority of these regulations. The Sea Fisheries (Boats and Licences) Regulations 1951, the Oyster Fishing Regulations 1946, and the Whitebait Fishing Regulations 1951 are directly relevant to the fishing industry. Other regulations include the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, the Quinnat Salmon Regulations 1940, the Fish-pass Regulations 1947, and the Toheroa Regulations 1946.

STATISTICS OF FISHERIES.—Commencing with the year 1944, the Marine Department adopted the calendar year as a standard for the expression of statistics of fisheries in place of the year ended 31 March formerly in use.

Of the 1,422 licensed boats operating during 1952 those vessels whose income was over £200 totalled 672, compared with 642 in 1951. The number of persons employed on these boats was 1,380, as compared with 1,338 in the preceding year.

The estimated total quantity and value of the principal classes of fishery products marketed in the years 1951 and 1952 were as follows.

—	Unit	Quantity		Value
—	Unit	1951	1952	1951	1952
				£	£
Wet fish	Cwt.	408,365	408,858	949,551	1,079,099
Whitebait (West Coast, South Island, only)	Cwt.	1,301	1,998	29,160	50,343
Oysters (dredged)	Sacks	90,630	93,676	104,224	121,779
Oysters (rock)	Sacks	4,220	5,001	11,077	13,015
Mussels	Sacks	16,271	18,457	6,624	8,502
Crayfish	Cwt.	55,658	65,286	216,854	329,323
Whale oil	Tons	710	800	38,500	40,000
Fish livers	lb.	751,087	800,303	34,425	36,680
Total value				1,390,415	1,678,741

In the most important group, the “wet fish”—i.e., all the ordinary fishes caught by all methods of sea fishing—the annual totals for successive years were as follows.

Year	Quantity	Value	Year	Quantity	Value
	Cwt.	£		Cwt.	£
1937–38	355,687	413,516	1945	331,773	558,404
1938–39	356,114	424,643	1946	380,321	660,096
1939–40	339,231	416,480	1947	438,300	802,496
1940–41	328,594	440,308	1948	446,265	838,334
1941–42	326,863	458,393	1949	449,903	864,332
1942–43	311,971	442,976	1950	440,179	918,051
1943–44	294,445	489,268	1951	408,365	949,551
1944	308,237	522,954	1952	408,858	1,079,099

The peak-production year for wet fish was 1949, and since then there has been a progressive decrease in the total quantity produced. The slight decrease in 1950 was the first real indication that the grounds were not still responding to the increased fishing effort built up in the post-war years. With the waterfront strike in the early part of 1951, once the freezers were full the boats in some cases were put on limits. This contributed to some loss of production, but analysis of the returns indicates that only a small part of the very marked decrease can be assigned to this cause. The 1952 production was only very slightly in excess of the 1951 quantity.

Kind or Class of Wet Fish Caught.—The following table shows the quantity and value of each kind of wet fish caught during 1952.

Kind or Class of Fish	Quantity	Value
	Cwt.	£
Tarakihi	118,675	263,128
Snapper	97,320	222,759
Gurnard	32,457	52,846
Blue cod	31,378	88,605
Hapuku (groper)	28,157	123,294
Sole	20,942	110,990
Flounder	12,871	84,613
Elephant fish	8,945	30,492
Trevally	8,789	10,478
Pioke	7,327	11,789
Ling	6,996	19,443
Barracouta	6,192	3,868
Moki	5,914	13,085
Red cod	3,522	5,107
Shark	3,516	4,956
Mixed rounds	3,281	1,468
Mullet	2,689	6,738
Hake	1,752	7,195
John dory	1,744	4,444
Butterfish	1,308	5,778
Kingfish	791	1,271
Whiting	759	914
Kahawai	639	682
Whiptail	523	552
Parore	387	489
Warehou	342	684
Herring	279	435
Mackerel	252	198
Trumpeter	213	571
Monkfish	185	371
Sardine	178	214
Brill	160	863
Garfish	131	582
Creamfish	121	91
Skate	46	35
Perch	39	27
Conger	34	34
Maomao	3	9
Frostfish	1	1
Totals	408,858	1,079,099

The quantity of tarakihi caught represents an increase of 8,171 cwt. over the 1951 figure, while snapper, the second most important class of fish, recorded a decrease of 11,118 cwt.

Methods of Capture.—A table showing the total quantity of wet fish caught in 1952 by each of the common methods of fishing is shown below, with the figures for 1951 included for comparative purposes.

Method of Fishing	Quantity		Percentage of Total Quantity
Method of Fishing	1951	1952	1951	1952
	Cwt.	Cwt.	Per Cent	Per Cent
Trawl	262,641	274,120	64.32	67.04
Danish seine	27,723	25,976	6.79	6.35
Long and hand lines	88,157	82,575	21.58	20.20
Set and drag nets	29,844	26,187	7.31	6.41
Totals	408,365	408,858	100.00	100.00

The steam trawlers landed a total catch of 56,303 cwt. (13.8 per cent), while motor trawlers landed 217,817 cwt. (53.3 per cent).

The quantity caught by Danish-seine boats continues to decrease as more of these boats are forced by high costs and short life of gear, coupled with poor returns, to change to either trawling or line fishing.

Landings at Ports.—Ports where the total landed catch was in excess of 10,000 cwt. are shown in order of importance in the next table. The percentage of the grand total is also included.

Port	Quantity		Percentage of Total Quantity		Value		Percentage of Total Value
Port	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952	1951	1952
	Cwt.	Cwt.	Per Cent	Per Cent	£	£	Per Cent	Per Cent
Auckland	111,399	112,626	27.28	27.21	192,001	224,378	20.22	20.79
Wellington	45,560	55,282	11.16	13.52	119,915	147,325	12.62	13.66
Port Chalmers	34,594	31,968	8.47	7.81	68,034	84,070	7.16	7.79
Napier	23,739	24,574	5.81	6.01	49,044	54,116	516	501
Timaru	25,479	24,365	6.24	5.96	82,721	89,672	8.71	8.31
Bluff and Stewart Island	17,640	17,567	4.31	4.30	56,200	59,087	5.92	5.47
Lyttelton	15,942	14,509	3.90	3.55	48,590	52,450	5.12	4.86
Nelson	14,253	13,900	3.49	3.39	26,928	31,505	2.83	2.92
Gisborne	15,814	13,666	3.87	3.34	29,141	29,433	310	2.73
Chatham Islands	10,096	11,366	2.47	2.77	13,672	16,388	1.43	1.52
Thames	17,721	11,212	4.34	2.74	41,567	37,494	4.37	3.47
Tauranga	11,033	10,369	2.70	2.53	18,512	19,243	1.94	1.78

The quantity of fish landed at these ports totalled 341,404 cwt., which was 83.5 per cent of the total catch.

Exports.—The totals for the principal classes of fishery products exported during the last three years are given below.

Exports	Unit	Quantity			Value
Exports	Unit	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
					£	£	£
Oysters, fresh	Doz.	630	400		35	24
Oysters, frozen	Cwt.		11	220		196	4,089
Mussels	Cwt.	73	112	54	531	878	567
Fish, frozen	Cwt.	60,958	40,910	49,770	375,761	283,596	387,787
Crayfish, frozen	Cwt.	11,814	16,407	17,505	199,930	370,199	480,806
Fish, smoked, dried	Cwt.	615	486	421	3,913	3,641	4,322
Fish and shellfish, canned	lb.	291,188	253,400	190,245	34,191	32,850	24,932
Total value					614,361	691,384	902,503

Fish-liver Oil.—There was an increase of 49,216 lb. in quantity of fish livers processed in 1952 and an increase of 4,272 gallons in the quantity of fish-liver oil produced.

A total of 12,444 gallons of fish-liver oil was exported during 1952, as compared with 21,690 gallons during 1951, but it is pointed out that these figures include variable amounts of concentrate.

The total weight of livers treated and the quantity of oil produced in each of the last five years has been as follows.

Year	Weight of Livers Treated	Quantity of Oil Produced
	lb.	Gallons
1948	677,435	24,083
1949	783,307	33,304
1950	815,493	37,544
1951	751,087	35,003
1952	800,303	39,275

OYSTER BEDS.—The principal oyster beds around the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland peninsula.

In South Island waters a close season is observed from 1 October to 14 February and in North Island waters from 1 November to 30 April in each year. The taking of oysters is governed by the Oyster-fishing Regulations 1946, and vessels operating commercially are subject to the Sea-fisheries (Boats and Licences) Regulations 1951. During the 1952 season 93,676 sacks of oysters were dredged from Foveaux Strait, compared with 90,630 sacks in 1951.

The rock-oyster beds of Auckland were worked for many years under a variety of systems, but, owing to stripping of the beds, close seasons had frequently to be proclaimed. From 1908 the picking and wholesale marketing of rock oysters from the North Island beds has been undertaken by the State, private picking being prohibited.

Oyster-cultivation work is being systematically carried on by the Marine Department in the Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Islands, and in the Kaipara district.

Rock oysters picked and sold by the State in 1952 totalled 5,001 sacks, compared with 4,220 sacks in 1951.

CRAYFISH.—Marine crayfish occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of crayfish is sold in local markets for domestic consumption, part is exported as frozen crayfish tails and whole crays, while a small quantity is canned.

With the development of the export of frozen crayfish tails to the United States of America and the high price received for this product, the increase in the catch of crayfish has been phenomenal, but already some grounds are showing a reduced return for the gear worked. The catch of crayfish over the last five years is as follows.

	Quantity	Value
Year	Cwt.	£
1948	26,724	63,272
1949	36,771	99,034
1950	52,482	169,138
1951	55,658	216,854
1952	65,286	329,323

WHALING.—With the enormous development of pelagic whaling that has taken place in recent years the whaling industry in New Zealand has greatly declined from the important position which it occupied in the early days of the colony. Only one shore station was in commercial operation during the 1952 whaling season. This station is situated in Tory Channel, Queen Charlotte Sound, and the season's catch in that area was 122 whales, this total being comprised of 121 humpbacks and 1 sei whale. The total oil production was 800 tons, while other products included 110 tons of bonedust.

The Whaling Industry Act 1935 was passed in order to give effect to an International Convention for the regulation of whaling and matters incidental thereto.

SEALS.—The taking of seals in New Zealand waters has been on a restricted scale during the last fifty years, these animals being placed on the protected list in 1894. No sealing was then allowed until 1913, when there was an open season, but with certain restrictions. From 1916 a close season was observed until 1922, when the taking of seals was again permitted, but only till 1924, since when a close season was observed until 1946.

A short restricted open season was permitted during 1946 by the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, but a close season is again being observed.

BIG-GAME FISHING.—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The world's record black marlin swordfish (976 lb.) was caught off the Bay of Islands in February 1926.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1947, superseded by the regulations of similar title issued in 1950, were gazetted prohibiting the taking of these fish by other than rod and line, and stipulating that the line was not to be heavier than “No. 39 linen thread line.” In addition, a limit bag of not more than four fish per day has been imposed.

WHITEBAIT.—A fishery that is peculiar to New Zealand with regard both to the product and to the methods of operation, carried on from July to November in the tidal reaches of many rivers, is the whitebait fishery. New Zealand “whitebait” are the young of Galaxias attenuatus, a species that lives for the greater part of its adult life in fresh water, descending to tidal water to spawn in late summer and autumn. The spawn is deposited among grass and similar herbage on the margins of the rivers above the ordinary high-water mark in a zone that is submerged only at the highest spring tides. Here it remains under cover of the herbage and secure from aquatic enemies until it is once more reached by a spring tide about a fortnight or, it may be, a month later. The young then hatch out, and are carried by the ebb tide to the sea. Here they remain until, at the age of about five months, the young fish, then about 2 in. long and still possessing the almost glassy transparency of the larval stage, migrate up the rivers in dense shoals. This is the time of the whitebait fishery, when they are caught in nets made of wire gauze or mosquito netting. The cultivation and drainage of riparian lands have considerably diminished the extent of spawning and feeding areas that were available in earlier times. From these causes, as well as from the intensity of the fishing operations, there are now few rivers where the runs of whitebait show anything like the abundance of former years. The most productive-whitebait fisheries are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over three hundred regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers, and, over a period of years, produced an average of approximately 3,000 cwt. of whitebait. As a result of reasonably good seasons over a period of years, and with improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES.—Native Fishes: Of fresh-water fishes indigenous to New Zealand the species of most commercial importance at the present time is Galaxias attenuatus, which provides the whitebait fishery already mentioned. Other species of Galaxias are known in the streams and lakes of the country. With the exception of the eels, which frequently attain an extraordinarily large size compared with those of the Northern Hemisphere, all the native fresh-water fishes are small, and are therefore not considered to possess any sporting value except to the most juvenile of anglers. There are two species of eels—Anguilla australis, the short-finned eel; and Anguilla dieffenbachii, formerly known as Anguilla aucklandii, the long-finned eel. Recent investigations by Marine Department biologists have thrown new light on their distribution. It is now known that alt. male eels remain in tidal and brackish waters; female long-finned eels are found throughout all accessible fresh waters, while female short-finned eels are restricted to the warmer, deeper, and slowly-flowing waters, and in the South Island are found only in the lower reaches of rivers and in coastal lakes. Eels constituted an important food supply to the Maoris, who devised very efficient traps for their capture as the adult eels migrated to the sea. This fishery is still carried on by the Maoris of some districts, and during recent years some commercial fishing has taken place for home markets and for. export. So far as available supplies are concerned, there is scope for considerable development in connection with eel utilization in New Zealand.

The following list shows the definitely known genera of indigenous fresh-water fish and includes all the principal species.

Scientific Name	European Name	Maori Name	Usual Maximum Size
			Inches
Galaxias atenuatus	“Minnow”	Inanga	7
Galaxias fasciatus	Native trout or mountain trout	Kokopu	10
Galaxias brevipinnis	“Gudgeon”	Taiwharu or kokopu	6
Galaxias huttoni		Koaro	6
Galaxias burrowsii	Canterbury mudfish		5 to 6
Neochanna apoda	Mudfish	Hauhau or waikaka	8
Retropinna retropinna	Smelt	Paraki	6
Prototroctes oxyrhynchus	Grayling	Upokororo	12
Cheimarrichthys fosteri	Torrent-fish or shark-bully	Papanoko	7
Gobiomorphus gobioides	Bully	Toitoi	6 Feet
Anguilla australis	Short-finned eel	Tuna	3 to 4
Anguilla dieffenbachii (aucklandii)	Long-finned eel	Tuna	4 to 5
Geotria australis	Lamprey	Koro-koro or kuna-kuna	2

The “minnow,” smelt, grayling, and, of course, the eels and lamprey, are migratory fish which spend parts of their lives in the sea or in estuarine tidal waters, although at least one species of purely fresh-water smelt is known.

Acclimatized Fishes: Although most of the above-mentioned indigenous fishes—especially the eels, kokopu, and upokororo—provided an appreciable portion of the food supplies of the Maoris, and have been a welcome addition to the camp provisions of surveyors, bushmen, and prospectors since the pioneering days, there were many among the early settlers to whom the New Zealand rivers and lakes appeared uninteresting and unproductive in comparison with their native salmon and trout streams. By means of private agency in some cases, and by more organized efforts on the part of Government and local acclimatization societies, attempts to introduce British salmon and trout were commenced in the early “sixties.” The brown trout was first established in 1867 by means of ova imported from Tasmania, where the species had been acclimatized a few years earlier from English stock. Importations of brown trout besides the Loch Leven and sea-trout varieties have been subsequently made, so that the species is now found in most of the fresh and tidal waters of New Zealand. Rainbow or steelhead trout, first introduced in 1883 from California, are also now widely distributed. In some lakes, notably Taupo and others in the Thermal Region, they have largely displaced the earlier brown-trout population. The American brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) was widely planted in the “seventies” and “eighties,” but is now found only in a few back-country streams in the South. The Mackinaw trout, or Great American Lake trout, has been naturalized in Lake Pearson, Canterbury, since 1906. Quinnat salmon, introduced from California in the first five years of the present century, after earlier attempts had failed, are now firmly established, and “runs” of these salmon take place annually between January and June in the larger east coast rivers of the South Island. They have been taken in smaller and more variable numbers in a few rivers on the West Coast and in the Wellington District. Sockeye salmon, imported at the same time, have given rise to a “land-locked” stock in Lake Ohau, no sea-run examples of this species having yet been identified. The introduction of European Atlantic salmon was attempted at various times in the earlier years, and was finally achieved after 2,000,000 ova had been imported in 1910–12 from British and Continental rivers. The. species is now established in the Waiau River system and associated lakes (especially Lake Te Anau) in Southland. It is remarkable that, although there is unimpeded access to the sea, the species has largely adopted “land-locked” habits, most of the fish remaining to feed in fresh water until and after they have reached maturity. Relatively small numbers, however, enter the Waiau from the sea.

Besides the above-mentioned members of the salmon and trout family, other species of fish from the Northern Hemisphere which have been acclimatized in New Zealand are the European perch, tench, and carp, the North American catfish (Ameiurus catus), and the small viviparous. Gambusia patruelis introduced about 1930 for its utility as a devourer of mosquito larvae.

With the exception of the Rotorua Acclimatization District in the thermal-lakes region and the Southern Lakes District in the South Island, which are under the control of the Department of Internal Affairs, the local administration and management of fresh-water fisheries are in the hands of acclimatization societies.

The Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1951 contain provisions of general application with regard to limit bag, size limit, baits and lures, duration of season, etc. Such general regulations apply unless modification notices for particular districts are issued varying these limits.

A fishing licence, for which the fee for the season (opens 1 October and continues for seven months) is £2 in the North Island and £1 10s. in the South Island, enables the holder to fish for acclimatized fish in any part of New Zealand except the Rotorua Acclimatization District (which includes the Taupo Trout Fishing District) and the Southern Lakes Acclimatization District. For fishing in the Rotorua area and the Southern Lakes District the local licence fees are £2 and £1 10s. respectively for all male adults, but in the Taupo area of the Rotorua Acclimatization District, which is the most popular of all New Zealand angling resorts, the licence fees for the whole season are £1 10s. for residents in the area, £2 for other residents of New Zealand, and £6 for overseas visitors. For all acclimatization districts there is a reduced scale of licence fees for female and juvenile anglers. Monthly, weekly, and daily licences are also available, while half-season, weekend, and single-river licences are optional in some districts. The Taupo Trout Fishing (Special Season) Regulations 1954 provide for a special experimental open season from 1 June-31 October 1954 in the district.

The Fisheries Amendment Act 1953 provides for the establishment of fisheries experimental waters by Order in Council. In such cases the fresh water regulations applicable may be declared not to apply or to apply subject to modifications.

The same amendment also enables the Governor-General under certain conditions to dispense with a close season for trout and salmon in any one or more years or to fix a close season of less than five months' duration for all or part of the waters of the district concerned.

Chapter 23. SECTION 23—MINERALS AND MINERAL PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

THE law relating to mining and quarrying is contained in the Mining Act 1926, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Coal Act 1948, the Petroleum Act 1937, the Quarries Act 1944, and the Atomic Energy Act 1945. There have been numerous amendments to these Acts, the most recent of which are the Mining Amendment Acts of 1947, 1948, and 1953, the Coal Mines Amendment Acts of 1949, 1950, and 1953, and the Quarries Amendment Act 1951. The Coal Mines Amendment Act of 1950 provides for the return to their previous owners of all coal and servitudes vested in the Crown by the Coal Act of 1948, but also ensures a greater measure of control of the working of privately-owned coal than that previously exercised. The Quarries Amendment Act 1951 removed opencast coal workings from the provisions of the Coal Mines Act and brought them within the scope of the Quarries Act 1944.

MINERAL PRODUCTION.—The following statement shows the production of metals and minerals during 1951 and 1952.

Mineral	1951		1952
Mineral	Quantity	Value	Quantity	Value
Fuels
		£(N.Z.)		£(N.Z.)
Coal	2,435,505 tons	6,066,258	2,749,808 tons	6,870,893
Petroleum (crude)	185,710 gals.	6,779	302,870 gals.	12,619
Metals
Gold	75,115 oz.	915,336	59,151 oz.	739,931
Silver	133,291 oz.	43,327	51,016 oz.	16,293
Platinum	8 oz.	96	4 oz.	61
Antimony ore			11 tons	179
Copper ore	178 tons	2,141
Iron ore	2,496 tons	6,817	1,823 tons	3,565
Manganese ore	402 tons	1,869	319 tons	1,509
Tin ore	1.4 cwt.	56
Tungsten ore	32 tons	53,538	57 tons	87,000
Non-metallics
Asbestos	813 tons	40,628	682 tons	33,860
Bentonite	430 tons	4,281	570 tons	4,783
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.	173,333 tons	46,055	203,116 tons	51,493
Clay for pottery fillers, etc.	7,650 tons	6,525	3,271 tons	3,963
Diatomite	119 tons	177	204 tons	336
Dimension stone for building	6,011 tons	14,947	17,989 tons	21,554
Dolomite	982 tons	982	1,255 tons	1,255
Limestone for agriculture	1,182,308 tons	797,359	1,366,651 tons	830,571
Limestone for industrial uses	30,498 tons	22,678	30,694 tons	15,453
Limestone, marl, etc., for cement	322,683 tons	62,428	415,532 tons	84,248
Magnesite	580 tons	392	579 tons	362
Pumice	8,774 tons	8,490	9,612 tons	5,999
Quartzite			5 tons	10
Rock for harbour work	51,894 tons	9,171	55,855 tons	15,437
Salt			700 tons	4,200
Sand, gravel, etc., for building aggregate	331,806 tons	138,947	920,316 tons	433,787
Sand, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast	2,399,941 tons	832,552	3,305,629 tons	1,266,181
Serpentine	91,976 tons	45,174	91,358 tons	46,864
Silica sand	22,508 tons	74,244	22,114 tons	86,702
Sulphur			486 tons	9,737
Totals		9,201,247		10,648,845

The next statement shows the value of New Zealand minerals and allied substances exported during the years stated.

Mineral	1950	1951	1952	Total from 1 January 1853 to 31 December 1952
	£	£	£	£
Gold	1,296,610	835,813	798,356	121,714,981
Silver	25,895	589	518	3,882,831
Tungsten ore	13,539	64,318	77,813	723,866
Antimony ore				55,700
Mercury				41,319
Other minerals	16,148	11,954	8,451	753,447
Kauri-gum	125,893	132,126	81,517	24,978,620
Coal (including bunker)	18,445	24,432	58,541	8,600,040

GOLD MINING.—The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, but which declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment, again came into prominence in the years immediately prior to the war on account of the enhanced price of gold and the revival of gold dredging.

Gold-dredging possibilities presented an entirely new aspect not only on account of the price of gold, but also on account of the greater depths to which modern machines can work and their low cost of operation per cubic yard. Since 1940, however, there has been a steady decline in the production of gold. The decreased importance of gold mining to the community during the war period was responsible for man-power problems and difficulties in securing equipment. These difficulties were further accentuated by rising costs in the post-war years, and tax remissions to the extent of 34s. 8d. per ounce made by the Government to meet such costs, and the increased price of gold consequent upon the devaluation of sterling, have not been able to improve the position. A further attempt to assist the industry was the decision that on and after 16 August 1952 producers or their agents holding gold-dealers' licences are permitted to sell their gold production overseas on the open market provided the full proceeds of such exports are received by the banking system in United States dollars at not less than thirty-five dollars per fine ounce. Previously all gold was purchased by the Reserve Bank, the price being £12 5s. per fine ounce.

The principal reason for the decline in gold production, however, would appear to be the exhaustion of the gold-bearing areas, and this applies to the three recognized methods of mining.

The number of dredges in active operation during 1952 was eight, five on the West Coast and three in Otago. Early in the year, however, two suspended operations, leaving four active dredges on the West Coast (Grey River, Rimu, Kaniere, and Snowy River) and two in Otago (Clutha and Rainbow) at the end of the year. Since then the Rimu and Kaniere dredges have closed down. The owners of the Kaniere dredge are transferring it to a new area in the Taramakau River. It is expected to commence operations there in 1955. As recent prospecting operations for new areas have not been attended with much success, it is apparent that production of gold by dredging must diminish.

Production of gold from quartz mines has recently declined, as was to be expected from the abandonment of active mining operations at the Blackwater Mine on the West Coast in July 1951, and of the Martha Mine at Waihi in June 1952. During its working life of sixty-one years from 1892 to 1952, the Martha Mine produced 11,931,047 short tons of ore, while the total amount of gold and silver produced over the period was 35,523,768 oz. of bullion, valued at £28,496,011. Largely owing to the exhaustion of ore reserves, for all practical purposes the active quartz-mining section of the industry may be regarded as terminated.

Alluvial mining, now at a very low ebb, showed a slight increase during the year. The following table gives particulars of the estimated gold content of gold/silver/bullion production for the last three years.

—	Quantity			Value
—	1950	1951	1952	1950	1951	1952
	Oz.	Oz.	Oz.	£	£	£
Quartz mining	27,874	23,615	11,036	340,768	288,892	140,481
Alluvial mining	1,758	1,441	1,640	21,003	16,917	19,026
Dredge mining	46,895	50,059	46,475	567,643	609,527	580,424
Totals	76,527	75,115	59,151	929,414	915,336	739,931

SILVER.—Nearly the whole of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand has been obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz mines of the Hauraki goldfield, where gold and silver are found alloyed, the ratio of the two metals in the alloy varying greatly. No other silver-mining operations have been carried out profitably in New Zealand.

With the closing-down of the only two quartz mines of any consequence, the production of silver in New Zealand in any quantity may be regarded as finished.

IRON ORES.—The two main sources of iron available in New Zealand are the iron-ore deposits of the Onekaka region, Golden Bay, in the Nelson Provincial District; and the ironsands which are largely concentrated on the beaches of Taranaki, though not limited that district.

As a result of a systematic prospecting programme of tunnelling and boring carried out by the State during the years 1938 to 1942 the ore reserves of the Onekaka deposits are estimated at 9,500,000 tons, assaying 40 per cent iron.

Although the whole of New Zealand's iron-bearing sands have not been surveyed, there is no doubt that the total quantity is enormous. As a result of prospecting operations by the State the titaniferous ironsands in the vicinity of Patea have been estimated as amounting to 45,500,000 tons, assaying 21 per cent soluble iron, which, by magnetic separation, would yield 14,500,000 tons of concentrates assaying 53 per cent soluble iron. Preliminary investigation at Wanganui and at Waitara has shown great quantities of sand, but of lower iron content, while deposits at Mokau, Awakino, and Manukau still await investigation.

Many attempts have been made to smelt Taranaki ironsand, but commercial success has not attended any of these efforts. Difficulty has been experienced owing to the fineness of the sand and also to the presence of titanic acid. However, it is considered possible that these sands can be economically smelted if mixed in the proportion of 1 part of sand to 4 of Golden Bay ore. In 1949 large-scale tests on the smelting of ironsands by means of an electric furnace and the use of char obtained from sub-bituminous coal were carried out at Onekaka under the supervision of overseas experts. The tests showed that pig iron suitable for conversion to steel could be obtained from Taranaki ironsands by these means.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the cement industry.

Production in 1952 was 1,823 tons, 868 of these from Okaihau, 110 from Kamo, and 845 from Onekaka.

TUNGSTEN.—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

Scheelite occurs at numerous points frequently associated with gold in quartz veins traversing the schists of Otago and Marlborough. It has also been identified in finely divided form in the concentrates from the gold-saving tables of dredges operating on the West Coast.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, while the scheelite is most erratically distributed in the veins, with the greatest concentration of scheelite situated close to the surface or at shallow depths. Further, many of the lodes occur at high altitudes, which allows of only a short working season; access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high.

In 1952, 57 tons of scheelite were produced as compared with 32 tons in 1951. The Glenorchy field was responsible for the greater part of this production, 44 tons having been obtained from this field, 12 tons from the Macrae's Flat field, and a small parcel of 3 cwt. from the Barewood field. Other producing centres in Otago have been Stoneburn, Hyde, and Waipori.

The total quantity of locally produced ore exported to 31 December 1952 was 3,543 tons, valued at £723,866.

COPPER.—Ores of copper are found in New Zealand in no fewer than thirty-two known localities, but during the last seventy years attempts at their successful exploitation have been unprofitable. After many years of inactivity, mining was resumed during 1946, when operations were commenced at a copper-ore occurrence at Pakotai, in North Auckland.

Three shipments of ore have been made from this deposit, one of 580 tons which realized £6,255 in 1947, another of 610 tons which realized £10,303 in 1950, and a third of 178 tons which realized £2,141 in 1952. The ore is of good grade averaging approximately 13 per cent of copper, but the deposit is small and ore reserves are not of any magnitude.

It is estimated that the total production of copper to the end of 1952 has amounted to 6,404 tons, valued at £124,302.

MANGANESE.—Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. At Tikiora Hill (near Russell), at Parua Bay (near Whangarei), and especially at Waiheke Island, manganese deposits were mined many years ago, while of recent years there has been some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits arc, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

Production from Otau in 1952 totalled 319 tons, compared with 402 tons in 1951.

MERCURY.—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand, but only in a few localities is it found in quantities of economic importance. The most promising deposits of mercury ore in New Zealand are those of the Puhipuhi district, where for many years efforts have been made to place the production of the metal on a commercial basis. During the war these efforts were revived and production recommenced, the ore being obtained by opencast mining and the mercury recovered in a modern treatment plant with a capacity of 50 tons of ore per day.

Owing to the drastic slump in the price and the need for additional earth-moving equipment, operations were discontinued in 1945.

The total quantity of mercury of New Zealand origin exported up to 31 December 1952 was 111,838 lb., valued at £41,319.

ANTIMONY.—The high price ruling for antimony ores again directed attention to the deposits of these ores in Central Otago, and prospecting operations have been carried out at Mount Stoker in the Nenthorn Survey District, 5 tons of ore being obtained from these operations in 1949, as compared with 9 tons in 1948. There was no production in 1950 or in 1951. Recently attention has been directed to deposits at Endeavour Inlet, in Queen Charlotte Sound, and Langdon's Creek, near Greymouth. Eleven tons of antimony ore, valued at £179, were obtained at Endeavour Inlet in 1952.

TIN.—Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent. “Lode tin” has been found in the same locality, but the deposit is not of economic value. Small quantities of cassiterite have also been detected in the stream gravels of the Reefton, Greymouth, and Westport districts. Among other localities in which traces of tin occur are Wet Jacket Arm (Otago) and Campbell Island.

PLATINUM.—In the published lists of minerals of New Zealand, platinum is stated to occur in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel. It is only from Southland, however, that platinum has been exported, but quantities produced have been insignificant, and of late years negligible. There had been no production since 1946, when 14 oz. were produced, until 1951 when 8 oz. were produced. Four ounces were produced in 1952.

URANIUM.—A concentrated search for uranium ores has resulted in the discovery that some of the auriferous gravels and sands of the West Coast of the South Island contain a small proportion of uranium-bearing materials, in particular, uranothorite and monazite. These accumulate in greater concentration upon the gold-saving tables of the dredges, and it was considered that they might be regarded as a possible source of uranium, but investigation has shown that they are too low grade to be of economic value.

The mining and treatment of the ores of uranium and other elements which may be used for the production of atomic energy are now controlled by the provisions of the Atomic Energy Act 1945.

SULPHUR.—Native sulphur occurs in the thermal districts of the North Island near Rotorua and Lake Taupo and pt White Island. From an area at Rotokaua, in the Taupo region, 486 tons of sulphur were produced in 1952, the first production of sulphur for many years. Exports of sulphur of New Zealand origin up to the end of 1952 have amounted to an aggregate value of £13,241.

ASBESTOS.—Chrysotile asbestos occurs at several points in the massive serpentines of Nelson and Otago, but the only deposits of importance so far located are those of Upper Takaka in the Nelson district. While these deposits have long been known, difficulties of access have prevented prospecting and exploitation, but of recent years an all-weather motor road has been formed giving access to the area. An experimental treatment plant was installed, and a systematic prospecting programme of driving and crosscutting carried out. This programme was completed early in 1945, when active development was suspended. Operations were, however, resumed in 1950 and continued on an increasing scale in 1953, but owing to the easing of the overseas supply position, were on a reduced scale in 1952.

COAL.—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well-defined areas, beyond which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfield).
Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.
Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Minor coalfields from which coal is being mined, but which cannot be expected to provide an important contribution to our coal resources are—

Sub-bituminous Coal: North Auckland (Hikurangi, Kamo), Nelson (Puponga, Westhaven).
Lignite: Canterbury (numerous small deposits), Otago, Charleston (Westport).

In recent years the investigation of coal resources has been carried on by three organizations working in close co-operation. These organizations are (1) the Coal Survey, whose activities are mainly geological and chemical; (2) the Surveying and Prospecting Organization set up by the Mines Department to follow up the Coal Survey with detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (3) the Drilling Section of the Mines Department carrying out investigations by deep-core drilling.

As a result of the intensive work of these organizations during 1946–50 considerably more information is now available than was the case in 1946 when the last estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand which appeared in the Mines Statement for the year 1945 was made. This matter was considered jointly by officers of the Geological Survey and Mines Department, and a new estimate prepared based on information obtained from the Mines Department as to reserves of operating coal mines and of closely drilled areas, and from the Coal Survey as to reserves of the districts surveyed. The classification accepted—“measured,” “indicated,” and “inferred “—is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey. These terms arc simply defined as follows:

“Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established. The computed tonnage and grade are judged to be accurate within limits, and no such limit is judged to differ from the computed tonnage or grade by more than 20 per cent.
“Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.
“Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

Although these terms are fairly close to the original terms—“proved,” “probable,” and “inferred”—it was considered better to use the clearly and specifically defined terms as above, that have wide international acceptance.

The figures in all cases represent recoverable coal and not coal in ground.

The following are the total coal resources of New Zealand based on all available information at date (1950).

—	Measured	Indicated	Inferred
	Tons	Tons	Tons
Bituminous	28,000,000	21,000,000	58,000,000
Sub-bituminous	52,000,000	45,000,000	502,000,000
Lignite	13,000,000	27,000,000	366,000,000
Totals	93,000,000	93,000,000	926,000,000

It will be noticed, when compared with 1946 figures, that measured bituminous has increased, largely as a result of close drilling on the Buller field, and that a figure for inferred bituminous is presented. In both sub-bituminous and lignite the previous large quantities of proved coal have been considerably reduced, simply because there was no evidence to support such figures as measured coal according to the definition of this term. In both cases inferred resources have been shown, which in 1946 were confined to sub-bituminous. The over-all total of 1,112,000,000 tons is fairly close to the previous 1946 estimate (1,158,436,000 tons).

From time to time concern has been expressed that reserves of measured, recoverable coal are of so low an order in New Zealand. It must, however, be recognized that to establish reserves of this type it is necessary either to block them out by underground development or to define them by close boring, and sound mining practice demands that such reserves should bear some relationship to the scale of the industry and the annual production required. Actually, measured reserves of coal in each class, bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite, are sufficient to maintain the present rate of production for a term of years far in excess of those demanded by recognized mining practice, and it is accordingly questionable whether, from some aspects, reserves are accordingly too high rather than too low, and there is no justification for the concern expressed.

The rise in inferred lignite and sub-bituminous is the result of work in the Ohai and Kaitangata fields. It is considered that these figures represent a more realistic picture than did those of 1946.

The following table shows the quantitative groupings in the various coalfields of New Zealand, set out under the three rank divisions.

—	Measured	Indicated	Inferred
Bituminous
	Tons	Tons	Tons
Buller	14,000,000	6,500,000	24,300,000
Murchison			1,500,000
Garvey Creek	1,000,000	2,300,000	2,200,000
Greymouth	13,000,000	13,000,000	30,000,000
Totals	28,000,000	21,800,000	58,000,000
Sub-bituminous
Northland	1,300,000	1,700,000	3,000,000
Huntly	32,000,000	18,000,000	65,000,000
Maramarua	5,000,000	15,000,000	20,000,000
Mangapehi	1,500,000	500,000	1,000,000
Tatu	300,000	400,000
Waitewhena	400,000		12,000,000
Mokau			60,000,000
Nelson	200,000		2,000,000
Buller Gorge			1,000,000
Reefton	1,000,000	2,700,000	5,000,000
Fletcher Creek			3,000,000
Punakaiki			2,000,000
Kaitangata		6,000,000	227,000,000
Ohai	11,000,000	1,000,000	100,000,000
Orepuki			1,000,000
Totals	52,700,000	45,300,000	502,000,000

—	Measured	Indicated	Inferred
Lignite
	Tons	Tons	Tons
Charleston	6,000,000	2,000,000	8,000,000
Canterbury	250,000		20,000,000
North Otago	250,000		2,000,000
Central Otago	250,000		15,000,000
Green Island	250,000		3,00,000
Kaitangata	1,000,000	5,000,000	156,000,000
Pomahaka			10,000,000
Mataura Valley	5,000,000	20,000,000	152,000,000
Totals	13,000,000	27,000,000	366,000,000

The following table summarizes coal-mining operations.

Year	Output (Tons)	Persons Ordinarily Employed			Lives Lost by Accidents In or About Collieries
Year	Output (Tons)	Surface	Underground	Totals	Per Million Tons Produced	Per Thousand Persons Employed	Lives Lost
Prior to 1943	100,655,716						536
1943	2,787,868	1,375	3,999	5,374	2.87	1.50	8
1944	2,805,970	1,637	3,958	5,595	4.28	2.14	12
1945	2,833,576	1,660	3,932	5,592	2.12	1.07	6
1946	2,793,870	1,738	3,819	5,557	1.43	0.72	4
1947	2,751,725	1,703	3,739	5,442	1.43	0.73	4
1948	2,775,886	1,740	3,842	5,582	1.80	0.90	5
1949	2,813,275	1,868	4,009	5,877	1.07	0.51	3
1950	2,669,451	1,773	3,815	5,588	1.12	0.54	3
1951	2,435,505	1,676	3,386	5,062	2.05	0.98	5
1952	2,749,808	1,610	3,482	5,092	1.45	0.54	4
Totals	128,072,650						590

The substantial decrease in coal production recorded during the year 1951 was due entirely to the industrial trouble which resulted in several of the more important underground mines being idle for several months. However, the industry showed great recuperative capacity, and towards the end of the year, despite a reduction in imports, coal supply was again adequate for all requirements. This condition still persists, and during 1952 the point was reached where in some grades of coal, supply was actually in excess of demand.

The output of the several classes of coal mined in each inspection district during 1952 together with the total output to the end of that year are shown in the next table. District totals for 1951 are also given.

Class of Coal	Northern District (North Island)	West Coast District (South Island)	Southern District (South Island)	Total	Total Output to 31 December 1952
	Tons	Tons	Tons	Tons	Tons
Anthracite			808	808	24,001
Bituminous		860,898		860,898	65,730,362
Sub-bituminous	1,158,650	145,850	353,853	1,658,353	53,794,912
Lignite		20,297	209,452	229,749	8,523,375
Totals for 1952	1,158,650	1,027,045	564,113	2,749,808	128,072,650
Totals for 1951	957,414	867,672	610,419	2,435,505	125,322,842

During 1952, 185 mines were in operation. Of these, 59 mines operated wholly or principally on freehold land and the remaining 126 wholly or predominantly on Crown land.

Output from freehold land was 1,078,670 tons (39.2 per cent) and output from Crown land 1,671,138 tons (60.8 per cent), these proportions being similar to those recorded in the previous year.

Underground Mines.—The following table gives particulars of the operations of underground mining during the last eleven years.

Calendar Year	Output (Tons)	Men Employed Underground	Tons Per Man Underground	Men Employed on Surface	Tons Per Man on Pay-roll
1942	2,624,267	3,659	717	1,291	530
1943	2,725,831	3,999	682	1,329	512
1944	2,609,516	3,958	659	1,395	489
1945	2,380,896	3,932	606	1,328	453
1946	2,265,170	3,819	593	1,313	441
1947	2,107,033	3,739	564	1,271	421
1948	2,099,158	3,842	546	1,285	409
1949	2,071,288	4,009	517	1,368	385
1950	1,956,955	3,815	513	1,334	380
1951	1,479,373	3,386	437	1,230	320
1952	1,914,137	3,482	550	1,204	408

Commencing with the year 1939, there was a sustained increase in the output per man employed underground up to and including 1942, since when there was a series of decreases until 1952. However in 1952 this decline was arrested and an increase of 37 tons was recorded over the last normal year, that of 1950, and of 113 tons over 1951. Conditions in 1951 were abnormal, but the fall between 1942 and 1950 amounted to 204 tons (28.4 per cent) per man engaged underground. The introduction of a seven-hour day early in 1948, instead of eight hours as formerly, was responsible for part of the decline mentioned, but other contributory factors were the shortage of experienced men and the more difficult mining conditions and longer haulages that have been encountered in some of the older mines. Of late years the output per hewer shift remained remarkably constant, and the inference was that the over-all decrease was due to the greater number of men required in maintaining services and in transporting coal from the face to the surface. The Mines Statement (parliamentary paper C-2) for the year 1951 stated that to maintain production at the present level it is essential that new mines be opened up to replace those approaching exhaustion, operations be mechanized as much as possible, and transport facilities be improved, and progress has been made in all of these directions.

Opencast Mines.—Production of coal from opencast mines in 1952 amounted to 835,671 tons, which was 120,461 tons less than the production achieved in 1951. The proportion of the total production of coal obtained from opencast mines amounted to 30 per cent.

There were sixty-one opencast mines in operation in 1952, and of these thirteen operated by the State produced 472,989 tons. All of these State mines have come into production since the beginning of 1944. The progress of opencast mining during the last eleven years is illustrated by the following table.

Year	Output (Tons)	Men Employed	Tons Per Man Employed
1942	55,774	47	1,187
1943	62,037	46	1,349
1944	196,454	242	812
1945	452,680	332	1,363
1946	528,700	425	1,244
1947	644,692	432	1,492
1948	676,728	455	1,487
1949	741,987	500	1,484
1950	712,496	439	1,623
1951	956,132	446	2,144
1952	835,671	406	2,058

Coal Research and Derived Products.—The Government is keeping abreast of latest developments in regard to the production of oil from coal by the hydrogenation and the low-temperature carbonization processes. During 1950 considerable progress was made in systematic field surveys and mapping of the coal resources of New Zealand, combined with research work in State laboratories into the physical and chemical properties of the various coals. A large amount of investigation into fuel problems was also carried out, and many analyses of coal and other fuel samples were made.

Low-temperature carbonization works, using the Lurgi process, established at Rotowaro, 70 miles south of Auckland, in 1931, produced during 1952. 11,240 tons of carbonettes, 195,575 gallons of tar and oil, and 1,458 tons of char from 21,938 tons of slack coal, which was part of the output of a group of local mines.

The Sockburn plant, near Christchurch, produced during 1952, 30,550 gallons of tar and 6,456 tons of coke.

Coal Utilization.—The approximate distribution of coal consumption during each of the five years 1948–52 is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports (including bunker coal for overseas vessels). Where the information is available, adjustments have been made for stocks on hand at the beginning and end of the year.

—	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Includes hospitals, hotels, etc.
	Tons	Tons	Tons	Tons	Tons
Railways	577,000	552,000	478,000	444,000	435,000
Coastal shipping	77,000	55,000	49,000	37,000	36,000
Gasworks	323,000	311,000	301,000	260,000	289,000
Factories^*	1,200,000	1,288,000	1,306,000	1,174,000	1,378,000
Households	620,000	640,000	600,000	540,000	590,000
Total consumption	2,797,000	2,846,000	2,734,000	2,455,000	2,728,000

State Coal Mines.—The Coal Mines Act 1901 provided for the purchase and working of State coal mines in New Zealand under the direct control of the Minister of Mines. At 31 December 1952 there were thirty-eight State collieries working.

The outputs of coal produced from State coal mines for the last two financial periods are shown below.

Name of Mine	Nine Months to 31 December 1951^*		Year to 31 December 1952
Name of Mine	Gross Output^†	Net Output for Disposal	Gross Output^†	Net Output for Disposal
* Balance date changed in terms of Finance Act 1951 and only nine months in accounts to 31 December 1951. † Includes surplus stock brought on charge or amended for stock deficiencies written off. ‡ New mine which started production during year. § Tonnage for—used on works, waste, workmen, and free—apportioned with opencast or underground production. \|\| Ceased production Central (July 1952); Mossbank (September 1952); No. 11 Ohai commenced and finished during year. ¶ Produced by shiftmen from falls of coal—no hewers employed. ** Coal won from development work.
Underground Mines	Tons	Tons	Tons	Tons
Kamo	40,738	39,863	49,100	47,881
Alison	37,990	35,414	83,149	78,632
Rotowaro	36,179	34,388	84,266	80,622
Renown	43,361	41,974	75,601	73,372
Wilton	39,128	37,934	70,507	68,548
Mangapehi	14,568	13,753	30,514	29,240
Tatu	15,078	14,028	26,166	24,613
Denniston	37,497	35,618	77,094	74,365
Millerton	26,633	25,786	54,442	53,044
McCabes (^‡) (^§)			1,257	1,240
Stockton (^§)	13,685	13,528	26,816	26,457
Webb (^§)	44,231	43,806	72,665	71,692
Burke's Creek	10,037	9,350	21,583	20,560
Burnwell	6,970	6,889	24,747	24,576
Central (^\|\|)	2,777	2,765	2,132	2,132
Garvey Creek (^¶)	51	50	127	127
Blackball	27,071	25,486	53,997	51,732
Dobson	33,963	31,202	55,241	50,636
Paparoa	12,809	12,411	24,046	23,526
Tyneside(^**)			405	405
Wallsend	21,495	20,295	39,988	38,359
Liverpool	59,464	57,472	112,774	109,789
Strongman	60,616	56,497	100,251	93,156
Birchwood	19,283	18,492	24,913	23,866
Linton	52,447	49,780	70,057	67,416
Mossbank (^\|\|)	13,200	12,442	9,652	9,064
Star	25,639	24,367	28,827	27,262
Wairaki	53,687	47,989	71,341	65,801
Totals	748,597	711,579	1,291,658	1,238,113
Opencast Mines
Barker's	40,951	40,773	85,320	85,151
Devlin and Bell's	42,289	42,227	46,927	46,927
Thompson's	30,475	30,433	19,689	19,632
Kimihia	94,817	94,743	100,517	100,414
Waitewhena	31,697	31,639	33,155	33,085
Stockton (^§)	90,527	90,013	63,499	62,674
Denniston	8,492	8,489	5,773	5,773
Garvey Creek	16,071	16,056	18,529	18,481
Wangaloa	38,591	38,470	30,359	30,211
Black Diamond	26,025	26,010	30,528	30,508
No. 8 Opencast, Ohai			4,567	4,567
No. 11 Opencast, Ohai (^\|\|)			2,374	2,374
McLean's	32,334	32,334	31,752	31,752
Opencast totals	452,269	451,187	472,989	471,549
Underground totals	748,597	711,579	1,291,658	1,238,113
Grand totals	1,200,866	1,162,766	1,764,647	1,709,662

The average number of persons employed in and about State mines during the year ended 31 December 1952 was—underground, 2,492; surface, 1,126; total, 3,618. Surface workers include 242 employed at the thirteen State opencast mines operating during the period.

Financial.—Sales of coal, etc., through the medium of the depots totalled 1,576,365 tons (value, £5,877,669) for the year ended 31 December 1952. This compares with 1,139,606 tons (value, £4,156,882) for the nine months ended 31 December 1951, and 1,340,618 tons (value, £4,242,627) for the previous year.

The surplus on trading in 1952 was £178,367, and on the Accident Insurance Account £31,639, making a total surplus for the year of £210,006, equivalent to 3.37 per cent on the capital employed in the undertaking.

Provision for taxation accounted for £8,677 and for interest on loan capital £198,086, leaving a net surplus on both accounts of £3,243.

In order to meet the statutory sinking fund instalment of £151,037 it was necessary to transfer £170,756 from the general reserve.

Capital expenditure on fixed assets during the year was £695,229. The amount written off as depreciation was £309,535, so that the net valuation of fixed assets increased by £385,694. New capital, amounting to £350,000, was raised during the year.

Housing.—Employees in State coal mines may be granted loans for the erection of new homes' the purchase of existing ones, or for repairs and renovations. During the year ended 31 December 1952 the number of loans granted was fifty-nine for a total amount of £47,113. Of these, six were for the erection of new homes, fifty for the purchase of existing houses, and three for repairs, etc. During the period this scheme has been in operation some 445 loans have been granted for a total amount of £281,179. The erection of new houses accounted for 158; purchase, 252; and repairs, etc., 35.

Accident Insurance.—The number of compensatable accidents at State coal mines for the year ended 31 December 1952 was 1,622, as compared with 743 for nine months ended 31 December 1951 and 1,229 for the year ended 31 March 1951.

The cost of claims per cent on wages paid amounted to £3 19s. 10d. for the year, compared with £2 19s. 9d. for the previous nine months.

The Accident Insurance Working Account showed a surplus of £31,639 for the year ended 31 December 1952, as compared with £34,211 for the previous nine months. After providing £7,412 for taxation, there remained a balance of £24,227 for transfer to the Accident Insurance Reserve. At 31 December 1952 this reserve stood at £278,298.

PETROLEUM.—Indications of the presence of petroleum are found on the surface in North Auckland, at Moturoa near New Plymouth and elsewhere in Taranaki, over wide areas on the eastern coast of the North Island, and in the South Island at Kotuku, near Murchison, and in the Cheviot district. In earlier years drilling had been carried out in Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Southland, and Westland, the deepest hole being at Moturoa, near New Plymouth, which attained a depth of approximately 6,000 ft. Petroleum of good quality was proved to exist, but only in limited quantity.

After the passing of the Petroleum Act 1937, as amended by section 55 of the Statutes Amendment Act 1939 and sections 59 to 63 inclusive of the Statutes Amendment Act 1941, considerable interest was displayed by some of the major oil organizations, and practically all the potential oil-bearing lands in New Zealand were held under petroleum-prospecting licences.

A great amount of geological and geophysical work was carried out on licensed areas and, in addition to many thousands of feet of core drilling for geological and geophysical purposes, thirteen deep holes were drilled on favourable structures located by the geological work. The deepest hole attained a depth of 10,925 ft., and the total footage drilled amounted to 73,565 ft. The results of this drilling were consistently disappointing, as all the wells proved dry.

Towards the end of 1950 geologists of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, assisted by members of the New Zealand Geological Survey, commenced a survey of all available information obtained from past oil-prospecting activities and a review of geological literature on the subject, preparatory to a fresh assessment of New Zealand's oil resources.

Drilling operations in the Moturoa field were resumed during 1948 by New Zealand Oil Refineries, Ltd., and the Dobson No. 1 well was completed early in 1949 at a depth of 2,236 ft., oil-bearing sands being passed through between 2,222 ft. and the bottom of the hole, with oil flowing under its own gas pressure at the rate of 1,200 gallons per day. The sinking of an additional well at Moturoa was commenced during the year 1950, but was abandoned at a depth of 2,000 ft. owing to drilling difficulties.

A recent development has been the connection of three wells by pipe line to the New Plymouth Gas Co's works, whereby natural gas is blended with producer gas and the mixture supplied to gas consumers in New Plymouth.

The total production of crude petroleum to 31 December 1952 is estimated at 4,707,193 gallons, 302,870 of which were obtained in 1952.

BENTONITE.—The most promising deposits of this mineral occur at Porangahau, in the Hawke's Bay district, and at Mangatu, near Gisborne. Bentonite is mainly used in the preparation of foundry moulding-sands and drilling muds, but the mineral has many other uses. With the installation of treatment plants, bentonite in a marketable processed form is now available instead of the crude, lump, sun-dried form previously produced. The total quantity of bentonite produced to the end of 1952 was 4,338 tons, of a value of £28,296.

KAURI GUM.—Production of kauri gum has decreased in recent years. The industry suffered a severe setback through the restriction of European markets during the period of the First World War; and, while some recovery was made in the five years immediately following the v/war, trade in this commodity has since been at a comparatively low level.

A system of control of the trade in, and export of, kauri gum was provided by the Kauri Gum Control Act 1925. The Finance Act (No. 2) 1933 provided for the repeal of the Control Act. The property of the Kauri Gum Control Board was vested in the Crown, the Minister of Lands taking over the powers and obligations of the Board. The former Internal Marketing Division of the Marketing Department materially assisted kauri-gum diggers by arranging minimum prices for various types and qualities of gum, and by assisting in the marketing of their product.

During 1952, 576 tons of kauri gum, valued at £81,517, were exported, the total quantity of gum exported to the end of 1952 being 456,982 tons, valued at £24,978,620.

PHOSPHATE.—The occurrence of phosphate has been reported from many localities in New Zealand, but so far the deposits of Clarendon and Milburn have proved to be the only ones of economic importance. From 1902 to 1924 these deposits were actively worked, and 141,843 tons of medium-grade phosphate rock were produced.

Active mining commenced again in 1943. During the years 1943 and 1944, 7,488 tons of medium-grade phosphate rock were produced, while from 1943 to 1947 the production of low-grade phosphate rock amounted to 40,887 tons. The resumption of imports of rock phosphates from Nauru coincided with the exhaustion of the more favourable sections of the deposit, and operations were terminated early in 1947.

SERPENTINE.—Serpentine, which in the South Island forms vast rock masses in Nelson and Otago, and which occurs in smaller amount in the North Island, is now of value to the fertilizer industry in the preparation of serpentine superphosphate. Production at first was mainly confined to the smaller occurrences in North Auckland owing to ease of access and transport, but production has now been commenced at much larger deposits near Te Kuiti, in the North Island, and near Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1952, 530,308 tons of serpentine had been mined.

GREENSTONE.—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone,” occurs as rounded segregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations, this mineral has been in short supply.

SALT.—An entirely new departure in mineral production is at present in its early stages at Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, where salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of seawater. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt harvested in 1952 totalled 700 tons of value £4,200.

BUILDING AND ORNAMENTAL STONES.—New Zealand possesses a great variety of handsome and durable building stones scattered throughout both Islands. In Auckland there are basalt, andesite, porphyrite, and quartz biotite-diorite, known in the building trade as Coromandel “granite,” a hard, coarsely crystalline rock, capable of taking a fine polish. In addition, there are the Whangarei limestone and the Raglan stone, the former an excellent building stone, the latter a good freestone. Taranaki has the hornblende andesites of New Plymouth and Mount Egmont, and Wellington the andesites of Ruapehu.

In Nelson there are the granite of Tata Island and Tonga Bay and the marble or crystalline limestones of the Pikiruna (Riwaka) Range. West Nelson and Westland are well provided with granites and limestones of good quality, well adapted for building purposes; and in the Griffin Range, north Westland, there is found an abundance of finely coloured serpentine, unsurpassed as a decorative stone. Building stone is scarce in Marlborough, but Canterbury is well supplied, having an abundance of Lyttelton bluestone (andesite) and Mount Somers stone, a limestone of exceptional quality. In Otago there is an abundance of excellent building stone, ranging from the well-known Oamaru stone to the granite, gneiss, and limestones of Fiordland, all close to deep water. In Southland there are the so-called Ruapuke “granite,” the norite of the Bluff, and the granites of Stewart Island.

The lower story of Parliament Buildings is constructed of Coromandel granite, and the upper stones of Takaka marble.

The following table relates to quarries under the Quarries Act and shows the output for the year 1952. The classification given in this table differs in certain minor instances from that given on page 534.

—	Northern		Hauraki		West Coast		Southern
—	Quantity	Value	Quantity	Value	Quantity	Value	Quantity	Value
	Tons	£	Tons	£	Tons	£	Tons	£
Asbestos					682	33,860
Bentonite			570	4,783
Chalk							1,239	620
Clay (bricks, etc.)	135,147	24,871	6,256	3,867	1,862	690	59,851	22,065
Clay (pottery, etc.)			262	638	316	632	2,693	2,693
Diatomite			109	184			95	152
Dolomite					1,255	1,255
Limestone (cement)	250,000	50,000			66,219	7,450	61,085	24,454
Limestone (agriculture)	430,855	254,775	1,150	1,266	46,523	16,572	888,123	557,958
Limestone (industry)	10,940	6,210			4,726	2,682	12,720	5,445
Marl (cement)					3,765	454	21,303	1,420
Magnesite					579	362
Pumice	2,160	525	7,452	5,474
Quartzite					5	10
Rock (harbour works)					3,546	1,315	52,309	14,122
Sand, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast	2,040,425	744,081	423,497	251,246	50,614	10,189	791,093	260,665
Sand (industry)							3,715	4,038
Sand, rock, or gravel for building aggregate	542,980	226,971	33,675	18,917			339,946	183,861
Serpentine			79,358	16,864			12,000	30,000
Silica sand			22,114	86,702	13,160	470
Stone (dimension for building)	8,131	4,559	140	400			9,718	16,595
Stone-dust (coal mines)					1,069	496
Totals	3,420,638	1,311,992	574,583	390,341	194,321	76,437	2,255,890	1,124,088

Number of men employed: Northern, 1,344; Hauraki, 302; West Coast, 145; Southern, 521.

The Quarries Act 1944, which repealed the Stone Quarries Act 1910 and its amendments, includes any place with a face of more than 15ft. in depth, in which persons work in excavating any kind of material from the earth, with the exception of coal (other than opencast coal workings), gold, scheelite, or petroleum. It does not apply to any road or railway cutting, or to excavations for buildings, but does include any tunnel of more than 50 ft. in length, in the construction of which explosives are used. The Quarries Amendment Act 1951 places opencast coal workings under the scope of the Quarries Act 1944.

PERSONS ENGAGED.—The following table shows the number of persons employed in or about mines and stone quarries during each of the last five years.

—	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
Metalliferous mines	1,058	923	946	915	536
Coal mines	5,582	5,877	5,588	5,062	5,092
Stone quarries and tunnels	2,215	2,270	2,405	1,916	2,732
Totals	8,855	9,070	8,939	7,893	8,360

Accidents in mining and quarrying operations in 1952, with 1951 figures in parentheses, resulted in four (5) deaths in coal mines, nil (nil) in metalliferous mines, and two (5) in quarries. In addition, nineteen (21) persons were seriously injured in coal mines, nil (nil) in metalliferous mines, and fourteen (5) in quarries.

STATE AID TO MINING.—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz., (1) geological survey and bulletins; (2) financial aid to prospecting; (3) schools of mines; (4) subsidized roads to mining fields.

During the year the Geological Survey carried out the following programme:—

Regional Geology: North Auckland.—The geology of the Maungataniwha Subdivision has been written and work on Whangape Subdivision is progressing. Investigation has been made of limestone deposits for agricultural use and of water-supply problems.

Ngaruawahia.—The survey of the Waikato Coalfield has been completed, the Retaruke and Kawhia Coalfields investigated, and the Maramarua Coalfield examined in detail. Subsurface water supplies in the Pukekohe district were investigated to ascertain the possibility of sea-water infiltration and depletion of parched-ground water. An area of marginal grade sulphide in the Thames district was examined as a possible source of sulphur for the fertilizer industry.

Rotorua.—The bulk of the year's effort has been directed to the development of the geothermal resources of the Rotorua-Taupo district, more particularly in the Wairakei area. Short reports were prepared on the thermal areas of Orakei-Korako, Te Kopia, Waikite, and Waiotapu in connection with the proposed production of heavy water. Dam and power-station sites, and quarry sites for aggregate and materials suitable for pozzolana, have been investigated. Drill sites for potable and thermal waters have been indicated. As opportunity permitted, field work on the Tongariro Subdivision was undertaken and the eruptive activity of Ngauruhoe recorded.

Napier.—More time has been devoted than formerly to the study of sub-surface geology' in relation to water supply in the Hawke's Bay district. Problems of industrial and domestic supplies have been given attention, while erosion problems in relation to soil conservation were studied. Limestone for agriculture and pozzolana for cement have been investigated.

Christchurch.—Considerable progress has been made with the collection and completion of information for a bulletin on the geology and ground-water resources of mid-Canterbury. Groundwater conditions in existing and proposed irrigation areas in Canterbury have been investigated and the supply of hot water at Maruia Hot Springs, Nelson, investigated. Clays for brick and pipe manufacture, quartz sands for glassmaking, and limestones for agricultural use were examined, and information on Canterbury bentonites compiled.

Greymouth.—The survey of the Reefton and Garvey Creek Coalfields has been extended and a report written on the prospects of coal mining in Collingwood district. A detailed report on the distribution of coals of different coking properties within Paparoa Mine has been prepared. Limestone at Jackson's Bay was shown to be suitable for top-dressing.

Invercargill.—Field work for the Hauroko bulletin was completed, maps drawn, and the text is in preparation. Field work is progressing in an area in South-Central Southland within which are extensive deposits of limestone suitable for top-dressing and cement manufacture. The survey will also indicate the extent of the southern lignites and yield information on the availability of subsurface water. Problems arising during the development of Roxburgh hydro-electric scheme were also investigated. The area covered by the Maniototo irrigation scheme was inspected. Good ball clays were discovered in Ohai and Central Otago.

Paleontology.—The Paleontologists spent much of their time servicing field geologists and working on departmental and other publications. The routine service work brings to light many problems for research, but the time left for such original work is inadequate to do it justice.

Research was undertaken on Tertiary Foraminifera and Ostracoda from the Oamaru and Wanganui districts, on the first Jurassic Foraminifera recorded from New Zealand, and on fossils in phosphate modules collected by R.S.S. Discovery II from the sea bed east of New Zealand. Detailed studies were made of two groups of fossil mollusc. North Auckland Permian corals were identified, and a report obtained on Devonian corals from Reefton. Paleobotanical work included a study of Mesozoic and Tertiary spores and pollen grains, the zoning of the Ohai coal measures, and identification of fossil leaves and seeds from several districts.

Petrology.—Service work for the district geologists, for Geological Survey bulletins, and for Government Departments has occupied a considerable amount of the time of the Petrology Section. Many examinations have been made to test the suitability of aggregate materials for use in all the main hydro-electric projects, for the Murupara scheme, and the Tauranga harbour works. Cores from the drilling at Wairakei were studied to assist the geothermal investigations. Numerous petrographic examinations were undertaken to further the use of pozzolanas and perlite and the possible use of dunite in the production of fertilizer. The Rimutaka tunnel was inspected regularly. The Survey's assessment of the radioactive minerals in New Zealand was confirmed by the visit of overseas specialists. Close co-operation was maintained with the Dominion Laboratory in the identification of minerals and oil residues, the examination of moulding sands, and study of materials which may cause silicosis.

Economic and Engineering Geology.—Deposits of pumice and diatomite, the two types of material in New Zealand that have proved by standard tests to date to be suitable for pozzolana, have been investigated in collaboration with Dominion Laboratory and Dominion Physical Laboratory. There is a wealth of pumice over extensive areas of the North Island and apparently considerable reserves of diatomite in the Rotorua district; so far, the only satisfactory material known in the South Island is diatomite, of which the known reserves are small.

In conjunction with Ceramics Research Association, extensive feldspar resources of satisfactory grade for ceramics have been located in the South Island. Extensive deposits of dunite suitable for the manufacture of silico-phosphate fertilizer have been proved in Dun Mountain, and adequate reserves of serpentinite are known in the South Island; the bulk of these rocks are, unfortunately, distant from centres of fertilizer manufacture.

Ores of copper and manganese reported in the Pohangina district proved to be of no value and appear to have been derived from pillow lavas, or submarine flows interbedded with the greywacke of the Ruahine Range.

Dominion Laboratory.—The following is a summary of the work carried out at the Dominion Laboratory during 1952 in connection with the mining industries:

Pozzolanas.—The search was continued for deposits of pozzolanic materials, suitably located with regard to dam sites, and of the quality required as a replacement for some of the cement in dam construction. Work is now confined to pumicite from Kapokorahi and diatomite from Whirinaki in the North Island, and diatomite from Middlemarch in the South Island. The work and conclusions to date have been published in an Information Circular “Pozzolanas of New Zealand,” recently issued.

Lead, Zinc, Copper Ores.—Assistance was given to the Auckland Smelting Co., Ltd., which is prospecting the sulphide ores of Te Aroha in the hope of working them for base metals. Several samples were assayed for lead, zinc, copper, gold, and silver.

Bentonite.—Four samples of bentonite were certified for export.

Limestones.—A large number of limestones were examined for suitability for agricultural use, and a few limestones and marls tested as cement raw materials.

Feldspar.—Work was continued on the beneficiation of Kaiteriteri feldspar in connection with its possible use as a flux for whiteware in ceramics.

Antimony.—Several samples of stibnite were examined from Endeavour Inlet for antimony and arsenic content, also one from near Reefton for antimony, arsenic, and gold.

Scheelite.—Samples of tailings from Glenorchy were assayed for gold and tungsten in the hope that tailings from old workings might prove a useful reserve of tungsten.

Barite-Fluorspar.—An interesting new occurrence of barite-fluorsparat Sinclair's Castle, lower Buller Gorge, was noted and referred to Geological Survey. No economic deposit has yet been located.

Iron Pyrites.—Samples examined during the year included twenty-two collected by Geological Survey and Mines Department from the Thames district, being part of an important survey which is being continued by the Thames School of Mines.

Dunite and Serpentine.—Samples of dunite (Mount Dun) and serpentine (d'Urville Island) were collected and analysed for suitability for use in the production of fused fertilizer by fusion in an electric furnace with rock phosphate. Many experimental fusions have been made and the conditions for producing a product of the requisite citric-solubility worked out. In view of the shortage of sulphur, this process may have industrial possibilities.

Manganese Ore.—Samples of manganese ore (and one of bismuth) were sent for assay from Fiji.

Perlite.—The possibility of manufacturing perlite, a lightweight material used in plasters and made by sudden expansion of certain rhyolitic rocks in a suitable furnace, was looked into. A furnace has been devised, and samples from likely deposits collected by Geological Survey are under test.

Miscellaneous.—Many samples were submitted by prospectors for identification or assay for gold and silver. Other samples included stone dusts, clays, vivianite, micaceous iron oxide, bore cores from Wairakei, mineral waters, diatomite, pumicite, and a lump of pure galena reported as being from Otorohanga (doubtful).

Coal.—The Coal Research Section of the Laboratory analysed a large number of samples of coal sent in by the field officers of the Coal Surveys of the Mines Department, also limestone dusts, mine airs, and sundry industrial fuel samples.

Miscellaneous.—As an aid towards the development of the mining industry the Government offers varied and liberal assistance to prospectors in the form of subsidies, expert and technical advice, use of plant, etc. Subject to the provisions of the Mining Act, the holder of a valid miner's right is entitled to prospect for gold or any other metal or mineral (except coal) on any Crown land. He may also obtain authority from the Governor-General to prospect on Maori land, and he may also prospect on private land with the consent of the owner. Wardens in mining districts and Commissioners of Crown Lands in other districts may, with the consent of the Minister of Mines, grant prospecting licences for coal.

The total expenditure by way of direct assistance to mining in the year ended 31 March 1953, with 1951–52 figures in parentheses, was £5,121 (£2,482), of which £1,995 (£1,868) was advanced to promote and maintain coal production, and £3,126 (£614) to assist metal mining. In addition, the Mines Department expended £25,965 (£26,981) in prospecting and development work.

For the education of prospectors and mining students six schools of mines are subsidized by the Government, in addition to the Otago University School of Mines. The schools of mines are situated at Thames, Huntly, Westport, Reefton, Runanga, and Ohai. The expenditure on these schools by the Government during the year ended 31 March 1953 was £6,154, as against £4,905 during the previous year.

The expenditure in the form of subsidies and direct grants upon roads and tracks to mining areas during the year ended 31 March 1953 amounted to £4,581, as compared with £1,314 during the previous year.

BOARD OF EXAMINERS.—The Board of Examiners annually conducts examinations of candidates for, certificates as first class mine managers, and dredgemasters under the Mining Act, and for certificates as first class and second class mine managers, mine surveyors, and electricians under the Coal Mines Act. Examinations of candidates for certificates as underviewers and firemen-deputies under the Coal Mines Act are held annually. No candidate is permitted to present himself for examination unless he holds an authority from the Secretary to the Board of Examiners Thirty-six certificates were issued in 1952.

COAL MINING DISTRICTS WELFARE AND RESEARCH FUND.—The Coal Mines Act 1925 required the owner of every coal mine to contribute ½d. per ton on all coal sold, for the relief of coal miners who may be injured while working, and for the relief of the families of coal miners who may be killed or injured.

Section 4 of the Coal Mines Amendment Act 1947 increased this levy from ½d. to 1d. per ton. This rise was made necessary by the imminent exhaustion of the fund, and during 1948 it was also necessary for the State coal mines to pay £1,000 in levies slightly in advance of the due date so that the current outgoings could be met. These contributions were paid to the Coal Miners' Relief Fund established under the Act, the fund being administered by the Public Trustee with the assistance of local committees.

The Coal Mines Amendment Act 1953 provided for the creation of a new fund, the Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Fund (replacing the former Relief and Amenities Funds), into which will be paid a levy at the rate of 6d. per ton on coal other than lignite and 4 ½d. per ton for lignite. This fund will be used for coal miners' relief, provision of amenities, establishment and maintenance of rescue stations, research, and generally for the benefit of the industry. Payments will be made on the direction of the Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Council or the Local Committee (in relief cases).

Receipts from the levy of 1d. per ton amounted to £11,493 for the year ended 31 March 1953, and the total expenditure for the year was £6,924.

Interest earned amounted to £657, and the amount standing to the credit of the former relief fund on 31 March 1953 was £24,721.

At the close of the previous year the figures were: receipts, £11,204; expenditure, £5,797; interest, £505; balance as at 31 March 1953, £19,494.

During the year the Coal Mining Districts Amenities Council dealt with 101 applications from various organizations in mining townships for financial assistance.

Altogether 96 grants were made, involving a total sum of £42,700, and covering a wide range of useful amenities in the townships. In practically all cases the grants made were contingent upon additional money being raised locally for the various projects.

It is believed that the assistance given from the then Amenities Fund and the co-operation of the local authorities in providing for water and sewerage services is much appreciated by local residents.

The amount standing to the credit of that fund at the end of the year was £57,922, but nearly all of this amount has been committed.

Information concerning monetary benefits for miners incapacitated by miner's phthisis or any other occupational disease or heart disease contracted while working as a miner in New Zealand appears in Section 7A—Social Security.

Chapter 24. SECTION 24—FACTORY PRODUCTION

Table of Contents

STATISTICS of factory production were collected in New Zealand from 1867 to 1916 in conjunction with the population census; but, commencing with the year 1918–19, the collection became an annual one, the result being published in the Statistical Report on Factory Production.

For the year 1951–52 factories have been classified according to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, and as a result much of this year's individual industry statistics will not compare with previously published figures. However, where possible, information for individual industries has been reclassified for the two previous years, and grand totals have been brought into line with the new classification from the year 1938–39. Apart from transfers within the framework of this series of factory production statistics, the adoption of the New Zealand Standard Classification has meant the elimination from the series altogether of three important industries. These relate to the logging operations of sawmillers, previously included in sawmilling, and the generation and supply of gas and electricity, accounting in all for the activities of approximately 10,000 persons. Information on the generation and supply of gas and electricity is still the subject of an annual inquiry, but the results are no longer included in the series on factory production. Separate and detailed statistics for these industries are recorded in Section 26 of this Year-Book.

A review of the statistics of factory production for a number of years shows that, following the depression of the early nineteen-thirties, New Zealand industries had been making steady progress up to the outbreak of the Second World War; progress to which the establishment and growth of new industries had contributed considerably. This diversification and expansion, which received a further impetus as the result of the policy of import selection and control instituted by the Government towards the end of 1938, greatly increased the occupational range of factory employment, and local production of raw materials ceased to be the limiting factor in the growth of factory industries, local manufacturers being able to meet the country's needs in many products which previously had been almost, exclusively imported. This development stood New Zealand in good stead during the years of the Second World War when heavy calls were made on the industrial community to supply goods no longer obtainable from overseas for both the Armed Forces and civilian requirements. Not only were there large increases in the output of items for which appropriate manufacturing facilities and skills were available, but new facilities were provided, locally and by importation, and new skills acquired for production of items not previously manufactured in this country. On the other hand, during the war and in the post-war period labour shortages and difficulties experienced in obtaining overseas sources of supply of plant and raw materials have restricted the supply of certain commodities. In particular the year 1951–52 saw developments in the Korean War and the local waterfront strike; both of these causing some disruption to the flow of factory production in New Zealand, the former causing material and plant shortages, and the latter delays in domestic handling of both materials and finished goods. Following that year the supply of materials improved rapidly and some relief to the labour market was found in immigration. Despite these obstacles, a continued expansion of New Zealand industries has been manifested in recent years.

The development of the country's hydro-electric power resources has been a potent factor in industrial growth. Until the outbreak of the Second World War curtailed deliveries of generating equipment and led to heavier demands on available supplies owing to the expansion of industry, ample power was available in both Islands at rates comparing very favourably with those in other and more highly industrialized countries. The over-all price per unit retailed in 1951–52 was 0.87d., with much lower rates for industrial supply in the urban areas. Shortage of generating capacity necessitated continuous control on the growth of load, and restrictions on the use of current were necessary from 1941 until late in 1952, when the supply was increased by the addition of Maraetai to the chain of Waikato generating stations, and most of these restrictions were removed. The State Hydro Electric Department is pressing forward extensive hydro-electric-development schemes in both the North and South Islands.

SCOPE OF STATISTICS.—Statistics of factory production are collected annually by the Census and Statistics Department and embrace the activities of factories coming within the Manufacturing Division of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities, which is an adaptation of the United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification. The classification covers registered factories engaged in the manufacture, repair, or treatment of articles, employing at least two hands (including the working proprietor). Important factories not covered in this survey which, however, come within this section of the Standard Classification are—

1. Bakeries. 2. Cake and pastry kitchens. 3. Boot repairers. 4. Watch repairers. 5. Bespoke tailors, dressmakers, milliners. 6. Abattoirs. 7. Railway Workshops. 8. Naval Dockyard. 9. All one-man factories.

The effect of these limitations on the scope of the statistical inquiry is shown in the following table which compares the coverage of the survey with the total labour force engaged in the manufacturing industry as recorded by the Department of Labour and Employment. Actually the proportion of factory production covered in these statistics would be much greater than the ratios shown below, in that all establishments of any considerable size are included.

Year	Manufacturing Industry
Year	Total Labour Force Engaged^*	Labour Force Covered by Statistical Survey	Ratio of Statistical Coverage to Total^†
* Average of October (earlier year) and April (later year) half-yearly surveys. † On basis of labour force engaged.
	(000)	(000)	(Per Cent)
1949–50	179.2	133.2	74.4
1950–51	182.7	138.4	75.8
1951–52	184.3	144.4	78.3

The year covered by these statistics is generally the year ending 31 March, but concerns are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial year most closely corresponding to this period. In the case of the important semi-primary industries—butter, cheese, and other milk products, and meat freezing and preserving—the years correspond with the production seasons ending respectively in June and September.

GENERAL SUMMARY.—The statistics in the table following illustrate the growth of New Zealand's factory production to its present standing.

Year	Number of Establishments	Persons Engaged	Salaries and Wages Paid	Cost of Materials	“Other Expenses” (i.e., Expenses of Operation Other Than Salaries and Wages and Cost of Materials)	Value of Output	Added Value
* Productive employees only. † Not available. ‡ Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.
			£	£	£	£	£
1910–11	3,483	45,924^*	4,786,698^*	18,782,929	^†	29,317,023	10,534,094
1915–16	3,755	48,744^*	5,791,704^*	30,197,784	^†	43,034,033	12,836,249
1920–21	4,022	69,681	13,172,996	52,933,494	^†	77,828,013	24,894,519
1925–26	4,794	78,708	16,153,822	51,668,100	8,395,921	82,358,851	30,690,751
1930–31'	5,194	77,914	15,617,052	48,458,356	9,388,626	77,745,249	29,286,893
1935–36	5,536	86,588	14,844,367	60,172,848	9,374,369	90,014,748	29,841,900
1936–37	5,728	96,401	18,333,077	70,938,165	10,481,253	105,941,722	35,003,557
1937–38	5,924	102,344	20,981,587	75,371,558	10,540,208	113,691,556	38,319,998
1938–39	6,146	102,535	22,270,010	75,634,903	10,001,804	114,447,426	38,812,523
1939–40	6,342	108,722	24,460,549	85,243,383	11,043,557	129,061,826	43,818,443
1940–41	6,395	113,999	26,946,799	98,547,804	11,978,820	147,153,559	48,605,755
1941–42	6,367	117,214	29,504,299	102,260,860	12,812,901	155,566,195	53,305,335
1942–43	6,127	114,590	32,256,071	107,447,799	13,331,973	165,936,284	58,488,485
1943–44	6,202	117,864	34,433,075	112,883,932	14,516,235	175,686,689	62,802,757
1944–45	6,485	122,414	37,379,062	122,695,106	15,481,351	189,800,764	67,105,658
1945–46	6,991	128,208	41,499,113	123,508,438	16,278,562	195,258,614	71,750,176
1946–47	7,642	134,435	45,336,217	138,533,722	18,247,043	218,106,182	79,572,460
1947–48	7,966	140,267	52,132,689	181,773,218	21,240,976	272,155,333	90,382,115
1948–49^‡	8,000	142,500	56,000,000	203,000,000	23,350,000	301,000,000	98,000,000
1949–50	8,027	144,309	61,316,840	221,228,647	26,334,762	331,703,908	110,475,261
1950–51	8,318	148,940	70,386,677	274,165,777	30,528,205	395,045,818	120,880,041
NEW SERIES
Commenced 1951–52, with comparable totals for certain previous years.
1938–39	6,002	93,638	19,926,915	71,173,314	9,315,674	106,607,919	35,434,605
1941–42	6,225	108,275	26,812,793	96,481,965	12,047,029	145,608,166	49,126,201
1944–45	6,340	113,534	34,196,853	116,476,197	14,556,029	178,585,783	62,109,586
1947–48	7,822	130,504	47,940,238	174,845,301	20,076,507	259,181,232	84,335,931
1949–50	7,815	133,245	56,231,281	215,008,899	24,139,996	317,342,946	102,334,047
1950–51	8,113	138,435	65,005,458	266,884,566	28,867,078	380,200,428	113,315,862
1951–52	8,547	1144,370	75,038,793	290,682,891	32,027,622	431,038,354	140,355,463

Factory production climbed fairly steadily from 1910–11 until a relatively high level was attained in 1929–30. During the depression of the early “thirties” there was a decided fall, but 1933–34 saw the commencement of a gradual recovery in industrial conditions. The pre-depression level was surpassed in 1936–37, and from then on each successive year has set new record high levels for factory production. During the Second World War there were temporary reductions in the numbers of establishments operating, and a fall in the number of persons engaged occurred in 1942–43 as a result of mobilization for home defence following the entry of Japan into the war. However, by 1944–45 recovery had more than made up for these reductions, and from that year New Zealand industries have maintained the rapid progress characteristic of the immediate pre-war years, despite difficulties in the form of labour shortages and of the supply of imported plant and materials.

In the 8,547 establishments recorded in 1951–52 the number of persons engaged was higher by 5,935, or 4.3 per cent, than in the 8,113 establishments reported in 1950–51. The salaries and wages paid increased by £10,033,335, or by 15.4 per cent. The cost of materials used increased by £23,798,325, or 8.9 per cent, while the value of output rose by £50,837,926, or 13.4 per cent, resulting in the added value increasing by £27,039,601, or 23.9 per cent.

In making use of the following summary by provincial districts for the year 1951–52 it is necessary to keep in mind the fact that a company operating factories at more than one location only returns one schedule covering all factories. As a result, geographic breakdowns as shown in this and other summaries lose some of their accuracy. In all such cases, the actual number of factories operated by a company is tabulated in its proper locality, but the remainder of the figures is tabulated in total for the one locality.

Provincial District	Number of Establishments	Persons Engaged	Salaries and Wages Paid	Cost of Materials	Other Expenses of Operation	Value of Output	Added Value
			£	£	£	£	£
Auckland	3,237	56,872	29,726,851	126,787,067	13,241,896	183,376,595	56,589,528
Hawke's Bay	375	4,946	2,6224	11,136,272	1,021,499	15,959,095	4,822,823
Taranaki	364	4,608	2,620,710	18,301,044	1,291,542	23,505,530	5,204,486
Wellington	1,876	32,812	17,328,445	61,439,109	7,066,687	93,434,942	31,995,833
Marlborough	106	881	423,695	1,438,769	180,730	2,082,853	644,084
Nelson	249	2,259	1,139,401	3,243,444	575,432	5,442,249	2,198,805
Westland	110	971	511,553	984,900	215,155	1,932,053	947,153
Canterbury	1,258	24,313	12,043,293	37,358,167	4,529,941	58,886,096	21,527,929
Otago—
Otago	617	12,346	6,121,930	17,811,527	2,729,594	29,160,667	11,349,140
Southland	355	4,362	2,500,801	12,182,592	1,175,146	17,258,274	5,075,682
Totals	8,547	144,370	75,038,793	290,682,891	32,027,622	431,038,354	140,355,463

A further summary for the three latest years is now given. The figures for 1949–50 and 1950–51 will not agree with previously published statistics as they have been recast to compare with those tabulated for 1951–52. As mentioned earlier, factory production totals no longer include the activities of gas works, electric generation and supply stations, and the logging operations of sawmills.

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Number of establishments		7,815	8,113	8,547
Persons engaged	No.	133,245	138,435	144,370
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	56,231,281	65,005,458	75,038,793
Materials	£	215,008,899	266,884,566	290,682,891
Other expenses	£	24,139,996	28,867,078	32,027,622
Totals	£	295,380,176	360,757,102	397,749,306
Value of output	£	317,342,946	380,200,428	431,038,354
Manufacturers' surplus	£	21,962,770	19,443,326	33,289,048
Value added in manufacture	£	102,334,047	113,315,862	140,355,463
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	14,502,494	16,005,138	16,512,553
Volume Index for industry (Base 1949–50=1000)	1000	1046	11.19
Premises and plant—
Value at end of year—
Land and buildings	£	44,840,165	50,573,475	56,982,657
Plant and machinery	£	33,152,731	37,043,374	40,797,235
Capital expenditure during year—
Land and buildings	£	3,413,981	4,751,816	5,370,345
Plant and machinery	£	6,586,660	7,624,114	9,426,892

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES.—There was an increase of 434 in the number of establishments reporting in 1951–52 over the 1950–51 total, compared with an increase of 298 in 1950–51. The increases recorded in the immediate post-war years were numerically the highest recorded and compare with the percentage increases recorded after the First World War. The same factors operated after both wars—viz., the re-establishment of businesses closed down during the war period and the opening of new businesses by returned servicemen. In addition, in recent years the shortage of labour in the principal centres has resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas.

The following table shows the number of factories in each provincial district for the three latest years.

Provincial District	Number of Factories
Provincial District	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Auckland	2,901	3,039	3,237
Hawke's Bay	341	363	375
Taranaki	352	369	364
Wellington	1,755	1,813	1,876
Marlborough	86	96	106
Nelson	236	238	249
Westland	102	95	110
Canterbury	1,129	1,176	1,258
Otago—
Otago portion	582	583	617
Southland portion	331	341	355
Totals	7,815	8,113	8,547

The number of factories and persons engaged are next shown classified according to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, introduced with the 1951–52 collection. Two prior years, 1949–50 and 1950–51, are also shown based on the same classification. Persons engaged include only those employed in the manufacturing activities of a factory. They include proprietors actively engaged in their own businesses but exclude all persons engaged in selling and distribution, such as salesmen, carters engaged solely on outward delivery of manufactured goods, and sales office staff. Figures for persons engaged refer to the average number over the whole year.

Industry Group	Number of Factories			Number of Persons Engaged
Industry Group	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Food	829	822	812	23,965	24,251	25,113
Beverages	167	169	176	2,192	2,188	2,255
Tobacco manufactures	9	8	8	1,271	1,254	1,348
Textiles	171	177	186	7,782	7,970	7,689
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	1,020	1,142	1,194	24,027	25,561	26,170
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	939	952	1,121	9,693	9,916	11,848
Furniture and fittings	508	540	599	4,760	5,037	5,210
Paper and paper products	73	78	81	2,618	2,796	2,851
Printing, publishing, etc.	356	373	390	7,933	8,309	8,451
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	119	127	116	1,830	1,840	1,737
Rubber products	81	85	88	1,777	2,250	2,472
Chemicals and chemical products	222	211	218	4,399	4,533	4,674
Petroleum and coal products	23	24	24	229	229	225
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	483	526	542	5,393	5,616	5,848
Basic metal manufactures	67	79	81	683	737	811
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	348	361	384	5,546	5,964	6,149
Machinery (except electrical)	392	431	449	7,219	7,466	7,991
Electrical machinery and appliances	139	146	146	4,018	3,942	4,009
Transport equipment	1,664	1,636	1,698	15,176	15,633	16,649
Miscellaneous products	205	226	234	2,734	2,943	2,870
Totals	7,815	8,113	8,547	133,245	138,435	144,370

Further information is given in the following table on person engaged in 1951–52. Totals in each industrial class are shown by provincial districts.

Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago		Total
Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago Portion	Southland Portion	Total
Number of Persons Engaged 1951–52
Food	9,735	1,911	1,995	3,592	174	482	26	3,692	2,011	1,495	25,113
Beverages	986	89	46	382	22	55	33	370	221	51	2,255
Tobacco manufactures	81	198		1,069							1,348
Textiles	1,675	108		1,850	4	11	15	2,382	1,479	165	7,689
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	11,774	262	331	6,176	191	70	89	4,927	2,183	167	26,170
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	5,527	435	577	1,513	85	635	493	1,282	637	664	11,848
Furniture and fittings	2,7	302	107	1,159	21	83	38	874	418	151	5,210
Paper and paper products	1,627			556				221	260	187	2,851
Printing, publishing, etc.	2,865	283	212	2,671	53	119	75	1,156	800	217	8,451
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	821	9	6	170	2	2		420	243	64	1,737
Rubber products	723	22	13	565	4	3		1,123	15	4	2,472
Chemicals and chemical products	1,319	205	224	1,579	31	11		590	707	8	4,674
Petroleum and coal products	124	5	5	55				36			225
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	2,873	162	90	714	32	200	26	980	526	245	5,848
Basic metal manufactures	286		16	208		4		203	91	3	811
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	2,812	24	96	1,619	9	33	2	952	544	58	6,149
Machinery (except electrical)	3,110	264	266	1,698	54	57	51	1,663	538	290	7,991
Electrical machinery and appliances	1,185	29	9	1,553				845	384	4	4,009
Transport equipment	6,028	609	592	4,840	173	489	123	2,054	1,162	579	16,649
Miscellaneous products	1,264	29	23	843	26			543	127	10	2,870
Totals	56,872	4,946	4,608	32,812	881	2,259	971	24,313	12,346	4,362	144,370

The distribution of the sexes among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males. In the five years prior to the Second World War the proportion of female employees in factories was steady at approximately 25 per cent. After rising rapidly to a peak of 31.5 per cent in 1942–43 as a result of additional women being recruited for factory work and men being called for military service, the proportion then fell equally rapidly back to the pre-war figure. The figure for the latest year is approximately 26 per cent, the rise being attributable to the exclusion from the series of such industries as logging, electricity and gas generation. The proportion of female employees in these latter industries was extremely small.

In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent; but the male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in great demand mainly on account of the importance of the clothing and textile industries. The greater number of females in manufacturing industries are engaged in four classes: Food; footwear and other wearing apparel; textiles; and printing, publishing, etc. In 1951–52 these classes accounted for 76 per cent of all females in factories. In two classes only did the number of females exceed the number of males—viz., tobacco manufactures, where there were 182 females to every 100 males, and footwear and other wearing apparel, etc., where there were 282 females per 100 males. The following table shows the average number of males and females engaged according to industry groups for the year 1951–52.

Industry Group	Males	Females	Total
Food	21,308	3,805	25,113
Beverages	2,139	116	2,255
Tobacco manufactures	467	881	1,348
Textiles	4,172	3,517	7,689
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	6,855	19,315	26,170
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	11,475	373	11,848
Furniture and fittings	4,773	437	5,210
Paper and paper products	1,743	1,108	2,851
Printing, publishing, etc.	6,576	1,875	8,451
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	1,294	443	1,737
Rubber products	2,057	415	2,472
Chemicals and chemical products	3,564	1,110	4,674
Petroleum and coal products	218	7	225
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	5,517	331	5,848
Basic metal manufactures	773	38	811
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	5,372	777	6,149
Machinery (except electrical)	7,626	365	7,991
Electrical machinery and appliances	3,169	840	4,009
Transport equipment	15,864	785	16,649
Miscellaneous products	1,894	976	2,870
Totals	106,856	37,514	144,370

Further information is available in the table below on the extent to which females are engaged in factories in New Zealand. This table gives by provincial districts the number of males per 100 females engaged, and the total persons engaged per thousand of population.

Provincial District	Males	Females	Total	Number of Males Per 100 Females	Total Population at 1 April 1952	Total Persons Engaged Per Thousand of Population
Auckland	41,252	15,620	56,872	264	764,917	75
Hawke's Bay	4,130	816	4,946	506	93,000	53
Taranaki	4,119	489	4,608	843	88,400	52
Wellington	23,314	9,498	32,812	245	400,900	82
Marlborough	703	178	881	395	23,500	37
Nelson	2,002	257	2,259	779	68,800	33
Westland	880	91	971	967	18,400	53
Canterbury	17,617	6,696	24,313	263	286,413	85
Otago—
Otago portion	8,917	3,429	12,346	260	161,800	76
Southland portion	3,922	440	4,362	891	78,600	55
Totals	106,856	37,514	144,370	285	1,984,730	73

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is given at five-yearly intervals from 1924–25 onwards. Figures for the latest year 1951–52 are also included, but are not strictly comparable with the other years shown. As mentioned earlier, the series no longer includes certain sectors of production previously included—principal omissions being the logging activities of sawmills and the operations of gas and electric supply stations. A further note of explanation should be mentioned regarding tables published on size of establishment. The general practice of accepting consolidated returns covering several factories does not permit a really accurate classification of factories. Averaged figures of both output and persons engaged, with no allowance for varying size of the industrial unit, do not give a true story in these cases.

Year	Factories With Persons Engaged Numbering—					Totals
Year	10 or Under	11–20	21–50	51–100	Over 100	Totals
Number of Factories
1924–25	2,972	720	570	155	121	4,538
1929–30	3,476	800	591	164	137	5,168
1934–35	3,725	764	496	143	142	5,270
1939–40	4,218	957	772	212	183	6,342
1944–45	4,139	1,046	833	270	197	6,485
1949–50	4,993	1,409	1,106	312	207	8,027
1951–52	5,444	1,535	1,075	293	200	8,547
Number of Persons Engaged
1924–25	12,658	10,690	18,067	11,094	24,674	77,183
1929–30	15,474	11,785	17,977	11,658	25,967	82,861
1934–35	14,901	11,321	15,309	9,716	28,111	79,358
1939–40	17,212	14,048	23,316	14,737	39,409	108,722
1944–45	18,382	15,547	25,787	18,809	43,889	122,414
1949–50	24,481	20,608	34,386	21,304	43,530	144,309
1951–52	26,481	21,793	32,899	19,976	43,221	144,370

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged by the standards of highly industrialized communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing ten persons or under accounted for 63.7 per cent of the total number of factories in 1951–52.

A further break up by employment groups, this time by industrial classes, is shown in the following table, which gives both the number of establishments and persons engaged in each industrial class for the year 1951–52.

Industry Group	Establishments (E) Persons (P)	Factories With Persons Engaged Numbering—							Total
Industry Group	Establishments (E) Persons (P)	Under 6	6 to 10	11 to 20	21 to 50	51 to 100	101 to 200	Over 200	Total
Food	E	271	225	117	132	22	13	32	812
	P	885	1,724	1,617	4,097	1,513	2,031	13,246	25,113
Beverages	E	94	34	24	18	5		1	176
	P	279	268	350	569	462		327	2,255
Tobacco manufactures	E			1		1	4	2	8
	P			15		66	628	639	1,348
Textiles	E	37	28	38	42	15	20	6	186
	P	121	226	552	1,344	1,145	2,550	1,751	7,689
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	E	227	267	310	274	93	19	4	1,194
	P	781	2,116	4,636	8,453	6,478	2,685	1,021	26,170
Wood and work products (except furniture)	E	447	310	242	105	12	5		1,121
	P	1,407	2,335	3,506	3,092	784	724		11,848
Furniture and fittings	E	309	134	103	49	3	1		599
	P	944	983	1,490	1,485	202	106		5,210
Paper and pulp products	E	11	17	12	24	12	3	2	81
	P	39	134	185	858	688	449	498	2,851
Printing, publishing, etc.	E	147	82	65	59	23	5	9	390
	P	476	637	913	1,734	1,501	740	2,450	8,451
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	E	55	26	15	11	5	4		116
	P	154	205	203	356	314	505		1,737
Rubber products	E	46	16	12	8		1	5	88
	P	151	113	155	245		111	1,697	2,472
Chemicals and chemical products	E	73	53	40	32	8	10	2	218
	P	199	408	587	1,071	582	1,391	436	4,674
Petroleum and coal products	E	11	6	6		1			24
	P	50	37	85		53			225
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	E	296	127	71	33	8	5	2	542
	P	928	964	1,020	955	568	749	664	5,848
Basic metal manufactures	E	29	25	20	7				81
	P	106	196	288	221				811
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	E	149	97	52	59	16	11		384
	P	507	739	721	1,797	945	1,440		6,149
Machinery (except electrical)	E	187	84	69	74	25	9	1	449
	P	635	647	971	2,320	1,823	1,243	352	7,991
Electrical machinery and appliances	E	44	26	32	22	13	6	3	146
	P	138	202	448	760	845	920	696	4,009
Transport equipment	E	886	402	274	99	25	7	5	1,698
	P	3,067	2,931	3,566	2,695	1,649	1,022	1,719	16,649
Miscellaneous products	E	111	55	32	27	6	3		234
	P	349	400	485	847	358	431		2,870
Totals	E	3,430	2,014	1,535	1,075	293	126	74	8,547
	P	11,216	15,265	21,793	32,899	19,976	17,725	25,496	144,370

SALARIES AND WAGES.—The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime, also amounts drawn in lieu of salary by working proprietors. The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups—executive, clerical, and wage earning), and the average amount received per employee of each sex, as recorded in the last five collections, are set out below. Although total figures for 1951–52 are on a different basis from those for the previous years shown owing to the exclusion of certain sectors of production, the average salary and wage quoted can be considered reasonably comparable. For the year 1951–52 both males and females recorded increased average earnings over the previous year, of 10.5 and 10.8 per cent respectively.

Year	Males		Females		Both Sexes
Year	Total	Average	Total	Average	Total	Average
	£	£	£	£	£	£
1946–47	38,839,645	385	6,496,572	194	45,336,217	337
1947–48	44,760,957	421	7,371,732	216	52,132,689	372
1949–50	52,386,829	481	8,930,011	253	61,316,840	425
1950–51	59,710,990	535	10,675,687	286	70,386,677	473
1951–52	63,151,272	591	11,887,521	317	75,038,793	520

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may also be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years, the average for males having risen by 535 per cent and for females by 63.4 per cent since 1946–47. Of interest also is the relative improvement in the earnings of female wage earners over the same period; whereas in 1946–47 the figure for average earnings of females was 50.4 per cent of the corresponding figure for males, in 1951–52 the ratio had increased to 53.6 per cent. Incidentally in 1938–39 the average earnings of females was only 42.5 per cent of those of male workers.

The amount of salaries and wages paid in each industrial group and in all industries during the last three years is given hereunder.

Industry Group	Salaries and Wages Paid £(000)
Industry Group	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Food	11,842	13,529	15,352
Beverages	1,057	1,134	1,258
Tobacco manufactures	424	464	530
Textiles	2,985	3,377	3,688
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	7,719	8,981	10,202
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	4,477	5,145	6,619
Furniture and fittings	1,866	2,223	2,563
Paper and pulp products	1,073	1,298	1,429
Printing, publishing, etc.	3,497	4,033	4,495
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	761	864	907
Rubber products	844	1,188	1,497
Chemicals and chemical products	1,928	2,203	2,544
Petroleum and coal products	115	131	143
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	2,420	2,767	3,250
Basic metal manufactures	333	389	486
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	2,483	3,005	3,494
Machinery (except electrical)	3,212	3,754	4,469
Electrical machinery and appliances	1,666	1,785	2,036
Transport equipment	6,533	7,492	8,743
Miscellaneous products	991	1,243	1,334
Totals	56,231	65,005	75,039

In the following table an analysis is made of the 1951–52 totals according to provincial districts in which the industries were carried on.

Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago
Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago Portion	Southland Portion
* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.
Salaries and Wages Paid £(000)
Food	5,812	1,149	1,313	2,360	112	244	12	2,214	1,118	1,019
Beverages	527	49	21	227	10	32	16	217	132	26
Tobacco manufactures		^*		^*
Textiles	845	56		893	^*	^*	5	1,096	711	78
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	4,687	85	114	2,442	75	22	35	1,901	790	52
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	3,196	231	326	809	40	342	297	656	331	390
Furniture and fittings	1,060	145	46	583	10	34	16	402	192	76
Paper and paper products	878			279				81	97	95
Printing, publishing, etc.	1,541	137	110	1,473		61	'37	612	383	113
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	426	4	^*	80	^*	^*		202	160	31
Rubber products	398	13	^*	395	^*	^*		670	9	^*
Chemicals and chemical products	723	97	144	851	17	^*		318	384	^*
Petroleum and coal products	80	^*	^*	35				22
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	1,563	91	50	426	17	121	15	520	309	137
Basic metal manufactures	174		^*	130		^*		112	54	^*
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	1,606	12	52	925	^*	16	^*	535	313	29
Machinery (except electrical)	1,832	144	137	980	24	31	^*	866	263	163
Electrical machinery and appliances	595	15	4	791				398	231	^*
Transport equipment	3,159	302	272	2,843	73	221	50	964	580	278
Miscellaneous-products	625	92	32	806	19	15	29	257	63	14
Totals	29,727	2,622	2,621	17,328	424	1,139	512	12,043	6,122	2,501

A further analysis of salaries and wages paid is given in the table below for 1951–52, and shows the amounts paid to working proprietors, managers, clerical staff, and those paid to other employees, i.e., wage-earners. As mentioned earlier, drawings in lieu of salaries are included for proprietors actively engaged in the business.

Industry Group	Working Proprietors, Managers, Clerical Staff		Wage-earning Employees		All Employees
Industry Group	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females	Total
Salaries and Wages Paul, 1951–52 £(000)
Food	2,029	280	12,141	902	14,170	1,182	15,352
Beverages	244	31	978	4	1,223	35	1,258
Tobacco manufactures	56	23	209	242	265	264	530
Textiles	399	83	2,075	1,131	2,474	1,214	3,688
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	1,220	413	2,848	5,721	4,068	6,134	10,202
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	1,164	79	5,338	38	6,502	117	6,619
Furniture and fittings	503	38	1,924	99	2,426	137	2,563
Paper and paper products	215	32	889	293	1,104	325	1,429
Printing, publishing, etc.	848	202	3,084	360	3,933	562	4,495
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	141	23	619	125	760	147	907
Rubber products	250	26	1,119	102	1,370	128	1,497
Chemicals and chemical products	498	99	1,699	248	2,197	347	2,544
Petroleum and coal products	29	2	112		141	2	143
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	543	43	2,604	59	3,148	102	3,250
Basic metal manufactures	104	10	369	3	473	13	486
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	609	71	2,627	187	3,236	258	3,493
Machinery (except electrical)	828	107	3,516	19	4,343	126	4,469
Electrical machinery and appliances	284	53	1,476	223	1,760	276	2,036
Transport equipment	1,664	203	6,845	31	8,509	234	8,743
Miscellaneous products	251	50	798	236	1,049	286	1,334
Totals	11,880	1,867	51,271	10,021	63,151	11,888	75,039

The following statement shows the average earnings of males and females for the past ten years, and although the basis of the calculations has changed in the latest year, it is considered that the average salary or wage shown for 1951–52 is reasonably comparable with the figures for previous years.

Year	Proprietors Actively Engaged		Managers, Overseers		Accountants, Clerks		Wage-earning Employees		Total
Year	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females	Males	Females
Average Salary or Wage (£)
1941–42	286	233	516	288	292	151	283	133	301	137
1942–43	315	259	547	315	325	163	324	149	341	152
1943–44	342	282	569	314	329	173	331	157	350	162
1944–45	360	322	586	339	340	181	343	168	362	172
1945–46	367	326	596	350	347	193	359	180	377	184
1946–47	372	320	614	365	368	201	365	189	385	194
1947–48	428	336	661	409	406	224	401	211	421	216
1949–50	491	346	730	463	460	266	460	248	481	253
1950–51	531	399	797	499	511	296	514	281	535	286
1951–52	596	459	871	525	576	330	566	311	591	317

MOTIVE POWER.—A supply of cheap motive power is essential for industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly somewhat handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The difficulties in the way of obtaining a supply of cheap motive power have been met by the development by the State of hydro-electric schemes, for which New Zealand is topographically well suited. As mentioned earlier in these notes, restrictions in the supply have been necessary during recent years, but since the addition of Maraetai to the chain of Waikato stations most of these restrictions have been removed.

The following table shows the numbers and aggregate horsepower of each class of engine used in factories for 1927–28, 1937–38, 1947–48, and the last two years available.

Class of Engine		1927–28	1937–38	1947–48	1950–51	1951–52
Electric	No.	12,428	25,626	70,274	96,147	104,583
	H.P.	111,942	181,757	342,408	423,275	455,735
Steam	No.	1,869	1,470	1,001	910	779
	H.P.	63,930	50,736	34,788	29,906	28,304
Petrol and light oil	No.			1,015	979	846
	H.P.	297	511	25,302	23,716	18,850
Heavy oil	No.	3,769	12,3331	411	507	424
	H.P.			20,267	33,223	25,872
Other	No.	530	255	87	187	163
	H.P.	16,367	6,059	2,885	9,713	9,891
Totals	No.	15,124	27,862	72,788	98,730	106,795
	H.P.	196,008	250,885	425,650	519,833	538,652

The figures relating to horsepower represent the rated horsepower of engines Ordinarily in use for driving factory plant. Steam boilers and engines for generating electric power in own works are excluded.

The following table shows the types and rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use in the various industries during 1951–52.

Industry Group	Rated Horsepower of Engines in Use, 1951–52
Industry Group	Electric	Steam	Petrol and Light Oil	Heavy Oil	Other	Total
Food	123,510	13,899	514	1,949	4,174	144,046
Beverages	7,940	264	129	493	525	9,351
Tobacco manufactures	982					982
Textiles	23,039	1,368	997	989		26,393
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	11,770	168	444	1,054	76	13,512
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	74,755	10,523	11,915	14,462	3,399	115,054
Furniture and fittings	13,493	8				13,501
Paper and paper products	18,879	267	116	2	60	19,324
Printing, publishing, etc.	13,876		173	1,134	673	15,856
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	5,629	108	6	252	15	6,010
Rubber products	17,871	121	192	33	108	18,325
Chemicals and chemical products	24,313	520	640	863	179	26,515
Petroleum and coal products	1,638	4	250		404	2,296
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	43,114	231	1,323	1,682	46	46,396
Basic metal manufactures	3,980	619	90	55		4,744
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	17,505	39	122	1,322	9	18,997
Machinery (except electrical)	21,928	10	1,012	468	65	23,483
Electrical machinery and appliances	5,667	5	21	90	58	5,841
Transport equipment	20,272	150	888	984	88	22,382
Miscellaneous products	5,574		18	40	12	5,644
Totals	455,735	28,304	18,850	25,872	9,891	538,652

CONSUMPTION OF COAL.—During the year 1951–52, 860,536 tons of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production. Comparable figures for the two previous years were, 1950–51, 823,776 tons, and 1949–50, 844,735 tons. It is important to note that the new series of factory production statistics no longer includes the activities of the gas-making industry and electric generation and supply stations. These two industries for the year 1951–52 used 266,152 tons and 62,516 tons of coal respectively.

The following table shows for the year 1951–52 the consumption of coal by industrial groups.

Industry Group	Tons of Coal Used, 1951–52
Food	474,096
Beverages	20,744
Tobacco manufactures	1,788
Textiles	39,610
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	3,044
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	3,570
Furniture and fittings	121
Paper and paper products	64,009
Printing, publishing, etc.	682
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	8,220
Rubber products	15,706
Chemicals and chemical products	29,069
Petroleum and coal products	29,295
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	162,763
Basic metal manufactures	1,942
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	2,186
Machinery (except electrical)	1,220
Electrical machinery and appliances	919
Transport equipment	614
Miscellaneous products	938
Total	860,536

Approximately 81 per cent of the amount of coal used is accounted for in three groups: Food, paper and paper products, and non-metallic mineral products n.e.i. Individual industries using more than 10,000 tons of coal in 1951–52 are as follows.

Industry	Tons
Butter, cheese, and other milk products	270,873
Meat freezing and preserving	146,935
Cement	86,222
Pulp paper and paperboard	62,703
Structural clay products	39,763
Food preparations n.e.i.	32,305
Petroleum and coal products	27,446
Lime	23,342
Woollen milling	20,669
Brewing of ale and stout	19,521
Rubberware	14,664
Woolscouring	11,029
Vegetable and animal oils and fats	10,539

MATERIALS.—The value of materials used does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry or industrial group and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. An example of the wide differences which may occur in the ratio of cost of materials to value of goods produced will be seen in the food group and the wood and cork products (except furniture) group.

Totals for the latest year show that the cost of materials used in food manufacture was £145,719,000 and the goods produced were valued at £177,088,000, while the materials used in the manufacture of wood and cork products cost £13,254,000 and finished goods produced were valued at £26,229,000.

The cost of materials used in each industrial group and in all industries during the last three years is given hereunder. All figures shown in these tables are comparable, being based on the new concept.

Industry Group	Cost of Materials Used £(000)
Industry Group	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Food	115,344	141,733	145,719
Beverages	3,027	3,380	3,716
Tobacco manufactures	3,413	3,609	3,928
Textiles	12,142	21,695	14,578
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	15,693	18,975	22,525
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	10,435	11,576	13,254
Furniture and fittings	3,098	3,567	3,934
Paper and paper products	3,096	4,050	5,808
Printing, publishing, etc.	3,233	3,769	4,799
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	2,219	3,065	3,191
Rubber products	1,341	2,343	4,970
Chemicals and chemical products	9,656	10,641	14,941
Petroleum and coal products	668	776	974
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	2,921	3,402	4,245
Basic metal manufactures	831	1,023	1,874
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	4,829	5,486	7,060
Machinery (except electrical)	5,77	7,028	10,053
Electrical machinery and appliances	3,174	3,342	4,346
Transport equipment	13,283	15,618	18,597
Miscellaneous products	1,429	1,807	2,171
Totals	215,009	266,885	290,683

An analysis by provincial districts of the cost of materials used for the year 1951–52 is given below.

Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago
Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago Portion	Southland Portion
* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.
Cost of Materials Used £(000)
Food	71,454	8,322	15,138	18,763	982	1,977	295	12,925	6,862	9,002
Beverages	1,817	108	40	558	26	65	30	702	324	45
Tobacco manufactures	^*	^*		^*
Textiles	3,103	871		3,293	^*	^*	4	4,696	2,163	445
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	10,158	139	317	5,652	182	28	82	4,194	1,660	113
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	6,976	383	637	1,961	60	592	423	1,183	555	485
Furniture and fittings	1,837	135	43	919	13	28	21	478	379	81
Paper and paper products	3,613			1,025				239	251	681
Printing, publishing, etc.	1,763	126	82	1,428	15	36	16	819	423	90
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	1,369	7	^*	168	^*	^*		596	589	452
Rubber products	1,325	25	^*	1,475	^*	^*		2,084	28	^*
Chemicals and chemical products	5,148	150	1,347	4,685	15	^*		1,128	2,400	^*
Petroleum and coal products	321	^*		540				96
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	2,279	132	77	474	17	166	19	534	383	163
Basic metal manufactures	1,175		^*	313		^*		212	156	^*
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	3,508	13	80	1,932	^*	18	^*	898	583	23
Machinery (except electrical)	3,482	195	175	1,851	15	33	^*	3,733	315	229
Electrical machinery and appliances	1,614	22	6	1,835				644	221	^*
Transport equipment	4,649	315	307	10,497	91	238	71	1.618	464	347
Miscellaneous products	1,196	193	52	4,070	23	62	24	579	55	27
Totals	126,787	11,136	18,301	61,439	1,439	3,243	985	37,358	17,811	12,183

A large proportion of the total cost of materials is accounted for by the food group which includes the semi-primary industries dealing with meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and other milk products. In the latest year, for example, the cost of materials used by this group, £145,719,000, represented 50 per cent of the total cost of materials used by all industries, £290,683,000. For this reason, variations in the prices received for primary produce have a very marked effect on this total, and it should be remembered that, as these prices can be regarded as understated by the amount of any subsidies paid to primary producers, a similar understatement can be assumed in the cost of materials shown in these tables.

PRODUCTS.—The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory door.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value normally constitutes approximately two-thirds of the value of products. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture making, joinery, etc., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following tables show the gross value of products for each industrial group and for all industries for the last three years available. All figures shown in these tables are based on the new concept and are therefore comparable.

Industry Group	Products £(000)
Industry Group	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Food.	138,561	161,657	177,088
Beverages	5,539	6,319	6,805
Tobacco manufactures	4,818	5,010	5,595
Textiles	17,566	28,213	21,255
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	26,797	32,261	37,281
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	18,772	21,318	26,229
Furniture and fittings	6,043	6,897	7,785
Paper and paper products	5,600	7,255	9,528
Printing, publishing, etc.	9,654	11,374	13,300
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	3,455	4,571	4,698
Rubber products	3,066	5,160	8,376
Chemicals and chemical products	14,458	16,284	21,398
Petroleum and coal products	1,005	1,091	1,331
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	8,481	9,484	11,478
Basic metal manufactures	1,463	1,739	2,886
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	9,118	10,590	13,447
Machinery (except electrical)	10,490	13,407	17,599
Electrical machinery and appliances	5,828	6,267	7,599
Transport equipment	23,569	27,450	32,948
Miscellaneous products	3,060	3,854	4,412
Totals	317,343	380,201	431,038

A similar analysis by provincial districts, but limited to the year 1951–52, is now given.

Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago
Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago Portion	Southland Portion
* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for Miscellaneous products.
Products £ (000)
Food	82,687	10,470	17,709	23,486	1,117	2,439	318	17,342	9,226	11,294
Beverages	2,965	229	97	1,233	47	144	81	1,254	647	108
Tobacco manufactures	^*	^*		^*
Textiles	4,685	976		5,040	^*	^*	11	6,585	3,365	582
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	16,927	281	503	9,312	287	58	130	6,826	2,775	184
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	13,520	861	1,227	3,461	129	1,221	1,001	2,430	1,189	1,191
Furniture and fittings	3,486	342	110	1,793	28	77	44	1,053	667	184
Paper and paper products	6,177			1,557				401	470	924
Printing, publishing, etc.	4,586	410	274	4,284	63	150	79	1,999	1,152	302
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	2,080	13	^*	300				915	825	546
Rubber products	2,244	50	^*	2,364	^*	^*		3,598	55	^*
Chemicals and chemical products	7,218	341	1,912	6,662	48	^*		1,802	3,322	^*
Petroleum and coal products	530	^*	^*	621				150
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	5,816	322	165	1,300	51	529	46	1,491	1,191	566
Basic metal manufactures	1,570		^*	563		^*		419	266	^*
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	6,306	31	174	3,882	^*	46	^*	1,789	1,140	65
Machinery (except electrical)	6,456	426	408	3,588	51	82	^*	5,264	781	479
Electrical machinery and appliances	2,579	45	13	3,106				1,260	588	^*
Transport equipment	10,175	777	772	14,807	211	602	157	3,299	1,365	784
Miscellaneous products	2,370	385	142	6,076	51	94	65	1,009	137	49
Totals	183,377	15,959	23,506	93,435	2,083	5,442	1,932	58,886	29,161	17,258

ADDED VALUE.—As indicated under the heading of “Products,” the value of products is not always a satisfactory measure of either the absolute or the relative importance of a given industry, for the reason that only part of this value is actually created by the manufacturing processes carried on in the industry itself. In many cases by far the larger portion of the value of products represents the value of the materials used. From a manufacturing standpoint, the best measure of the importance of an industry is the value created by the manufacturing operations carried on within the industry. This value is obtained in New Zealand by deducting the cost of materials used from the gross value of the products, and is referred to as the “added value.”

The tables given herewith show the added value for each industrial group and for all industries for each of the last three years available, with an analysis of the 1951–52 totals according to the provincial districts in which the industries were carried on. All figures shown in these tables are comparable, being based on the new concept.

Industry Group	Added Value £(000)
Industry Group	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Food	23,217	19,924	31,369
Beverages	2,512	2,938	3,089
Tobacco manufactures	1,405	1,401	1,667
Textiles	5,424	6,518	6,678
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	11,104	1,285	14,756
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	8,337	9,742	12,975
Furniture and fittings	2,945	3,330	3,851
Paper and paper products	2,504	3,206	3,720
Printing, publishing, etc.	6,421	7,605	8,501
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	1,235	1,505	1,508
Rubber products	1,725	2,816	3,406
Chemicals and chemical products	4,803	5,643	6,456
Petroleum and coal products	337	316	357
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	5,560	6,082	7,233
Basic metal manufactures	632	717	1,012
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	4,289	5,104	6,386
Machinery (except electrical)	5,314	6,379	7,546
Electrical machinery and appliances	2,655	2,926	3,253
Transport equipment	10,285	11,832	14,351
Miscellaneous products	1,630	2,047	2,21
Totals	2,334	113,316	140,355

A similar analysis for 1951–52 by provincial districts is given below.

Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago
Industry Group	Auckland	Hawke's Bay	Taranaki	Wellington	Marlborough	Nelson	Westland	Canterbury	Otago Portion	Southland Portion
* To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in Miscellaneous products.
Added Value 1951–52 £(000)
Food	12,233	2,148	2,571	4,723	135	462	23	4,418	2,364	2,293
Beverages	1,147	121	57	675	21	80	50	551	323	64
Tobacco manufactures	^*	^*		^*
Textiles	1,583	105		1,747	^*	^*	7	1,889	1,202	138
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	6,770	141	186	3,660	104	29	48	2,632	1,115	71
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	6,544	478	590	1,500	70	629	579	1,247	635	705
Furniture and fittings	1.649	207	67	874	15	49	23	575	288	103
Paper and paper products	2,564			532				162	219	243
Printing, publishing, etc.	2,823	285	192	2,856	49	114	62	1,179	729	212
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	710	7	^*	132	^*	^*		319	237	94
Rubber products	919	25	^*	889	^*	^*		1,514	27	^*
Chemicals and chemical products	2,070	190	565	1,977	33	^*		674	922	^*
Petroleum and coal products	209	^*	^*	81				54
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	3,537	190	87	827	33	364	27	958	808	403
Basic metal manufactures	395		^*	250		^*		208	109	^*
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	2,798	18	94	1,950	^*	28	^*	891	557	42
Machinery (except electrical)	2,974	231	233	1,737	36	49	^*	1,531	465	249
Electrical machinery and appliances	965	23	8	1,271				617	366
Transport equipment	5,526	462	465	4,309	121	364	86	1,680	901	437
Miscellaneous products	1,173	192	89	2,006	27	31	42	429	82	22
Totals	56,589	4,823	5,204	31,996	644	2,199	947	21,528	11,349	5,076

The development of factory production in New Zealand from 1919–20 onward is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between cost of materials, added value, and value of output.

EXPENSES OF OPERATION.—Total operating costs of factory production for the year 1951–52 amounted to £397,749,306, of which salaries and wages accounted for £75,038,793, cost of materials for £290,682,891, and other expenses for £32,027,622, while value of output totalled £431,038,354.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and cost of materials, by industry groups for the year 1951–52.

Industry Group	Coal	Electricity	Coke, Gas, Oils, etc.	Insurance	Depreciation	Rent	Repairs and Maintenance	Others	Total
£(000)
Food	1,795	485	209	480	1,839	87	1,773	1,912	8,581
Beverages	91	32	53	41	283	8	204	251	962
Tobacco manufactures	9	4	2	15	52	5	26	225	338
Textiles	159	81	58	117	536	55	398	494	1,897
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	14	103	32	124	351	284	382	812	2,102
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	12	153	149	355	740	59	883	645	2,996
Furniture and fittings	1	28	3	73	88	66	81	153	493
Paper and paper products	182	38	8	59	200	25	198	166	876
Printing, publishing, etc.	3	54	28	80	394	73	232	849	1,713
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	27	14	6	31	48	16	80	66	290
Rubber products	69	49	49	43	485	11	77	296	1,079
Chemicals and chemical products	127	87	50	109	406	27	447	417	1,669
Petroleum and coal products	10	5	9	7	20	2	22	22	97
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	696	141	262	105	438	29	490	369	2,530
Basic metal manufactures	8	13	45	13	56	11	37	93	276
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	10	55	61	84	238	74	193	397	1,112
Machinery (except electrical)	6	62	70	122	243	68	223	493	1,287
Electrical machinery and appliances	3	46	46	53	119	37	98	305	707
Transport equipment	3	110	47	215	403	221	351	1,213	2,562
Miscellaneous products	6	22	6	32	107	45	74	167	461
Totals	3,231	1,582	1,193	2,157	7,046	1,204	6,269	9,345	32,028

CAPITAL INVESTED AND ASSETS.—Information as to the amount of capital invested in manufacturing industries was collected for some years, but the figures obtained were found to be unsatisfactory. The chief factors militating against the collection of reliable information have been the methods of accounting in use in many of the smaller establishments, and the difficulty of apportioning capital where an establishment is only partly manufacturing.

A more satisfactory indication of the capital investment in the manufacturing industry is obtained from figures of manufacturers' fixed assets. Not only are the figures more reliable than those for capital invested, but they do not suffer from the understatement of capital (from the economic viewpoint) which occurs in those cases where the factory premises, or, in some few cases, even the plant, is not owned by the manufacturer, but is rented. In these cases an estimate of the value of the rented asset has been obtained by capitalizing the annual rental shown. Approximations in the figures for fixed assets are also made where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, necessitating an apportionment as between the industries. In most instances, too, fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an overstatement due to insufficient

allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, etc., or an understatement owing to appreciated site value, excessive allowance for depreciation, or currency depreciation resulting in the assets being understated in terms of their present earning capacity or replacement cost. It is necessary to bear in mind these limitations to the accuracy of the figures of fixed assets appearing in the following table, which shows the values of these assets for each of the last three years together with an analysis by principal industries for 1951–52. For the year 1951–52 information is also shown by industry groups of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations. All figures shown in this table are based on the new concept and are therefore comparable.

Industry Group	Capital Additions and Alterations During the Year			Value at End of Year (Including Estimated Value of Rented Assets)
Industry Group	Land and Buildings	Plant and Machinery	Totals	Land and Buildings	Plant and Machinery	Totals
Totals—	£	£	£	£	£	£
1949–50	3,413,981	6,586,660	10,000,641	44,840,165	33,152,731	77,992,896
1950–51	4,751,816	7,624,114	12,375,930	50,573,475	37,043,374	37,616,849
1951–52—
Food	1,532,079	2,108,501	3,640,580	13,786,452	9,890,123	23,676,575
Beverages	274,422	448,081	722,503	1,685,313	1,699,022	3,384,335
Tobacco manufactures	22,578	57,919	80,497	401,180	326,102	727,282
Textiles	200,936	689,881	890,817	2,811,602	2,606,303	5,417,905
Footwear, other wearing apparel and made-up textile goods	222,721	539,323	762,044	6,028,487	2,205,529	8,234,016
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	534,985	1,064,719	1,599,704	4,184,403	4,681,843	8,866,246
Furniture and fittings	93,209	100,543	193,752	1,712,927	646,152	2,359,079
Paper and paper products	108,923	300,340	409,263	1,189,111	1,257,466	2,446,577
Printing, publishing, etc.	286,418	861,564	1,147,982	3,143,203	3,000,787	6,143,990
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	63,784	80,853	144,637	523,755	296,377	820,132
Rubber products	114,535	265,247	379,782	1,442,705	1,951,141	3,393,846
Chemicals and chemical products	307,843	428,613	736,456	2,642,956	1,945,866	4,588,822
Petroleum and coal products	14,766	24,881	39,647	116,546	123,378	239,924
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	305,139	1,032,515	1,337,654	2,686,210	2,973,563	5,659,773
Basic metal manufactures	82,374	92,025	174,399	499,345	323,745	823,090
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	219,027	311,106	530,133	2,377,161	1,515,190	3,892,351
Machinery (except electrical)	376,148	340,665	716,813	2,525,639	1,602,726	4,128,365
Electrical machinery and appliances	90,248	124,087	214,335	1,239,207	493,953	1,733,160
Transport equipment	455,026	432,618	887,644	6,833,392	2,620,189	9,453,581
Miscellaneous products	65,184	123,411	188,595	1,153,063	637,780	1,790,843
Totals, 1951–52	5,370,345	9,426,892	14,797,237	56,982,657	40,797,235	97,779,892

ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY.—New Zealand's industrial progress has been fairly rapid, but industry is as yet organized on a relatively small scale.

The law in New Zealand restricts the membership of a partnership to not more than twenty persons, a private company to not fewer than two or more than twenty-five persons, and a public company to not fewer than seven persons. Co-operation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of primary products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing. As a result of a reclassification of industrial statistics to conform with the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, gasworks and electricity generation and supply are now excluded from the Municipal and Government section.

Information as to the character of organization of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1951–52 is given in the following table.

Character of Organization	Number of Establishments	Persons Engaged	Horsepower Available	Cost of Materials Used or Operated Upon	Value of Manufactures or Products	Added Value
Character of Organization	Number of Establishments	Persons Engaged	Horsepower Available	Cost of Materials Used or Operated Upon	Value of Manufactures or Products	Total	Per Establishment
* Average of totals.
			H.p.	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£
Individual	1,547	7,218	19,770	5,087	10,285	5,198	3,360
Private firm or partnership	839	4,647	15,179	3,473	7,100	3,627	4,323
Public registered company	880	45,206	209,452	86,355	135,046	48,691	55,331
Private registered company	4,778	80,429	242,206	124,083	198,647	74,564	15,606
Co-operative and miscellaneous	393	4,597	41,696	70,295	76,372	6,077	15,463
Municipal and Government	110	2,273	10,349	1,390	3,588	2,198	19,982
Totals	8,547	144,370	538,652	290,683	431,038	140,355	16,422^*

As would be expected, the average size of establishments operated by public registered companies is larger than in any other type of industrial organization, the added value per unit being three and a half times as high as that for the next highest non-governmental type (private registered companies). Private companies, however, occupy a very high place, both numerically and in the share they contribute to the total added value created in New Zealand factories (52 per cent in 1951–52, as compared with 34 per cent in the case of public companies).

Examination of the statistics of added value over a series of years indicates that private companies have increased appreciably in relative importance, while the individual and partnership types of organization have declined. Very little change has occurred in the percentage of total added value attributable to the operations of public companies, or municipal and general governmental undertakings.

VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION.—In connection with the preparation of the series of index numbers of volume of production, as given in Section 19 of this Year-Book, a special series covering volume of production of the factory industries has been constructed. Index numbers have been computed from 1929–30 onwards for the factory industries as a whole, and also for each of the four groups into which these industries are divided. The 1948–49 index numbers are based oh the sample survey of factory production carried out in that year and to which reference has been made earlier in this Section.

The groups specified in this table arc defined briefly as follows:

Group I comprises those industries engaged in processing pastoral products for the market, i.e., meat freezing and preserving; ham and bacon curing; butter, cheese, and other milk products manufacture; sausage-casing manufacture; fellmongering and woolscouring; and boiling down and manure manufacture.

Group II includes public utility services, gasworks and electricity generation and supply.

Group III consists of extractive services, i.e., fish curing; sawmilling; lime crushing and burning and cement manufacture; brick, tile, and pottery making; pumice insulation manufacture; phormium-flax and linen flax milling.

Group IV comprises all industries for which statistics are available and which are not included in the other groups.

This grouping and the classification of some of the industries themselves is no longer used, and no index numbers are available subsequent to the 1950–51 year in this particular series.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION

Base: 1938–39 (=100)

Production Year	Group I		Group II		Group III		Group IV		All Groups
Production Year	Total	Per Person Engaged	Total	Per Person Engaged	Total	Per Person Engaged	Total	Per Person Engaged	Total	Per Person Engaged
1929–30	75	81	73	97	95	98	70	91	74	92
1930–31	78	87	76	95	77	91	64	88	69	90
1931–32	82	98	74	93	49	87	55	85	60	90
1932–33	92	106	74	95	46	83	57	88	63	94
1933–34	93	94	74	92	54	87	59	89	65	92
1934–35	96	101	77	94	64	87	69	93	74	95
1935–36	98	99	82	97	79	92	76	93	81	96
1936–37	103	102	87	97	88	89	91	98	92	98
1937–38	101	100	93	99	94	91	96	97	97	97
1938–39	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
1939–40	110	107	no	106	103	97	111	104	110	103
1940–41	120	106	119	115	104	99	114	102	114	103
1941–42	122	102	124	125	103	96	116	100	116	102
1942–43	124	104	130	137	111	103	120	106	120	107
1943–44	118	99	138	145	118	103	126	109	125	108
1944–45	127	103	143	145	114	102	130	107	129	108
1945–46	124	98	147	139	112	101	134	105	131	105
1946–47	128	99	154	141	113	104	146	107	140	106
1947–48	128	96	158	147	131	110	159	112	151	110
1948–49	131	99	167	151	138	111	163	113	155	112
1949–50	136	103	174	155	143	113	174	118	164	117
1950–51	131	98	176	149	149	117	185	122	172	118

Volume of Factory Production: New Series.—Reclassification of the statistics of industrial production, in accordance with the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, was undertaken commencing with 1951–52, but index numbers have been prepared on the new basis for the years 1949–50 to 1951–52.

The table which follows sets out by industry groups, index numbers of value of output and added value for these three years, and volume of output for the latest year. It is not possible to arrive at volume of production index numbers for all the groups, for technical reasons, and consequently some have been omitted, but the total index number for the year is calculated in such a way as to include the groups which cannot be assessed separately.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF FACTORY PRODUCTION

Base: 1949–50 (= 1000)

Industry Group	Value of Output			Value Added in Manufacture			Volume of Production
Industry Group	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1949–50	1950–51^*	1951–52
* Index not available for the groups, but allowed for in compiling total index.
Food	1000	1167	1278	1000	858	1351	1000		1028
Beverages	1000	1141	1228	1000	1170	1230	1000		1106
Tobacco manufactures	1000	1040	1161	1000	997	1187	1000		1114
Textiles	1000	1606	1210	1000	1202	1231	1000		1041
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	1000	1204	1391	1000	1196	1329	1000		1125
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	1000	1136	1397	1000	1168	1556	1000		1184
Furniture and fittings	1000	1141	1288	1000	1131	1308	1000		^*
Paper and paper products	1000	1296	1702	1000	1280	1486	1000		1284
Printing, publishing, etc.	1000	1178	1378	1000	1184	1324	1000		1061
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	1000	1323	1360	1000	1218	1220	1000		1027
Rubber products	1000	1683	2732	1000	1633	1975	1000		1803
Chemical's and chemical products	1000	1126	1480	1000	1175	1344	1000		1169
Petroleum and coal products	1000	1085	1324	1000	935	1057	1000		^*
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	1000	1118	1353	1000	1094	1301	1000		1048
Basic metal manufactures	1000	1189	1973	1000	1133	1601	1000		^*
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	1000	1161	1475	1000	1190	1489	1000		^*
Machinery (except electrical)	1000	1278	1678	1000	1201	1420	1000		^*
Electrical machinery and appliances	1000	1075	1304	1000	1102	1225	1000		1122
Transport equipment	1000	1165	1398	1000	1150	1395	1000		^*
Miscellaneous products	1000	1259	1442	1000	1255	1375	1000		^*
Totals	1000	1198	1358	1000	1107	1372	1000	1046	1119

OVERTIME.—Details of overtime worked in factories by wage-earning employees are summarized in the tables given, which show, by industry groups, the hours worked during the latest three years. The averages given are calculated on the basis of the total number of wage-earners engaged irrespective of the number who actually worked overtime.

Industry Group	Total Overtime Hours Worked by Wage-earners (Both Male and Female)
Industry Group	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Food	4,238,139	4,290,616	4,499,909
Beverages	468,804	450,795	454,878
Tobacco manufactures	169,336	186,390	194,608
Textiles	628,368	758,320	704,968
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	800,072	888,148	797,343
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	1,112,310	1,204,045	1,511,240.
Furniture and fittings	289,556	355,745	336,641
Paper and paper products	427,438	452,473	409,980
Printing, publishing, etc.	551,587	608,174	565,225
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	181,532	204,527	175,604
Rubber products	232,114	322,666	316,384
Chemicals and chemical products	714,676	832,180	854,496
Petroleum and coal products	28,930	34,396	22,603
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	1,004,009	1,024,595	1,192,239
Basic metal manufactures	55,513	92,454	100,228
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	820,206	1,105,571	978,766
Machinery (except electrical)	902,363	1,058,625	1,174,882
Electrical machinery and appliances	399,952	398,568	345,102
Transport equipment	1,323,328	1,564,168	1,682,219
Miscellaneous products	154,261	172,682	195,238
Totals	14,502,494	16,005,138	16,512,553

The next table shows, by industry groups, the hours of overtime worked during 1951–52 by males and females separately.

Industry Group	Total Overtime Hours Worked by Wage-earners		Average Overtime Hours Worked by Wage-earners
Industry Group	Males	Females	Males	Females
Food	4,263,916	235,993	230	80
Beverages	454,793	85	256	6
Tobacco manufactures	111,108	83,500	282	101
Textiles	579,102	125,866	157	38
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	377,585	419,758	71	23
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	1,500,364	10,876	157	149
Furniture and fittings	330,677	5,964	82	18
Paper and paper products	355,453	54,527	236	53
Printing, publishing, etc.	487,068	78,157	90	62
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	162,901	12,703	149	34
Rubber products	313,727	2,657	174	8
Chemicals and chemical products	809,070	45,426	279	54
Petroleum and coal products	22,603		127
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	1,156,630	35,609	244	176
Basic metal manufactures	99,889	339	156	42
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	932,591	46,175	202	80
Machinery (except electrical)	1,170,329	4,553	180	89
Electrical machinery and appliances	307,805	37,297	110	54
Transport equipment	1,673,326	8,893	126	105
Miscellaneous products	155,838	39,400	101	47
Totals	15,264,775	1,247,778	169	39

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS.—The following table contains an analysis of production costs in 1951–52, together with the value of products for each industry group and for all industries. In addition, by virtue of the complete details collected annually of the cost structure of goods produced in manufacturing industries, it is possible to give information on the surplus available to manufacturers prior to payment of dividends, taxation, and other appropriations. The only exception occurs in the case of co-operative dairy companies, which do not purchase milk and cream in the way that other manufacturers purchase raw materials. They collect the milk and cream from their shareholders, process it, and pay out to these shareholders the whole of the profits of the sales of the products, less amounts paid to reserves. Manufacturing surplus shown by these companies is therefore confined to the amount of these transfers to reserves and any undistributed profits.

In quite a number of cases, articles produced are transferred at cost to separate selling departments and warehouses, or to retail stores run by the same company or establishment. Where this is apparent, the company concerned is asked to substitute a commercial value for its production. The same procedure holds where a company controls more than one factory, and transfers the products of one to the other for further processing. It must be recognized that estimated values have to be accepted in many transactions of this type.

Industry Group	Production Costs				Value of Products	Manufacturing Surplus
Industry Group	Salaries and Wages	Cost of All Materials Used	Other Expenses of Operation	Total	Value of Products	Manufacturing Surplus
£(000)
Food	15,352	145,719	8,581	169,652	177,088	7,436
Beverages	1,258	3,716	962	5,935	6,805	870
Tobacco manufactures	530	3,928	338	4,796	5,595	799
Textiles	3,688	14,578	1,897	20,163	21,255	1,092
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods	10,202	22,525	2,102	34,829	37,282	2,453
Wood and cork products (except furniture)	6,619	13,254	2,996	22,869	26,229	3,360
Furniture and fittings	2,563	3,934	493	6,990	7,785	795
Paper and paper products	1,429	5,808	876	8,114	9,528	1,415
Printing, publishing, etc.	4,495	4,799	1,713	11,007	13,300	2,293
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)	907	3,191	290	4,388	4,698	310
Rubber products	1,497	4,970	1,079	7,546	8,376	830
Chemicals and chemical products	2,544	14,941	1,669	19,155	21,398	2,243
Petroleum and coal products	143	974	97	1,213	1,331	117
Non-metallic mineral products n.e.i.	3,250	4,245	2,530	10,024	11,478	1,453
Basic metal manufactures	486	1,874	276	2,636	2,886	250
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)	3,493	7,060	1,112	11,666	13,447	1,781
Machinery (except electrical)	4,469	10,053	1,287	15,809	17,599	1,791
Electrical machinery and appliances	2,036	4,346	707	7,089	7,599	510
Transport equipment	8,743	18,597	2,562	29,902	32,948	3,046
Miscellaneous products	1,334	2,171	461	3,966	4,412	446
Totals	75,039	290,683	32,028	397,749	431,038	33,289

DETAILS OF CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES.—The principal statistics regarding leading factory industries for the last three years available are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Statistical Report on Factory Production.

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Not available. * No comparable figures, apart from those given, are available for the years 1949–50 and 1950–51 owing to a reclassification of the industry. † Details withheld to avoid disclosing figures for individual companies.
Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of establishments		51	48	48
Persons engaged	No.	11,623	11,771	12,745
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	6,402,553	7,498,346	8,796,440
Materials	£	43,438,918	61,918,558	53,333,954
Other expenses	£	2,484,957	2,918,283	3,428,539
Totals	£	52,326,428	72,335,187	65,558,933
Value of output	£	55,264,034	68,412,479	70,148,239
Value added in manufacture	£	11,825,116	6,493,921	16,814,285
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	2,524,486	2,591,380	2,869,606
Principal products—
Meat—
Lamb carcases	No.	12,450,404	11,272,907	11,960,714
	Cwt.	3,897,532	3,565,202	3,725,969
Mutton carcases	No.	2,831,203	2,268,230	3,448,162
	Cwt.	1,431,301	1,124,010	1,716,988
Boned mutton	Cwt.	116,062	85,401	129,144
Mutton and lamb pieces	Cwt.	31,773	37,010	40,967
Beef quarters, shipped bone in	Cwt.	1,037,896	695,054	979,697
Beef quarters, without bone	Cwt.		13,046	224,000
Boneless beef	Cwt.	518,112	572,393	630,407
Bobby veal	Cwt.	191,466	189,472	194,411
Other veal	Cwt.	30,809	33,113	23,048
Pork	Cwt.	434,924	434,791	410,935
Edible offals	Cwt.	379,055	355,558	404,608
Rabbits	No.	^*	2,616,125	1,536,222
By-products—
Runners	£	2.196,681	3,956,753	3,457,623
Woolly sheepskins	No.	255,623	189,717	169,374
Pelts	No.	16,141,420	14,902,344	17,036,236
Rabbit skins	No.	^*	^*	1,631,645
Cow hides	No.	295,713	297,921	329,801
Ox and bull hides	No.	133,793	103,785	140,908
Bobby calf hides	No.	1,195,256	1,236,512	1,276,393
Other calf hides	No.	18,456	20,885	15,844
Wool	lb.	47,856,460	46,318,807	52,570,939
Boiling-down products—
Tallow	Cwt.	695,975	673,942	830,995
Neatsfoot oil	Gallons	88,379	86,804	94,781
Manures	Cwt.	649,436	621,970	648,010
Livermeal	Cwt.	22,387	21,211	22,679
Meatmeal	Cwt.	266,447	231,710	251,945
Canned and other preserved meats, pastes, extracts, and miscellaneous cannings	Cwt.	188,220	187,467	277,393
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of establishments		42	42	43
Persons engaged	No.	771	755	770
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	374,236	404,559	457,035
Materials	£	3,181,664	3,345,751	3,491,464
Other expenses	£	200,966	186,703	208,021
Totals	£	3,756,866	3,937,013	4,156,520
Value of output	£	3,857,225	4,136,261	4,386,149
Value added in manufacture	£	675,561	790,510	894,685
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	71,036	81,703	94,668
Pigs dealt with—
Carcases	No.	408,517	400,158	384,706
Cost	£	2,785,608	2,918,887	2,975,968
Principal products—
Ham and bacon	Cwt.	300,669	288,538	271,052
Frozen pork	Cwt.	86,298	81,753	67,043
Lard	Cwt.	15,396	13,722	12,932
Small goods	Cwt.	113,600	119,270	119,492
Other fats	Cwt.	8,028	6,026	6,813
Butter, Cheese, and Other Milk Products
Number of establishments		379	376	367
Persons engaged	No.	4,403	4,485	4,518
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	2,204,401	2,545,008	2,794,347
Materials	£	54,079,344	61,193,626	71,231,401
Other expenses	£	2,180,441	2,763,810	2,967,711
Totals	£	58,464,186	66,502,444	76,993,459
Value of output	£	58,681,778	66,848,198	77,544,035
Value added in manufacture	£	4,602,434	5,654,572	6,312,634
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	685,283	731,561	570,271
Number of suppliers		53,612	53,492	52,094
Butterfat used—
For creamery butter	lb.(000)	304,831	328,407	346,873
For cheesemaking	lb.(000)	93,933	96,694	84,699
For whey butter [making—
Recoveries from own whey	lb.(000)	3,264	3,345	2,930
Whey fat purchased	lb.(000)	2,035	2,204	2,069
Second grade creamery butterfat	lb.(000)	194	197	143
Total whey butter	lb.(000)	5,493	5,746	5,142
For condensed, dried milk, etc.	lb.(000)	7,079	6,658	7,670
Principal products—
Creamery butter	Tons	165,863	178,728	188,768
Whey butter	Tons	2,983	3,133	2,791
Cheese	Tons	105,376	108,525	95,479
Condensed and powdered whole milk	Tons	21,544	20,711	22,867
Skim milk powder	Tons	20,206	26,455	31,775
Casein	Tons	5,257	6,616	9,718
Buttermilk powder	Tons	3,942	7,020	6,799
Ice-cream
Number of establishments		57	59	50
Persons engaged	No.	416	418	385
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	172,804	180,702	178,443
Materials	£	447,542	523,262	528,150
Other expenses	£	175,787	190,578	184,714
Totals	£	796,133	894,542	891,307
Value of output	£	974,379	1,076,917	1,081,724
Value added in manufacture	£	526,837	553,655	553,574
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	26,153	25,702	20,966
Main materials used—
Milk	Gallons	645,910	640,933	510,758
Cream	Gallons	97,547	69,111	41,901
Ice-cream mixture	Cwt.	37,882	49,661	34,125
Butter	lb.	331,356	554,625	866,645
Skim-milk powder	lb.	736,553	853,938	947,639
Sugar	Cwt.	16,312	19,022	18,520
Products—
Bulk ice-cream	Gallons			1,877,443
Ice-cream, cartoned, wrapped, chocolate-coated, etc.		3,063,107	3,248,555
	Gallons			1,200,020
Grain Milting^*
Number of establishments				47
Persons engaged	No.			812
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£			427,819
Materials	£			2,816,932
Other expenses	£			273,393
Total	£			3,518,144
Value of output	£			3,765,635
Value added in manufacture	£			948,703
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.			92,179
Main materials used—
Wheat	Bushels			7,255,227
Oats	Bushels			607,837
Principal products—
Flour	Short tons	164,769	164,153	159,703
Wholemeal, wheatmeal	Short tons	8,920	8,574	8,779
Bran and pollard	Short tons	44,085	44,896	45,938
Oatmeal, rolled oats, etc., for human consumption	Short tons	8,114	7,545	6,774
Breakfast foods in flake or biscuit form	Short tons	^†	^†	^†

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* No comparable figures, apart from those given, arc available for the years 1949–50 and 1950–51 owing to a reclassification of the industry. † Not available.
Biscuits^*
Number of establishments				13
Persons engaged	No.			882
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£			397,850
Materials	£			1,163,428
Other expenses	£			239,017
Total	£			1,800,295
Value of output	£			2,018,273
Value added in manufacture	£			854,845
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.			127,256
Main materials used—
Flour	Short tons			10,202
Sugar	Tons			2,830
Chocolate	Cwt.			10,699
Margarine, lard, confectionery fat	Cwt.			42,970
Biscuits manufactured	Tons	14,323	14,473	14,279
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Sugar Confectionery^*
Number of establishments				63
Persons engaged	No.			1,807
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£			753,006
Materials	£			2,810,691
Other expenses	£			354,470
Total	£			3,918,167
Value of output	£			4,127,826
Value added in manufacture	£			1,317,135
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.			144,416
Main materials used—
Sugar	Tons			9,498
Cocoa beans	Cwt.			42,281
Cocoa butter	Cwt.			13,301
Glucose	Cwt.			59,947
Confectionery manufactured—
Chocolate and chocolate-coated	Tons	8,992	9,578	8,233
Sugar	Tons	7,480	7,693	8,675
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving
Number of establishments		36	38	40
Persons engaged	No.	974	1,093	1,272
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	347,287	413,842	553,589
Materials	£	1,282,413	1,457,663	2,082,327
Other expenses	£	184,445	208,194	264,428
Totals	£	1,814,145	2,079,699	2,900,344
Value of output	£	1,957,713	2,335,357	3,335,531
Value added in manufacture	£	675,300	877,694	1,253,204
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	177,685	230,109	308,397
Main materials used—
Fruit	Tons	^†	7,227	8,346
Vegetables and tomatoes	Tons	^†	11,385	16,334
Sugar	Tons	^†	3,640	3,358

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Not available. † In addition, 78,907 gallons were recorded by establishments classified in other industries.
Principal products—
Canned fruit	Cwt.	36,810	56,004	52,528
Canned beans in sauce	Cwt.	1	35,603	42,411
Canned peas	Cwt.	120,467	103,613	116,073
Other canned vegetables (not tomatoes)	Cwt.		6,787	32,809
Tomato soup	Gallons	^*	464,754	455,147
Pickles and sauces	Gallons	421,875	441,746	406,968
Jams, jellies, and conserves	Cwt.	76,215	71,139	70,768
Canned spaghetti in sauce	Cwt.	47,194	43,703	42,788
Breweries
Number of establishments		37	35	35
Persons engaged	No.	1,426	1,318	1,370
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	728,123	703,845	791,369
Materials	£	2,152,838	2,249,690	2,556,759
Other expenses	£	482,204	583,786	675,589
Totals	£	3,363,165	3,537,321	4,023,717
Value of output	£	3,973,720	4,226,940	4,666,360
Value added in manufacture	£	1,820,882	1,977,250	2,109,601
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	397,002	342,234	344,669
Main materials used—
Malt	Bushels	^*	1,153,115	1,175,119
Hops	Cwt.	7,027	6,655	6,646
Sugar	Cwt.	38,446	50,535	52,075
Beer produced for sale	Gallons	33,450,667	35,395,075	37,011,621
Stout produced for sale	Gallons	790,752	661,735	525,108
Aerated Waters and Cordials
Number of establishments		93	87	89
Persons engaged	No.	541	543	549
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	225,996	250,143	265,845
Materials	£	384,912	478,367	514,350
Other expenses	£	126,208	150,061	154,972
Totals	£	737,116	878,571	935,167
Value of output	£	868,645	1,097,672	1,103,060
Value added in manufacture	£	483,733	619,305	588,710
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	32,440	29,472	28,544
Main materials used—
Sugar	Tons	2,589	2,965	3,020
Essential oils and essences	lb.	69,466	82,969	72,478
Fruit extracts and juices	Gallons	56,351	85,176	69,792
Aerated waters made	Gallons	4,132,157	4,504,529	4,612,024
Cordials made	Gallons	289,452	345,502	366,968^†

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* No comparable figures, apart from those given, are available tor the years 1949–50 and 1950–51 owing to a reclassification of the industry.
Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes
Number of establishments		9	8	8
Persons engaged	No.	1,271	1,254	1,348
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	424,083	463,898	529,800
Materials	£	3,412,991	3,609,364	3,928,289
Other expenses	£	261,697	285,554	338,328
Totals	£	4,098,771	4,358,816	4,796,417
Value of output	£	4,817,724	5,009,989	5,595,283
Value added in manufacture	£	1,404,733	1,400,625	1,666,994
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	169,336	186,390	194,608
Tobacco leaf used in manufacture	lb.	9,455,050	9,680,611	10,256,550
Cigarettes made	Million	1,648	1,722	1,886
Tobacco made	lb.	4,963,165	5,158,174	5,303,945
Woollen Milling^*
Number of establishments				19
Persons engaged	No.			2,290
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£			1,168,738
Materials	£			2,649,280
Other expenses	£			596,493
Totals	£			4,414,511
Value of output	£			4,657,842
Value added in manufacture	£			2,008,562
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.			224,667
Main materials used—
Greasy wool	lb.	9,638,510	9,374,474	8,403,166
Scoured wool	lb.	193,495	527,048	237,746
Tops, noils	lb.	552,397	570,478	505,445
Woollen and worsted yarn	lb.	99,026	29,403	106,687
Rayon and cotton yarn	lb.	7,580	45,140	55,816
Principal products—
Woollen cloth	Yd. 54 in.	1,633,866	1,619,293	1,469,039
Worsted cloth	Yd. 54 in.	589,526	637,494	568,638
Flannel	Yd. 54 in.	497,651	320,192	382,155
Blankets	No.	132,358	139,444	144,195
Rugs	No.	17,796	35,021	34,628
Yarn produced for sale or transfer—
Fingering	lb.	297,265	262,849	508,063
Machine knitting	lb.			1,597,605
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills^*
Number of establishments				91
Persons engaged	No.			3,501
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£			1,510,800
Materials	£			3,544,353
Other expenses	£			658,475
Totals	£			5,713,628
Value of output	£			6,090,307
Value added in manufacture	£			2,545,954
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.			159,087

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Not available. † In the two years 1949–50 and 1950–51 details of the operations of small operators were not collected. Estimated cut by these sawmillers was: 1949–50, 5,700,000 ft. b.m.; 1950–51, 6,000,000 ft. b.m.
Clothing
Number of establishments		741	837	871
Persons engaged	No.	17,414	18,832	19,360
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	5,247,494	6,291,190	7,142,209
Materials	£	11,497,590	13,962,190	16,516,839
Other expenses	£	1,176,444	1,398.267	1,453,085
Totals	£	17,921,528	21,651,647	25,112,133
Value of output	£	19,087,913	23,232,732	26,702,699
Value added in manufacture	£	7,590,323	9,270,542	10,185,860
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	486,450	539,517	455,216
Footwear
Number of establishments		121	133	142
Persons engaged	No.	4,958	5,074	5,152
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	1,912,510	2,070,944	2,407,811
Materials	£	2,666,470	3,413,033	3,870,021
Other expenses	£	437,964	499,547	499,936
Totals	£	5,016,944	5,983,524	6,777,768
Value of output	£	5,257,982	6,374,762	7,290,661
Value added in manufacture	£	2,591,512	2,961,729	3,420,640
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	270,638	296,042	299,939
Main materials used—
Upper leather	Sq. ft.	9,850,543	10,301,096	10,703,666
Sole leather	lb.	5,975,046	5,955,770	5,489,791
Felt	Sq. yd.	304,034	306,596	253,622
Principal products—
Men's and boys' boots and shoes	Pairs	979,184	1,004,935	1,113,824
Women's and girls' shoes	Pairs	1,642,765	1,678,663	1,795,394
Sandals (all kinds)	Pairs	419,361	578,222	705,064
Slippers, leather and felt, etc.	Pairs	1,940,374	1,894,436	1,569,932
Sawmills
Number of establishments		493	493	561
Persons engaged	No.	4,566	4,640	5,616
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	2,271,982	2,552,272	3,286,362
Materials	£	4,404,861	5,388,359	5,496,117
Other expenses	£	955,752	1,323,962	1,968,584
Totals	£	7,632,595	9,264,593	10,751,063
Value of output	£	8,677,261	10,532,646	12,443,597
Value added in manufacture	£	4,272,400	5,144,287	6,947,480
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	^*	^*	798,344
Rough sawn timber produced^†	Thousand ft. b.m.	472,681	521,599	575,222

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Not available.
Planing Mills
Number of establishments		129	138	157
Persons engaged	No.	1,849	1,906	2,250
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	815,501	946,578	1,223,908
Materials	£	3,073,791	3,015,749	3,887,837
Other expenses	£	273,730	363,491	421,914
Totals	£	4,163,022	4,325,818	5,533,659
Value of output	£	4,667,621	4,749,074	6,262,275
Value added in manufacture	£	1,593,830	1,733,325	2,374,438
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	^*	217,804	266,835
Rough sawn timber used in manufacture	Thousand ft. b.m.	^*	^*	127,712
Dressed timber produced—
Floorboards	Thousand ft. b.m.	^*	^*	31,457
Weatherboards	Thousand ft. b.m.	^*	^*	29,196
Other	Thousand ft. b.m.	^*	^*	49,263
Joinery work done	£	^*	^*	1,242,781
Joinery
Number of establishments		205	212	285
Persons engaged	No.	1,919	1,973	2,476
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	794,659	953,884	1,308,283
Materials	£	1,599,556	1,660,976	2,120,220
Other expenses	£	242,259	272,115	277,031
Totals	£	2,636,474	2,886,975	3,705,534
Value of output	£	2,996,833	3,268,828	4,265,568
Value added in manufacture	£	1,397,277	1,607,852	2,145,348
OH Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	131,494	162,308	234,435
Timber used in manufacture	Thousand ft. b.m.	^*	^*	38,681
Dressed timber produced—
Floorboards	Thousand ft. b.m.	^*	^*	856
Weatherboards	Thousand ft. b.m.	^*	^*	749
Other	Thousand ft. b.m.	^*	^*	1,045
Joinery work done	£	^*	^*	4,058,017
Furniture
Number of establishments		466	493	547
Persons engaged	No.	4,185	4,402	4,513
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	1,633,627	1,918,335	2,212,219
Materials	£	2,024,977	2,321,668	2,551,501
Other expenses	£	370,879	413,188	401,246
Totals	£	4,029,483	4,653,191	5,164,966
Value of output	£	4,445,907	5,044,798	5,681,838
Value added in manufacture	£	2,420,930	2,723,130	3,130,337
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	228,536	299,053	297,115

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Not available.
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard
Number of establishments		3	3	3
Persons engaged	No.	642	656	660
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	354,673	404,020	448,883
Materials	£	820,520	981,227	1,420,225
Other expenses	£	326,714	434,622	481,752
Totals	£	1,501,907	1,819,869	2,350,860
Value of output	£	1,949,032	2,335,526	3,012,911
Value added in manufacture	£	1,128,512	1,354,299	1,592,686
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	195,543	205,008	188,011
Principal products—
Paper	Tons	7,111	7,541	^*
Container board	Tons	14,676	17,320	16,584
Fibre building board	Sq. ft. (thousand)	43,283	47,766	54,430
Cardboard Boxes, Cartons, and Paper Bags
Number of establishments		39	42	43
Persons engaged	No.	1,186	1,284	1,346
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	415,296	530,829	589,890
Materials	£	1,359,886	1,955,905	2,985,930
Other expenses	£	163,89	229,927	251,709
Totals	£	1,939,073	2,716,661	3,827,529
Value of output	£	2,126,880	3,091,409	4,298,562
Value added in manufacture	£	766,994	1,135,504	1,312,632
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	161,835	169,004	156,127
Paper used in manufacture	Tons	^*	7,089	8,815
Cardboard used in manufacture	Tons	^*	16,366	21,461
Cardboard boxes, cartons, made	£	^*	2,345,123	2,937,366
Paper bags, made	£	^*	621,397	1,103,158
Printing and Publishing
Number of establishments		93	95	100
Persons engaged	No.	3,815	3,986	4,136
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	1,802,545	2,045,551	2,329,126
Materials	£	1,478,390	1,783,294	2,380,542
Other expenses	£	836,319	1,024,556	1,027,898
Totals	£	4,117,254	4,853,401	5,737,566
Value of output	£	5,135,054	6,074,586	7,132,863
Value added in manufacture	£	3,656,664	4,291,292	4,752,321
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	174,828	193,610	180,447
Newsprint used	Tons	^*	27,701	29,518
Other paper used	Tons	^*	2,712	2,731
Job and General Printing
Number of establishments		237	249	262
Persons engaged	No.	3,858	4,031	3,988
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	1,560,871	1,825,782	1,982,366
Materials	£	1,697,976	1,919,121	2,332,713
Other expenses	£	514,863	667,882	645,755
Totals	£	3,773,710	4,412,785	4,960,834
Value of output	£	4,256,409	4,980,245	5,798,430
Value added in manufacture	£	2,558,433	$8,061,124	3,465,717
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	356,420	385,404	358,300
Newsprint used	Tons	^*	1,090	1,193
Other paper used	Tons	^*	10,434	10,095
Cardboard used	Tons	^*	1,444	1,618

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Not available.
Tanning
Number of establishments		19	18	16
Persons engaged	No.	851	841	819
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	402,998	461,148	502,794
Materials	£	1,268,852	1,817,903	1,856,164
Other expenses	£	153,544	183,286	203,636
Totals	£	1,825,394	2,462,337	2,562,594
Value of output	£	1,960,114	2,614,417	2,707,393
Value added in manufacture	£	691,262	796,514	851,229
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	132,344	142,544	132,587
Main materials used—
Cattle hides	No.	359,674	401,790	402,486
Yearling and calf hides	No.	319,569	361,255	310,717
Pelts	No.	675,790	926,551	791,880
Sheep-skins	No.	124,587	98,895	38,488
Principal products—
Leather—
Hides—Bends	lb.	^*	3,062,590	3,219,246
Shoulders	lb.	^*	1,500,348	1,782,400
Bellies	lb.	^*	1,643,135	1,834,306
Chrome and other sides	Sq. ft.	^*	8,559,299	8,663,139
Yearling	Sq. ft.	^*	757,119	677,470
Calf	Sq. ft.	^*	1,415,094	1,176,817
Sheep—Basils	Sq. ft.	^*	351,212	394,331
Roans	Sq. ft.	^*	2,843,075	2,611,414
Chamois	Doz.	^*	7,268	7,726
Woolly skins	Sq. ft.	^*	559,711	308,651
Rubberware
Number of establishments		21	25	26
Persons engaged	No.	1,421	1,897	2,068
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	682,239	999,364	1,263,982
Materials	£	1,031,957	1,949,615	4,335,906
Other expenses	£	588,352	930,511	946,513
Totals	£	2,302,548	3,879,490	6,546,401
Value of output	£	2,375,831	4,318,056	7,173,073
Value added in manufacture	£	1,343,874	2,368,441	2,837,167
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	213,137	297,120	288,153
Crude rubber used	lb.(000)	6,575	10,572	13,319
Principal products—
Motor tires	No.	168,648	387,806	503,602
Motor tubes	No.	144,529	323,546	388,386
Camelback	lb.	1,512,572	2,316,783	2,500,541
Milking rubberware	£	85,090	105,213	237,292
Bicycle tires and tubes	£	450,237	566,925	747,529
Battery containers
Rubber and canvas footwear

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Chemical Fertilizers
Number of establishments		9	8	8
Persons engaged	No.	1,091	1,026	1,088
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	590,832	603,574	729,471
Materials	£	3,827,128	3,993,832	5,972,386
Other expenses	£	533,205	549,986	672,032
Totals	£	4,951,165	5,147,392	7,373,889
Value of output	£	5,352,237	5,736,569	8,021,915
Value added in manufacture	£	1,525,109	1,742,737	2,049,529
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	330,858	390,873	393,014
Main materials used—
Rock phosphate	Tons	376,846	392,939	421,840
Serpentine rock	Tons	43,064	51,137	92,072
Sulphur	Tons	71,195	77,165	63,918
Carbonate of lime	Tons	8,962	4,313	28,985
Principal products—
Serpentine superphosphate and mixtures	Tons	151,846	150,630	146,205
Basic and reverted superphosphate and mixtures	Tons	21,881	30,116	41,482
Other superphosphate and mixtures containing superphosphate	Tons	482,558	523,107	45,521
Super compound	Tons	482,558	523,107	518,991
Soap and Candle Manufacture
Number of establishments		23	22	22
Persons engaged	No.	600	582	577
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	231,513	251,878	309,927
Materials	£	887,678	1,038,053	1,103,039
Other expenses	£	150,547	141,734	156,776
Totals	£	1,269,738	1,431,665	1,569,742
Value of output	£	1,474,139	1,639,164	1,729,685
Value added in manufacture	£	586,461	601,111	626,646
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	81,681	102,266	103,046
Main materials used—
Tallow	Tons	10,645	10,828	10,127
Other oils	Tons	779	984	793
Caustic soda	Tons	1,648	1,736	1,760
Soda ash	Tons	2,342	2,407	2,489
Principal products—
Soap—
Toilet	Tons	2,403	2,658	2,711
Bar	Tons	7,758	7,442	6,763
Powder and flakes	Tons	7,885	8,680	9,025
Candles	Tons	216	395	400

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Paint and Varnish
* Products shown for this industry include the production of establishments classified in other industries. † Not available.
Number of establishments		21	20	23
Persons engaged	No.	550	637	681
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	270,575	347,012	372,696
Materials	£	1,957,828	2,251,767	3,039,058
Other expenses	£	146,398	189,678	200,206
Totals	£	2,374,801	2,788,457	3,611,960
Value of output	£	2,663,867	3,250,299	3,959,958
Value added in manufacture	£	706,039	998,532	920,900
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	131,553	153,283	153,013
Main materials used—
White lead	Cwt.	39,418	56,963	56,154
Other pigments	Cwt.	110,029	95,596	122,519
Linseed oil	Gallons	651,991	682,184	689,732
Solvents	Gallons	988,044	912,484	1,063,110
Gums and resins	Cwt.	13,887	18,812	25,259
Principal products—
Oil paints	Gallons	1,048,497	1,195,951	1,179,386
Enamels	Gallons	511,581	602,272	704,221
Lacquers	Gallons	73,932	85,699	102,992
Varnishes (for sale)	Gallons	181,693	178,620	173,691
Pharmaceuticals, Toilet Goods, and Cosmetics^*
Number of establishments		59	48	47
Persons engaged	No.	801	767	745
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	265,396	285,713	305,497
Materials	£	1,125,381	1,106,172	1,197,205
Other expenses	£	131,467	127,909	121,322
Totals	£	1,522,244	1,519,794	1,624,024
Value of output	£	1,792,943	1,770,559	1,946,581
Value added in manufacture	£	667,562	664,387	749,376
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	28,285	18,194	16,037
Principal products—
Pharmaceutical products	£	^†	808,846	993,029
Toilet preparation and cosmetics—
Dentifrices	£	^†	180,535	173,032
Cosmetic creams and lotions	£	^†	129,193	128,531
Hair dressings	£	^†	171,226	217,732
Powder, face and talcum	£	^†	117,134	131,500
Lipstick	£	^†	42,175	52,842

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* No comparable figures, apart from those given, are available for the years 1949–50 and 1950–51 owing to a reclassification of the industry. † Not available.
Structural Clay Products^*
Number of establishments				47
Persons engaged	No.			968
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£			562,147
Materials	£			94,013
Other expenses	£			500,635
Total	£			1,156,795
Value of output	£			1,323,205
Value added in manufacture	£			1,229,192
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.			218,082
Clay used—
Purchased	Tons			16,882
From own quarry	Tons			167,104
Principal products—
Firebricks	No.	2,793,013	3,010,850	2,326,396
Building bricks	No.	34,323,818	38,110,606	37,170,209
Roofing tiles	No.	4,304,900	3,498,961	2,620,698
Salt-glazed pipes—
Above 6 in.	No.	^†	79,100	20,346
6 in. and below	No.	^†	1,844,330	1,826,397
Pottery, China, and Earthenware^*
Number of establishments				8
Persons engaged	No.			540
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£			253,940
Materials	£			97,908
Other expenses	£			151,427
Totals	£			503,275
Value of output	£			575,872
Value added in manufacture	£			477,964
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.			97,871
Principal products—
Insulators and refractory insulator elements	£	^†	135,311	163,272
Crockery, artware, and novelties, stoneware	£	^†	204,469	316,304
Other earthenware including sanitary-ware	£	^†	72,030	96,296
Cement^*
Number of establishments				3
Persons engaged	No.			386
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£			243,998
Materials	£			509,161
Other expenses	£			629,826
Total	£			1,382,985
Value of output	£			1,584,318
Value added in manufacture	£			1,075,157
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.			165,346
Principal products—
Limestone	Tons	^†	^†	178,586
Clay, marl, cement rock	Tons	^†	^†	203,460
Gypsum	Tons	^†	^†	7,857
Cement made	Tons	245,597	204,385	238,601

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Not available.
Concrete Products
Number of establishments		188	223	247
Persons engaged	No.	1,373	1,527	1,644
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	595,882	734,882	918,620
Materials	£	833,285	1,086,471	1,370,951
Other expenses	£	191,410	262,993	288,886
Totals	£	1,620,577	2,084,346	2,578,457
Value of output	£	1,857,610	2,337,239	3,007,409
Value added in manufacture	£	1,024,325	1,250,768	1,636,458
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	144,496	162,000	188,910
Materials used—
Portland cement	Tons	^*	^*	48,771
Sand, shingle	Yd.	^*	^*	156,610
Reinforcing	Tons	^*	^*	4,612
Pumice	Yd.	^*	^*	31,714
Principal products—
Roofing tiles	No.	15,144,094	14,874,524	14,892,115
Fencing posts	No.	^*	^*	1,105,014
Housing blocks	No.	^*	^*	1,765,938
Chimneys	No.	^*	^*	15,153
Coppers, boilers	No.	^*	^*	14,842
Pipes	Tons	^*	^*	56,107
Tanks, troughs	No.	^*	^*	20,086
Plywood and Veneer
Number of establishments		7	7	7
Persons engaged	No.	420	423	487
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	193,896	235,005	272,993
Materials	£	255,836	308,057	360,291
Other expenses	£	111,470	181,270	150,369
Totals	£	561,202	724,332	783,653
Value of output	£	613,532	799,449	897,797
Value added in manufacture	£	357.696	491,392	537,506
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	20,765	39,554	89,383
Species of logs used—
Rimu	Ft. (H. Dahl)	8,823,141	9,493,162	8,486,222
Matai	Ft. (H. Dahl)	1,386,319	1,230,234	1,486,427
Kahikatea	Ft. (H. Dahl)	651,179	1,014,492	1,687,887
Radiata pine	Ft. (H. Dahl)	401,029	537,002	1,266,359
Other	Ft. (H. Dahl)	127,711	375,012	482,553
Plywood made (3/16 in. basis)	Sq. ft.	24,555,050	31,105,029	32,852,931

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Products shown for these industries include the production of establishments classified in other industries. † Not available.
Range Making^*
Number of establishments		11	10	11
Persons engaged	No.	1,010	972	939
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	478,242	484,485	524,874
Materials	£	425,274	430,591	527,446
Other expenses	£	108,664	114,147	148,393
Totals	£	1,012,180	1,029,223	1,200,713
Value of output	£	1,109,073	1,153,541	1,291,937
Value added in manufacture	£	683,799	722,950	764,491
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	129,444	131,873	101,388
Iron and steel used	Tons	^†	^†	4,837
Principal products—
Domestic electric ranges	No.	21,591	21,769	21,623
Domestic electric rangettes	No.	11,068	10,738	11,100
Domestic coal ranges	No.	7,957	7,773	6,562
Radio Assembly and Manufacture^*
Number of establishments		22	25	25
Persons engaged	No.	994	960	1,008
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	382,133	422,836	502,547
Materials	£	960,124	1,000,138	1,259,248
Other expenses	£	112,897	138,910	163,253
Totals	£	1,455,154	1,561,884	1,925,048
Value of output	£	1,544,060	1,689,991	2,056,219
Value added in manufacture	£	583,936	689,853	796,971
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	108,878	96,948	85,189
Principal products—
Radio receivers, table models—
Broadcast	No.	23,126	20,765	27,135
Broadcast and short-wave	No.	11,880	12,574	14,907
Radiogram	No.	3.570	5,198	4,781
Radio receivers, console models—
Broadcast	No.	306		246
Broadcast and short wave	No.	432	417	750
Radiogram	No.	1,496	2,065	2,981
Portable receivers	No.	10,073	6,448	8,825
Automobile receivers	No.	5,473	6,619	8,773
Motor Vehicle Assembly
Number of establishments		10	11	11
Persons engaged	No.	1,625	1,785	1,949
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	851,086	1,048,024	1,282,937
Materials	£	6,976,675	8,778,626	10,645,476
Other expenses	£	303,676	357,834	418,432
Totals	£	8,131,437	10,184,484	12,346,845
Value of output	£	8,586,806	10,868,641	13,074,667
Value added in manufacture	£	1,610,131	2,090,015	2,429,191
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	399,709	454,606	471,617
Vehicles assembled—
Cars	No.	9,731	13,444	15,712
Buses	No.	86	116	43
Vans	No.	943	2,162	1,935
Trucks	No.	5,725	4,823	6,466

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
* Not available.
Motor Body Building
Number of establishments		86	85	83
Persons engaged	No.	1,246	1,227	1,176
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	529,610	578,451	606,141
Materials	£	543,269	610,086	658,930
Other expenses	£	141,938	147,584	148,516
Totals	£	1,214,817	1,336,121	1,413,587
Value of output	£	1,351,558	1,494,489	1,641,671
Value added in manufacture	£	808,289	884,403	982,741
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	75,679	99,499	87,251
Main materials—
Timber	Ft. b.m.	^*	^*	1,416,055
Plywood	Sq. ft.	^*	^*	310,289
Paint and oils	Gallons	^*	^*	26,536
Motor bodies built—
Buses	No.	197	226	184
Vans	No.	1,063	1,063	724
Trucks	No.	1,955	1,516	1,679
Motor Repairs
Number of establishments		1,482	1,439	1,501
Persons engaged	No.	10,060	10,171	11,017
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	4,109,133	4,545,467	5,416,110
Materials	£	5,063,210	5,419,747	6,363,616
Other expenses	£	1,271,673	1,365,165	1,496,234
Totals	£	10,444,016	11,330,379	13,275,960
Value of output	£	11,415,340	12,428,327	15,083,846
Value added in manufacture	£	6,352,130	7,008,580	8,720,230
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	502,197	572,560	675,523
Sheetmetal Working
Number of establishments		161	157	159
Persons engaged	No.	2,874	2,954	2,934
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	1,245,392	1,437,598	1,602,021
Materials	£	2,415,822	2,782,654	3,391,221
Other expenses	£	381,799	468,862	489,818
Totals	£	4,043,013	4,689,114	5,483,060
Value of output	£	4,559,490	5,180,706	6,347,982
Value added in manufacture	£	2,143,668	2,398,052	2,956,761
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	412,160	503,761	445,816
Metal Products n.e.i.
Number of establishments		114	129	142
Persons engaged	No.	2,009	2,292	2,494
Production costs—
Salaries and wages	£	933,626	1,200,326	1,455,692
Materials	£	1,509,388	1,780,399	2,480,957
Other expenses	£	394,924	481,393	514,341
Totals	£	2,837,938	3,462,118	4,450,990
Value of output	£	3,152,443	3,878,935	5,194,950
Value added in manufacture	£	1,643,055	2,098,536	2,713,993
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	306,752	470,779	421,664

—		1949–50	1950–51	1951–52
Agricultural and Pastoral Machinery
Number of establishments		83	93	96
Persons engaged	No.	1,319	1,377	1,440
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	574,713	658,423	758,212
Materials	£	1,692,284	2,473,335	3,985,841
Other expenses	£	158,794	179,042	189,205
Totals	£	2,425,791	3,310,800	4,933,258
Value of output	£	2,757,251	3,706,936	5,395,313
Value added in manufacture	£	1,064,967	1,233,601	1,409,472
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	124,220	151,535	147,402
Machinery n.e.i.
Number of establishments		309	338	353
Persons engaged	No.	5,900	6,089	6,551
Production costs—
Salaries, wages	£	2,637,190	3,095,182	3,710,919
Materials	£	3,484,356	4,554,530	6,066,907
Other expenses	£	821,156	975,080	1,097,447
Totals	£	6,942,702	8,624,792	10,875,273
Value of output	£	7,733,004	9,700,095	12,203,911
Value added in manufacture	£	4,248,648	5,145,565	6,137,004
Overtime worked by wage-earners	Hrs.	778,143	907,090	1,027,480

Chapter 25. SECTION 25—BUILDING, CONSTRUCTION, AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTORY.—Within the short span of a century New Zealand has been transformed from a virgin wilderness into a country whose community enjoys the amenities of modern social and industrial life. In the pioneer stages of colonization the development of the resources of the country demanded an almost mushroom growth of building and construction activity in the formation of railways, roads, and harbours, in addition to provision for the housing needs of a rapidly growing population. More recently the utilization of available resources of water power has involved major schemes of construction of hydro-electric stations in various parts of New Zealand, and the reticulation of practically the whole of the inhabited portion of the country. The utilization of forest resources, land settlement, and the growth of factory industries have required extensive building and construction works, rural and urban, while the increasing housing needs of a growing population are reflected in a steady long-term increase in the building of dwellings. The increase in trade and industry, with the resultant growth of the towns, has been accompanied by extensive construction of factories, shops, offices, warehouses, etc.

With the passing of the early stages of social and industrial development, replacements of obsolete and obsolescent structures and general maintenance will occupy a larger place in building and construction activity than was the case formerly, although there have been new avenues of industry requiring further major building and constructional operations. For example, the development of aviation in New Zealand required the formation of a chain of landing grounds and airports, a work which became more urgent with the outbreak of war. The increase in motor traffic has necessitated a reorientation of roading policy, much new construction and extensive alterations to the surfaces of existing roads being required. The diversification of factory industries in recent years has involved extensive building operations—particularly in the engineering trades—while modernization of factory equipment and of shop and office accommodation has been responsible for a further appreciable proportion of building activity. Developments in recent years in the production of pulp and paper from the exotic forests have contributed to further demands on this industrial sector.

An interesting feature of building and construction activity in New Zealand is the absence of a marked seasonal decline in the winter months, since winters are not sufficiently severe, except in a few districts, to interfere materially with the building of dwellings or other construction work.

The building and construction industry is particularly sensitive to cyclical fluctuations in business conditions, and it is not surprising to note that in the past marked changes in building activity have coincided with the ebb and flow of trade and industry. Governmental policy in regard to public-works construction in such times has been directed towards accelerating State activity in this direction in times of depression and in the slack seasons of the year with a view to alleviating unemployment. While considerable success has been achieved on various occasions, at other times the expansion of public works has been limited for financial reasons. Private building suffered severely during the depression, but later revived substantially to reach its pre-war peak in 1938–39. Thereafter a progressive decline in the importation of essential materials, notably steel and iron, took place, with consequential effects on normal large-scale construction. After 1941, however, the full effect of war began to have its effect, while Japan's entry into the war accentuated the diversion of men and building materials to aerodromes and other defence constructional work. This diversion was maintained as the necessity arose to provide accommodation for Allied Forces using New Zealand as a base for operations in the Pacific area. The cumulative effect of these circumstances may be gauged from the record low level of building permits for urban districts in 1942–43, the value of which, £2,661,947, may be compared with the 1938–39 figure of £12,126,458. Thereafter, with the completion of the major portion of defence programmes, a distinct revival of civil building took place, the improvement being progressively maintained despite the hampering effects of shortages of skilled labour and many essential building materials. By 1944–45 the annual value had exceeded the highest pre-war figure, although it would appear that much of the increase over earlier years was a reflection of higher costs. If the number of permits for new dwellings can be safely used as a guide, then by the 1946–47 year building activity both in volume and value had by far exceeded pre-war figures. Since then, building activity has continued at higher levels in each successive year.

The value of building permits in urban districts for 1951–52 totalled £46,279,391, this figure being surpassed in 1952–53 with a value of £47,179,870.

Trends in Average Costs of Some Representative Lines.—The following table is of interest in that it illustrates trends in the cost of some of the more representative lines of building activity over a period with general characteristics of rising costs and prices.

—	Cost in Year Stated
	1939	1945	End of 1950	End of 1953
State rental house (979 square feet)	£1,061	£1,479	£2,172	£2,457
Accommodation on works—
Single men	£30	£125	£165	£235
Married men	£135		£1,000	£1,200
Buildings (reinforced concrete): For similar size and type	£10,000	£15,700	£25,100	£27,810
Bridge: Concrete, per cubic yard	£12 2s.	£19 7s.	£31 7s.	£43
Fencing (labour only), per chain	10s. 6d.	£1	£1 17s. 6d.	£2 7s. 6d.

The movement in costs of some particular lines of general building materials is now given, the first figure in each instance relating to 1939 and the last figure to the end of 1953: timber (general lines), 29s. to 65–70s.; hardwood sleepers, 7s. to 26s.; structural steel, £11–£14 to £50–£65; and cement, £4 8s. 3d. to £13 12s. per ton.

Availability of Principal Building Materials.—The following table, taken from sources published on the occasion of the National Housing Conference in 1953, shows the availability of the principal building materials in the years quoted.

—	Unit	Production	Imports	Total
* Figures not available.
1938
Sawn timber—
Production (year beginning 1 April)	Million board feet	317		317
Imports (calendar year)	Million board feet		29.9	29.9
Exports (calendar year)	Million board feet			14.6
Apparent consumption (year beginning 1 April)	Million board feet			332
Cement	(000) Tons	216	1.3	217.3
Wallboard	(000) square feet	14,700	^*	^*
Asbestos cement sheet	(000) square feet	^*	2,250	^*
Roof tiles, concrete	No. (000)	4,500		4,500
Roof tiles, clay	No. (000)	2,700		2,700
Plywood	(000) square feet	3,000	8,000	11,000
Bricks	No. (000)	29,100		29,100
Window glass	(000) square feet		3,377	3,377
	Pieces	^*	^*	^*
Sanitary earthenware	Value (£)	^*	17,197	^*
Electric ranges	Units	6,959	9,411	16,370
Copper tube	Cwt.		7,509	7,509
Galvanized pipe	Cwt.		288,289	288,289
Corrugated iron	Cwt.		268,362	268,362
Plain galvanized iron	Cwt.		119,962	119,962
Reinforcing steel	Ton		53,516	53,516
Cast iron pipes and soil pipes	Cwt.		13,572	13,572
Builders' hardware	Value (£)	^*	120,621	^*
Baths	Units	^*	3,035	^*
Screws	Value (£)		35,000	35,000

—	Unit	Production	Imports	Total
* Figures not available.
1946
Sawn timber—
Production (year beginning 1 April)	Million board feet	354		354
Imports (calendar year)	Million board feet		13.7	13.7
Exports (calendar year)	Million board feet			8.8
Apparent consumption (year beginning 1 April)	Million board feet			360
Cement	(000) Tons	219.5	6.7	226.2
Wallboard	(000) square feet	52,700	^*	^*
Asbestos cement sheet	(000) square feet	21,500	5,000	26,500
Roof tiles, concrete	No. (000)	8,000		8,000
Roof tiles, clay	No. (000)	3,000		3,000
Plywood	(000) square feet	22,800	3,000	25,800
Bricks	No. (000)	23,800		23,800
Window glass	(000) square feet		3,935	3,935
Sanitary earthenware	Pieces	14,000	^*	^*
	Value (£)	^*	27,869	^*
Electric ranges	Units	20,483	^*	^*
Copper tube	Cwt.		8,443	8,443
Galvanized pipe	Cwt.		267,062	267,062
Corrugated iron	Cwt.		60,027	60,027
Plain galvanized iron	Cwt.		95,527	95,527
Reinforcing steel	Ton		20,822	20,822
Cast iron pipes and soil pipes	Cwt.		3,542	3,542
Builders' hardware	Value (£)	^*	192,665	^*
Baths	Units	^*	28	^*
Screws	Value (£)		29,930	29,930
1952
Sawn timber—
Production (year beginning 1 April)	Million board feet	573		573
Imports (calendar year)	Million board feet		39.3	39.3
Exports (calendar year)	Million board feet			16.6
Apparent consumption (year beginning 1 April)	Million board feet			596
Cement	(000) Tons	266.5	123.5	390
Wallboard	(000) square feet	102,500	21,536	124,036
Asbestos cement sheet	(000) square feet	33,300	5,790	39,090
Roof tiles, concrete	No. (000)	14,900		14,900
Roof tiles, clay	No. (000)	2,600		2,600
Plywood	(000) square feet	32,900	2,317	35,217
Bricks	No. (000)	38,100		38,100
Window glass	(000) square feet		12,724	12,724
Sanitary earthenware	Pieces	19,000	^*	^*
	Value (£)	^*	113,955	^*
Electric ranges	Units	24,193	6,977	31,170
Copper tube	Cwt.		51,419	51,419
Galvanized pipe	Cwt.		241,697	241,697
Corrugated iron	Cwt.		218,205	218,205
Plain galvanized iron	Cwt.		166,245	166,245
Reinforcing steel	Ton		76,064	76,064
Cast iron pipes and soil pipes	Cwt.		^*	^*
Builders' hardware	Value (£)	^*	601,910	^*
Baths	Units	8,500	23,899	32,399
Screws	Value (£)		121,854	121,854

Role of the State and Local Authorities.—The function of the State in the stimulation of building and construction enterprise is twofold. Public works, involving both new construction and the maintenance of existing works, are in themselves responsible for a large percentage of the total annual building and construction activity. Furthermore, the State encourages private building in various ways—for example, the State Advances Corporation (see Section 33B of this Year-Book for detail) has done much to facilitate home building and land development. As will be seen under a subsequent heading, a comprehensive programme of house building by the State has been in operation since 1937.

In August 1953 the Government convened a National Housing Conference for the purpose of surveying the general housing situation in New Zealand and investigating ways and means of implementing the Government's housing policy of making houses available to the people at reasonable cost. The conference was attended by builders and others directly associated with the building industry and also by employers, workers, welfare organizations, local bodies, organizations interested in housing finance, and other sections of the public.

Every aspect of housing was discussed, and it is thought that when effect is given to the resolutions adopted by the conference a marked improvement in the housing position will be effected.

Shortly after the conference a new portfolio was created, that of Minister of Housing. The new Minister assumed responsibility for giving effect to the general housing policy of the Government, co-ordinating all Government activities relating to housing, and providing liaison with trade and other associations outside the Government to ensure that the best use is made of all available resources for the speedy and economical construction of houses.

New schemes recently introduced by the Government to assist home builders are:

Erection of houses for sale: In this scheme the house itself is erected complete, but fencing, laying of paths, etc., is carried out by the purchaser.
Erection of partially completed houses for sale: These houses are completed to the stage where they are closed in. The flooring, inside finishing work together with painting, fencing, laying of paths, etc., is to be carried out by the purchaser.
Practical training: Facilities for educational classes for the instruction of those who desire to build their own homes are being provided in many centres. Partially completed State houses will be finished by the classes under competent supervision, thus providing practical training in house building.

The Government has also sponsored a group building scheme aimed to make houses available for those whose cash contributions amount to approximately £400 to £600. Plans and specifications are checked by the State Advances Corporation, which also supervises the work. Builders erect groups of houses for sale, and are thus given the opportunity of employing their organizations in the most efficient way, supported by a Government undertaking to take over a certain proportion of any unsold houses. At the end of January 1954, 65 builders were participating in the scheme over 24 towns, 1,944 houses were programmed, and of these 129 had been sold.

Encouragement is also being given to the building of large blocks of residential flats, the Government itself having recently approved the building of large blocks of multi-storey flats in Wellington and Auckland, each to contain 80 two-level two-bedroom maisonette flats and 9 bed-sitting-room flats on the ground floor.

In the sphere of building finance, the Minister of Housing announced several policy changes in September 1953. For State Advances loans, the terms, in appropriate cases, would be extended to thirty-five or forty years with adjustments up or down at fixed periods. The Corporation would also provide for housing loans for a period of twenty years. Repayment would be at the rate fixed for a table mortgage for thirty or forty years and loans would be refinanced after twenty years.

To encourage employers to build houses for their employees, employers would be allowed to write off 30 per cent of the cost of such houses as depreciation in the first year.

Withdrawal could also be made at any time from national savings for the acquisition of homes.

A mortgage guarantee scheme was provided for in the State Advances Corporation Amendment Act 1953. The amendment enables the Corporation to guarantee financial institutions repayment by the borrower of the difference between the normal housing loan and 90 per cent of the valuation.

In addition to the activities briefly outlined above, the housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities at 3½ per cent per annum (increased from 3 per cent during 1952–53) to enable them to undertake general housing schemes, or in connection with the subsidized assistance granted by the Government under the 1950 scheme to local authorities which provide accommodation for pensioners or persons in comparable circumstances. The Corporation invests moneys from its General Reserve Fund in loans to local authorities for the purpose of providing for their staff housing needs at the current ruling rate for local authority loans—i.e., 4 per cent. There is provision under the Housing Act for the granting of loans to employers, and this has provided an avenue of assistance for such branches of industry as dairy companies and limeworks. The Rural Housing Act 1939, and subsequent amendments thereto, provide facilities for the granting of financial assistance to farmers requiring new houses for themselves or their employees, or desiring to improve their existing houses. The County Councils have been charged with the duty of investigating the loan applications, and provided they are satisfied with the security, etc., they have authority to approve a loan subject to the prior consent of the Board of Management of the State Advances Corporation. Loans are made to local authorities bearing interest at 3½ per cent (rate charged by the county to the farmer borrowers is 4 per cent), and are repayable on the amortization system over terms of up to thirty-five years. The amount that may be advanced for the erection of a house under this scheme has been raised from £1,500 to £2,000, and the suspensory loan benefits described in Section 33B are available to applicants who comply with the conditions laid down. The response to the benefits offered by this legislation has so far been poor. Of the 125 County Councils in New Zealand, only 47 have applied for loans, and of authorized loans totalling £955,550 at 31 March 1953 only £343,189 (in respect of 417 houses) had been uplifted.

Where any farm is situated within any borough, town district, or road district, similar powers are conferred on the local authority concerned.

Reference to the provisions made for the governmental financing of home building on behalf of private owners is contained in the Section of this Year-Book dealing with State Advances (Section 33B).

Borough Councils are authorized under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes up to a limit of £2,020; to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a Council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Government Loans. Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are being encouraged to play a more prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

Statistics of Building Activity.—A collection of annual statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts was initiated in 1921–22, while a monthly collection on a more restricted scale was begun in 1926, and enlarged in April 1951 by the inclusion of a further twenty-one local authorities. The collection of rural statistics was first made for the 1937–38 year. From 1925 to 1941 an annual collection of returns from builders and contractors was obtained, affording, inter alia, an analysis of costs, etc., not available from the building permit statistics. The results of a further collection undertaken in 1951–52 are shown at the end of this Section.

THE HOUSING SITUATION.—As will be obvious from a perusal of the statistics of building permits and building construction given later in this Section, building operations fell to small proportions during the depression years. With the advent of better times, accompanied by a large increase in the number of marriages and a growing tendency to discontinue the sharing of homes by two families, there arose in many cities and towns a housing demand far in excess of the available supply. The position was aggravated by the fact that a considerable proportion of the existing dwellings did not comply with modern standards of comfort, convenience, and sanitation.

Although the Government's housing programme, inaugurated in March 1937, had made substantial progress and had added considerably to the numbers of houses that were being built, the outbreak of war further aggravated the problem. The transfer of men and materials to urgent defence works, referred to earlier, reduced dwelling construction to almost negligible proportions for a period. The early war years witnessed a large increase in the number of marriages, and, although there was a considerable fall during the next three years, the termination of the war saw a substantial rise, culminating in a new record in 1946. These factors, together with the rehabilitation of ex-servicemen generally, resulted in an unprecedented demand for housing accommodation.

According to the annual report of the State Advances Corporation for the year 1952–53, there were 29,256 unsatisfied applications for tenancies of State rental houses at 31 March 1953. This represented a reduction of 3,442 on the number of unsatisfied applicants at 31 March 1952, owing in part to the operation of the income limitation applicable to State tenancies and also to a number of applicants having solved their housing problems in other ways. Of the 29,266 unsatisfied applications, 9,908 were classified as urgent cases.

STATISTICS OF THE 1951 CENSUS.—The following summary tables give dwelling statistics as recorded at the 1951 census together with, for purposes of comparison, the corresponding 1945 figures wherever possible.

In 1951 a standard classification was used for both European and Maori dwellings, but in 1945 dwellings occupied by Maoris were classified on a different basis to European dwellings, both for nature and tenure. It has been possible to include Maori dwellings in the classification shown for 1945 by nature of dwelling, but not for several of the other tabulations given later. Except for the nature of dwelling table, subsequent tables relate to occupied permanent private dwellings only.

Nature of Dwelling.—The first table is concerned with the nature of dwelling.

Nature of Dwelling	Numbers		Percentage of Total Inhabited
Nature of Dwelling	1945	1951	1945	1951
* Included in other permanent private dwellings.
A. Inhabited dwellings—
Permanent private dwellings—
Private house, not partly sub-let	365,120	437,078	85.18	86.56
Private house, partly sub-let	1,697	1,225	0.39	0.24
Flat	28,175	35,021	6.57	6.94
Combined shop and dwelling, rooms attached to offices, etc.	8,391	8,040	1.96	1.59
Bach, hut	14,519	12,393	3.39	2.45
Other	1,015	255	0.24	0.05
Totals	418,917	494,012	97.73	97.83
Temporary dwellings—
Mobile residences	^*	1,675	^*	0.33
Other	615	833	014	0.16
Totals	615	2,508	0.14	0.49
Non-private dwellings—
Hotels, boardinghouses, etc.	7,293	6,354	1.70	1.26
Public and private hospitals	519	515	0.12	0.10
Camps	374	550	0.09	0.11
Other (including not specified)	952	1,048	0.22	0.21
Totals	9,138	8,467	2.13	1.68
Grand totals, inhabited dwellings	428,670	504,987	100.00	100.00
B. Uninhabited dwellings—
Untenanted dwellings	7,036	7,747
Occupants temporarily away	5,896	9,307
Baches (week-end or summer dwellings)	10,975	15,615
Totals	23,907	32,669
C. Building—
Dwellings in course of erection	5,542	9,597

The chief points observed in the above table are the increases of 71,486 private houses, 6,846 flats, and 8,762 uninhabited dwellings, and the decrease of 939 in hotels, boardinghouses, etc. While the increase in dwellings results from new construction work, part of the flat increase occurs from the subdivision of larger dwellings.

The 1945 census was taken in September and the 1951 census in April, and this may not be without effect on the number of mobile residences—which include caravans—returned at the latter census, and the larger increase in dwellings where the occupants were temporarily away.

A classification was made in 1951 of fiats showing type of building and amenities, and details are given in the following table.

Question	Flats Only: Numbers in Which Answers were Recorded as—
Question	Yes	No	Not Specified	Total
Whether built as a flat	18,082	16,190	749	35,021
Whether flat has for own exclusive use—
Cooking facilities	33,951	624	446	35,021
Bathroom	27,746	6,681	594	35,021
Toilet	27,884	6,499	638	35,021

Tenure of Dwelling.—The following table classifies permanent occupied private dwellings by tenure.

Tenure	Numbers		Percentage of Total Specified
Tenure	1945 (Excluding Maori Dwellings)	1951	1945 (Excluding Maori Dwellings)	1951
Renting or leasing	142,717	148,679	35.44	30.25
Free dwelling provided with job	24,690	31,502	6.13	6.41
Loaned without payment	6,475	9,122	1.61	1.86
Buying on time payment or with table mortgage	72,217	94,625	17.93	19.25
With flat mortgage	54,265	56,296	13.47	11.45
Unspecified mortgage cases		279		0.06
Owned without mortgage	102,358	150,985	25.42	30.72
Not specified	612	2,524
Totals	403,334	494,012	100.00	100.00

The figures shown for the 1945 census are exclusive of dwellings occupied by Maoris, for which full details of tenure are not available. Of the details available, and excluding temporary dwellings and unspecified cases 8,592 (54.84 per cent) were recorded as owned; 4,930 (31.47 per cent) as rented; and 2,144 (13.69 per cent) as rent free.

If Maori dwellings are included in the 1945 figures, the percentages for renting or leasing, rent free, and owned dwellings (including all types of mortgage) are 35.29, 7.96, and 56.75 respectively, compared with 30.25, 8.27, and 61.48 per cent respectively for 1951.

The substantial increase in “owned” dwellings is mainly in the categories owned without mortgage and buying on time payment or with table mortgage; flat mortgages have shown little change in numbers.

Size of Dwelling.—In the next table the same class of dwellings is divided into categories varying according to the number of rooms in each dwelling.

Number of Rooms	Numbers		Percentage of Total Specified
Number of Rooms	1945^*	1951	1945^*	1951
* Figures include all Maori dwellings with the exception of temporary dwellings and tents occupied by Maoris.
1	9,817	9,296	2.35	1.90
2	18,606	20,846	4.46	4.25
3	34,671	39,309	8.30	8.02
4	116,763	124,088	27.97	25.32
5	139,349	167,773	33.38	34.23
6	66,570	85,709	15.94	17.49
7	19,887	27,205	4.76	5.55
8	7,028	9,518	1.68	1.94
9	2,456	3,350	0.59	0.68
10 and over	2,358	3,040	0.57	0.62
Not specified	1,609	3,878
Totals	419,114	494,012	100.00	100.00

The outstanding feature of the above table lies in the marked concentration of medium-sized dwellings. Single-roomed dwellings decreased by 521; all other dwellings showed increases. As a proportion of the total, medium-sized dwellings of from three to six rooms remained practically constant, while the larger-sized dwelling of seven or more rooms increased from 7.60 per cent to 8.79 per cent between 1945 and 1951.

Occupants of Dwellings.—In this case the classification is according to the number of occupants per dwelling.

Total Occupants	Number of Cases		Percentage of Total
Total Occupants	1945^*	1951	1945^*	1951
* Figures include all Maori dwellings with the exception of temporary dwellings and tents occupied by Maoris.
1	37,794	44,934	9.02	9.10
2	91,769	115,369	21.90	23.35
3	89,222	102,905	21.29	20.83
4	81,780	97,247	19.51	19.68
5	54,940	63,857	13.11	12.93
6	30,606	35,177	7.30	7.12
7	15,930	16,950	3.80	3.43
8	8,055	8,450	1.92	1.71
9	4,225	4,197	1.01	0.85
10 and over	4,793	4,926	1.14	1.00
Totals	419,114	494,012	100.00	100.00

In any comparison between the 1945 and 1951 figures in the above table it must be kept in mind that the occupancy figures for the 1945 census were affected by troop movements. Besides 45,381 members of the armed forces overseas at the 1945 census, there were many thousands in the forces in New Zealand, located in camps or on stations, or on demobilization leave, etc.

Rooms by Occupants.—The following table gives the number of occupants of dwellings of various sizes at the 1951 census, and also shows the average number of occupants per dwelling.

Number of Occupants	Number of Rooms
Number of Occupants	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10 and Over	Not Specified	Total
1	5,992	6,454	6,330	11,089	8,603	3,927	1,147	447	143	115	687	44,934
2	1,570	7,349	13,095	34,372	35,362	15,689	4,389	1,571	515	495	962	115,369
3	707	3,440	8,584	29,350	35,065	17,041	5,042	1,779	638	549	710	102,905
4	404	1,702	5,844	25,223	37,119	17,942	5,428	1,799	632	570	584	97,247
5	215	756	2,649	12,832	26,446	13,520	4,602	1,478	500	465	394	63,857
6	130	452	1,219	5,800	13,872	8,588	3,009	1,074	418	358	257	35,177
7	94	272	641	2,588	6,112	4,417	1,675	606	207	208	130	16,950
8	73	169	376	1,258	2,715	2,286	885	360	133	126	69	8,450
9	41	92	214	690	1,219	1,105	473	184	68	74	37	4,197
10 and over	70	160	357	886	1,260	1,194	555	220	96	80	48	4,926
Totals	9,296	20,846	39,309	124,088	167,773	85,709	27,205	9,518	3,350	3,040	3,878	494,012
Average number of occupants	1.84	2.43	2.94	3.32	3.80	408	4.31	4.33	4.42	4.40	3.33	3.61

It should be noted that the dwellings used in the computations are inclusive of flats and tenements. The inclusion of Maori dwellings tends to increase the average number of occupants.

Materials of Outer Walls.—The last table of this series gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls are constructed.

Material of Outer Walls	1951 Census
Wood	374,566
Stone	1,086
Concrete, including concrete blocks	14,465
Concrete and wood	1,375
Brick, including hollow brick	34,561
Brick and wood	3,680
Brick and other material	2,939
Wood and iron	5,270
Wood and proprietary wallboard	2,407
Iron	5,357
Asbestos	1,543
Proprietary wallboard of asbestos type	19,002
Rough cast on wood (lathe and plaster)	5,313
Rough cast n.o.d.	8,209
Other materials	5,432
Not specified	8,807
Total	494,012

Over 75 per cent of dwellings in New Zealand are of wooden construction, but concrete, brick, proprietary wallboards, and rough cast all showed substantial increases in numbers since 1945. The use of stone slates in building construction has shown a very great increase, although the numbers built in this material are still small compared with the more orthodox materials.

STATE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION.—A programme of direct home building by the Government was commenced in March 1937. The purpose of this branch of the Government's activities was to provide homes of a modern standard of comfort to be let at reasonable rentals to people in the medium and lower income groups. The legislative provision for this programme is contained in the Housing Act 1919, the administration of which was transferred to the State Advances Corporation by the State Advances Corporation Act 1936. To give effect to the Government's policy a special Housing Construction Branch of the State Advances Corporation was set up in September 1936. Early in 1944 the control of the Housing Construction Branch was transferred to the Ministry of Works.

The State Advances Corporation Act 1936 made provision for a special Housing Account with the Reserve Bank, and the Statutes Amendment Act 1936 provided the necessary authority to acquire land under the Public Works Act 1928 for the purpose of housing. The actual construction work is mainly carried out by contractors, tenders being called for the various contracts. The Housing Division has also built a number of houses by trainees under the scheme for the rehabilitation of returned servicemen. Up to 31 March 1953 contracts had been arranged with the Rehabilitation Department for the labour involved in 4,443 houses situated in forty-two localities. While most of these houses are situated in the larger towns, in a few instances the rehabilitation trainees have been employed in isolated districts where the Housing Division has been unable to engage private contractors. As the recruitment of ex-servicemen trainees has ceased, the construction of houses by trainees is rapidly drawing to a close, and at 31 March 1953 only 65 trainees were employed on State housing. In past years shops were built in some State housing settlements for letting purposes, but the current policy is to sell sites (with a preferential allocation in favour of ex-servicemen) for the erection of shops under private ownership. On completion, houses are handed over to the State Advances Corporation for administration. It also administers the shops built in earlier years.

In addition to the general scheme, the organization of the Housing Construction Division is utilized for the purpose of erecting houses for other Government Departments, and houses have been built for twenty-five Departments of State. Units completed under this arrangement totalled 4,445 up to 31 March 1953, with a further 485 in the constructional stage. Included in this total are houses built for armed forces personnel. In the period 1 April 1950 to 31 March 1953 contracts were let for the construction of 1,037 houses for the Navy, Army, and Air Force. A subsidiary scheme within this general framework is of interest. It covers the erection of houses and other farm buildings for returned servicemen. The scheme was recommended by the Farm Sub-committee of the Rehabilitation Department and approved by the Land Settlement Board. The land is purchased, subdivided, developed, and the houses and other buildings taken over by the Department of Lands and Survey. Each farm is valued on the basis of production, and the tenants, who are chosen by ballot, have the option of purchase or lease. At 31 March 1953, 994 houses and 3,433 ancillary farm buildings had been completed, while under-construction figures were 31 and 11 respectively. A second scheme, for which applications were considered from 1946 to 1 September 1949, dealt with the construction of portable prefabricated houses to meet the special conditions found in the timber-milling industry. By 31 March 1953, 691 of these housing units had been completed and 2 more were in course of construction.

The Government has commenced a building scheme by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works in which dwellings of State house standard are being erected for sale to members of the community who are ineligible for a State house—i.e., prevented by reason of income restrictions (at present £680 per annum) from making application. In these cases the house is erected complete, but fencing, laying of paths, etc., is carried out by the purchaser.

In the four chief centres the Government also proposes that the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works will commence the erection of houses which when partially built will be sold to private individuals, who will do the finishing such as painting, interior finishing, paths, fences, etc.

The following table shows the cumulative progress, since the inception of the present housing scheme, at 31 March of each year given.

Cumulative Totals to 31 March	Units in Contracts Let	Houses Completed and Handed Over to—		House-unit Sections Acquired
Cumulative Totals to 31 March	Units in Contracts Let	State Advances Corporation	Other Government Departments and Miscellaneous	House-unit Sections Acquired
	Units	Units	Units	Units
1943	16,799	14,619	273	36,613
1944	19,487	15,475	297	40,184
1945	22,349	17,392	349	42,061
1946	25,331	20,248	478	45,838
1947	28,424	22,590	731	48,751
1948	32,128	25,465	1,066	50,510
1949	36,355	28,879	1,845	51,426
1950	40,586	32,267	2,464	54,470
1951	42,512	35,633	3,133	52,666
1952	45,042	37,750	3,793	55,224
1953	49,233	39,974	4,445	58,923

The total labour force employed directly by the Housing Division and contractors at 31 March 1953 was 4,350, as compared with 3,276 in 1952, 3,963 in 1951, and 6,552 in 1950.

The next table gives particulars of the cumulative expenditure, since its inception, of the Housing Division at 31 March of each year given.

Cumulative Totals to 31 March	Land and Services	Dwelling Construction		Plant and Equipment	Interest During Construction	Administration	Total
Cumulative Totals to 31 March	Land and Services	Housing Branch	Other Departments	Plant and Equipment	Interest During Construction	Administration	Total
	£	£	£	£	£	£	£
1943	3,665,500	17,316,200	325,200	68,300	117,600	685,700	22,178,500
1944	4,212,300	18,326,200	523,700	69,800	154,000	659,100	23,945,100
1945	4,934,000	21,690,600	678,600	76,300	226,200	785,000	28,390,700
1946	5,621,000	25,840,800	1,203,500	88,500	276,400	985,800	34,016,000
1947	6,518,500	30,050,500	1,864,000	105,800	353,100	1,228,500	40,120,400
1948	7,347,100	34,629,300	2,632,600	148,100	402,300	1,600,000	46,759,400
1949	8,522,400	40,515,800	4,000,500	168,700	472,200	1,966,100	55,645,700
1950	9,881,800	47,686,900	5,643,600	190,200	582,200	2,369,600	66,354,300
1951	11,115,700	54,278,400	7,210,300	193,200	687,300	2,723,500	76,208,400
1952	12,267,200	58,663,200	8,245,400	194,900	770,700	3,078,500	83,219,900
1953	13,906,500	65,190,900	9,371,100	200,400	863,200	3,441,700	92,973,800

In addition to the cumulative net expenditure of £92,973,800 to 31 March 1953, liabilities and commitments at that date amounted to a further £9,775,557.

The total cost of administration (exclusive of interest charges) from the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1953 was £3,441,700, or 3.88 per cent of the net expenditure (excluding administrative costs and interest). This percentage for the year ended 31 March 1953 was 3.91.

In general, the size of dwelling units built by the Housing Division is determined by the size of the families seeking accommodation. The tendency in later years has been to build a higher proportion of larger-sized houses than formerly. The following table provides an analysis according to the number of bedrooms contained in units built during 1951–52 and 1952–53, together with the total to the end of March 1953.

—	Units Completed
	1951–52		1952–53		Total to Date
	Number of Units	Percentage of Total	Number of Units	Percentage of Total	Number of Units	Percentage of Total
One-bedroom flats and bed-sitting room					231	0.5
One bedroom	126	4.5	80	3.0	2,898	6.5
Two bedrooms	694	25.0	718	26.0	17,182	39.0
Three bedrooms	1,767	63.5	1,783	64.0	21,208	48.0
Four bedrooms and over	189	7.0	196	7.0	2,800	6.0
Totals	2,776	100.0	2,777	100.0	44,319	100.0

MAORI HOUSING.—Financial assistance to Maoris in need of houses is available under the Maori Housing Act 1935 towards the purchase of building sites and erection of dwellings thereon, additions and repairs to existing houses, purchase of houses, installation of water, power, and other services. The lending authority is the Board of Maori Affairs. Section 18 of the Maori Housing Amendment Act 1938 established a fund called the Special Maori Housing Fund, and use of this fund enables the Board of Maori Affairs to provide houses for Maoris who, in the opinion of the Board, come under the definition of indigent and who are unable to furnish the security or make the payments which the Board would ordinarily require in respect of advances under the principal Act.

In addition to providing finance, the Department through its building organization attends to construction where contracts from private building contractors cannot be obtained inside the loan limits plus the applicant's cash resources. In practice this means that the bulk of houses being erected for Maoris are built by the Department's building organization, and generally these are in rural areas where it is not possible to obtain private building contractors. The Department has established a comprehensive series of standard plans covering all the different bedroom types to meet the special needs of the Maori people. In determining its building programme the Department tries to ensure that the most needy cases are housed in order of urgency and merit. Where it is evident that the Maori applicant can afford a house built by a private contractor he is expected and encouraged to use that avenue when possible.

Maoris qualify for suspensory loans under the Suspensory Loan Scheme, with houses built since 1 December 1949 either by the Department or by private building contractors, on the same terms and conditions as apply to Europeans. In some of the larger towns and cities special Maori State housing allocation committees are established and they receive a special quota of State rental houses based on the proportion of urgent Maori applications held in relation to Europeans.

The following summary shows the number of new houses built, the number of houses purchased, and the number of renovations and additions to houses, etc., from inception of the building organization of the Department to 31 March 1952 and 1953.

—	Total to 31 March
—	1952	1953
Houses erected	3,292	3,748
Houses purchased	364	382
Other building work (renovations and additions to houses, cowsheds, and other buildings)	2,752	3,084
Totals	6,408	7,214

In addition to the above, there were 178 houses and 99 other building works in course of erection at 31 March 1953.

BUILDING PERMITS: Annual Statistics.—Statistics of building permits issued in cities, boroughs, and town districts during each March year have been collected for 1921–22 and subsequent years—for use, inter alia, as an aid in compiling inter-censal estimates of population. These statistics afford a conspectus of changes in building activity from year to year. There is, however, a factor which may affect to some extent the accuracy of the figures as a guide to short-period fluctuations in building activity. This applies more particularly to buildings other than dwellinghouses, and is found in the fact that the value shown represents, in the great majority of instances, the total contract price or estimated cost of the whole building. A permit for a large building involves building activity spread over months, or even years, whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown wholly for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies with greater force to the monthly statistics than to the annual statistics.

Building Permits in Urban and Rural Districts Combined.—The following table gives a summary for New Zealand of building permits (including State building operations) for the years ended 31 March 1952 and 1953.

—	1951–52			1952–53
—	New Dwellings: Number	New Dwellings: Value	Total All Buildings: Value	New Dwellings: Number	New Dwellings: Value	Total All Buildings: Value
		£	£		£	£
Urban districts	12,443	27,762,908	46,279,391	11,700	28,045.241	47,179,870
Rural districts	4,668	8,694,155	12,963,868	4,517	9,232,993	13,948,124
Totals	17,111	36,457,063	59,243,259	16,217	37,278,234	61,127,994

The scope of urban districts was extended from 1 April 1951 by the inclusion of a further five counties, which were mainly urban in character.

Although statistics of building activity have been collected since 1921–22 for urban districts, the collection of rural statistics was not commenced until 1937–38. In many cases for rural districts estimates only were supplied, while in some instances, no data whatever could be obtained. Since 1947–48, however, the Building Controller's authorizations have been used where counties could not supply information. While possibly the inclusion of authorizations may overstate the position slightly, their use has enabled a complete coverage for counties.

The following table shows a summary of New Zealand building activity since 1937–38.

Year Ended 31 March	Permits Issued for New Dwellings			Total Value, All New Dwellings	Total Value, All Building
Year Ended 31 March	Private	Government	Total	Total Value, All New Dwellings	Total Value, All Building
* Value of new private dwellings in rural areas not available in these years.
				£	£
1938	4,877	2,167	7,044	5,933,906	11,568,968
1939	5,601	4,110	9,711	7,024,126^*	14,246,784
1940	5,299	4,387	9,686	7,162,248^*	13,025,705
1941	4,894	3,983	8,877	6,128,307^*	12,788,172
1942	4,282	2,890	7,172	5,082,799^*	10,515,341
1943	1,020	614	1,634	750,863^*	3,459,585
1944	2,742	2,194	4,936	3,640,808^*	9,909,322
1945	5,367	3,334	8,701	8,141,564^*	15,132,005
1946	7,359	2,997	10,356	13,937,294	20,731,634
1947	9,808	3,068	12,876	18,121,180	26,880,159
1948	10,538	3,510	14,048	21,205,232	29,315,141
1949	11,606	4,530	16,136	25,583,361	36,008,697
1950	12,262	5,395	17,657	28,999,312	42,477,415
1951	14,551	3,298	17,849	32,727,973	48,769,604
1952	14,297	2,814	17,111	36,457,063	59,243,259
1953	12,607	3,610	16,217	37,278,234	61,127,994

Building Permits in Urban Districts.—In the next table, figures since the inauguration of the statistics are given under two headings, one showing the totals for all urban districts covered in the particular year, and the second showing the totals for only cities, boroughs, and town districts. Data in respect of rural building will be found later in this Section.

Year Ended 31 March	All Urban Districts Covered			Cities, Boroughs, and Town Districts
Year Ended 31 March	Number of New Private Dwellings	Value of New Buildings: All Classes	Total Value All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)	Number of New Private Dwellings	Value of New Buildings: All Classes	Total Value All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)
NOTE.—The large increase in urban district figures for 1951–52 came largely from the inclusion therein for the first time of five counties previously included in rural districts.
		£	£		£	£
1922	4,330	4,602,834	5,283,012	4,330	4,602,834	5,283,012
1923	5,025	6,124,439	7,101,681	5,025	6,124,439	7,101,681
1924	6,245	7,708,933	9,146,479	6,245	7,708,933	9,146,479
1925	5,805	7,823,331	9,304,160	5,805	7,823,331	9,304,160
1926	6,850	8,613,549	10,169,530	6,850	8,613,549	10,169,530
1927	7,179	9,357,977	11,019,389	6,752	8,944,334	10,575,535
1928	5,690	8,127,732	9,665,216	5,388	7,843,773	9,353,055
1929	5,212	7,326,464	9,054,421	4,871	6,988,408	8,691,962
1930	5,747	7,917,349	9,959,877	5,228	7,362,998	9,336,301
1931	3,463	4,240,238	5,473,395	3,200	4,056,274	5,260,620
1932	1,555	1,936,447	2,728,486	1,415	1,847,508	2,620,651
1933	1,496	1,874,795	2,474,866	1,306	1,773,313	2,341,690
1934	2,649	3,141,897	3,889,890	2,416	2,987,773	3,718,717
1935	2,892	2,742,495	3,643,688	2,655	2,612,684	3,492,062
1936	4,140	4,695,736	5,929,803	3,835	4,468,126	5,674,198
1937	4,555	4,927,326	6,581,233	4,207	4,675,363	6,273,444
1938	6.043	8,217,400	10,291,613	5,568	7,876,352	9,909,225
1939	8,093	10,196,476	12,126,458	7,425	9,5)5,747	11,431,491
1940	8,086	9,790,118	11,418,434	7,429	9,136.670	10,714,396
1941	7,147	9,147,885	11,060,101	6,099	8,024,595	9,763,200
1942	5,503	6,958,997	8,984,177	4,989	6,436,113	8,185,669
1943	863	1,363,091	2,661,947	767	1,269,330	2,500,240
1944	3,604	5,528,583	8,309,861	3,220	4,975,325	7,587,983
1945	6,698	10,405,115	12,756,999	6,170	9,583,539	11,800,649
1946	7,736	14,314,686	16,944,395	7,027	13,230,581	15,736,941
1947	9,516	17,626,543	21,159,504	8,356	15,450,534	18,773,002
1948	9,854	18,280,334	21,426,625	8,890	16,618,957	19,559,814
1949	11,102	21,971,602	26,430,453	9,585	18,835,614	23,045,773
1950	11,530	24,219,487	30,365,528	9,613	20,720,772	26,513,536
1951	11,379	27,679,694	35,030,647	9,510	23,789,841	30,659,763
1952	12,443	36,618,571	46,279,391	9,188	29,421,224	38,117,762
1953	11,700	37,082,033	47,179,870	8,836	30,079,506	39,340,882

The figures shown for “cities, boroughs, and town districts” cover the districts existing in the year to which the statistics refer. Since these statistics were inaugurated, however, several new boroughs and town districts have been created and are accordingly included, while a few town districts have been excluded consequent on their abolition as town districts and their merger into counties. The net result has, however, been a gradual accession which has tended to raise slightly the figures for later years.

The accompanying diagram, illustrating building-permit figures relating to all cities, boroughs, and town districts in the year concerned and to New Zealand totals since 1937–38, shows the low level to which building operations fell during the depression period. The subsequent gradual recovery, accelerated by the Government's programme of house building which commenced in 1936–37, the effect of war conditions, and the post-war impetus to building, are all clearly illustrated.

Statistics relating to new private dwellings include units in transit camps run by State or local authorities where these are in effect of a semi-permanent nature. However, “workmen's huts,” etc., as in railways or public-works camps, are not included.

Dwelling statistics also include all flats commenced, each flat in a block being treated as a single “new dwelling.” During the year ended 31 March 1953, 58 blocks of flats, totalling 215 individual dwelling units, were commenced in urban districts.

The following table shows details for the last ten years of blocks of flats included in the numbers of dwelling permits issued for cities, boroughs, and town districts.

Year Ended 31 March	Cities, Boroughs, and Town Districts
Year Ended 31 March	Blocks	Number of Flats
1944	39	149
1945	85	390
1946	79	353
1947	80	238
1948	74	263
1949	67	236
1950	62	174
1951	51	141
1952	64	223
1953	54	207
1954	73	189

Urban Districts — Flats

Revised basis as from 1 April 1951.

Year ended 31 March	Blocks of Flats	Number of flats
1952	66	227
1953	57	213
1954	80	207
1955	129	397

These figures cover only buildings erected as blocks of flats. Where conversion of existing private dwellings into flats has taken place, the value is included in alterations and additions.

The statistics quoted in the preceding paragraphs relate only to the main types of building activity. More detailed statistics are included in the annual Statistical Report on Population and Buildings, where, inter alia, permit statistics for individual towns, counties, etc., are given.

The total value of urban building operations in the year 1952–53 again continued the upward trend apparent in recent years, and the value, £47,179,870, constituted a record for the thirty-two years during which building permit statistics have been collected. The increase over 1951–52 was £900,479, or 1.9 per cent.

The number of permits issued in 1952–53 for the erection of new dwellings was 11,700, a decrease of 743 compared with 1951–52. The value of dwellings, however, showed an increase of £282,333. It is interesting to note that in 1951–52 the average value of a dwelling was £2,231, as against £2,397 in 1952–53.

New “other buildings” together with alterations and additions showed an increase in value of £618,146, or 3.3 per cent, as compared with 1951–52.

Statistics for years prior to 1951–52, quoted in the following table, are on the revised basis of urban districts as from 1 April 1951, and are thus comparable with those for later years.

BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED—URBAN DISTRICTS

Year Ended 31 March	Dwellings		Other New Buildings and Alterations and Additions: Value	Total Value: All Buildings
Year Ended 31 March	Number	Value	Other New Buildings and Alterations and Additions: Value	Total Value: All Buildings
		£	£	£
1949	12,270	20,430,689	7,823,560	28,254,249
1950	13,134	22,711,239	10,336,341	33,047,580
1951	13.102	25,165,138	12,708,801	37,873,939
1952	12,443	27,762,908	18,516,483	46,279,391
1953	11,700	28,045,241	19,134,629	47,179,870

The following table arranges districts with building values of over £250,000 in 1952–53 in descending order.

1952–53
	£
Auckland City	3,936,081
Christchurch City	2,570,828
Wellington City	1,995,455
Waitemata County	1,865,109
Palmerston North City	1,740,743
Waimairi County	1,583,066
Lower Hutt City	1,562,908
Hamilton City	1,559,263
Dunedin City	1,459,256
Mount Roskill Borough	1,236,971
Hutt County	1,130,638
Mount Wellington Borough	1,066,787
Makara County	1,049.272
Manukau County	960,758
New Plymouth City	798,425
Upper Hutt Borough	708,083
Takapuna Borough	669,257
Gisborne Borough	663,786
Invercargill City	645,060
Nelson City	641,882
Hastings Borough	638,493
Timaru City	614,773
Napier City	593,621
Tauranga Borough	579,713
Wanganui City	565,821
Papatoetoe Borough	524,846
One Tree Hill Borough	488,461
Paparua County	418,152
Whangarei Borough	394,974
Masterton Borough	393,646
Taieri County	375,263
Te Awamutu Borough	339,670
Mount Albert Borough	325,588
Blenheim Borough	320,805
Riccarton Borough	315,480
Levin Borough	304,517
Rotorua Borough	285,560
Motueka Borough	276,866
Whakatane Borough	270,336
Heathcote County	265,835
Papakura Borough	254,225
Putaruru Borough	250,502

Building Permits in Rural Districts.—In view of the importance of the housing question a collection of data from counties was inaugurated in the year ended 31 March 1938. For some years building statistics had been obtained from the counties of Hutt, Makara, Waimairi, and Heathcote, and the road district (Panmure Township) of Eden County and these were included in urban building statistics. As from 1 April 1951 the counties of Waitemata, Manukau, Paparua, Peninsula, and Taieri, previously included in rural districts, were added to the urban building statistics. The great majority of the population in these counties and in the road district is urban, and they were included in order to obtain more complete statistics of building activity for the urban areas of Auckland, Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

The tabulation for rural districts was therefore confined to the remaining counties. Road Boards are functioning on Waiheke Island, and these are included in the collection. Most rural districts were able to supply the information required, which in their case was limited to the number of private dwellings and the total value of all buildings. In the few instances where counties were unable to furnish reliable building data the Building Controller's authorizations have been incorporated in the statistics. The use of these figures will result in a slight overstatement if any authorizations are not proceeded with, but it provides complete coverage for rural districts.

Data are available for all Government building in rural districts and have been included in the total for rural building.

Excluding the nine counties and the road district which are included in urban districts, the total value of rural building in 1952–53 amounted to £13,948,124, an increase of £984,256 as compared with the 1951–52 figures for the same districts. The number of new dwellings was 4,517, a decrease of 151 from the preceding year.

The following table arranges counties with building values of over £250,000 in 1952–53 in descending order.

1952–53
County	£
Southland	717,919
Matamata	686,676
Hawke's Bay	685,322
Waikato	589,190
Waipa	547,506
Tauranga	536,308
Waimea	517,889
Rotorua	445,424
Opotiki	317,310
Whakatane	305,871
Franklin	303,506
Halswell	292,736
Piako	274,536

The total value of building for the nine counties and the road district included in the total for urban districts in 1952–53 was £7,838,988 and the number of new dwellings 2,864. The comparable value for 1951–52 was £7,654,936 and the number of new dwellings 3,115.

State Building Operations.—The erection of houses by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works was commenced in March 1937 with 22 units in Wellington City. Details of units commenced for the last ten years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 March	Urban Districts	Rural Districts
1944	1,850	66
1945	3,211	44
1946	2,630	245
1947	2,603	166
1948	2,656	409
1949	3,641	470
1950	4,130	686
1951	2,020	734
1952	1,914	386
1953	2,880	435

Prior to 1948 details of dwellings were tabulated showing the numbers of single unit and multiple dwellings (including blocks of flats) erected by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works, but this information is no longer available. During the five years ended March 1948, 1,638 multiple dwellings (comprising 3,617 units) were commenced.

The Housing Division has also commenced building schemes by which houses are constructed, either wholly or partially, for sale to purchasers who are ineligible to apply for State rental houses because of the income restriction (refer page 599).

Houses are also erected by the Department of Maori Affairs, under its various development schemes, particulars of which will be found earlier in this Section.

In addition to the above schemes, dwellings are erected by or for the Ministry of Works, Railways Department, Mines Department, Department of Education, etc.

In all, a total of 3,610 Government houses (2,940 in urban and 670 in rural districts) were commenced in 1952–53, compared with 2,814 (1,960 in urban and 854 in rural districts) in 1951–52.

The following table shows urban districts in which twenty or more houses were commenced during 1951–52 and 1952–53 by the various Government Departments concerned.

—	New Dwellings
—	1951–52	1952–53
Cities and Boroughs—
Takapuna	60	56
New Lynn	22
Auckland City	249	412
Mount Wellington	20	156
Ellerslie	57
Mount Roskill	153	138
Otahuhu	24
Hamilton City	101	105
Matamata	20	21
Putaruru		29
Tauranga		50
Rotorua	26	22
Gisborne	46	34
Napier City	25	64
Hastings	28	29
New Plymouth City	45	48
Wanganui City	23	37
Palmerston North City	76	128
Lower Hutt City	120	186
Masterton		31
Nelson City		29
Rangiora		21
Riccarton	3	69
Christchurch City	56	163
Timaru City	29	60
Oamaru		23
Dunedin City	84	34
Green Island		37
Milton		27
Invercargill City		30
Other	307	297
Totals	1,604	2,336
Independent town districts—
Taupo		36
Other	16	40
Totals	16	76
Dependent town districts	2
Road district and counties—
Waitemata County		29
Hutt County	39	34
Makara County	79	210
Paparua County		20
Waimairi County	189	152
Taieri County		47
Other	31	36
Totals	338	528
Totals, urban districts	1,960	2,940

Rural districts (counties) in which the number was twenty or more in 1951–52 were: Waipa 21, Taupo 181, Whakatane 23, Marlborough 22, Malvern 39, Waitaki 67, and Tuapeka 219; and in 1952–53, Waikato 26, Waipa 23, Matamata 47, Rotorua 49, Taupo 29, Whakatane 23, Waimarino 42, Rangitikei 50, Manawatu 20, Marlborough 35, Springs 29, and Tuapeka 41.

In 1951–52, in addition to the 2,814 houses, value £6,203,991, 132 new business premises, etc., value £2,635,712, were commenced. Alterations and additions amounted to £1,362,867, and the total value of all State building operations was £10,202,570. In addition to the 3,610 dwellings, value £9,375,749, commenced in 1952–53, 158 new buildings, other than dwellings, of value £2,376,360, were commenced, while alterations and additions amounted to £1,481,315. The total value of building operations by the Government covered in these statistics was therefore £13,233,424 in 1952–53.

Monthly Permit Statistics.—While the annual statistics of building permits issued afford an indication of year-to-year changes in the value and volume of building activity, short-period movements in building activity are of considerable interest, particularly in times of rapid economic change. With the purpose of providing information as to current changes in building activity, monthly statistics of building permits are collected from the larger centres.

The population growth of some boroughs and increases in building activity in some counties adjacent to the main cities made it desirable to widen the coverage of these statistics, and an additional twenty-one local authorities were included from 1 April 1951.

These returns now cover 62 per cent of the total population, but represent a considerably higher proportion of the total New Zealand building.

BUILDING PERMITS IN LARGER CENTRES

Month	New Buildings				Alterations to Existing Buildings		Totals
	Dwellings Only		Totals		No.	Value	No.	Value
	No.	Value	No.	Value	No.	Value	No.	Value
1952		£		£		£		£
January	622	1,498,537	703	2,272,107	1,356	477,703	2,059'	2,749,810
February	752	1,800,478	834	2,294,292	1,770	739,537	2,604	3,033,829
March	847	1,949,307	983	3,204,218	2,145	1,443,955	3,128	4,648,173
April	751	1,806,508	876	2,619,465	2,087	595,511	2,963	3,214,976
May	758	1,808,857	867	2,444,657	2,320	722,666	3,187	3,167,323
June	698	1,690,071	808	2,190,860	1,877	639,917	2,685	2,830,777
July	895	2,191,376	1,018	2,838,847	2.161	896,119	3,179	3,734,966
August	788	1,899,508	899	2,527,097	1,973	804,729	2,872	3,331,826
September	949	2,206,275	1,080	2,658,629	2,015	756,165	3,095	3,414,794
October	918	2,219,669	1,018	2,926,501	1,998	752,058	3,016	3,678,559
November	840	2,036,018	945	3,062,271	1,710	622,594	2,655	3,684,865
December	791	1,845,730	869	2,352,207	1,722	619,582	2,591	2,971,789
1953
January	718	1,841,659	783	2,178,978	1,172	488,286	1,955	2,667,264
February	851	2,170,201	967	2,645,246	1,623	742,245	2,590	3,387,491
March	1,032	2,587,618	1,180	3,645,506	2,208	1,275,933	3,388	4,921,439
April	816	2,098,150	939	2,807,199	1,822	615,522	2,761	3,422,721
May	839	2,091,227	983	2,900,524	2,029	746,711	3,012	3,647,235
June	731	1,842,349	860	2,574,350	1,808	617,266	2,668	3,191,616
July	951	2,411,601	1,093	2,995,514	2,039	948,898	3,132	3,944,412
August	901	2,257,206	1,027	2,866,684	1,878	949,266	2,905	3,815,950
September	1,060	2,646,718	1,223	3,700,387	2,002	838,657	3,225	4,539,044
October	1,030	2,589,189	1,178	3,543,291	1,999	906,169	3,177	4,449,460
November	1,011	2,468,861	1,169	3,134,245	1,699	954,347	2,868	4,088,592
December	777	1,965,390	882	2,845,770	1,631	707,713	2,513	3,553,483

DWELLING UNITS COMPLETED.—Local authorities which supply building-permit figures have during the last five years also supplied particulars of new dwelling units which were completed in their districts. In a few instances local authorities were unable to comply with the request, and in these cases estimates have been made derived from authorities issued and other sources. All dwellings completed by the Government are included.

The results of this collection of statistics are given in the following table.

District	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Urban districts	11,600	12,000	12,350	11,900	11,900
Rural districts	3,600	3,800	4,050	4,400	4,200
Totals	15,200	15,800	16,400	16,300	16,100

While absolute accuracy cannot be claimed for these statistics—particularly as regards rural districts—it is believed that they will give reasonably approximate results and enable a comparison of year-to-year changes to be made.

BUILDING PRODUCTION.—The results of a collection of building statistics taken in 1952 are given in the material now presented, which shows, largely in tabular form, the operations of persons and establishments regularly engaged in the building trade. A statement summarizing the activities of owner-builders is given separately, details for this class of building construction being excluded from the tables relating to regular builders.

The scope of the collection represented a reasonably complete coverage of the industry, permits issued by local authorities forming the principal means through which the majority of builders engaged were traced and the required information obtained.

The statistics given in the tables, which refer generally to the year ended 31 March 1952, do not include the construction of railways, roads, streets, bridges, wharves, buildings, etc., by the General Government or by local authorities, except where, in the case of bridges, wharves, buildings, and other similar types of construction, the work was carried out by contract.

All Government building operations carried out by private individuals (State houses, schools, transit camps, hostels, etc.) are included with the exception of Maori housing and the activities of rehabilitation trainees. In regard to the latter, the total number of houses or units completed during the year 1951–52 was—Maori housing, 332; houses completed by rehabilitation trainees, 441.

Regular Builders, 1951–52.—The operations of persons and establishments regularly engaged in the building trade are summarized hereunder, together with comparative figures for the two years 1938–39 and 1947–48.

—		1938–39	1947–48	1951–52
Number of establishments		1,579	2,344	2,948
Persons engaged	No.	14,040	15,153	20,896
Expenditure—
Salaries and wages	£	3,532,687	5,869,468	10,983,762
Materials used and sub-contracts	£	8,952,702	15,392,715	27,764,346
Other expenses	£	451,139	1,103,370	2,332,392
Totals	£	12,936,528	22,365,553	41,080,500
Value of work done—
Buildings (including alterations, additions, repairs)	£	12,786,837	22,801,613	43,251,207
Bridges, wharves, jetties	£	278,543	348,416	362,143
Other construction	£	240,692	655,157	1,779,893
Totals	£	13,306,072	23,805,186	45,393,243
Added value	£	4,353,370	8,412,471	17,628,897

A feature of this industry worth recording is the large number of establishments operating as individuals or partnerships. The relation between these and establishments classified otherwise is shown hereunder for the year 1951–52.

—		Individuals, Partnerships	Private and Public Companies	Co-operatives
Number of establishments		2,467	475	6
Persons engaged	No.	9,514	11,342	40
Expenditure—
Salaries and wages	£	4,613,565	6,345,647	24,550
Materials and sub-contracts	£	14,208,796	13,457,271	98,279
Other	£	1,177,236	1,152,111	3,045
Totals	£	19,999,597	20,955,029	125,874
Value of work done	£	22,305,895	22,948,768	138,580
Added value	£	8,097,099	9,491,497	40,301

A short summary showing value of work, done for 1951–52 and classified by provincial districts is next given.

Provincial District	House Building	Other Building	Maintenance and Repairs	Bridges, Wharves, Jetties	Other Construction	Total
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Auckland	10,361	5,831	438	146	154	16,931
Hawke's Bay	1,213	440	91	5	20	1,769
Taranaki	1,378	361	82	7	10	1,838
Wellington	5,479	3,133	434	114	1,414	10,573
Totals, North Island	18,431	9,765	1,045	272	1,598	31,111
Marlborough	291	107	38	14	71	521
Nelson	960	500	70	6	5	1,540
Westland	80	108	13		7	209
Canterbury	4,211	2,009	351	44	40	6,656
Otago	2,986	1,873	413	27	58	5,357
Totals, South Island	8,528	4,597	885	91	181	14,283
Totals, New Zealand	26,958	14,364	1,929	362	1,780	45,393

Completed Buildings.—The tables following record statistics for regular builders of buildings completed during the year 1951–52. The total value of completions of buildings was £29,980,949, as against the value of work done during the same period of £41,321,809. It is obvious that the statistics do not give a full picture of building completions during the year; however, the coverage is high enough to warrant further classification of the results, particularly in view of the importance of the industry.

The following table shows the various types of buildings completed according to material of outer wall.

—	Timber	Brick Veneer	Brick	Cement and Asbestos Sheet	Stucco	Ferro concrete	Other	Total
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Houses	12,175	4,051	542	1,267	2,687	229	243	21,194
Multiple units	238	55	52	49		24		417
Flats	158	66		16	53	25		318
Schools	1,088	68	25	57	41	111	16	1,405
Business premises	678	143	603	313	111	2,288	137	4,273
Other	1,161	73	193	141	53	680	73	2,375
Totals	15,498	4,456	1,413	1,842	2,946	3,357	469	29,931

The next table gives the number and value of houses completed by size and material of outer wall.

Size (Square Feet)	Timber	Brick Veneer	Brick	Cement and Asbestos Sheet	Stucco	Ferro concrete	Total (Including Other)
NOTE.—The number of houses completed is shown in parentheses.
	£	£	£	£	£	£	£
Under 500	(255)	(4)	(2)	(47)	(13)	(1)	(326)
	159,242	3,250	2,258	45,174	14,848	500	127,272
500– 649	(146)	(5)		(39)	(14)	(2)	(209)
	174,542	7,509		45,474	22,137	3,387	256,730
650– 749	(136)	(14)	(1)	(23)	(17)	(2)	(197)
	218,152	24,091	1,100	32,045	30,573	3,855	316,016
750– 849	(362)	(44)	(2)	(29)	(49)	(2)	(491)
	640,218	88,575	3,367	53,766	95,153	3,100	889,785
850– 949	(831)	(140)	(11)	(95)	(150)	(2)	(1,242)
	1,743,797	300,424	23,382	196,670	322,850	4,000	2,619,132
950–1,049	(1,670)	(333)	(61)	(210)	(220)	(10)	(2,524)
	3,750,961	776,433	132,982	463,782	511,468	21,414	5,703,130
1,050–1,149	(950)	(386)	(37)	(74)	(214)	(15)	(1,698)
	2,343,967	967,177	91,272	186,826	561,287	39,610	4,247,409
1,150–1,249	(484)	(241)	(38)	(37)	(150)	(10)	(974)
	1,364,945	713,544	105,966	103,897	449,255	28,596	2,804,083
1,250–1,499	(312)	(177)	(27)	(20)	(115)	(22)	(680)
	1,041,607	609,801	81,999	63,404	399,834	76,359	2,301,077
1,500 and over	(158)	(132)	(29)	(19)	(64)	(9)	(416)
	737,572	560,130	99,443	75,880	279,496	48,566	1,828,969
	(5,304)	(1,476)	(208)	(593)	(1,006)	(75)	(8,757)
Totals	12,175,003	4,050,934	541,769	1,266,918	2,686,901	229,387	21,193,603

The table following is similar to the preceding one, except that the classification is by locality and size of outer wall.

Provincial District	Timber	Brick Veneer	Brick	Cement and Asbestos Sheet	Stucco	Ferro concrete	Total (Including Other)
NOTE.—The number of houses completed is shown in parentheses.
	£	£	£	£	£	£	£
Auckland	(2,216)	(624)	(51)	(239)	(263)	(12)	(3,422)
	5,102,036	1,845,298	126,479	517,969	735,237	40,794	8,407,089
Hawke's Bay	(259)	(1)	(1)	(22)	(152)	(1)	(442)
	475,630	1,150	658	50,534	420,680	3,729	965,634
Taranaki	(244)	(6)	(1)	(55)	(84)		(391)
	584,919	18,253	4,000	126,821	229,429		965,822
Wellington	(1,123)	(84)	(10)	(160)	(300)	(16)	(1,713)
	2,790,080	208,473	23,286	353,090	782,802	56,823	4,265,654
Totals, North Island	(3,842)	(715)	(63)	(476)	(799)	(29)	(5,968)
	8,952,665	2,073,874	154,423	1,048,414	2,168,148	101,346	14,604,199
Marlborough	(63)	(18)		(7)	(4)	(4)	(100)
	142,328	52,772		15,426	8,000	13,560	243,554
Nelson	(247)	(5)		(15)	(99)	(1)	(368)
	526,660	11,329		33,358	244,837	3,000	821,584
Westland	(23)	(2)	(1)	(1)			(27)
	52,545	5,512	3,250	2,419			63,726
Canterbury	(825)	(354)	(55)	(57)	(22)	(21)	(1,353)
	1,896,748	890,703	147,188	106,399	62,986	57,794	3,211,220
Otago	(304)	(382)	(89)	(37)	(82)	(20)	(941)
	604,057	1,016,744	236,908	60,902	202,930	53,687	2,249,320
Totals, South Island	(1,462)	(761)	(145)	(117)	(207)	(46)	(2,789)
	3,222,338	1,977,060	387,346	218,504	518,753	128,041	6,589,404
Totals, New Zealand	(5,304)	(1,476)	(208)	(593)	(1,006)	(75)	(8,757)
	12,175,003	4,050,934	541,769	1,266,918	2,686,901	229,387	21,193,603

Owner-builders, 1951–52.—The figures quoted represent the activities of persons or firms defined as “owner-builders” who took out building permit during the year ended March 1952 of a value of £500 or more.

For the purposes of these statistics, “owner-builders” are persons or firms actually building their own houses, factories, or shops, etc., or having them built under their own directions without the services of a contractor.

The results of this survey, which was carried out in conjunction with that of regular builders, are summarized as follows.

Type of Construction	Commenced During Year		Completed During Year		Under Construction at End of Year
Type of Construction	No.	Permit Value	No.	Permit Value	No.	Value of Work Done^*
* This value is the owner's estimate of the work done during the year based on the permit value of the job.
		£		£		£
Houses	2,493	5,033,470	1,121	2,102,651	1,372	1,325,835
Multiple units	6	14,750	4	7,250	2	6,000
Flats	5	13,690	3	5,390	2	5,800
Schools	3	3,808	2	2,608	1	800
Business premises	133	541,016	85	248,588	48	136,394
Other buildings	396	373,581	301	209,961	95	75,075
Alterations and additions	326	367,567	195	179,137	131	89,103
Totals		6,347,882		2,755,585		1,639,007

It is emphasized again that the figures for owner-builders do not purport to show the total activity of owner-builders during the year, as no information is available regarding operations of owner-builders who were working on a permit taken out in the previous year or years. As mentioned above, the figures refer only to owner-builders who obtained permits during the year ended 31 March 1952 of a value of £500 or more.

A survey of owner-building was last taken for the year ended 31 March 1948, and a comparison is given for the two years 1947–48 and 1951–52 of the number of houses commenced and completed during the respective years.

—	Houses Commenced	Houses Completed
	Number	Number
1947–48	1,636	797
1951–52	2,493	1,122

A further two tables on owner-builders' activities are now given, both relating to houses commenced during the year 1951–52.

The first table gives the number and permit value of houses commenced by owner-builders, in 1951–52, classified by size and material of outer wall.

Size (Square Feet)	Timber	Brick Veneer	Brick	Cement and Asbestos Sheet	Stucco	Ferro concrete	Total (Including Other)
NOTE.—The number of houses is given in parentheses.
	£	£	£	£	£	£	£
Under 500	(92)		(1)	(69)	(1)	(1)	(168)
	59,005		550	49,009	690	800	112,754
500– 649	(135)	(2)	(3)	(63)	(5)	(8)	(222)
	125,586	2,200	2,600	59,029	5,690	9,200	211,990
650– 749	(81)			(40)	(3)	(1)	(127)
	99,473			49,240	4,000	1,400	156,363
750– 849	(205)		(5)	(56)	(11)	(8)	(300)
	285,620		9,800	84,455	20,945	11,402	438,177
850– 949	(143)	(3)	(9)	(55)	(12)	(9)	(242)
	265,220	6,500	17,580	92,584	25,810	15,400	443,694
950–1,049	(181)	(12)	(19)	(52)	(24)	(12)	(308)
	377,178	25,650	40,980	102,177	48,315	24,000	635,000
1,050–1,149	(122)	(18)	(30)	(37)	(32)	(27)	(285)
	286,845	41,329	67,900	75,105	73,390	57,862	647,167
1,150–1,249	(137)	(18)	(32)	(42)	(21)	(20)	(291)
	329,210	46,822	79,160	98,177	50,920	43,700	704,239
1,250–1,499	(130)	(26)	(45)	(51)	(28)	(36)	(337)
	363,211	76,815	131,313	137,700	77,600	99,017	550,966
1,500 and over	(88)	(13)	(24)	(21)	(16)	(32)	(213)
	302,771	43,906	80,271	73,147	54,450	103,660	733,120
	(1,314)	(92)	(168)	(486)	(153)	(154)	(2,493)
Totals	2,494,119	243,222	430,154	820,623	361,810	366,441	5,033,470

The second table shows similar information, in this case, however, classified by locality instead of size.

Provincial District	Timber	Brick Veneer	Brick	Cement and Asbestos Sheet	Stucco	Ferro concrete	Total (Including Other)
NOTE.—The number of houses is given in parentheses.
	£	£	£	£	£	£	£
Auckland	(789)	(60)	(83)	(196)	(51)	(33)	(1,302)
	1,483,770	121,322	233,495	320,571	110,275	86,219	2,642,143
Hawke's Bay	(42)	(1)	(1)	(36)	(23)	(1)	(106)
	85,783	2,500	5,013	72,766	61,070	3,200	235,282
Taranaki	(54)		(1)	(46)	(7)	(5)	(114)
	107,450		2,500	99,813	14,700	12,370	240,333
Wellington	(253)	(6)	(3)	(109)	(50)	(25)	(462)
	542,282	18,150	7,025	189,076	129,405	71,432	993,480
Totals, North Island	(1,138)	(73)	(88)	(387)	(131)	(64)	(1,984)
	2,219,285	201,972	248,033	682,226	315,450	173,221	4,111,238
Marlborough	(19)	(2)		(6)		(1)	(30)
	34,650	4,700		8,075		3,000	55,025
Nelson	(20)			(9)	(13)	(1)	(45)
	31,210			14,449	28,010	2,000	78,769
Westland	(20)		(2)	(1)			(23)
	35,050		5,300	1,500			41,850
Canterbury	(66)	(7)	(29)	(37)	(4)	(58)	(205)
	99,626	15,900	65,945	50,538	9,350	125,190	375,249
Otago	(51)	(10)	(49)	(46)	(5)	(30)	(206)
	74,298	20,650	110,876	63,835	9,000	63,030	371,339
Totals, South Island	(176)	(19)	(80)	(99)	(22)	(90)	(509)
	274,834	41,250	182,121	138,397	46,360	193,220	922,232
Totals, New Zealand	(1,314)	(92)	(168)	(486)	(153)	(154)	(2,493)
	2,494,119	243,222	430,154	820,623	361,810	366,441	5,033,470

Chapter 26. SECTION 26—ELECTRIC POWER AND GAS: GENERATION AND SUPPLY

Table of Contents

26 A—ELECTRIC POWER: GENERATION AND SUPPLY

26 B—GAS: GENERATION AND SUPPLY

26 A—ELECTRIC POWER: GENERATION AND SUPPLY

ELECTRIC power distributed for public use in New Zealand is generated principally by water power, most of the fuel plants in operation being maintained for standby purposes and to meet peak loads. During the year ended 31 March 1952 a total of 3,455,759,030 kWh. was generated by public utilities, of which 3,264,676,361 kWh. (94 per cent) was generated by water power, 169,933,142 kWh. by steam engines, and 21,149,527 kWh. by diesel engines. By far the major portion of this generation is undertaken by Government-owned plants, which, in the period under review, generated 3,039,697,838 kWh. by the use of water power, 166,175,488 kWh. by use of steam engines, and 6,020,990 kWh. by use of diesel engines. A further 6,543,014 kWh. was purchased by public supply authorities from generating stations operated by industrial establishments and fed into the supply system, making a total of 3,462,302,044 kWh. available for distribution.

Construction work on new generating stations was delayed by shortages of labour and materials both during the war and in the years following it, so that the quantity of power available was for a period of several years not sufficient to satisfy the growing demand. Various restrictions on the use of power were found necessary from 1941 until late in 1952, when the supply was increased by the addition of Maraetai to the chain of Waikato stations, and most of these restrictions were removed. Although it was not, until recently, sufficient to meet the full demand, the supply has, nevertheless, been much more than doubled since 1939, as can be seen from the following table of index numbers on base 1938–39 (= 100), compiled from details of the daily average quantity of power retailed or supplied free of charge by supply authorities.

Year Ended 31 March	North Island	South Island	New Zealand
1939	100	100	100
1940	116	114	115
1941	132	126	130
1942	140	136	139
1943	148	144	147
1944	154	155	155
1945	159	166	161
1946	165	178	169
1947	172	198	179
1948	177	198	183
1949	195	221	203
1950	206	242	216
1951	207	251	220
1952	236	268	246
1953	245	284	257

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND.—The earliest legislation concerning the supply of electricity for public use was contained in the Counties Act and Municipal Corporations Act of 1886, which authorized such local bodies to arrange for the supply of electric power in their areas. In 1896 the passing of the Electric Motive Power Act marked the beginning of the State's connection with hydro electricity, by authorizing inquiries into the feasibility of using waterways to supply motive power on the goldfields, but did not actually commit the Government to anything more than inquiries. The Water Power Act 1903 carried matters further and reserved to the Crown, with the exception of certain rights already acquired, the sole right to generate electricity by water power. Finally, in 1910, the Aid to Water Power Works Act authorized the Government to borrow £500,000 for the purpose of hydro-electric development, and the first project was commenced at Lake Coleridge in the following year.

The provisions of these earlier Acts were consolidated in 1928 in the Public Works Act, placing all hydro-electric development under the control of the Public Works Department, and authorizing that Department, in certain circumstances, to delegate the right to use water power for the generation of electricity. Amended regulations concerning delegation of this right were published in 1934, and in 1945 the Electricity Act was passed, creating the State Hydro Electric Department which under this Act took over the control of hydro-electric development previously exercised by the Public Works Department.

EARLY DEVELOPMENT.—In 1887 the first public electric supply plant to operate in New Zealand commenced supplying the gold-mining town of Reefton, in Westland (it is understood that a private plant had been installed by the Phoenix Quartz Mining Co., near Skippers, in 1885). The plant, which was driven by the waters of the Inangahua River, consisted of a 20 kW. dynamo, and supplied power to the residents, presumably for domestic lighting. This was followed in 1888 by the installation of a generating plant in Wellington for street lighting, this consisting at the time of five hundred 20-candlepower lights. This plant was extended in 1892, and supply was then given to private consumers. Stratford, in Taranaki, was next, with a hydro-electric plant set up in 1898, and in 1902 both Christchurch and Dunedin were preparing plans and specifications for hydro-electric schemes. Auckland's first power station, a steam plant, commenced supply in 1908.

DEVELOPMENT OF WATER POWER: North Island.—The Waihi Gold Mining Company, Limited, constructed the first large hydro-electric scheme at Horahora, which supplied power for the operation of a quartz battery at Waikino and the mine at Waihi, supply commencing in 1913. This station was purchased by the Government in 1919, and its capacity of 6,300 kW. was increased to 10,300 kW. in 1925, work being commenced on the Arapuni Station (also on the Waikato River) at about the same time. These two stations were linked when Arapuni came into operation (with one unit) in 1929, but Arapuni was closed down between 1930 and 1932 as a result of damage caused by an earth movement. By 1946 Arapuni had eight units operating, while construction work was in progress at Karapiro (commenced 1940) and Maraetai (commenced 1945). Karapiro station came into operation in 1947–48 with three units, each of 30,000 kW., the Horahora station ceasing generation prior to its site being submerged by the newly-formed Karapiro lake. This artificial lake is 14 miles long and extends up river to Arapuni. Late in 1952 the Maraetai station was brought into operation with three units running at a capacity of 11,000 kW. each. Initially the units operated at half head of water, approximately 100 ft., while the spillway was completed and diversion tunnel plugged. As work progressed the head of water was increased in stages, and by the end of June 1953 the three machines were operating at nearly full head producing 108,000 kW. In January 1954 the fourth machine was commissioned, bringing the capacity up to 144,000 kW., and leaving only one unit to be completed in Maraetai station.

These three stations, Arapuni, Karapiro, and Maraetai, are the first of ten stations envisaged for full development of the Waikato River. Much work has already been done at the next station, Whakamaru, preliminary work for construction has commenced on the site for Atiamuri, and other stations are planned at Waipapa, Ohakuri, Parariki, Aratiatia, and Huka Falls. The stations will make use of practically the whole fall of the Waikato River from Lake Taupo to Cambridge. This river constitutes the principal power source in the North Island, having, in its course of 200 miles from Lake Taupo, a total fall of 1,170 ft. and a final discharge of over 10,000 cusecs. The rate of flow from Lake Taupo is controlled by works constructed in 1941 to conserve the water previously lost in the heavy spring and summer run-off.

The Mangahao station, of 19,200 kW. capacity, was actually the first station constructed in the North Island by the Government. It is situated in the Tararua Ranges, and commenced supply to the surrounding area at the end of 1924.

After the Mangahao station was completed a commencement was made in 1926 on the development of the Waikaremoana scheme, which consists of three stations, Kaitawa, Tuai, and Piripaua. The first station completed, Tuai, commenced supply in 1929 with a capacity of 32,000 kW., increased in 1939 to 52,000 kW.; Piripaua station (40,000 kW.) was completed in 1943; and Kaitawa station (32,000 kW.) in 1948. The three stations are within a distance of five miles, and the power generated by each is collected and transmitted from Tuai, the centre station.

The Waikato, Mangahao, and Waikaremoana stations are linked and operate as one system. Connections also exist with all the larger non-Government generating stations (steam and hydro) and steam plants maintained by the Government. To transmit power for distribution from the new stations on the Waikato a 220,000 volt system is being added to the existing network of 110,000 and 50,000 volt transmission lines and interconnected substations. From Whakamaru collecting station, electricity is now transmitted over the first circuits to the new major substations at Otahuhu in the north and Burnythorpe and Haywards in the south.

South Island.—The Lake Coleridge station was commenced in the year following the passing of the Aid to Water Power Works Act 1910 and completed in 1915. This was the first station wholly designed and constructed by the Government. Its initial capacity was 4,500 kW., but in 1930 this was increased to 34,500 kW. The next station, Waitaki, commenced in 1928, came into use in 1935, and is the largest station in the South Island, its capacity being 75,000 kW. This capacity is being increased by the addition of a further two units of 15,000 kW. each. Further use of the Waitaki River at Black Jack's Point is envisaged, where a station of 320,000 kW. capacity is planned. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo, to ensure an adequate water supply to Waitaki station during the winter, and a single unit of 25,200 kW. incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is in action. Another single unit, also of 25,200 kW., was installed in 1945 at Highbank to make use of the surplus water available in winter from the Rangitata irrigation race.

In 1936 the Government took over the Southland Electric Power Board's system, including the generating station at Lake Monowai, and in 1938 acquired from the Grey Electric Power Board the Arnold station at Kaimata.

Construction of the Cobb River station, with a capacity of 12,000 kW., was commenced by a private company, but the project was taken over and completed by the Government. Supply from this station, which is now being expanded in capacity to 32,000 kW., commenced in 1944.

The Roxburgh station now under construction on the Clutha River will ultimately have a capacity of 320,000 kW.; investigation and access roading work is also being carried on at Lake Rotoroa in connection with the proposed Braeburn scheme of about 30,000 kW. capacity.

A grid system similar to that in the North Island was established in 1939, when the Lake Monowai, Arnold, Lake Coleridge, and Waitaki stations were linked. Work is now in progress on a link to connect Nelson and Marlborough with this network, which will then cover the whole South Island, and include Government standby plants and most local authority plants. A 220,000 volt line is being constructed from Roxburgh to a major substation at Islington. This will eventually bring the power from Roxburgh, and the first section is required for power from the Waitaki extensions.

Government Hydro-electric Stations.—The following table covers all Government hydro-electric plants in operation or for which contracts for machinery have been let, and shows the installed capacity at 31 March 1953 and ultimate installed capacity, together with the static head.

Name of Station	Installed Capacity at 31 March 1953			Ultimate Installed Capacity			Static Head (Feet)
Name of Station	Number of Units	kW.	kVA.	Number of Units	kW.	kVA.	Static Head (Feet)
* Under construction.
Arapuni	8	157,800	180,000	8	157,800	180,000	177
Karapiro	3	90,000	100,000	3	90,000	100,000	100
Maraetai	3	85,000	94,414	5	130,000	200,000	200
Whakamaru^*				4	100,000	111,100	124
Atiamuri^*				3	63,000	70,200	82
Mangahao	5	19,200	24,000	5	19,200	24,000	895
Waikaremoana—
Kaitawa	2	32,000	38,000	2	32,000	38,000	443
Tuai	3	52,000	62,200	3	52,000	62,200	676
Piripaua	2	40,000	44,400	2	40,000	44,400	370
Cobb River	4	12,000	15,000	6	32,000	37,220	1,876
Arnold	2	3,060	3,600	2	3,060	3,600	45
Lake Coleridge	9	34,500	40,640	9	34,500	40,640	493
Highbank	1	25,200	28,000	1	25,200	28,000	330
Waitaki	5	75,000	83,333	7	105,000	116,665	70
Lake Tekapo	1	25,200	28,000	1	25,200	28,000	80–105
Roxburgh^*				8	320,000	355,555	150
Lake Monowai	3	6,000	7,050	3	6,000	7,050	154

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER IN USE.—The following table shows the hydro-electric horsepower actually developed in the various machinery inspection districts at 31 March in each of the years 1948 to 1952. The figures cover all hydro plants exceeding 1 horsepower, whether main or standby, with the exception of plant not exceeding 6 horsepower used exclusively for farming purposes.

District	1948	1949	1950	1951	1952
	Hp.	Hp.	Hp.	Hp.	Hp.
Auckland North	4,074	4,074	4,074	4,074	4,074
Auckland	4,074	4,074	4,074	4,074	4,074
Auckland South	305,750	347,750	347,700	347,700	347,700
Gisborne	305,750	347,750	347,700	347,700	347,700
Hawke's Bay	140,040	166,035	166,023	166,023	166,028
Taranaki North	14,465	14,465	14,465	14,465	14,465
Taranaki	1,592	1,592	1,682	1,682	1,682
Wellington North	32,020	32,020	32,020	32,020	32,020
Wellington	3,035	3,403	3,423	3,423	3,423
Marlborough	3,035	3,403	3,423	3,423	3,423
Nelson	19,375	19,375	18,725	18,725	18,725
Westland	9,270	9,799	9,811	9,811	9,511
Canterbury	95,754	95,754	95,754	95,754	95,754
Canterbury South	95,754	95,754	95,754	95,754	95,754
Otago	128,744	152,414	152,414	152,414	152,804
Southland	11,446	11,446	11,438	11,438	11,438
Totals	765,565	858,127	857,529	857,529	857,624

Of the total of 857,624 hp., 855,291 hp. was for the purpose of electric supply, 1,000 hp. for paper mills, 750 hp. for freezing works, and the remaining 583 hp. for mining and other miscellaneous purposes.

The figures mentioned do not, of course, indicate the ultimate consumption of hydroelectric power in the industries specified, since by far the greatest proportion of the total horsepower used in industry would be drawn from the electric-supply stations and not generated in separate plants.

GEO-THERMAL STEAM.—Investigations are being made at Wairakei into the possibility of using geo-thermal steam for the generation of electricity. Twenty-seven bores which are 4, 6, or 8 inches in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 570 ft. and 3,200 ft. With closed bores well-head pressures vary between 430 and 100 lbs. per square inch. High pressure high-temperature valves are required to control the output from the bores. The quantity of steam discharged from the bores varies considerably, and a large quantity of water is ejected with the steam. The steam contains a trace of gas, mostly carbon dioxide; and in the water about three parts in a thousand are dissolved solids. From what is known there is nothing in the chemical content of the steam to prevent its use for power generation. Proposals are being prepared for initial development with the establishment of a generating station of at least 20,000 kilowatts capacity, and the Government has engaged the services of a consulting engineer to assist with the proposals.

ELECTRIC-POWER BOARDS.—The Counties Act and Municipal Corporations Act passed in 1886 empowered county authorities and municipal corporations to arrange for the supply of electricity in the areas under their control, and until 1918 no provision was made for the constitution of bodies to attend solely to electric supply matters. The authority given to counties was more limited than that given to municipalities, and as their districts were comparatively sparsely settled they were unable, for financial reasons, to provide the same electrical facilities as those enjoyed by the towns. It was estimated by the Public Works Department that in March 1919 about 90 per cent of the people using electricity lived in the cities and larger boroughs, while probably less than 1 per cent lived in country areas. To enable the country districts to be supplied with electricity it was evident that some other form of administration was necessary, and the Electric Power Boards Act 1918 was designed to cope with this problem. The Act permitted two or more districts to combine as an electric-power district, and to establish a Board for the purpose of dealing exclusively with electric supply matters within the new district. Electric Power Boards consist of members representing the constituent districts, and possess rating powers. Previous legislation was consolidated and amended in the Electric Power Boards Act 1925 and subsequent amendments.

While this development made power available to more people outside the towns, the supply to remote areas still presented difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in comparison with the revenue from power sold. It was later agreed by the supply authorities that a council should be set up with power to make a levy of ¼ per cent on the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government owned electrical undertakings and to employ these funds in the form of subsidies to meet the cost of reticulation in remote areas. The Rural Electrical Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March 1953 had approved subsidies on 2,396 route-miles of line, to supply 4,243 consumers. At this date 1,600 miles of line were completed and 3,017 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure is estimated to be £1,473,100, and the annual subsidy approved amounts to £69,748.

The average capital cost of reticulation by Power Boards prior to the passing of the Act was £60 per consumer, this reticulation excluding sparsely populated areas in which unreasonably large guarantees would be required. The extension of supply to these sparsely populated areas, as approved by the Rural Electrical Reticulation Council, is now being carried out at an average cost of £303 per consumer.

An Act of 1930 established an Association of Electric Power Boards and other electric supply authorities under the title of the Electric Power Boards and Supply Authorities Association of New Zealand, this title being changed by the Statutes Amendment Act 1951 to the Electrical Supply Authorities Association of New Zealand. The licensed areas under the control of the Boards and other authorities on 31 March 1953 covered an area of approximately 82,800 square miles, with a population of 2,009,420 people, amounting to 98.6 per cent of the total population of New Zealand.

Of the forty-four Electric Power Boards in existence at 31 March 1952 one was not actively functioning, fifteen operated generating stations as well as distributing power, and the remaining twenty-eight distributed power purchased in bulk, mainly from Government stations. Only two Boards generated sufficient power to meet fully their entire needs; two others found it necessary to purchase small quantities; but the other eleven which operated generating stations purchased most of the power distributed by them.

REVIEW OF OPERATIONS: Government Establishments.—The following table gives details of the operations of Government establishments generating and distributing electricity during the years 1949–50, 1950–51, and 1951–52.

—		Year Ended 31 March
—		1950	1951	1952
Establishments	No.	14	14	14
Persons engaged	No.	1,594	1,675	1,728
Salaries and wages paid	£	795,408	873,771	1,041,284
Consumers	No.	21,426	22,700	22,378
Prime movers—
Hydro	b.h.p.	781,900	781,900	801,900
Thermo	b.h.p.	62,170	95,670	95,670
Totals	b.h.p.	844,070	877,570	897,570
Generators (capacity)—
Main A.C.	kW.	546,760	546,760	571,960
	kVA.	626,223	626,223	654,223
Standby A.C.	kW.	42,750	64,910	64,910
	kVA.	53,226	84,426	80,926
Totals	kW.	589,510	611,670	636,870
Revenue—
Sales of power—
Retail	£	449,419	474,859	474,204
Bulk and interchange	£	3,519,349	3,767,673	4,092,659
Other	£	38,580	50,088	64,934
Total revenue	£	4,007,348	4,292,620	4,631,797
Expenditure—
Power purchased (including interchange)	£	398,774	514,484	290,371
Generating costs	£	524,056	984,492	1,261,741
Transmission and distribution costs	£	476,945	494,486	591,996
Management and general	£	466,975	432,467	494,028
Capital charges	£	1,918,877	1,879,314	2,156,233
Total expenditure	£	3,785,627	4,305,243	4,794,369
Capital outlay—
Total expenditure to date	£	51,272,005	59,987,604	69,888,783
Expenditure during year	£	6,289,610	8,715,599	9,850,487
Generation—
Hydro	(000) kWh.	2,688,607	2,643,481	3,039,698
Steam engines	(000) kWh.	47,678	140,027	166,175
Diesel engines	(000) kWh.	1,187	11,371	6,021
Totals	(000) kWh.	2,737,472	2,794,879	3,211,894
Generation per head of mean population	kWh.	1,447	1,457	1,744
Retail sales	(000) kWh.	132,726	135,208	134,342

Electric Power Boards.—This table gives similar information concerning generation and distribution by Electric Power Boards.

—		Year Ended 31 March
—		1950	1951	1952
Establishments	No.	43	43	43
Persons engaged	No.	1,983	2,122	2,233
Salaries and wages paid	£	926,098	1,059,761	1,299,494
Consumers	No.	335,688	351,670	370,731
Prime movers—
Hydro	b.h.p.	18,776	18,776	20,026
Thermo	b.h.p.	5,957	5,957	5,627
Totals	b.h.p.	24,733	24,733	25,653
Generators (capacity)—
Main A.C.	kW.	9,144	9,144	10,004
	kVA.	10,898	10,773	11,978
Standby D.C.	kW.	315	215	215
A.C.	kW.	7,301	7,401	7,111
	kVA.	9,172	9,272	8,932
Totals	kW.	16,760	16,760	17,330
Revenue—
Sales of power—
Retail	£	5,233,111	5,476,018	6,314,403
Bulk and interchange	£	284,659	332,167	297,580
Other (including rates)	£	115,413	120,928	199,524
Total revenue	£	5,633,183	5,929,113	6,811,507
Expenditure—
Power purchased (including interchange)	£	2,536,182	2,679,876	2,979,454
Generating costs	£	35,464	59,440	58,046
Transmission and distribution costs	£	740,208	832,547	1,014,718
Management and general	£	556,149	634,801	734,191
Capital charges	£	1,328,338	1,372,559	1,465,919
Total expenditure	£	5,196,341	5,579,223	6,252,328
Capital outlay—
Total expenditure to date	£	22,458,688	24,349,078	26,384,822
Expenditure during year	£	1,621,967	1,890,457	2,027,521
Generation—
Hydro	(000) kWh.	59,278	59,128	67,287
Steam engines	(000) kWh.
Diesel engines	(000) kWh.	826	3,792	2,670
Totals	(000) kWh.	60,104	62,920	69,957
Generation per head of mean population	kWh.	32	32	38
Retail sales	(000) kWh.	1,428,775	1,457,424	1,657,089

All Establishments.—The next table sets out the same information in respect of all establishments engaged in the generation and distribution of power. These consisted at 31 March 1952 of fourteen Government owned establishments, three limited liability companies, forty-three Electric Power Boards, ten City Councils, nineteen Borough Councils, four County Councils, and two Town Boards.

—		Year Ended 31 March
—		1950	1951	1952
Establishments	No.	96	96	95
Persons engaged	No.	4,754	4,970	5,107
Salaries and wages paid	£	2,259,905	2,520,235	2,992,533
Consumers	No.	554,640	576,409	599,584
Prime movers—
Hydro	b.h.p.	858,121	858,217	879,647
Thermo	b.h.p.	116,310	114,485	114,155
Totals	b.h.p.	974,431	972,702	993,802
Generators (capacity)—
Main D.C.	kW.	191	46	46
A.C.	kW.	589,855	589,855	616,035
	kVA.	679,428	679,303	708,658
Standby D.C.	kW.	1,496	1,225	1,225
A.C.	kW.	87,774	84,218	83,928
	kVA.	108,913	108,193	104,103
Totals	kW.	679,316	675,344	701,234
Revenue—
Sales of power—
Retail	£	8,431,221	8,751,267	9,882,707
Bulk and interchange	£	4,149,425	4,480,617	4,435,687
Other (including rates)	£	209,820	232,933	529,741
Total revenue	£	12,790,466	13,464,817	14,848,135
Expenditure—
Power purchased (including interchange)	£	4,173,815	4,527,050	4,698,533
Generating costs	£	894,424	1,428,266	1,520,580
Transmission and distribution costs	£	1,693,240	1,811,884	2,145,131
Management and general	£	1,260,093	1,322,876	1,521,198
Capital charges	£	3,687,310	3,759,566	4,141,956
Total expenditure	£	11,708,882	12,849,642	14,027,398
Capital outlay—
Total expenditure to date	£	83,303,494	94,299,003	107,177,432
Expenditure during year	£	8,548,827	10,995,695	12,620,511
Generation—
Hydro	(000) kWh.	2,907,449	2,863,897	3,264,676
Steam engines.	(000) kWh.	119,083	193,426	169,933
Diesel or petrol engines	(000) kWh.	3,738	27,699	21,150
Totals	(000) kWh.	3,030,270	3,085,022	3,455,759
Generation per head of mean population	kWh.	1,602	1,609	1,877
Retail sales	(000) kWh.	2,403,798	2,446,572	2,732,840

Employment.—The foregoing table includes only those employees whose salaries and wages are paid directly out of revenue from the sale of electric power. Further details concerning the number of these employees and the salaries and wages paid to them are given in the following table covering the year ended 31 March 1952.

—	Persons Engaged			Salaries and Wages Paid
—		Males	Females	Totals	To Males	To Females	Totals
	No.	No.	No.	£	£	£
Secretaries, managers, engineers	238		238	220,211		220,211
Clerical staff	944	511	1,455	536,099	163,888	699,987
Wage-earning employees	3,379	35	3,414	2,060,518	11,817	2,072,335
Totals	4,561	546	5,107	2,816,828	175,705	2,992,533

Capital Outlay.—The following figures of capital expenditure during 1951–52, and of capital outlay to 31 March 1952, include capital invested in trading departments and in other activities.

Class of Expenditure	Expenditure During Year Ended 31 March 1952	Total Capital Outlay to 31 March 1952
	£	£
Land in connection with power house	26,438	1,141,374
Headworks, pipe lines, etc.	1,082,076	17,347,612
Power-house buildings, cottages, etc.	656,157	4,166,053
Generating plant	172,565	6,202,463
Special standby plant	3,460	869,253
Main transmission line and main substations	3,744,431	25,387,771
Distribution system, substations, land, cottages, etc.	1,526,421	22,569,533
Public (street) lighting	35,115	589,063
Office and store buildings, workshops, garages, houses, and service buildings	361,859	2,671,009
Loose tools, meters, instruments, furniture, trucks, motor cars, equipment, and stocks	545,319	5,077,748
Interest during construction	707,150	4,845,215
Loan conversion premiums	Cr. 420	56,621
Miscellaneous (work under construction, cost of raising loans, law costs, etc., and other capital expenditure)	3,759,940	16,036,493
Total capital outlay	12,620,511	106,960,208
Capital cash on hand and investments of capital		276,443
Capital funds used to finance advances to consumers and trading departments		131,488
Total capital assets		107,368,139

Additions to the capital value of all electrical systems during 1951–52 totalled approximately £12,859,000, while deductions—i.e., sales and amounts written off—amounted to approximately £238,000. The previous table shows for each item the net expenditure only during the year.

Of the total capital additions of £12,859,000 during 1951–52, £9,964,000 was contributed by the Government, £2,076,000 by Electric Power Boards, £807,000 by other local authorities, and £12,000 by companies. The chief items of Government expenditure were: major works under construction, £3,779,000; other additions to generation system, £1,756,000; transmission system, £3,453,000; distribution system, £112,000.

Local-authority expenditure during 1951–52 included £235,000 on generation systems, £331,000 on transmission systems, and £1,478,000 on distribution systems.

Capital Receipts.—The various sources for the capital expenditure shown in the previous table are summarized in the following table.

Total loans raised—	£	£
Loan liability at 31 March 1952	78,885,826
Reserve created by loan repayments to date	16,641,599
		95,527,425
Appropriations from revenue		11,410,973
Other capital reserves—i.e., capital profits and accretions		33,277
Temporary advances, capital creditors, etc.		396,464
Total capital receipts		£107,368,139

Where assets have been scrapped or written down, and the capital expenditure thereby reduced, corresponding amounts have been written off the appropriate capital reserves—i.e., reserves created by loan repayments and the capital expenditure out of revenue.

General Balance Sheet.—The following table summarizes the general assets and liabilities—i.e., capital items are excluded—as at 31 March 1952, in addition to setting out the reserves and invested funds.

Liabilities	£	Assets	£
Sundry creditors	3,193,241	Trading department assets, stocks, etc.	4,507,082
Advances from capital for trading departments, etc.	155,618	Cash, debtors, and other current assets	5,282,825
Reserves—	£	Invested reserve funds—	£
Sinking fund reserve	2,151,989	Sinking funds	1,861,471
Depreciation reserve	5,011,983	Depreciation funds	1,538,812
Renewal fund reserve	1,428,246	Renewal funds	1,292,251
General reserve	1,129,107	Other reserve funds	1,044,499
Other reserves	425,635		5,737,033
	10,146,960
Credit balance, net revenue accounts	2,031,121
Total	£15,526,940	Total	£15,526,940

Power Plant.—Particulars relating to the power plant in use during the year ended 31 March 1952 are set out hereunder.

Source of Power	Main Plant		Standby Plant		Totals
	No.	b.h.p.	No.	b.h.p.	No.	b.h.p.
Steam engines			18	86,044	18	86,044
Water turbines	87	866,609	29	13,038	116	879,647
Oil engines.	6	726	35	27,385	41	28,111

Power.—The following table sets out the number of units generated and their disposal, the second and third columns comprising power sold in bulk by one authority (in most cases the State Hydro Electric Department) and purchased by another (e.g., an Electric Power Board). The excess of bulk purchases over bulk sales represents the surplus generation of certain freezing works, collieries, etc., which is bought in by supply authorities, usually through the State Hydro Electric Department. This supply, generated by other than public supply authorities, finds no place in either of the first two columns of the table.

Year Ended 31 March	Kilowatt-hours
Year Ended 31 March	Generated	Sold in Bulk	Purchased in Bulk	Net Totals	Sold (Retail)	Lost in Transmission, etc.^*
* Includes power supplied free of charge amounting to 29,651 thousand kWh. in 1951–52.
Thousand kWh.
1948	2,589,620	2,284,105	2,293,867	2,599,382	2,035,711	563,671
1949	2,834,155	2,541,558	2,551,808	2,844,405	2,277,947	566,458
1950	3,030,270	2,621,421	2,626,922	3,035,771	2,403,798	631,973
1951	3,085,022	2,691,366	2,703,040	3,096,696	2,446,572	650,124
1952	3,455,759	3,020,856	3,027,399	3,462,302	2,732,840	729,462

Analysis of Units Retailed.—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units, and “Commercial” both commercial and dairy water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 March	Sales (Kilowatt-hours)
Year Ended 31 March	Domestic	Commercial and Industrial	Street Lighting	Tramways	Electric Railways	Other Purposes	Total
Thousand kWh.
1948	1,140,878	811,826	11,164	49,425	15,996	6,422	2,035,711
1949	1,306,517	885,633	13,147	49,467	16,103	7,080	2,277,947
1950	1,376,138	939,169	14,253	49,719	16,648	7,871	2,403,798
1951	1,398,342	961,899	13,994	48,035	16,596	7,706	2,446,572
1952	1,611,834	1,037,229	15,291	45,266	16,485	6,735	2,732,840

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power since 1930–31, and shows also the principal purposes for which it was employed.

Revenue.—Revenue is derived chiefly from the sale of power, and in 1951–52 this source was responsible for 97 per cent of the total. The following table sets out the revenue of all stations for the years 1947–48 to 1951–52.

Year Ended 31 March	Sale of Power (Retail)	Profits, Sale of Apparatus	Miscellaneous	Interest	Rates	Totals^*
* Excluding revenue from interchange of power.
	£	£	£	£	£	£
1948	7,031,505	68,301	89,565	11,224	3,361	7,203,956
1949	7,873,703	84,035	113,606	9,097	3,662	8,084,103
1950	8,431,221	76,812	120,331	9,677	3,000	8,641,041
1951	8,751,267	85,620	131,149	13,271	2,893	8,984,200
1952	9,882,707	76,996	219,672	15,519	1,846	10,196,740

Expenditure.—Of the total expenditure of £9,361,577 (excluding cost of interchange of power in bulk) recorded in the year ended 31 March 1952, 60.4 per cent represented overhead costs (comprising management expenses and capital charges), while operating expenses or prime costs stood at 39.6 per cent.

Power may be sold more than once in bulk before reaching the retailing authority, and in these tables the revenue from such interchange of power between authorities is set off against the cost, the net figure for cost of power purchased representing the cost to the industry of purchases from outside sources. In this connection mention may be made of certain contracts existing between the Government and some local authorities, whereby the latter are required to maintain their standby plants and to operate them, whenever called upon, to supplement the State hydro-electric supply. The units so generated, often by fuel plants, are purchased by the Government and resold, in most cases to the generating authority, for distribution.

The table following gives an analysis of expenditure.

Item	Year Ended 31 March
Item	1949	1950	1951	1952
* Does not include the interchange of power between supply authorities.
Operating Expenditure
	£	£	£	£
Cost of power purchased^*	52,533	24,439	79,593	32,712
Cost of generation	279,721	336,144	425,326	396,110
Fuel	458,775	396,775	821,741	1,023,847
Stores	2,276	1,796	9,513	2,290
Repairs	33,424	71,331	94,570	25,584
Standby plant	127,901	88,378	77,137	72,749
Cost of transmission	379,692	403,742	457,565	614,334
Cost of distribution	1,152,718	1,253,976	1,314,704	1,486,669
Public (street) lighting	31,649	35,522	38,756	44,128
Totals	2,518,689	2,612,103	3,318,905	3,698,423
Miscellaneous Expenditure
	£	£	£	£
Cost of management	962,593	1,125,878	1,172,351	1,357,552
Insurance	46,505	47,989	55,238	58,109
Losses from trading	1,881	3,775	8,312	3,439
Other expenditure	77,760	82,451	87,811	102,098
Totals	1,088,739	1,260,093	1,323,712	1,521,198
Capital Charges
	£	£	£	£
Interest	1,653,071	1,699,174	1,761,679	1,974,226
Sinking fund	366,342	382,044	734,809	746,493
Renewals	127,740	162,110	187,904	220,617
Depreciation	553,399	521,848	580,446	627,901
Loan repayment	775,421	920,885	494,686	572,361
Exchange	782	1,249	42	358
Totals	3,476,755	3,687,310	3,759,566	4,141,956
Grand totals	7,084,183	7,559,506	8,402,183	9,361,577

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold retail is given hereunder.

—	Year Ended 31 March
—	1949	1950	1951	1952
	d.	d.	d.	d.
Operating expenses	0.265	0.261	0.325	0.325
Miscellaneous expenses	0.115	0.126	0.130	0.133
Capital charges	0.366	0.368	0.369	0.364
Totals	0.746	0.755	0.824	0.822

26 B—GAS: GENERATION AND SUPPLY

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT.—The gas industry was amongst the first of industrial enterprises founded in New Zealand, and the earliest statistical records of industry showed that in 1867 there were already three gasworks in operation. These had been supplying gas for several years to the citizens of Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and in 1869 a further works commenced at Wellington. The first gasworks was erected in the year 1862 at Auckland when the European population of that town was about 25,000, and the total European population of New Zealand was only some 100,000 persons; the Christchurch and Dunedin works commenced supply in 1863; so that with the addition of the Wellington establishment there was in 1869 a gasworks in each of the four main centres. Subsequent growth of the industry was rapid, and the statistics for the year 1916 record that there were in that year 56 establishments engaged in generation and supply of gas to the public. This was the peak year so far as the number of establishments is concerned and growth to this point can be traced in the following table, which shows the approximate date on which each new works commenced operations.

NUMBER OF NEW GASWORKS ESTABLISHED

Period	Number
1860–69	5
1870–79	15
1880–89	3
1890–99	5
1900–09	17
1910–16	11
Total	56

Since this date the number of works in use has declined steadily, although the output of gas actually increased for the next thirty years and a much larger number of consumers is supplied now than in the year 1916. Plants in the larger towns and cities have been able to carry on successfully, but the works serving smaller towns have found it increasingly hard to meet competition with electricity and rising costs, so much so that a number have either sold out or closed down, leaving forty-one works still operating in 1953.

Electricity first came into general use for lighting; it gradually supplanted gas for this purpose from 1919 onwards, and, as new appliances were introduced, continued successfully to compete with gas in heating and cooking. This drift away from gas was arrested by the shortages of electricity caused by the disruption of hydro-electric construction during and after the Second World War, and the consequent restrictions on the installation of new electrical appliances or the use of power in appliances already installed. Unfortunately, conditions created by the war also rendered it impossible for the gas industry to supply enough gas to compensate for this shortage, or even to maintain the normal supply. Labour was short, coal supplies uncertain, and plant was losing efficiency because necessary equipment could not be imported for maintenance and renewal work, so that gas was also rationed at times, or completely shut off. A further set-back was experienced in 1951, when as a result of industrial disturbances coal supplies ceased, or only inferior coal, unsuitable for gas-making, was obtainable for a period of several months.

As a part of the general stabilization policy during the war, the Government instituted a system of subsidies to gasworks to enable them to meet rising costs without unduly increasing the price of gas to the consumer. These subsidies were paid from 1943 onwards to individual works as required, each case being considered separately. Subsidies paid between 1943 and 1950 amounted to £393,965, this total being spread over the years as shown below.

Year	Value of Subsidy
	£
1943–44	7,000
1944–45	37,151
1945–46	70,517
1946–47	77,417
1947–48	90,081
1948–49	87,114
1949–50	24,685

Further amounts were paid indirectly by way of subsidies on gas-coal production and sea freights, but such amounts in relation to this industry cannot be ascertained.

All these subsidies were withdrawn in 1950, the price of gas to consumers being raised to meet the additional cost of gas-making consequent on this withdrawal. Further increases in operating costs, wages, and coal prices in 1951 led to a restoration of subsidies to the gas industry in the form of a subsidy to all gasworks of 2s. per thousand cubic feet of gas generated. Financial assistance in the form of loans was also offered to works for the purpose of carrying out work necessary to restore the efficiency of gas-making and storage plant, and it was considered that at the end of two years the industry would be in a strong enough position for the subsidy to be withdrawn. This has not proved to be the case, and the subsidy is still in force. Increases in the price of gas in the four main centres during the period 1910–11 to 1952–53 are shown in the following table.

PRICE OF GAS PER THOUSAND CUBIC FEET

Year	Auckland		Wellington		Christ-church		Dunedin
	s.	d.	s.	d.	s.	d.	s.	d.
1910–11	4	4	5	4	5	5	4	10
1929–30	7	0	6	11	7	0	6	3
1939–40	7	2	6	1	6	5	5	11
1949–50	8	10	6	10	6	9	6	2
1952–53	11	10	10	0	9	5	9	0

Prior to the year 1918–19 statistical information concerning gasworks was collected in conjunction with the population census at five-yearly intervals, but since that date information has been supplied annually. The very early returns naturally did not give much detailed information, but that which is available since 1867 is given in the following historical table which shows certain main items, at five-yearly intervals, up to the present time.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY, 1867–1953

Year	Works in Operation	Persons Engaged^*	Value of Land and Buildings	Value of Machinery and Plant	Gas Produced
* Excludes administrative and distributing staff up to 1915–16. A comparable total for 1920–21 was 966 persons.
					Cub. ft.
	No.	No.	£(000)	£(000)	(000,000)
1867	3
1874	8
1878	12	145
1880–81	17	188	178	314	247
1885–86	20	344	208	448	403
1890–91	27	249	111	619	427
1895–96	27	293	121	646	532
1900–01	30	572	154	817	787
1905–06	38	954	268	1,107	1,275
1910–11	48	757	326	753	2,075
1915–16	56	598	351	1,031	2,776
1920–21	50	1,856	593	2,696	3,401
1925–26	48	2,053	554	3,720	3,870
1930–31	46	1,778	619	4,412	4,230
1935–36	46	1,779	654	3,715	3,885
1940–41	44	1,873	625	3,489	4,480
1945–46	44	1,830	512	3,484	5,241
1950–51	44	1,711	550	4,264	5,446
1952–53	41	1,642	590	4,401	5,282

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY.—Most of the gasworks which commenced operations in the early years of New Zealand's industrial history were granted individual charters, which defined their rights and obligations in relation to the general public. In 1882, however, an Act known as the Gas Companies' and Consumers' Liability Act was passed which superseded these charters and defined this legal relationship between all gas companies and their customers, or intending customers. Local bodies were authorized to acquire or set up gasworks and sell gas by various Acts which were consolidated in the Municipal Corporations Act 1933, while the actual conditions governing the sale of gas, first stated in the 1882 Act, were consolidated in 1908 in the Gas Supply Act. This latter Act requires, amongst other things, that a gas undertaking should give, and continue to give, if required, a supply of gas to any premises situated within one hundred yards of a gas main or connected to a gas main, the gas supplier to bear the cost of not more than fifty feet of any service-pipe laid for this purpose outside the property of the consumer; authorizes the supplier to require security and fixes the manner in which security should be given; fixes the liability of an incoming tenant for arrears of gas-rent; and empowers gas companies to erect gasometers and lay and service gas mains.

The Board of Trade (Gas) Regulations 1924 and amendments set standards of calorific value, purity, and pressure of gas which are required to be observed by scheduled gas undertakings.

The Electric Power Boards Act 1952 authorizes an Electric Power Board to acquire a gasworks and either operate it in conjunction with the supply of electricity or close it down, according to circumstances. This is designed to meet cases where it is no longer economical to operate the gasworks on its own but where it could perhaps be kept going as an adjunct of the electricity supply. The Power Board is relieved of the provision of the Gas Supply Act concerning the continued giving of gas, but consumers have a right of appeal to a Magistrate if the gasworks is closed down.

RECENT STATISTICS.—Statistics for the years 1950–51 to 1952–53 are set out in the table which follows, but certain limitations in the details given for the individual year 1951–52 should be noted. The statistics quoted for this year refer to the actual generation and supply of gas, and exclude all other activities (sale of appliances, etc.). These figures are therefore not comparable in all respects with those of other years, the value of assets, number of employees, salaries and wages paid, other expenses, total revenue, and total expenditure being understated in this year to the extent of such other activities.

—		1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Works	No.	44	42	41
Value of land and buildings	£	550,127	590,887	590,282
Value of plant (generating and distributing)	£	4,264,036	4,396,906	4,401,045
Persons engaged	No.	1,711	1,317	1,642
Salaries and wages paid	£	872,019	778,869	1,011,201
Coal used—
Quantity	Tons	300,7,15	266,152	289,367
Cost	£	1,314,315	1,416,575	1,605,636
Cost of purifying and other materials	£	22,978	56,011	49,406
Other expenses (other than salaries and wages and materials)	£	581,989	388,857	650,918
Total expenditure	£	2,791,301	2,640,312	3,317,161
Total revenue	£	2,914,112	2,738,359	3,356,569
Consumers	No.	205,510	200,603	197,993
Gas generated	Cub. ft. (000)	5,446,337	4,830,471	5,281,577
Gas sold—
Quantity	Cub. ft. (000)	4,577,243	4,007,282	4,327,149
Value	£	2,214,953	2,192,434	2,499,928
Average price of gas per thousand cubic feet		9s. 8d.	10s. 11d.	11s. 7d.

A further analysis of the 1952–53 statistics is given below, these being dissected by locality of gasworks (North and South Island) and character of organization. It will be seen that 71.5 per cent of the total quantity of gas was generated in the North Island and 28.5 per cent in the South Island, while proportions generated by registered companies and municipal authorities were 71.4 per cent and 28.6 per cent respectively.

Gasworks, 1952–53		Registered Companies	Municipal Authorities	Total
* Depreciated values. † Undepreciated. Depreciation funds amount to £35,260.
North Island
Works	No.	12	14	26
Value of land and buildings	£	226,446^*	138,858^†	365,304
Value of machinery and plant	£	2,013,678^*	914,615^†	2,928,293
Capital additions during year—
Land and buildings	£	9,840	491	10,331
Machinery and plant	£	125,454	14,349	139,803
Persons engaged—
Males	No.	799	265	1,064
Females	No.	47	8	55
Totals	No.	846	273	1,119
Salaries and wages paid—
To males	£	493,912	171,754	665,666
To females	£	16,885	2,407	19,292
Totals	£	510,797	174,161	684,958
Motive power—
Engines in use	No.	171	105	276
Total horse-power	H.p.	3,028	501	3,529
Materials used—
Coal	Tons	143,628	48,518	192,146
	£	819,490	297,342	1,116,832
Other materials	£	21,524	8,575	30,099
Totals	£	841,014	305,917	1,146,931
Products—
Gas generated	Cub. ft. (000)	2,977	799	3,776
Gas sold	Cub. ft. (000)	2,380	634	3,015
	£	1,364,780	441,138	1,805,918
Coke	Tons	38,801	13,030	51,831
	£	228,245	89,007	317,252
Tar	Gal.	1,054,377	386,853	1,441,230
	£	109,417	27,262	136,679
Other residuals	£	17,513	5,471	22,984
Totals	£	1,719,955	562,878	2,282,833
Total expenditure	£	1,699,258	610,442	2,309,700
Total revenue	£	1,757,502	574,483	2,331,985

Gasworks, 1952–53		Registered Companies	Municipal Authorities	Total
* Depreciated values. † Undepreciated. Depreciation funds amount to £289,694.
South Island
Works	No.	10	5	15
Value of land and buildings	£	108,014^*	116,964^†	224,978
Value of machinery and plant	£	478,927^*	993,825^†	1,472,752
Capital additions during year—
Land and buildings	£	1,756	8,234	9,990
Machinery and plant	£	50,155	40,150	90,305
Persons engaged—
Males	No.	259	230	489
Females	No.	26	8	34
Totals	No.	285	238	523
Salaries and wages paid—
To males	£	175,101	140,331	315,432
To females	£	8,067	2,744	10,811
Totals	£	183,168	143,075	326,243
Motive power—
Engines in use	No.	87	111	198
Total horse-power	H.p.	1,032	670	1,702
Materials used—
Coal	Tons	54,550	42,671	97,221
	£	261,611	227,193	488,804
Other materials	£	14,285	5,022	19,307
Totals	£	275,896	232,215	508,111
Products—
Gas generated	Cub. ft. (000)	794	712	1,506
Gas sold	Cub. ft. (000)	709	604	1,313
	£	359,041	334,969	694,010
Coke	Tons	21,745	14,957	36,702
	£	133,763	74,650	208,413
Tar	Gal.	839,485	374,422	1,213,907
	£	51,018	18,112	69,130
Other residuals	£	13,618	2,652	16,270
Totals	£	557,440	430,383	987,823
Total expenditure	£	552,909	454,552	1,007,461
Total revenue	£	574,096	450,488	1,024,584

Chapter 27. SECTION 27—CONSUMPTION OF COMMODITIES

Table of Contents

STATISTICS of consumption cannot be compiled with absolute accuracy, owing to the impossibility of obtaining exact comparability in component statistics of production, exports, and imports. There are several deficiencies in the statistical data at present available, the most serious being occasioned by the lack of statistics illustrating the distribution among individuals of the annual flow of commodities entering into consumption. Nevertheless, a sufficient degree of comparability can normally be attained to permit of the compilation of statistics of consumption with a reasonable approach to accuracy.

VALUE OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE.—Statistics of the value of production, of exports, and of imports have been compiled regularly for many years. From these statistics an estimate of the annual value of goods, including both capital and consumption goods, available for use in New Zealand can be made, the value of exports being deducted from that of production, and the value of imports added to the residuum. The result of this computation gives a close approach to the value of all goods available for use in the country.

Various additional factors have had to be taken into account in preparing estimates covering the war period and quoted in the tables. In some cases rather arbitrary figures have had to be accepted for adjustment purposes. The following descriptive notes under the respective headings will serve to indicate the scope of these estimates.

Production.—The series of value and volume of production figures as quoted in Section 19 of this Year-Book form the basis of the tables which follow. The figures relate to the production year, which, in most cases, approximates closely to the year ended 30 June.

Exports.—The official export figures (f.o.b.) for the years ended 30 June have been adjusted to exclude charges incurred between the stages of production and export.

Goods (normally exported) supplied under the reverse lend-lease procedure, shipments by the Armed Services, and Red Cross and food parcels have all been treated as additional exports in the tables which follow.

Adjustments have been made for changes in stocks awaiting shipment, so that the export figures quoted in this Section represent the segment of production in any year exported, or ultimately destined for export.

The volume indices have been adjusted to make allowance for the above-mentioned inclusions.

Imports.—The official import figures (Customs values) for the years ended 30 June, excluding ordnance, have been adjusted for the war period to take into account additional freight and insurance charges above the nominal 10 per cent allowed in the official figures of imports.

Further adjustments have been made for the lump-sum payments received from the United Kingdom Government as a set-off against the high level of import prices, and for the realization on certain war assets.

Unfortunately, detailed statistics of the volume of retail and wholesale merchandise stocks are not available, so that the figures illustrate goods available for use and not necessarily goods actually used during each of the years.

The following table gives the position in regard to value of goods, but care should be exercised in interpreting the table in view of the substantial upward trend in unit values that has taken place over the period covered by the table. In addition to the statistics for the last ten years, figures for the years 1928–29, 1932–33, and 1938–39 are given.

Year Ended 30 June	Produced in New Zealand				Imported	Available for Use in New Zealand
	Total	Exported	All Goods Available for Use in New Zealand			Total	Per Head
	Total	Exported	Total	Per Head		Total	Per Head
VALUES
	£(m.)	£(m.)	£(m.)	£	£(m.)	£(m.)	£
1929	126.2	54.1	72.1	49.2	46.5	118.6	81.0
1933	83.7	35.7	48.0	31.3	25.3	73.3	47.8
1939	1361	5.80	78.1	48.3	56.5	134.6	83.3
1943	170.2	79.7	90.5	55.2	40.8	131.3	80.1
1944	175.9	89.3	86.6	52.8	54.3	140.9	85.8
1945	196.7	112.6	84.1	50.3	48.7	132.8	79.4
1946	200.4	88.4	112.0	64.8	57.5	169.5	98.0
1947	230.2	101.4	128.8	72.4	88.8	217.6	122.3
1948	266.3	120.7	145.6	80.1	144.3	289.9	159.6
1949	292.2	120.9	171.3	92.4	111.2	282.5	152.4
1950	345.0	137.3	207.7	109.9	151.3	359.0	189.9
1951	473.1	235.5	237.6	123.3	164.9	402.5	208.9
1952	426.3	199.4	226.9	115.1	272.3	499.2	253.3
VALUE INDEX NUMBERS 1938–39 (= 100)
1929	93	97	90	99	82	87	96
1933	61	64	60	63	45	54	56
1939	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
1943	125	137	116	114	72	98	96
1944	129	154	111	109	96	105	103
1945	145	194	108	104	86	99	95
1946	147	152	143	134	102	126	118
1947	169	175	165	150	157	162	147
1948	196	208	186	166	255	215	192
1949	215	208	219	191	197	210	183
1950	253	237	266	228	268	267	228
1951	348	406	304	255	292	299	251
1952	313	344	291	238	482	371	304

AGGREGATE VOLUME OF GOODS AVAILABLE FOR USE.—Index numbers of volume of total production, based in most cases on figures of actual physical production, and index numbers of volume of exports and of imports, form the basis on which figures indicating the volume of goods available for New Zealand use are estimated. Attention is drawn to the notes on adjustments, etc., applied under the various headings and explained under the preceding title. Quantitative figures of exports are readily available from the official statistics, and as the great bulk of the export trade is confined to a relatively small number of items it is a comparatively simple matter to compile an index number of volume for years ending with the month of June. Prior to the year ended 30 June 1946 a similar position did not hold in the case of imports, as they are far more diversified in nature, and full detail was not available for other than calendar years. Index numbers of volume of imports for calendar years are compiled, and up to the year 1945–46 an average of the indices for two calendar years was used to approximate years ending with the month of June. Commencing with the year ended 30 June 1946 a special index number of volume of imports has been compiled. By the use of quantitative figures of production, exports, and imports, reasonably accurate figures of movements in volume may be ascertained, and figures arrived at indicating the volume of goods available for New Zealand use.

Index numbers of volume covering similar years and for similar headings to those given in the earlier table are given below.

INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME OF GOODS: BASE 1938–39 (= 100)

Year Ended 30 June	Produced in New Zealand				Imported	All Goods Available for Use in New Zealand
	Total	Exported	Available for Use in New Zealand			Total	Per Head
	Total	Exported	Total	Per Head		Total	Per Head
1929	77	74	79	88	86	82	91
1933	83	96	73	77	50	64	67
1939	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
1943	109	116	104	103	58	85	84
1944	108	132	90	89	66	80	79
1945	114	156	82	80	63	74	72
1946	112	111	113	105	66	93	87
1947	118	113	121	110	86	106	96
1948	123	115	129	115	115	123	110
1949	129	121	134	117	103	121	105
1950	137	118	150	128	122	138	118
1951	141	115	160	134	128	147	123
1952	143	126	156	128	179	165	136

It should, perhaps, be emphasized that the table covers capital as well as consumer goods; consequently the headings “available for use in New Zealand” include not only commodities entering into current consumption, but also such items as additions to merchandise stocks, to factory plant and buildings, to farm capital stock, etc.

The low point, both in respect of total and per head volume of goods available for use, was recorded in 1931–32, the decreases from the 1928–29 levels amounting to 26 and 29 per cent respectively. The 1928–29 level of total volume of consumption was regained in 1935–36, while the per head level was regained in 1936–37.

In conjunction with the previous table, it is interesting to consider the proportions of New Zealand produced goods and of imported goods in the total quantum of goods entering into use. Over the period for which the break-up is available, locally produced goods supplied 63 per cent and imported goods 37 per cent of the total.

Comparisons in this respect for individual years are given hereunder.

Year	Locally Produced Per Cent	Imported Per Cent
1928–29	56	44
1929–30	56	44
1930–31	62	38
1931–32	65	35
1932–33	67	33
1933–34	66	34
1934–35	62	38
1935–36	59	41
1936–37	57	43
1937–38	56	44
1938–39	58	42
1939–40	63	37
1940–41	70	30
1941–42	73	27
1942–43	71	29
1943–44	65	35
1944–45	64	36
1945–46	70	30
1946–47	66	34
1947–48	61	39
1948–49	64	36
1949–50	63	37
1950–51	63	37
1951–52	55	45

While strict accuracy cannot be claimed for these figures—particularly in respect of single years—a definitely higher proportion of New Zealand produced goods in the total is observed from 1930–31 to 1934–35 and again from 1939–40 to 1950–51. The falling-off in the volume of imports during the depression years was considerably greater than that for locally produced goods consumed in New Zealand. The policy of import control introduced in December 1938, and the dictates of a war economy, were responsible for the relatively low proportion of imported goods to total consumption evident from 1939–40 onwards.

CONSUMPTION OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE.—While the statistical data discussed in the foregoing pages afford an indication of movements in the aggregate value and volume of consumption, considerable interest attaches to the statistics for individual commodities of importance. Estimates of the consumption of a selection of individual commodities are given in the following paragraphs. No indication of the distribution of consumption of these commodities among individual classes of consumers is available; but with the full employment and wide distribution of wealth that prevails in New Zealand it is beyond question that the per caput rates of consumption of various commodities shown later are truly representative of general living standards.

Figures showing, for some of the more important food products in which an export trade is maintained, the respective proportions of the total production for the three-year period 1950–51 to 1952–53 are as follows.

	Consumed in New Zealand Per Cent	Exported Per Cent.
Butter	191	80.9
Cheese	4.9	951
Beef	58.7	41.3
Mutton	42.7	57.3
Lamb	4.9	95.1
Pig-meat	60.6	39.4

Local (New Zealand) consumption of all meats combined, during this same three-year period, amounted to 35 per cent of total meat production.

PER CAPUT QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL FOODSTUFFS AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION.—Estimates of annual consumption for the civilian population have been made for the principal items of foodstuffs for a pre-war period and for recent years. Basic statistical data are rather scanty in the case of some items, particularly fresh vegetables, and the estimates may be subject to correction as further information becomes available.

Dairy Produce.—Measured in terms of butterfat content, it is estimated that 23.0 per cent of total dairy production in 1952–53 was used for local human consumption. A further 3.5 per cent was used locally for calves, pigs, etc., leaving 73.5 per cent for export in the form of butter, cheese, and processed milk. Estimated figures of annual civilian consumption levels for individual items of dairy produce, pre-war and for recent periods, are given below.

	Pre-war	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Whole milk (pint)	220.0	334.0	337.0	333.8
Cream (pint)	6.9	4.3	4.1	4.2
Ice-cream (pint)	3.2	13.5	12.6	12.8
Cheese (lb.)	4.5	5.9	5.7	6.0
Butter (lb.)	41.0	38.9	42.7	44.0
Processed milk (lb.)	4.7	10.4	10.3	10.9

In the following comparison of butter and cheese consumption in various countries the figures for countries other than New Zealand have been taken from the 1953 publication “Dairy Produce,” issued by the Intelligence Branch of the Commonwealth Economic Committee. The pre-war figures are mostly the average of the years 1934 to 1938; for New Zealand they relate to the immediate pre-war period.

BUTTER AND CHEESE CONSUMPTION PER CAPUT

—	Butter		Cheese
—	Pre-war	1952	Pre-war	1952
	lb.	lb.	lb.	lb.
United Kingdom	24.1	10.9	8.9	7.7
Sweden	24.1	25.8	12.8	18.3
Switzerland	150	13.4	17.0	17.2
Denmark	18.3	17.4	14.1	12.6
Netherlands	12.3	5.5	17.0	13.0
United States of America	16.4	8.7	5.8	7.7
Canada	31.9	22.1	3.6	5.9
Republic of Ireland	32.2	41.2	0.8	1.2
Australia	32.6	29.5	4.3	6.0
New Zealand	41.0	44.0	4.5	6.0

In considering New Zealand's relatively high consumption of butter it should be noted that the use of margarine as a spread, common in some countries, is unknown in New Zealand.

Meats.—In estimating the average annual civilian consumption of meats an allowance has been made in the case of each item for killings on farms and for condemnations. The consumption levels for the various items are as follows, the weights in each case being on a bone-in dressed carcase basis.

	Pre-war	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
Beef (lb.)	112.0	115.0	109.9	102.3
Veal (lb.)	7.5	5.7	5.8	5.1
Mutton (lb.)	60.0	64.0	66.2	660
Lamb (lb.)	6.5	11.1	10.5	9.7
Pork, including chopper meat (lb.)	90	11.3	10.5	8.3
Ham and bacon (lb.)	17.0	20.6	16.8	14.1
Edible offal (lb.)	9.0	9.8	9.6	9.0

Fresh Vegetables and Fruits.—Estimates under this heading have been made, particularly in the case of vegetables, with considerable difficulty owing to a number of factors, not the least being the fact that domestic garden production must of necessity be taken into account. Where there is no evidence as to changes in consumption habits, the estimates for both pre-war and the later years shown have been treated as on an equality. Consumption levels for individual items are estimated as follows.

	Pre-war	1951	1952
Potatoes Ob.)	130.0	97.0	84.0
Kumaras (lb.)	7.5	7.5	7.5
Cabbages and greens (lb.)	100.0	100.0	100.0
Carrots (lb.)	30.0	30.0	30.0
Tomatoes (lb.)	20.0	20.0	20.0
Apples (lb.)	44.0	33.9	33.6
Pears and quinces (lb.)	6.0	10.6	7.5
Stone fruits (lb.)	12.5	18.6	14.4
Citrus fruits (lb.)	23.0	20.4	17.5
Bananas (lb.)	21.0	10.2	6.7
Pineapples (lb.)	1.0	0.5	0.5

Canned Fruit and Vegetables.—Owing to the lack of satisfactory details for earlier years, the pre-war consumption of these items is shown as the average of 1938 and 1939.

	Pre-war	1951	1952
Canned fruit (lb.)	10.5	15.7	10.5
Canned vegetables (lb.)	1.6	8.5	8.1

Before the war approximately 75 to 80 per cent of canned fruit requirements were imported and consisted mainly of pineapples, peaches, and apricots. The war considerably upset this trade, but there has been a marked recovery since 1947. There has been little progress in the local canning of fruit, and consumption is still below the pre-war level.

The consumption of canned vegetables, on the other hand, owing in some measure to the striking wartime expansion of the industry, is now at a very high level. Before the war there were some imports of peas and beans, but most requirements are now met from local production. Green peas account for nearly half the production, but there has also been considerable development in asparagus, baked beans, and tomato puree, some of the latter being for export.

Other Foodstuff's.—Estimated annual civilian consumption levels for other items of foodstuffs are given hereunder.

	Pre-war	1950–51	1951–52
Poultry (lb.)	3.9	6.0	60
Fresh fish—edible portion (lb.)	11.0	11.7	11.5
Shell fish—edible portion (lb.)	0.9	0.9	0.9
Eggs (dozen)	20.0	17.0	17.0
Honey (lb.)	2.1	4.2	4.0
Refined sugar (lb.)	106.0	85.0	94.0
Dried peas and beans (lb.)	1.6	4.2	4.2
Flour, wheaten (lb.)	185.0	172.8	180.2
Cornflour (lb.)	2.4	3.1	2.6
Oatmeal, oaten products (lb.)	10.5	6.9	6.9
Rice (lb.)	5.3	2.8	2.9
Tea (lb.)	6.8	7.5	7.5
Cocoa Ob.)	10	0.9	0.9

Beer, Wine, Spirits, and Tobacco.—As the consumption of these items is particularly susceptible to economic conditions, the depression and immediate post-depression years have been avoided in ascertaining the pre-war consumption. The figures for wine are probably not as accurate as those relating to the other items, for the reason that production figures only are available for locally made wine which naturally (for maturity purposes) is not usually placed on the market until some years after production. Wine production has been steadily increasing during the last decade, the 1952 figure being more than treble the immediate pre-war output, and accounting for over two-thirds of total local consumption.

	Pre-war	1951	1952
Beer (gallons)	10.80	18.80	19.30
Grape wine (gallons)	0.20	0.44	0.42
Spirits (proof gallons)	0.28	0.45	0.49
Tobacco (lb.)	3.90	5.03	5.34

In interpreting the big increase in beer consumption it should not be overlooked that as a war measure the alcoholic strength of beer was, on 11 May 1942, reduced by about one-quarter. Although this restriction was removed at the beginning of 1949 the additional duty on beer exceeding the reduced strength has had much the same effect.

Comparison With Other Countries.—In considering the question of supplies of foodstuffs in various countries the food balance sheets prepared at the instigation of the Food and Agriculture Organization present information on a comparable basis. The table which follows presents in summarized form statistics appearing in the Statistical Yearbook of the United Nations. The statistics in most cases relate to the year 1950–51, while pre-war figures are quoted in each case in parentheses. The data quoted are expressed in kilograms per person per year, except that for each country a total figure is given showing calories per person per day, and the percentage thereof derived from livestock products (meat, poultry, eggs, fish, milk, butter, cheese, slaughter fats, marine oils). The total calories figure includes also foodstuffs not specifically mentioned in the table.

A table of this nature necessarily includes data of an approximate nature, but is of value as an overall picture of food consumption and availability in the various countries.

Country	Cereals	Potatoes, etc.	Sugar	Pulses	Meat	Milk	Fats and Oils	Calories
Number Per Day	Percentage of Live-stock Origin
NOTE.—Figures in parentheses refer to pre-war years.
Kilograms Per Person Per Year
Union of South Africa	(156)	(16)	(23)	(2)	(38)	(76)	(3)	(2,300)	(18)
	157	16	44	3	41	77	5	2,640	18
Canada	(93)	(90)	(43)	(4)	(62)	(221)	(19)	(3,070)	(39)
	78	115	48	4	70	237	20	3,240	40
United States of America	(90)	(64)	(44)	(4)	(64)	(204)	(20)	(3,150)	(36)
	77	50	42	4	75	253	20	3,210	40
Argentina	(106)	(66)	(27)	(2)	(107)	(163)	(9)	(2,730)	(36)
	124	87	35	2	114	165	16	3,190	32
India	(143)	(8)	(13)	(18)	(3)	(65)	(3)	(1,970)	(8)
	111	6	9	17	2	43	3	1,570	7
Japan	(162)	(63)	(14)	(7)	(4)	(4)	(2)	(2,180)	(5)
	154	70	4	5	2	6	1	2,100	4
Denmark	(94)	(120)	(50)	(***)	(75)	(195)	(27)	(3,420)	(35)
	98	150	38	1	56	204	21	3,130	35
France	(124)	(143)	(24)	(4)	(53)	(150)	(14)	(2,830)	(26)
	118	125	27	3	56	156	13	2,790	27
Netherlands	(107)	(116)	(29)	(3)	(38)	(220)	(20)	(2,920)	(32)
	101	141	36	2	32	205	26	3,090	26
Sweden	(95)	(122)	(44)	(2)	(49)	(302)	(18)	(3,120)	(39)
	92	116	46	2	51	315	21	3,240	42
United Kingdom	(94)	(79)	(46)	(3)	(64)	(152)	(20)	(3,120)	(38)
	100	110	34	3	49	219	22	3,100	34
Australia	(101)	(49)	(53)	(1)	(120)	(164)	(16)	(3,300)	(40)
	99	45	55	2	110	190	16	3,280	39
New Zealand	(87)	(50)	(48)	(2)	(109)	(166)	(17)	(3,260)	(48)
	88	54	51	2	106	270	18	3,450	48

Wartime Restrictions on Consumption.—Shortages or prospective shortages of imported goods, brought about or accentuated by the war, created the need for a controlled distribution. The rationing of such domestic produce as meat and butter was necessary to cope with the heavy demands of the Armed Forces, both British and Allied, and at the same time to maintain supplies to the United Kingdom.

To ensure an equitable distribution of the more essential commodities, rationing by coupons was introduced for the following items; tea, sugar, butter, meat, household linen, blankets, clothing, and footwear. Eggs were subject to a preference rationing to children under five years of age, expectant mothers, and invalids suffering from specific ailments. Baby wool was reserved for, and rationed to, expectant mothers.

During 1948 rationing was lifted from the following important commodities: tea, 31 May; sugar for domestic use, 27 August; sugar for manufacturing purposes, 29 November; and meat, 27 September. In 1950 all other commodities subject to rationing were freed; cream on 22 February, butter on 4 June, and motor spirits on 31 May. As from 7 June 1950 the operation of the egg priority scheme was left to retailers.

Details of the rationing provisions and other restrictions which applied to the principal individual commodities are quoted in the 1950 issue of the Year-Book (pages 828–30).

Chapter 28. SECTION 28—DISTRIBUTION

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTORY.—For many years there has been a lack of statistics, other than of employment, relating to the distributive sector of the New Zealand economy. The distributive sector may in this case be defined as that activity relating to the distribution of goods from the source of production or supply, to the ultimate consumer, together with the provision of personal and other services, excluding transport.

The possibility and desirability of remedying this deficiency by conducting a Census of Distribution was under consideration as far back as 1938, and some attempts, mostly abortive, have been made over the years by the Census and Statistics Department to collect statistics of retail trading on a purely voluntary basis. The value of statistics of retail trading has been exemplified in a sample survey successfully carried out by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, but limited in coverage to Wellington and the Hutt Valley.

Recommendations and requests from the International Chamber of Commerce, in collaboration with the United Nations Organization, and interest manifested by trade associations and Government Departments within New Zealand, prompted the Government in early 1953 to authorize by regulation the New Zealand Census of Distribution, 1953.

Census of Distribution: Form of Inquiry.—The form of inquiry, etc., for the census was decided upon following discussions and negotiations with various interested bodies, such as the Retailers' Federation, the Associated Chambers of Commerce, etc., and a study of procedures and methods adopted in other countries which had previously conducted similar inquiries.

Index of Establishments.—A register or index of establishments was compiled from various source:. The main index was obtained by utilizing the services of Post Office officials who, by combining the existing lists of boxholders and other records with cards completed by officers making a special coverage of each postal route, were able to supply a fairly complete list. This was supplemented by indexes obtained from other sources (e.g., lists of businesses supplied by the Department of Labour and Employment, lists of pharmacies from the Chemists' Guild, lists of registered hotels, auctioneers, pawnbrokers, wine and spirit merchants, etc.). These supplementary lists were interchecked with the main index and any omissions rectified. Results later showed that very few businesses were omitted from the final index, but the system of interweaving a number of indexes to give a complete picture had one drawback: a number of businesses were initially recorded twice, once under the proprietor's name and again under a trade name. This involved some initial unavoidable duplication of inquiries.

Definitions and Coverage.—In the regulations authorizing the census the following definitions were prescribed:

“Retail establishment” means any premises at or from which the business of retail trading is carried on;
“Wholesale establishment” means any premises at or from which the business of wholesale trading is carried on, but does not include any premises at or from which a manufacturer carries on wholesale or retail trading as an integral part of his normal business unless those premises are completely detached and no other part of his business is carried on at or from them;
“Service establishment” means any premises at or from which any services of a class or kind specified by the Government Statistician for the purposes of these regulations are rendered.

The following types of retail and wholesale businesses were, for various reasons, excluded from the census:

Milk, and milk treatment (milk vendors).
On-the-spot sales by market gardeners and nurserymen.
Pie-carts.
Home dressmakers.
Petrol resellers.
Oil companies.
Timber.
Bricks.
Roofing tiles.
Monumental masonry.
Acetone and gas.
Book sales by Government Printer.
Itinerant traders and hawkers.
Kauri-gum dealers.
Newspapers sales otherwise than in shops.
Seedling tree sales by New Zealand Forest Service.
Indentors and manufacturers' agents and commercial travellers.
Caterers for special occasions (race meetings, sports meetings, etc.).
Retailing direct from factory premises.
Coal mines and distribution direct therefrom.
Retailing by various service establishments where such was a very minor or insignificant activity (e.g., occasional small sales by electricians and plumbers).

Stock and station agents (so stated) were in all cases classified as wholesale establishments.

Services.—In this, the initial Census of Distribution in New Zealand, it was decided to limit the inquiry to a selected group of services, those covered being as follows;

Personal Services—
Cleaners (office, shop, and window).
Funeral directors and undertakers.
Hairdressers and beauty parlours.
Laundries, dry cleaners, carpet cleaners, dyers.
Photographers (portrait and commercial).

Community and business services—

Advertising agencies.
Chiropodists.
Commercial artists.
Opticians.
Private rental libraries and book clubs.
Turkish baths.

Other services—

Bicycle repairers.
Blacksmiths.
Boot and shoe repairers.
Carpet fitters and sewers.
Electrical repair shops.
Gunsmiths.
Locksmiths.
Tool repairers and sharpeners.
Watch and clock repairers.

Both retail and wholesale trading include the provision of certain services (where such services are provided, e.g., tobacconist and hairdresser), but in such cases the retail or wholesale sales portion of the business represents the major activity. Similarly, some establishments classified under “Services” carry out a degree of retail sales. In the tables published herein, with the exception of those appearing under the sub-title of “Special Analyses”, all trading has been included under the heading of the dominant activity.

There is an undisclosed degree of wholesaling carried out by retailers and similarly a degree of retailing by wholesalers, but no provision has been made to separate such activities.

Abbreviations and Contractions Used in the Statistical Tables.—In presenting the data the following contractions, etc., have been used:

U.A. = Urban area (i.e., principal centres of population, plus suburbs).

Smaller centres = Towns other than urban areas, but with population of over 4,000 persons.

Other urban = Boroughs with population of under 4,000 persons.

Rural = Town districts and counties.

The urban areas are as follows:

Main	=	Auckland.	Christchurch.
		Wellington.	Dunedin.
Secondary	=	Hamilton.	Palmerston North.
		Gisborne.	Wanganui.
		Napier.	Nelson.
		Hastings.	Timaru.
		New Plymouth.	Invercargill.
		Hutt.

Smaller centres (boroughs outside of urban areas, but with population of over 4,000) are as follows:

Whangarei.	Hawera.	Westport.
Thames.	Feilding.	Greymouth.
Tauranga.	Masterton.	Ashburton.
Rotorua.	Levin.	Oamaru.
Dannevirke.	Blenheim.	Gore.
Stratford.

Summary.—It is estimated that the returns from which the census tables have been compiled represent 95 per cent of all stores coming within the scope of the inquiry, with probably over 97 per cent of the total turnover.

The period for which the information was requested, and to which most of it relates, is the year ended 31 March 1953.

A measure of the importance of the distributive sector of New Zealand's economy can be gained from the fact that the value added to merchandise from the stage of purchase to retail sale was approximately £150-£160 million in the year ended 31 March 1953.

RETAIL ESTABLISHMENTS: Regional Distribution.—Of the 21,523 retail stores covered by the census, 14,678, or 68.2 per cent, were situated in the North Island, and 6,845, or 31.8 per cent, in the South Island.

Distribution by Provincial Districts.—The distribution of stores and of turnover throughout the various provincial districts was roughly proportionate to the distribution of population.

The following table shows details by provincial districts. The figures quoted in brackets are in each case the percentage of total.

Provincial Districts	Population at 31 March 1953	Number of Stores	Purchases During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
	(000)		£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Auckland	790.2	8,112	118,843	151,837	25,607
	(38.9)	(37.7)	(37.2)	(37.6)	(35.7)
Hawke's Bay	95.6	1,059	14,586	18,184	3,439
	(4.7)	(4.9)	(4.6)	(4.5)	(4.8)
Taranaki	90.3	1,006	17,452	20,796	3,688
	(4.4)	(4.7)	(5.5)	(5.1)	(5.1)
Wellington	408.9	4,501	69,233	87,213	15,492
	(20.1)	(20.9)	(21.6)	(21.6)	(21.6)
Marlborough	24.1	279	3,077	3,868	852
	(1.2)	(1.3)	(1.0)	(1.0)	(1.2)
Nelson	70.2	721	8,815	11,199	1,976
	(3.5)	(3.3)	(2.7)	(2.8)	(2.8)
Westland	18.5	290	2,930	3,719	647
	(0.9)	(1.3)	(0.9)	(0.9)	(0.9)
Canterbury	290.3	2,943	47,972'	60,388	11,521
	(14.3)	(13.7)	(15.0)	(14.9)	(16.0)
Otago—
Otago portion	164.3	1,782	22,393	28,521	5,517
	(8.1)	(8.3)	(7.0)	(7.1)	(7.7)
Southland portion	79.6	830	14,561	18,272	3,022
	(3.9)	(3.9)	(4.6)	(4.5)	(4.2)
Totals, all retail stores	2,032.0	21,523	319,862	403,997	71,761
	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(1000)	(100.0)

The principal centres of population (urban areas), covering 55.5 per cent of New Zealand's people, contained 61.0 per cent of all retail stores, with 68.1 per cent of total sales or turnover.

Distribution by Urban and Rural Areas.—Rural areas (counties and town districts), with 31.1 per cent of total population, contained 13.8 per cent of all retail stores, but were responsible for only 9.4 per cent of turnover.

The following table shows details by urban and rural areas. The figures quoted in brackets are in each case the percentage of total.

Location Group	Population at 31 March 1953	Number of Stores	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
	(000)		£(000)	£(000)
Main urban areas (including Hutt U.A.)	849.0	9,485	192,236	33,563
	(41.8)	(44.1)	(47.6)	(46.8)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt U.A.)	279.1	3,648	82,852	15,395
	(13.7)	(16.9)	(20.5)	(21.5)
Smaller centres	121.1	2,209	41,931	8,073
	(60)	(10.3)	(10.4)	(11.2)'
Other urban	150.3	3,216	48,951	9,059
	(7.4)	(14.9)	(12.1)	(12.6)
Rural	632.5	2,965	38,027	5,671
	(31.1)	(13.8)	(9.4)	(7.9)
Totals, all retail stores	2,032.0	21,523	403,997	71,761
	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)

Hutt urban area, though it has a population of 80,000, is so close to Wellington City, and the trading pattern is so closely interwoven, that to divorce these two areas would not give a true picture of either Consequently, Hutt urban area has been combined with Wellington urban area in the tables in this Section of the Year-Book.

Graphic presentation of the information given in the preceding table follows.

Analysis by Store Type.—About half the total number of retail stores were in the food and drink group—grocers, butchers, dairies, hotels, and so on. This group accounted for only 30 per cent of the turnover, however, the average turnover per store being £12,200. As against this the automotive group, which accounts for only 4 per cent of all retail stores, handled 13 per cent of the turnover, with an average turnover of £58,200 per store.

As would be expected, the average number of employees per store was highest in the group covering department, variety, and general stores. These showed an average of 12.5 employees per store, more than double that of the hardware group, 6.1, which was the next highest in average employment per store. The automotive and furniture groups, 60 and 5.9, were next in order, then apparel, 4.5, chemicals and miscellaneous, each 3.8, with food and drink, the lowest group in this respect, with 3.5 employees per store.

The following table shows details by store type groups.

Store Type Group	Number of Stores	Number of Paid Employees on 15 April 1953			Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953	Average Labour Force Per Store	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Average Sales or Turnover Per Unit of Labour Force	Value of Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
Store Type Group	Number of Stores	Males	Females	Total	Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953	Average Labour Force Per Store	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Average Sales or Turnover Per Unit of Labour Force	Value of Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
							£(000)	£(000)	£	£(000)
Food and drink	10,033	13,586	9,550	23,136	35,210	3.5	10,117	122,421	3,477	8,470
Apparel	3,215	4,182	7,763	11,945	14,501	4.5	5,212	52,673	3,632	17,587
Furniture	958	3,812	1,173	4,985	5,622	5.9	2,692	23,804	4,234	5,805
Automotive	906	4,077	712	4,789	5,419	6.0	3,279	52,729	9,730	5,832
Hardware	674	2,850	768	3,618	4,095	6.1	1,937	20,289	4,955	5,290
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)	664	1,186	847	2,033	2,538	3.8	938	7,566	2,581	1,597
Department, variety, and general stores	1,206	6,426	7,746	14,172	15,130	12.5	6,070	68,725	4,542	14,256
Miscellaneous	3,867	6,899	4,192	11,091	14,760	3.8	5,270	55,790	3,780	12,924
Totals, all retail stores	21,523	43,018	32,751	75,769	97,275	4.5	35,515	403,997	4,153	71,761

The information given above is shown in graphic form below.

Size of Turnover.—A classification by size of turnover shows that shops with over £250,000 turnover numbered only 122, 0.6 per cent, but covered £71,762,000, 17.8 per cent, of turnover. Small units with under £5,000 of turnover were very numerous, 5,620, or 261 per cent, but the turnover of these (£16,511,000) represented only 4.1 per cent of the total.

Although the very big shop does a large proportion of total retail trade, while the very small shop does only a small percentage of the total business, the moderately sized shop is very important both in numbers and in size of turnover. Seventeen thousand shops had a turnover of less than £20,000 a year, and between them they carried out 35 per cent of total business by retail stores.

The following table shows details by turnover size groups.

Amount of Total Turnover	Number of Stores	Number of Paid Employees on 15 April 1953			Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Value of Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
Amount of Total Turnover	Number of Stores	Males	Females	Total	Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Value of Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
£ £					£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Under 5,000	5,620	1,183	2,241	3,424	10,203	1,210	16,511	2,907
5,000 to 9,999	6,056	4,065	5,041	9,106	16,198	3,364	44,421	6,817
10,000 to 19,999	5,736	8,741	6,918	15,659	21,093	6,832	80,116	12,513
20,000 to 49,999	2,897	10,854	5,983	16,837	18,653	8,175	85,206	14,960
50,000 to 99,999	711	5,934	2,955	8,889	9,167	4,684	48,106	9,118
100,000 to 249,999	381	5,638	3,282	8,920	9,015	5,177	57,875	11,180
250,000 to 499,999	77	2,357	1,402	3,759	3,764	1,886	26,842	5,279
500,000 and over	45	4,246	4,929	9,175	9,182	4,187	44,920	8,987
Totals, all retail stores	21,523	43,018	32,751	75,769	97,275	35,515	403,997	71,761

Type of Organization.—Over half, 51 per cent, of retail stores were returned as being under individual ownership, while 31 per cent were shown as operated by private registered companies, 14 per cent by partnerships, and 3 per cent by public registered companies.

The percentage of total turnover covered by the various types of organization (average turnover per store being shown in brackets) was: private registered companies, 51 (£31,000); individual ownership, 23 (£8,000); public registered companies, 15 (£95,000); and partnerships, 9 (£12,000).

The following table shows details by type of organization. The figures quoted in brackets are in each case the percentage of total.

Type of Organization	Number of Stores	Turnover During 1952–53	Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
		£(000)	£(000)
Private registered companies	6,593	204,952	42,403
	(30.6)	(50.7)	(59.1)
Public registered companies	661	62,679	11,756
	(3.1)	(15.5)	(16.4)
Individual ownership	11,062	92,408	11,654
	(51.4)	(22.9)	(16.2)
Partnership	2,943	34,824	4,307
4	(13.7)	(8.6)	(6.0)
Other	264	9,134	1,641
	(1.2)	(2.3)	(2.3)
Totals, all retail stores	21,523	403,997	71,761
	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)

Multiple Stores.—The number of multiple stores engaged in retail trading represented only 9 per cent of the total stores, but accounted for 20 per cent of the total turnover, 21 per cent of stocks, and 20 per cent of capital invested. A multiple store was so termed where the store was one of a group of four or more under common ownership.

Store Type Group	Multiple Stores
	Number of Stores	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Stocks at		Capital Invested
	Number of Stores	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Start of Year (March 1952)	Close of Year (March 1953)	Capital Invested
		£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Food and drink	973	20,492	1,247	1,359	6,355
Apparel	259	6,235	1,864	1,895	2,032
Furniture	94	3,047	490	454	867
Automotive	23	4,066	488	438	400
Hardware	54	3,975	669	1,164	1,203
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)	17	383	73	75	94
Department, variety, and general stores	282	30,410	5,734	6,554	10,670
Miscellaneous	255	13,474	2,740	3,824
Totals, all retail stores	1,957	82,082	13,305	15,763	21,621

Store Type Group	Other Stores
	Number of Stores	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Stocks at		Capital Invested
	Number of Stores	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Start of Year (March 1952)	Close of Year (March 1953)	Capital Invested
		£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Food and drink	9,060	101,929	6,475	7,111	29,185
Apparel	2,956	46,438	15,097	15,692	14,069
Furniture	864	20,757	5,116	5,351	6,101
Automotive	883	48,663	4,481	5,394	7,287
Hardware	620	16,314	3,382	4,126	4,704
Chemicals (chemist, etc.)	647	7,183	1,362	1,522	2,357
Department, variety, and general stores	924	38,315	7,117	7,702	21,603
Miscellaneous	3,612	42,316	7,929	9,100	21,603
Totals, all retail stores	19,566	321,915	50,959	55,998	85,306

Methods of Selling.—Trade practices in various centres, stores, and store types varied to a great degree, with the result that the figures for cash-order sales and instalment-sales are possibly understated. The statistics are, of course, based on the figures supplied by the individual traders.

An analysis of methods of selling shows that 62.8 per cent of retail sales were for cash, 33.2 per cent by credit, 3.5 per cent on instalment systems, and 0.5 per cent by cash order.

Cash sales were dominant in the food and drink, apparel, and chemicals groups, accounting for over 80 per cent of sales in each of these three groups.

Cash and credit sales were relatively equal in each of the furniture, automotive, and the general department and variety store, groups.

Credit sales were dominant in the hardware group, where they accounted for nearly three-quarters of all hardware sales.

Forty-one per cent of all cash sales were in the food and drink group, which also accounted for 13.7 per cent of credit sales.

General, department, and variety stores accounted for 24.9 per cent of credit sales, also 19.5 per cent of instalment sales, 19.0 per cent of cash-order sales, and 12.7 per cent of cash sales.

The automotive group accounted for 31.6 per cent of the instalment sales, with also 18.5 per cent of credit, 17.4 per cent of cash order, and 9.1 per cent of cash sales.

The main and secondary urban areas accounted for 88.6 per cent of all instalment sales 70.9 per cent of cash sales, and 63.5 and 60.7 per cent respectively of cash-order and credit sales.

The following tables show the disposition of the different methods of selling by store type group and by location group. The figures quoted in brackets are in each case the percentage of total.

—	Turnover (1952–53) in the Form of—				Total Sales or Turnover 1952–53
—	Cash Sales	Cash Order Sales	Credit Sales	Instalment Sales	Total Sales or Turnover 1952–53
	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Store Type
Food and drink	104,039		18,382		122,421
	(41.0)		(13.7)		(30.3)
Apparel	44,454	519	6,924	776	52,673
	(17.5)	(28.2)	(5.2)	(5.4)	(13.0)
Furniture	8,861	363	10,250	4,330	23,804
	(3.5)	(19.8)	(7.6)	(30.3)	(5.9)
Automotive	23,098	319	24,794	4,518	52,729
	(9.1)	(17.4)	(18.5)	(31.6)	(13.1)
Hardware	5,636	85	14,497	71	20,289
	(2.2)	(4.6)	(10.8)	(0.5)	(5.0)
Chemicals	6,067	97	1,386	16	7,566
	(2.4)	(5.3)	(1.0)	(0.1)	(1.9)
Miscellaneous—
Department, variety, and general stores	32,101	349	33,478	2,797	68,725
	(12.7)	(19.0)	(24.9)	(19.5)	(170)
Other	29,280	105	24,607	1,798	55,790
	(11.6)	(5.7)	(18.3)	(12.6)	(13.8)
Totals, all retail stores	253,536	1,837	134,318	14,306	403,997
	(1000)	(1000)	(100.0)	(1000)	(1000)
Location
Main urban areas (including Hutt U.A.)	131,536	835	50,577	9,288	192,236
	(51.9)	(45.5)	(37.7)	(64.9)	(47.6)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt U.A.)	48,175	331	30,954	3,392	82,852
	(190)	(18.0)	(23.0)	(23.7)	(20.5)
Smaller centres	24,831	305	15,999	796	41,931
	(9.8)	(16.6)	(11.9)	(5.6)	(10.4)
Other urban	27,826	226	20,397	502	48,951
	(11.0)	(12.3)	(15.2)	(3.5)	(12.1)
Rural	21,168	140	16,391	328	38,027
	(8.3)	(7.6)	(12.2)	(2.3)	(9.4)
Totals, all retail stores	253,536	1,837	134,318	14,306	403,997
	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)

WHOLESALE ESTABLISHMENTS: Regional Distribution.—The total of 2,403 wholesale stores included in the tables accounted for a turnover of £305,507,000 during the period covered by the census, or an average turnover of £127,000 per store.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 82.4 per cent of wholesale stores with 92.1 per cent of total sales or turnover. Auckland and Wellington (including Hutt) urban areas together accounted for 45.4 per cent of stores and 56.8 per cent of turnover.

Distribution by Provincial Districts and Location Groups.—While, in the main, the distribution of stores and turnover throughout the provincial districts was roughly proportionate to the distribution of population, Wellington Provincial District was a notable exception in that it accounted for 28.3 per cent of stores and 31.9 per cent of turnover with just over 20 per cent of the population.

The following table shows the distribution of wholesale trading by provincial districts and by main location groups. Owing to the much smaller number of wholesale establishments it is not possible to show out details thereof to the same degree as for retail establishments. The figures quoted in brackets are in each case the percentage of total.

—	Population at 31 March 1953	Number of Stores	Purchases During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Stock at Close of Year (March 1953)
	(000)		£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Provincial Districts
Auckland	790.2	844	113,792	18,774	98,158
	(38.9)	(35.1)	(37.3)	(32.9)	(37.0)
Hawke's Bay	95.6	88	7,843	1,225	7,123
	(4.7)	(3.7)	(2.6)	(2.1)	(2.7)
Taranaki	90.3	66	4,091	534	3,427
	(4.4)	(2.7)	(1.3)	(0.9)	(1.3)
Wellington	408.9	679	97,538	21,140	85,672
	(20.1)	(28.3)	(31.9)	(37.0).	(32.2)
Marlborough	24.1	18	1,796	285	1,637
	(1.2)	(0.7)	(0.6)	(0.5)	(0.6)
Nelson	70.2	39	2,828	347	2,393
	(3.5)	(1.6)	(0.9)	(0.6)	(0.9)
Westland	18.5	19	1,343	202	1,101
	(0.9)	(0.8)	(0.4)	(0.4)	(0.4)
Canterbury	290.3	339	44,314	7,755	37,985
	(14.3)	(14.1)	(14.5)	(13.6)	(14.3)
Otago—
Otago portion	164.3	216	21,246	5,183	18,721
	(8.1)	(9.0)	(7.0)	(9.1)	(7.0)
Southland portion	79.6	95	10,716	1,671	9,442
	(3.9)	(4.0)	(3.5)	(2.9)	(3.6)
Totals, all wholesale stores	2,0320	2,403	305,507	57,116	265,659
	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt urban area)	849.0	1,551	202,474	234,009	46,459
	(41.8)	(64.5)	(76.2)	(76.6)	(81.4)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt urban area)	279.1	430	41,350	47,284	7,101
	(13.7)	(17.9)	(15.6)	(15.5)	(12.4)
Smaller centres	903.9	422	21,835	24,214	3,556
Other urban and rural	(44.5)	(17.6)	(8.2)	(7.9)	(6.2)
Totals, all wholesale stores	2,032.0	2,403	265,659	305,507	57,116
	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)	(100.0)

Analysis by Store Type.—The significance of store type is not as great in wholesale as in retail trading in that the general merchant, who may deal in any type of goods, appreciably affects the position. General merchants accounted for 16.9 per cent of all wholesale stores and for 29.4 per cent of all wholesale turnover. The average labour force per store was 50 per cent higher for the general merchants group than for any other group, and the average turnover per unit of labour force (£10,171) for general merchants was only exceeded in the automotive group (£11,118).

The following table shows details of wholesale establishments by store type groups.

Store Type Group	Number of Stores	Number of Paid Employees on 15 April 1953			Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953
Store Type Group	Number of Stores	Males	Females	Total	Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953
Food and drink	471	3,792	1,302	5,094	5,406
Apparel	269	1,628	1,329	2,957	3,093
Furniture	168	1,174	330	1,504	1,577
Automotive	142	1,559	383	1,942	1,984
Hardware	280	3,173	823	3,996	4,093
General merchants	406	6,357	2,437	8,794	8,842
Miscellaneous	667	6,529	2,145	8,674	8,898
Totals, all wholesale stores	2,403	24,212	8,749	32,961	33,893

Store Type Group	Average Labour Force Per Store	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Average Sales or Turnover Per Unit of Labour Force	Value of Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
		£(000)	£(000)	£	£(000)
Food and drink	11.5	2,787	41,066	7,596	3,067
Apparel	11.5	1,630	20,330	6,573	6,013
Furniture	9.4	861	12,558	7,963	2,837
Automotive	14.0	1,168	22,059	11,118	4,931
Hardware	14.6	2,502	39,377	9,621	9,274
General merchants	21.8	4,156	89,932	10,171	14,603
Miscellaneous	13.3	4,986	80,185	9,012	16,391
Totals, all wholesale stores	14.1	18,090	305,507	9,014	57,116

Size of Turnover.—A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with under £20,000 turnover numbered 755, 31.4 per cent, but accounted for only £6,807,000, 22 per cent, of turnover. At the other end of the scale a total turnover of £126,477,000, 41.4 per cent, was accounted for by only 133 stores, 5.5 per cent, which had a turnover of £500,000 or more.

Amount of Total Turnover	Number of Stores	Number of Paid Employees on 15 April 1953			Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Value of Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
Amount of Total Turnover	Number of Stores	Males	Females	Total	Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53	Value of Stocks at Close of Year (March 1953)
£ £						£(000)	£(000)	£(000)
Under 5,000	216	190	150	340	553	136	636	158
5,000 to 9,999	228	408	209	617	794	295	1,662	465
10,000 to 19,999	311	900	360	1,260	1,438	638	4,509	1,065
20,000 to 49,999	541	2,599	907	3,506	3,669	1,920	17,899	4,235
50,000 to 99,999	417	3,120	902	4,022	4,104	2,343	29,713	6,941
100,000 to 249,999	362	4,517	1,408	5,925	6,007	3,451	56,330	10,823
250,000 to 299,999	53	1,100	372	1,472	1,472	788	14,534	2,462
300,000 to 399,999	99	2,968	857	3,825	3,837	2,174	34,396	5,860
400,000 to 499,999	43	1,369	487	1,856	1,862	990	19,351	4,558
500,000 and over	133	7,041	3,097	10,138	10,157	5,355	126,477	20,549
Totals, all wholesale stores	2,403	24,212	8,749	32,961	33,893	18,090	305,507	57,116

SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS.—As was indicated in the general notes to this Section, merely a selected group of services were covered in the census. These were grouped in three broad divisions, personal, business and community, and other services.

Over nine-tenths of service establishments provided services only, while in the remainder some secondary form of trading was carried on.

A total of 2,696 services was covered by the census, of which 1,839, or 68.2 per cent, were in the North Island and 857, or 31.8 per cent, in the South Island. The total turnover handled by service establishments was £11,563,000, an average turnover of £4,000 per establishment.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 68.1 per cent of service establishments, with 84.3 per cent of the total turnover of such establishments.

Over half, 57.6 per cent, of service establishments covered by the census were in the “Personal service” category, and these accounted for 52 per cent of total turnover.

Just under three-quarters, 73.6 per cent, of service establishments had a turnover of less than £3,000, accounting for only 20.9 per cent of the total turnover. Establishments with a turnover of £20,000 and over were only 93 in number, 3.4 per cent, but accounted for 43.7 per cent of the total turnover.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census.

—		Personal Services	Business and Community Services	Other Services	Total
Number of services	No.	1,554	366	776	2,696
Sales or turnover during 1952–53	£(000)	6,018	3,955	1,590	11,563
Location of stores—
Main urban areas (including Hutt U. A.)	No.	744	235	337	1,316
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt U.A.)	No.	314	67	139	520
Smaller centers	No.	184	42	78	304
Other urban	No.	240	17	128	385
Rural	No.	72	5	94	171
Paid employees on 15 April 1953—
Males	No.	2,100	556	458	3,114
Females	No.	3,884	481	42	4,407
Totals	No.	5,984	1,037	500	7,521
Total labour force on 15 April 1953	No.	7,493	1,356	1,320	10,169
Salaries and wages paid during 1952-53	£(000)	2,430	585	229	3,244

The next table shows, for the same services, a classification by turnover and number of employees.

Amount of Total Turnover	Number of Stores	Number of Paid Employees on 15 April 1953			Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53
Amount of Total Turnover	Number of Stores	Males	Females	Total	Total Labour Force on 15 April 1953	Salaries and Wages Paid During 1952–53	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53
£ £						£(000)	£(000)
Under 1,000	941	26	179	205	1,192	53	589
1,000 to 2,999	1,044	296	886	1,182	2,259	353	1,825
3,000 to 4,999	282	344	391	735	1,026	431	1,062
5,000 to 9,999	232	580	477	1,057	1,256	441	1,595
10,000 to 19,999	104	525	595	1,120	1,188	536	1,436
20,000 to 49,999	64	755	967	1,722	1,745	745	1,927
50,000 to 99,999	21	361	688	1,049	1,052	412	1,444
100,000 and over	8	227	224	451	451	273	1,685
Totals	2,696	3,114	4,407	7,521	10,169	3,244	11,563

SPECIAL ANALYSES: Retail and Service Establishments.—Special analyses were taken out to show total retail trading by retail and service establishments, and, at the same time, details were also obtained of total services provided.

The following table shows details of retail trading as above by commodity groups. The three major commodity groups are groceries and small goods; clothing, drapery and dress piece goods; and motor vehicles, parts, and accessories. These accounted for 14.8, 14.2, and 13.3 per cent respectively of total retail turnover.

Commodity Group	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53		Value of Stocks at
Commodity Group	Amount	Per Cent of Total	Start of Year (March 1952)	Close of Year (March 1953)
	£(000)		£(000)	£(000)
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)	59,721	14.8	6,751	6,937
Butchers' meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables	31,011	7.7	562	655
Other foods (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)	12,100	3.0	363	359
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks	10,203	2.5	620	690
Beer, wine, and spirits	25,379	6.3	1,552	2,023
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries	9,204	2.3	823	893
Chemists' goods, toiletries, cosmetics (including dispensing)	8,765	2.2	1,737	1,917
Clothing, drapery, and dress piece goods	57,348	14.2	17,772	18,051
Footwear	8,852	2.2	3,008	3,203
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, etc.	21,792	5.4	6,037	6,660
Musical instruments, including radios	4,726	1.2	837	921
Household appliances and electrical goods	9,729	2.4	1,726	1,953
Hardware, domestic china, and glassware	10,601	2.6	2,815	3,379
Hardware, builders', and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)	13,132	3.3	2,275	3,235
Books, stationery, and newspapers	9,396	2.3	1,557	1,786
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oils)	53,591	13.3	4,666	5,629
Coal, coke, and firewood	3,134	0.8	120	143
Fertilizers, manures, grain, seed, and fodder	9,989	2.5	1,108	1,230
Florists' goods	513	0.1	19	24
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)	3,904	1.0	1,676	1,840
Leather, luggage, and harness	1,116	0.3	252	286
Agricultural machinery	9,875	2.5	2,320	3,374
Other machinery	3,206	0.8	568	714
Paint, glass, and wallpaper	1,874	0.5	422	495
Photographic supplies and equipment	341	0.1	87	99
Plumbing equipment and piping	857	0.2	111	132
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies	2,525	0.6	248	273
Sports goods (including toys and games)	2,115	0.5	511	620
Bicycles, parts, and accessories	2,187	0.5	522	645
Other goods	15,882	3.9	3,376	3,816
Totals, retail commodities	403,078	100.0	64,441	71,982

The following table shows details of total services provided by retail and service establishments.

Type of Service	Number of Establishments Handling Service Specified	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53
Personal service provided by establishments classified as—		£(000)
Service establishments	1,564	5,772
Retail stores	846	773
Totals, personal services	2,410	6,545
Community and business services provided by establishments classified as—
Service establishments	378	3,636
Retail stores	74	146
Totals, community and business services	452	3,782
Other services provided by establishments classified as—
Service establishments	782	1,436
Retail stores	537	719
Totals, other services	1,319	2,155
Grand totals, all services	4,181	12,482

Wholesale Trading.—The following table shows details of wholesale trading by main commodities handled.

Commodity Group	Sales or Turnover During 1952–53		Value of Stocks at
Commodity Group	Amount	Per Cent of Total	Start of Year (March 1952)	Close of Year (March 1953)
	£(000)		£(000)	£(000)
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon etc.)	45,087	14.8	5,297	5,260
Butchers' meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables	15,652	5.1	416	478
Other food (bread, cakes, and pastry, etc.)	3,983	1.3	173	184
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks	3,102	1.0	192	191
Beer, wine, and spirits	7,249	2.4	886	1,182
Clothing, drapery, and piece goods	19,567	6.4	5,590	5,983
Furniture, bedding, floor coverings, soft furnishings, etc.	7,720	2.5	2,075	2,308
Household appliances and electrical goods	14,926	4.9	2,689	3,657
Hardware, domestic china, and glassware	8,619	2.8	1,871	2,515
Hardware, builders', and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)	15,897	5.2	2,486	3,666
Books, stationery, and newspapers	4,410	1.4	871	849
Motor vehicles, parts, accessories (excluding petrol and oils)	28,143	9.2	5,825	6,632
Coal, coke, and firewood	7,472	2.5	52	91
Fertilizers, manures, grain, seed, and fodder	19,753	6.5	1,516	2,211
Agricultural machinery	7,932	2.6	1,638	2,184
Other machinery	15,060	4.9	3,276	4,514
Paint, glass, and wallpaper	5,551	1.8	966	1,330
Plumbing equipment and piping	1,702	0.6	335	393
Rubber goods (excluding tires and tubes)	1,358	0.4	457	371
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies	1,559	0.5	216	186
Other	70,765	23.2	10,702	12,931
Total, wholesale commodities	305,507	100.0	47,529	57,116

Chapter 29. SECTION 29—SOCIAL ACCOUNTS

Table of Contents

29A—NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

29 B—INDUSTRY SECTOR ACCOUNTS

29 C—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

29A—NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

INTRODUCTORY.—In recent years the emphasis in social accounting has shifted more and more from the mere ascertainment of the various income, expenditure, and outlay aggregates themselves to an analysis of economic inter-relationships between industrial sectors and their resulting money flows. Since the publication of the 1953 issue of the Year-Book further progress has been made in sector statistics, and it was found convenient to reproduce all the relevant tables in a separate subsection independently of National Income and Expenditure statistics (see Section 29B following).

The estimates of National Income and Expenditure shown on the following pages follow the same pattern, both in method of estimation and presentation, as those published in previous issues of the Year-Book.

The principal of these aggregates is that of “National Income,” which, in general terms, measures the total value of all incomes (before deduction of taxation) earned by the residents of New Zealand in producing the current output of goods and services.

Income can be earned in a variety of ways and accrues to individuals according to the manner in which they participate in current production. Salary and wage payments represent the return to labour for services rendered, and include in this concept supplementary income in “kind” such as board and keep provided by the employer. Of considerable importance during the war years, the item “pay and allowances of Armed Forces,” while analogous to salary and wage payments when considering the source of such income, does not necessarily fit in with this concept when the former civilian occupation of the serviceman is considered. This fact must be taken into account in comparing the distributive shares of the various groups in the national income over the war period. Clothing, food, accommodation, and other income in “kind” supplied to members of the Armed Forces are included under this heading, as are also deferred-pay, mufti-allowance, and war-gratuity payments.

Rental value of owner-occupied houses is a non-monetary item representing the imputed net rental value (before payment of rates, but after deductions for depreciation, mortgage interest, insurance, and repairs and maintenance) of all owner-occupied houses (except farm houses).

“Other personal income” (excluding company dividends) represents the aggregate income of professional men, farmers, and individual traders, as well as income “Other than salary and wages” of salary and wage earners—e.g., rent, interest, etc. Included under this heading as current income are changes in balances of primary-produce stabilization accounts, and moneys retained under authority of the Wool Proceeds Retention Act 1950.

Company income represents the total income (distributed and undistributed) of companies. This means that dividends distributed to individuals are included under this heading, and to this extent the total of “Other personal income” is understated.

Apart from these incomes which result from current productive activities on the part of individuals receiving them, there are other incomes of a “non-productive” nature in the form of social security benefits, pensions, and interest on public debt. These “transfer” incomes, as they are called, do not arise from the current production of goods and services and must therefore be excluded from the national income. They do, however, form part of the intermediate concept of “private income,” which represents the aggregate of earned incomes and unearned “transfer” incomes received by or accruing to persons. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayment of debt, etc.—are, however, excluded both from “private income” and “national income.” It includes as income accruing, but not actually received, undistributed incomes of companies. The deduction of direct taxation gives the concept of “private disposable income.”

In general, only incomes arising from the production of goods and services destined for the market form part of the national income; it follows, therefore, that the services of housewives, for instance, or the produce of home gardens are excluded. On the other hand, farm produce consumed on farms is part of the national income.

The addition to private income of Government and local-authority trading profits and lump-sum payments from the United Kingdom Government, and the deduction of “transfer” incomes as detailed above, gives the concept of “net national income at factor cost” or, more briefly, “national income.” This may be defined as the income (before tax) earned by or accruing to the factors of production, in or only temporarily absent from New Zealand, in producing the current output of goods and services of all kinds. The further addition of indirect taxes (net of subsidies) is necessary to bring the net national income to market price valuation.

Gross national product is obtained by adding depreciation allowances to net national income at market prices, and represents the value of current output before deduction of allowances for depreciation and obsolescence, and is equal on the expenditure side to “gross national expenditure.”

The following table shows the principal of the above aggregates and the manner in which they are derived one from the other for the years 1938–39, and 1943–44 to 1952–53.

PRINCIPAL INCOMB AGGREGATES

£(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1944–45	1945–46	1946–47	1947–48	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional. NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 657–659.
Private income (26)	199.8	330.9	339.1	360.6	396.3	444.9	462.4	526.5	656.1	670.5	700.6
Plus Government trading income (6)	8.7	17.9	14.5	15.3	14.5	13.3	12.0	13.3	15.8	17.7	16.9
Lump-sum payments from United Kingdom Government (7)		3.0	5.0	5.0	5.0	5.0
Less transfer incomes—
Social security benefits and pensions (22)	−7.7	−15.8	−17.6	−20.9	−34.8	−37.6	−39.5	−42.6	−47.5	−53.5	−54.2
Interest on public debt paid in New Zealand (8)	−7.0	−11.3	−12.9	−13.8	−15.1	−15.3	−15.5	−16.2	−16.9	−17.4	−17.0
Net national income at factor cost (national income) (9)	193.7	324.6	328.1	346.2	365.9	410.2	419.4	481.0	607.4	617.4	646.4
Plus indirect taxation (10)	20.6	31.8	34.0	37.3	43.0	53.0	46.1	49.8	55.6	71.0	67.0
Less subsidies (11)	−0.6	−3.1	−4.6	−6.6	−11.8	−13.6	−11.5	−14.6	−9.4	−15.2	−15.0
Net national income at market prices (12)	213.7	353.3	357.5	376.9	397.1	449.6	454.0	516.2	653.6	673.2	698.3
Plus depreciation allowances (13)	15.0	17.0	19.0	20.0	24.0	26.0	30.0	34.0	38.0	40.0	43.0
Gross national product (14)	228.7	370.3	376.5	396.9	421.1	475.6	484.0	550.2	691.6	713.2	741.3

The estimates are based primarily on details of receipts from the social security charge under the Social Security Act of 1938. This charge is levied at a flat rate on the incomes of all individuals over the age of sixteen years and on all companies trading in New Zealand. The charge is deductible at source in the case of salary and wage payments, but is payable during the year following that in which the income is earned in the case of income “other than salaries and wages” of individuals and company incomes.

No allowance has been made for possible evasion of taxation in the estimates, nor has it been possible to take into account “negative” income, or losses of previous years allowed as a set-off against current profits for taxation purposes.

The various aggregates are conventionally measured over a given period of time, and this in New Zealand is taken as the year ending 31 March. Values in all cases are in terms of New Zealand currency.

Full details of the methods used and a description of the items shown in the following tables are given in the report entitled “Official Estimates of National Income and Sector Accounts, 1938–39 to 1952–53,” issued as a supplement to the July 1953 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.—It is necessary to point out that the estimates of national expenditure should be used with some caution, owing to the fact that not all of the items of expenditure can be estimated directly. On the other hand it is well to realize that, whatever inherent error there may exist in the absolute values of individual expenditure items, year-to-year changes are likely to be much more accurate simply because the method of estimation is based on the same pattern every year.

The method necessarily adopted does not allow a check to be made on the present national income aggregates, in which no allowances have been made for any possible understatement of incomes shown in the taxation returns on which the estimates are based. Neither do they take into account “negative” incomes nor losses of previous years allowed as a set-off against current profits for taxation purposes. Any understatement of the gross product total arising from these omissions will therefore be reflected in a similar understatement of “personal consumption” which is shown as a residual item in the break-up of national expenditure (refer table on page 657, item 15.) Direct estimates are made of expenditure on Government-provided goods and services, gross capital formation in New Zealand by private and Government sectors, and the balance of overseas payments on current account (sometimes termed “net overseas investment” or “net lending abroad”).

This treatment has the advantage in an analysis of private income and outlay (refer table on page 658) of allowing an estimate of private savings to be made, again as a residual item, by deducting direct taxation, and “personal consumption” will naturally incorporate all the errors of the estimates, but the major apparent error—i.e., that of understatement for the purpose of tax evasion—is cancelled out by a similar error in both private income and personal consumption totals. Thus private savings while necessarily including other errors of the estimates are not distorted by the factors mentioned.

The various tables are given and their derivation and composition discussed later, but before presenting this detail it is of interest to examine the relationships existing between some of the more important aggregates. The following table gives the principal of these.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS

—		1938–39	1943–44	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional. NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 657–659.
National income (9)	£m.	194	325	419	481	607	617	646
Gross national product (14)	£m.	229	370	484	550	692	713	741
Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services (15)	£m.	159	173	346	355	418	450	439
As percentage of gross national product		69	47	71	65	60	63	59
Gross capital formation in New Zealand (17)	£m.	44	40	69	120	171	182	180
As percentage of gross national product		19	11	14	22	25	26	24
Cost of Government-provided goods and services (16)	£m.	32	161	64	71	78	97	111
As percentage of gross national product		14	44	13	13	11	14	15
Private income (26)	£m.	200	331	462	527	656	671	701
Private savings (29)	£m.	17	83	22	76	125	79	117
As percentage of private income		9	25	5	14	19	12	17

National income at factor cost showed a further increase of 4.7 per cent in 1952–53 as compared with an increase of 1.6 per cent in 1951–52. Salary and wage payments rose by 6.5 per cent (as against an increase of 16.5 per cent in the previous year), and other personal income by 21 per cent as against a decrease of 20 per cent previously. Of the latter group, the movement in farm incomes is by far the most important. Basing the movement in farm incomes on actual cash receipts, including releases from primary produce stabilization accounts and wool retention accounts, farming incomes increased by 9.3 per cent in 1952–53, as against a decrease of 6.9 per cent in the previous year. The upward movement in company incomes (before distribution) was small (1.3 per cent) compared with the previous increase of 8.6 per cent.

The most interesting developments, however, have occurred on the expenditure side of the national accounts. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, which throughout the war and post-war years has shown a continuously rising tendency keeping more or less in step with the rising value of output, has shown an absolute decline in comparison with 1951–52; and while the gross national product has increased by 3.9 per cent between 1951–52 and 1952–53, personal expenditure on goods and services has decreased from 63 per cent to 59 per cent of gross national product. This latter figure is the lowest of all peace-time years since estimates of National Income and Expenditure have been prepared.

It may be of interest to survey briefly the factors which have contributed to this development. One item of importance in the disposal of the national product is capital formation—the accumulation both of new productive capital and stocks. A glance at the previous table will reveal, however, that gross capital formation has declined absolutely and also as a percentage of gross national product (from 26 to 24 per cent of G.N.P.). The absolute decline is very slight and can be disregarded to all intents and purposes; the salient fact, however, is the shift from private capital formation to expenditure on capital works by the General Government (including local authorities). In 1951–52 private investment accounted for 181 per cent of the gross national product; Government investment was 7.4 per cent. In the following year private investment declined to 14.8 per cent and Government investment increased to 9.4 per cent of gross national product. It must therefore be concluded that the trend in total capital investment was not in itself responsible for the decline in personal expenditure on goods and services; it is necessary to consider the other two items of national expenditure—viz., Government current expenditure (cost of Government-provided goods and services) and net overseas investment—in order to provide an explanation.

Current Government expenditure increased from £97m. in 1951–52 (14 per cent of gross national product) to £111m. (15 per cent of gross national product) in 1952–53. Included in this total increase of £14m. are higher defence expenditure (increase of £9.3m.), an increase in current expenditure by local authorities (£2.5m.), expenditure connected with the development of primary and secondary industries (£1.8m.), subsidies to Hospital Boards (£1.3m.), and non-monetary social security benefits and pensions (£1.0m.). The net balance is the result of minor fluctuations in all the other expenditure items.

Net overseas investment was a still more significant factor in the utilization of the gross national product; a current deficit of £16m. in 1951–52 was turned into a net surplus of £11m. in 1952–53. The absolute change in this one item (£27m.) is very nearly equal to the total increase in the gross national product (£28m.). This development shows in a striking fashion how, in an economy as dependent on external trade as New Zealand's economy, external fluctuations produce significant changes in the more flexible items of National Income and Expenditure, while such expenditures as that of Government and capital formation (which are planned in advance) remain fairly rigid.

The reverse side of the same problem can be seen from a perusal of the tables on page 658 (Private Income and Outlay) and page 659 (Combined Capital Account). The increase in private income in 1952–53 was, in absolute figures, approximately the same as in gross national product. With taxation revenue moving only slightly upwards, the corollary of a reduction in personal

expenditure was a marked increase in private savings (12 per cent of private income in 1951–52; 17 per cent of private income in 1952–53). Private savings were called upon to finance not only the switch from an external deficit to an external surplus, but the increase in Government (including local authority) capital investment as well. Owing to a rise of current Government and local authority expenditure—already analysed above—there was, in 1952–53, a reduction in the current surplus remaining in the hands of Government. In recent years this surplus has usually contributed substantially to the financing of capital works.

The four tables on pages 657–659 give the complete details of the various aggregates already mentioned and the manner in which they are derived from the accounts covering the different sectors of the economy.

National Income and Expenditure.—This table gives the composition of the gross national product and the manner in which it has been expended—i.e., gross national expenditure. As mentioned previously, “personal expenditure on consumer goods and services” is obtained as a residual item in this table, all other aggregates being obtained by direct assessment.

Private Income and Outlay.—This table gives in detail the break-up of private income into the various factor incomes and, on the expenditure side, the manner in which these incomes arc spent on personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, paid in direct taxation, or saved. A breakup of “other personal income” is given for each of the years except 1943–44, when this detail was not available. The total of personal consumption derived from the preceding table is carried forward to this table, and this time private savings are obtained as a residual item. The limitations of these two residual items have already been mentioned, and for the reasons given care should be taken in their use.

It is not possible to analyse company income further, and for this reason “other personal income” excludes company dividends, and private savings necessarily include undistributed company profits.

General Government and Local Authority Revenue Account.—The Government sector is discussed in more detail later in this Section, but this table gives a consolidated statement of General Government and local authority revenue and expenditure, showing as a balance that portion of the revenue which was utilized for capital investment in the case of a surplus, or the call on private savings made necessary by a deficit. The effects of the heavy war expenditure in 1943–44 are indicated by the exceptional expenditure on goods and services in that year (principally on war and defence), and the consequent negative balance of £63m. in the account.

Combined Capital Account.—This account indicates the manner in which finance for capital formation has been made available—(a) from private savings, (b) from revenue surpluses of Government, and (c) from amounts set aside as depreciation allowances from income. Gross capital formation represents the construction in New Zealand or purchase from overseas of durable capital assets by the private, General Government, and local authority sectors, plus net investment in stocks by trading concerns. The net change in overseas assets is the same as the item “net overseas investment” shown in the table on page 657, and is an estimate of the change in our overseas investment consequent on this movement in our balance of payments on current account. Once again the effects of war finance are clearly discernible; in 1943–44 the major part of total available funds went to finance the Government deficit principally incurred on account of war expenditure. The process of reconversion from 1946–47 onwards, apart from abnormal re-stocking by trading concerns, is indicated by the figures of gross capital formation which indicate that, notwithstanding shortages of certain essential materials, wartime-enforced postponements of purchase and construction of capital equipment are being gradually overcome. Increased holdings of wool as a result of the waterfront dispute, however, played an important part in raising the figures for 1950–51.

These four tables, then, give a comprehensive picture in broad terms of the changing pattern of New Zealand's economy over a period of fifteen years which have seen the dislocating effects of a major war. One important point to consider when examining the tables, however, is that all the figures given represent “values” and consequently are inflated to a greater or less extent by price movements over the period. In the absence of any price index of a sufficiently wide coverage to deflate the various aggregates, it is necessary to recognize this fact and wherever possible make some allowance for it.

The following are the four tables mentioned.

NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE £(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional.
INCOME
1. Salary and wage payments	111	140	227	251	279	325	346
2. Pay and allowances of Armed Forces	1	58	4	5	6	10	12
3. Rental value, owner-occupied houses	6	8	11	11	13	15	16
4. Other personal income	54	72	133	159	240	192	196
5. Company income	20	36	48	58	70	76	77
6. Government and local-authority trading income	9	18	12	13	16	18	17
7. Lump-sum payments from United Kingdom Government		3
8. Less public debt interest paid in New Zealand	−7	−11	−16	−16	−17	−17	−17
9. Net national income at factor cost	194	325	419	481	607	617	646
10. Plus indirect taxation	21	32	46	50	56	71	67
11. Less subsidies	−1	−3	−12	−15	−9	−15	−15
12. Net national income at market prices	214	353	454	516	654	673	698
13. Plus depreciation allowances	15	17	30	34	38	40	43
14. Gross national product	229	370	484	550	692	713	741
EXPENDITURE
15. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services	159	173	346	355	418	450	439
16. Cost of Government-provided goods and services	32	161	64	71	78	97	111
17. Gross capital formation in New Zealand	44	40	69	120	171	182	180
18. Net overseas investment	−6	−4	5	4	25	−16	11
19. Gross national expenditure	279	370	484	550	692	713	741

PRIVATE INCOME AND OUTLAY £(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional.
INCOME
20. Salary and wage payments	111	140	227	251	279	325	346
21. Pay and allowances of Armed Forces	1	58	4	5	6	10	12
22. Social security benefits and pensions	8	16	39	43	48	54	54
23. Rental value of owner-occupied houses	6	8	11	11	13	15	16
24. Other personal income—
(a) Professional occupations	5		12	14	16	17	18
(b) Commerce, trade, or business	9		25	27	32	35	36
(c) Farming	25		64	83	116	108	118
(d) Changes in balances in primary-produce stabilization accounts	−2	74	+10	+11	+17	+6	+3
(e) Changes in balances of wool retention moneys					+33	−3	−6
(f) Interest, rent, etc.	15		16	16	18	20	20
(g) Other	2		6	7	8	9	8
25. Company income (before distribution)	20	36	48	58	70	76	77
26. Private income (before tax)	200	331	462	527	656	671	701
OUTLAY
27. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services	160	173	346	355	418	450	439
28. Direct taxation	24	75	94	96	113	142	145
29. Private savings	16	83	22	76	125	79	117
30. Private outlay	200	331	462	527	656	671	701

GENERAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT

£(million)

—	1938–39	1943-44	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional.
31. Taxation—	REVENUE
(a) Direct	24	76	95	97	115	144	148
(b) Indirect	21	32	46	50	56	71	67
32. Trading income	9	18	12	13	16	18	17
33. Less direct taxes paid by Government trading undertakings		−1	−1	−2	−2	−2	−2
34. Lump-sum payments from United Kingdom Government		3
35. Total revenue	54	128	152	159	184	231	230
EXPENDITURE
36. Cost of provision of goods and services	32	161	64	71	78	97	111
Transfers to Private Income—
37. Social security benefits and pensions	8	16	39	43	48	54	54
38. Interest on public debt paid in New Zealand	7	11	16	16	17	17	17
39. Subsidies	1	3	12	15	9	15	15
40. Balance of revenue over expenditure	6	-63	21	14	33	47	32
41. Total expenditure plus or minus revenue balances	54	128	152	159	184	231	230

COMBINED CAPITAL ACCOUNT £(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional.
Savings	REVENUE
42. Private savings	17	83	22	76	125	79	117
43. Revenue balances: General Government and local authorities	6	−63	21	14	33	47	32
44. Depreciation allowances	15	17	30	34	38	40	43
45. Total funds utilized	38	36	74	124	196	167	191
Investment	EXPENDITURE
46. Gross capital formation in New Zealand—
(a) Private	22	26	29	72	121	129	110
(b) General Government	16	10	32	39	40	41	55
(c) Local authorities	6	4	8	9	10	13	15
47. Net change in overseas assets	−6	−4	+5	+4	+25	−16	+11
48. Total investment	38	36	74	124	196	167	191

THE GOVERNMENT SECTOR.—The part played by the Government in redirecting the expenditure of that portion of the national income transferred to it from the private sector by way of taxation and trading profits becomes of increasing importance with the increasing complexity of economic issues. The changes in these directions in New Zealand are quite apparent from an examination of the tables of General Government and local-authority revenue and expenditure covering the years 1938–39, 1943–44, and 1948–49 to 1952–53, which are given further on in this Section.

General Government.—The revenue account of the General Government has been obtained by an analysis of the various accounts within the public account, and represents a consolidated statement of Government revenue and expenditure. In the case of trading department operations, which are treated separately, profits only are brought into the main account as a revenue item. Expenditure has been taken “net” in all cases, sundry departmental receipts, etc., being set off against departmental expenditure. The account covers only revenue items, and therefore excludes capital receipts and payments of all kinds, thus accounting in part for the differences between the details given here and those given in the published statement of the public accounts in parliamentary paper B-1 [Pt. I] In order that the difference between these two sets of figures may be appreciated, a reconciliation statement is given at the end of this Section.

Varying movements in different avenues of Government expenditure are apparent from the table. Current expenditure on the provision of goods and services moved from £23.2m. in 1938–39 to £154.4m. in 1943–44, the peak war year, when expenditure on war and defence was at an unprecedented level. From 1946–47 the expenditure increased steadily from £45.8m. to £61.2m. in 1950–51 and £88.6m. in 1952–53. On the other hand, apart from the abnormal wartime year 1943–44, the percentage of expenditure on the provision of goods and services to gross national product remained practically constant from 1938–39 to 1949–50. It dropped sharply in 1950–51, being 10.1 per cent in 1938–39, 10.3 per cent in 1949–50, and 8.8 per cent in 1950–51, but rose to the exceptionally high level of 12.0 per cent in 1952–53. This fall and rise was in part due to the fact that the rapid increase in incomes from 1949–50 to 1950–51 did not have its full effect on taxation until 1951–52. Transfers to private income by way of monetary social security benefits and interest on the public debt increased steadily from £12.4m. in 1938–39 to £56.6m. in 1949–50, while the percentage of gross national product also increased steadily from 5.4 to 10.3 per cent. This expansion was largely due to Government social legislation.

In 1950–51, however, although the actual amount of these transfers increased still further to £62.3m., the percentage to gross national product declined to 90 per cent. In 1951–52 and 1952–53 it increased to £68.7m. and £69.0m. respectively, while in terms of percentages of gross national product transfer payments remained relatively stable at 9.6 per cent and 9.3 per cent.

Similarly, payments by way of subsidies to keep down the cost of basic consumer goods increased from £0.6m. in 1938–39, being 0.3 per cent of the gross national product, to £14.6m. in 1949–50, 2.7 per cent of gross national product. The cost of subsidies dropped sharply to 9.4m. in 1950–51, or 1.4 per cent of gross national product, but rose again to £15m. (20 per cent) in 1952–53.

These transfer payments and subsidies have undoubtedly been the principal cause of the substantial increase in taxation over the fourteen years, but when their overall purpose is realized, that of re-distributing the national income among different income groups, the large increases shown are seen in their correct perspective principally as pure “transfer” items.

The balance of revenue over expenditure represents the excess after net expenditure on normal current Government activities has been allowed for. This balance is utilized for the carrying-out of necessary capital works and purchase of equipment, or for the repayment of debt. Where there is an excess of expenditure over revenue, as was the case in 1943–44, the deficit must be met by a call on private savings in New Zealand, or a decrease in net overseas investments. It is equally true, of course, that if total Government expenditure in any one year, including expenditure on capital works, exceeds revenue for that year, this overall deficit must be met in a similar way.

GENERAL GOVERNMENT—REVENUE ACCOUNT £(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional. † Includes £1m. contribution under Colombo Plan in each year.
1. Taxation—
(a) Direct—	REVENUE
Income-tax	9.3	31.3	49.0	48.4	59.4	78.1	78.7
Social security taxation	5.5	13.4	29.4	31.7	35.8	43.6	45.5
National security tax		19.2
Land-tax	1.1	1.0	0.9	1.0	1.0	1.1	1.3
Death duties	1.8	4.5	6.0	5.7	7.3	8.1	8.8
Other	0.1	0.2
Totals	17.8	69.6	85.3	86.8	103.5	131.0	134.3
(b) Indirect—
Sales tax	3.6	12.7	14.1	14.8	16.8	21.8	22.0
Customs and excise duty	11.7	13.9	23.7	26.3	28.6	37.9	32.7
Motor-vehicles taxation	3.1	1.7	3.6	3.6	4.0	4.6	4.9
Other	1.6	2.9	3.7	4.1	5.0	5.2	5.9
Totals	20.0	31.2	45.1	48.8	54.4	69.6	65.5
2. Totals, all taxation	37.8	100.8	130.4	135.6	157.9	200.5	199.8
3. Trading income	5.4	13.3	8.4	9.6	12.2	14.8	13.7
4. Less direct taxation paid by trading Departments	−0.2	−1.0	−1.3	−1.5	−1.5	−1.9	−2.4
Totals	5.2	12.3	7.1	8.1	10.7	12.9	11.3
5. Lump-sum payments from United Kingdom Government		3.0
6. Total revenue	43.0	116.1	137.5	143.7	168.6	213.4	211.1
7. Cost of Provision of Good and Services—	EXPENDITURE
(a) General Administration	2.2	1.8	7.9	9.3	10.7	14.3^†	13.6^†
(b) Interest on General Government debt paid overseas	6.8	6.6	3.3	2.7	2.5	2.5	2.5
(c) Law and order	0.8	0.8	1.3	1.8	1.5	1.7	1.4
(d) Development of primary and secondary industries	0.7	1.3	4.0	4.9	5.0	5.3	7.1
Social Services—
(e) Health	0.8	1.4	2.8	3.4	3.6	4.3	4.4
(f) Education	4.2	4.8	9.2	11.0	12.3	14.6	15.7
(g) Non - monetary social security benefits		4.5	7.9	8.5	8.7	9.4	10.4
(h) Other social services	3.3	0.4	0.4	0.6	0.6	0.9	1.0
(i) Defence and war	2.1	131.2	8.0	8.2	10.6	17.7	25.7
(j) Rehabilitation		0.4	2.4	2.1	2.1	1.5	1.2
(k) Maintenance of public works and services	2.3	1.2	4.0	4.0	3.6	5.2	5.6
Totals	23.2	154.4	51.2	56.5	61.2	77.4	88.6
8. Monetary social security benefits and pensions	7.7	15.8	39.5	42.6	47.5	53.5	54.2
9. Interest on General Government debt paid in New Zealand	4.7	9.0	13.3	14.0	14.8	15.2	14.8
Totals	12.4	24.8	52.8	56.6	62.3	68.7	69.0
10. Transfers to Local Authorities—
(a) Hospital Boards	0.9	1.1	4.9	5.0	6.3	8.3	9.6
(b) Other	4.4	1.6	3.3	3.6	2.8	3.6	2.9
Totals	5.3	2.7	8.2	8.6	9.1	11.9	12.5
11. Subsidies—
(a) Shipping, transport, and incidental		0.2	2.6	1.6	0.1	1.1	0.5
(b) Coal production and distribution		0.5	1.9	2.9	0.5		0.1
(c) Primary production	0.4	0.8	0.3	0.5	0.4	0.6	0.2
(d) Essential clothing and foodstuffs	0.2	1.6	6.6	9.6	7.4	12.2	12.6
(e) Miscellaneous			0.1		0.1	0.7	0.9
(f) Housing suspensory loans					1.0	0.7	0.7
Totals	0.6	3.1	11.5	14.6	9.4	15.2	15.0
12. Total expenditure	41.5	185.0	123.7	136.3	142.0	173.2	185.1
13. Balance of revenue over expenditure	1.5	−68.9	13.8	7.4	26.6	40.2	26.0
14. Total expenditure plus or minus revenue balances	43.0	116.1	137.5	143.7	168.6	213.4	211.1

Local Authorities.—The revenue account of local authorities is in all respects similar to that of the General Government and has been obtained by an analysis of the accounts of all local authorities, including Hospital Boards. The limitations in the scope of local-government activities as compared with those of the General Government do not call for a detailed analysis of expenditure items, and therefore current expenditure on the provision of goods and services by local authorities is shown as a single total.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT £(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional.
15. Taxation—	REVENUE
(a) Direct: Rates	6.2	6.9	9.5	10.3	11.1	12.5	13.2
(b) Indirect: Licence fees	0.6	0.6	1.0	1.1	1.2	1.4	1.5
Totals	6.8	7.5	10.5	11.4	12.3	13.9	14.7
16. Trading income	3.3	4.6	3.7	3.8	3.6	2.9	3.2
17. Grants from General Government	5.3	2.7	8.2	8.6	9.1	11.9	12.5
18. Total revenue	15.4	14.8	22.4	23.8	25.0	28.7	30.4
19. Cost of provision of goods and services	8.4	6.6	12.8	14.6	16.5	20.0	22.5
20. Interest on local-authority debt paid in New Zealand	2.3	2.3	2.2	2.2	2.1	2.2	2.2
21. Total expenditure	10.7	8.9	15.0	16.8	18.6	22.2	24.7
22. Balance of revenue over expenditure	4.7	5.9	7.4	7.0	6.4	6.5	5.7
23. Total expenditure (plus revenue balances)	15.4	14.8	22.4	23.8	25.0	28.7	30.4

Reconciliation Statement.—The reconciliation given below indicates the fundamental differences between the analysis of the public accounts made for national-income purposes and that published in parliamentary paper B-1 [Pt. I].

RECONCILIATION BETWEEN BALANCE OF REVENUE OVER EXPENDITURE PER NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTS,AND COMBINED SURPLUS CONSOLIDATED FUND AND SOCIAL SECURITY FUND, 1952–53 (PROVISIONAL)

24.	Balance of revenue over current expenditure, per National Income Accounts (item 13, Table on page 662)	£m.
		+26.0
	Less—
25.	Amortization of debt charged to Consolidated Fund	−6.6
26.	Transfer from Consolidated Fund to Defence Fund	−0.1
27.	Capital expenditure charged to Consolidated Fund	−5.7
28.	Transfer from Consolidated Fund to Public Works Account	−6.0
	Plus—
29.	Current expenditure from Public Works Account (transfers to local authorities)	+0.5
	Adjustment for Trading Income—
30.	Profits of trading Departments	−13.7
31.	Plus transfers of profits to Consolidated Fund	+9.7
	Total	+4.1
32.	Consolidated Fund surplus, 1952–53	3.3
33.	Social Security Fund surplus, 1952–53	0.8
	Total, Surplus Consolidated Fund and Social Security Fund as shown in the Public Accounts B-1 [Pt. I]	4.1

For the reconciliation for earlier years between the balances of revenue over expenditure and the Budget surpluses (or deficits), reference should be made to the previous issues of the Year-Book.

Firstly, it has been necessary to bring into account revenue and expenditure received and incurred by the Government other than that recorded within the limited confines of the Consolidated Fund. From 1950–51 the only other accounts involved were the Social Security Fund and the Public Works Account, the remaining accounts used in earlier years either having been closed or the amounts involved were negligible.

Secondly, adjustments have been made to Consolidated Fund revenue and expenditure. Capital receipts and payments (purchase or construction of capital assets and amortization of debt) have been eliminated. Actual profits of trading Departments earned in a given year are brought into account and transfers by them to the Consolidated Fund deducted. This ensures that only profits for the year in question are included. Transfers to the Consolidated Fund do not necessarily relate to profits earned in the year in which the transfer is made, nor do they cover total profits of all trading Departments.

The consolidated balance of total Government revenue and expenditure represents the balance, after payment for all current items, utilized for capital expenditure of all kinds both by Government administrative Departments and Government trading undertakings. Because of the strictly “cash” basis on which the public accounts are constructed, however, no allowance has been made for depreciation on the national assets, other than those administered by the trading Departments, before arriving at the revenue balance. To this extent, therefore, it represents an overstatement of the true balance on current account.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE INCOME.—A detailed survey of private income and outlay has already been given (refer table on page 658) for the years 1938–39, 1943–44, and 1948–49 to 1952–53. An analysis of private income, in less comprehensive form, is given below for 1938–39 and for each of the years 1943–44 to 1952–53. Group totals are shown in value form, as percentages of private income, and as index numbers on base 1938–39 (= 100).

PRIVATE INCOME

—	1938–39	1943–44	1944–45	1945–46	1946–47	1947–48	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional. † Includes changes in Primary Produce Stabilization Accounts and wool retention moneys. NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 657–659.
Salary and wage payments (1)—
£m.	111.1	140.4	147.0	161.8	186.3	210.1	226.9	251.4	278.8	325.2	345.7
Per cent	55.6	42.4	43.3	44.9	47.0	47.2	49.1	47.7	42.5	48.5	49.3
Index No.	100	126	132	146	168	189	204	226	251	293	311
Pay and allowances of Armed Forces (2)—
£m.	0.9	57.9	48.3	40.0	8.2	6.4	4.3	4.6	6.1	9.5	12.0
Per cent	0.4	17.5	14.2	11.1	2.1	1.4	0.9	0.9	0.9	1.4	1.7
Social security benefits and pensions (22)—
£m.	7.7	15.8	17.6	20.9	34.8	37.6	39.5	42.6	47.5	53.5	54.2
Per cent	3.9	4.8	5.2	5.8	8.8	8.5	8.5	8.1	7.3	8.0	7.7
Index No.	100	205	229	271	452	488	513	553	617	695	704
Rental value of owner-occupied houses (3)—
£m.	6.2	8.3	8.8	9.1	9.3	9.6	10.5	11.2	13.3	15.1	16.1
Per cent	3.1	2.5	2.6	2.5	2.3	2.2	2.3	2.1	2.0	2.2	2.3
Index No.	100	134	142	147	150	155	169	181	215	244	260
Other personal income^† (excluding company dividends) (4)—
£m.	54.3	72.1	79.6	87.1	109.8	128.7	133.4	158.8	240.0	191.7	195.8
Per cent	27.2	21.8	23.5	24.1	27.7	28.9	28.9	30.2	36.6	28.6	27.9
Index No.	100	133	147	160	202	237	246	292	442	353	361
Company income (before distribution) (5)—
£m.	19.5	36.4	37.9	41.7	47.9	52.4	47.8	57.8	70.3	75.6	76.9
Per cent	9.8	11.0	11.2	11.6	12.1	11.8	10.3	11.0	10.7	11.3	11.0
Index No.	100	187	194	214	246	269	245	296	361	388	394
Private income (26)—
£m.	199.8	330.9	339.1	360.6	396.3	444.9	462.4	526.5	656.1	670.5	700.6
Per cent	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Index No.	100	166	170	180	198	223	231	264	328	336	351

The distribution of private income, as indicated by this table, is affected to a considerable extent by the movement in the item “pay and allowances of the Armed Forces” over the period. In 1943–44, the peak war year, 17.5 per cent of total private income was received in this form. Its effects on aggregate “salary and wage payments” of civilians, which decreased as a percentage of private income from 55.6 per cent in 1938–39 to 42.4 per cent in 1943–44, and “other personal income,” which decreased similarly from 27.2 per cent to 21.8 per cent over the same years, can be clearly seen. It is usual to regard pay and allowances of the Armed Forces as similar to salary and wage payments, but if this is done it has the effect of temporarily inflating “salary and wage payments” at the expense of “other personal income “, since many Armed Forces personnel are not salary and wage-earners as civilians. This can lead to misleading results where a series of years covering a war and post-war period is being considered and consequently care must be used in interpreting the figures shown. Ignoring pay and allowances of the Armed Forces and considering only the post-war period, the percentage of salary and wages to private income was exceptionally low in 1950–51 (42.5 per cent), but rose again to 48.5 per cent in 1951–52 and 49.3 per cent in 1952–53. This brought it back to an average level for post-war years though still below the only recorded pre-war percentage (55.6 per cent in 1938–39).

Another item which has played an important part in altering the distribution of private income is “social security benefits and pensions “, which, as a percentage of private income increased from 3.9 per cent in 1938–39 to a peak of 8.8 per cent in 1946–47. Since then it has remained a little above 8 per cent, except in 1950–51 and 1952–53, when it fell to 7.3 and 7.7 per cent respectively. If these payments arc considered as supplements to normal earned incomes then they have the effect of reducing the difference between the pre-war and post-war proportions going to salary and wage earners, a major portion of social security benefits and pensions being received by this group. However, such adjustments go past the present analysis of private income, which is a study of the distribution of “factor incomes” rather than the distribution of incomes received by various income-earning groups—i.e., “salary and wage payments” not “income of salary and wage earners “—are being considered here.

Company incomes which in 1947–48 stood at over two and a half times their 1938–39 level actually decreased in 1948–49 from £52.4m. to £47.8m. Since then the figure has risen each year to reach £75.6m. in 1951–52 and £76.9m. in 1952–53. Expressed as a percentage of private income, company income has fluctuated less than any other item.

On the other hand, other personal incomes, which rose very sharply in 1950–51 owing to the exceptionally large increase in farmers' incomes, dropped by over £48m. in 1951–52. The percentage of other personal income to total private income was 36.6 per cent in 1950–51: in 1951–52 the percentage fell to an average peace-time level of 28.6 per cent, with a further decline to 27.9 per cent in 1952–53.

The percentage increase in other personal incomes over the 15-year period was 261 per cent, as compared with 294 per cent in company incomes and 211 per cent in salary and wage payments.

Total private income has increased from £200m. in 1938–39 to £701m. in 1952–53 (251 per cent).

Movements in private income over the period 1938–39 to 1952–53 are illustrated in the graph below.

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses before the items refer to those in the tables given on pages 657–659.

The Effects of Taxation on the Distribution of Private Income.—The redistributive effects of taxation on private income, especially by the use of steeply progressive taxation rates, can be very great. Before examining the effects on New Zealand private income, however, it is of value to compare total taxation with private income and obtain some idea of the extent to which private income is affected by this transfer to the State.

The following table shows total taxation expressed as a percentage of private income for each of the years 1938–39 and 1943–44 to 1952–53.

PRIVATE INCOME AND TOTAL TAXATION £(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1944–45	1945–46	1946–47	1947–48	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Provisional. † Excluding direct taxes paid by Government trading departments.
Private income (26)	199.8	330.9	339.1	360.6	396.3	444.9	462.4	526.5	656.1	670.5	700.6
Direct taxation (28)^†	23.8	75.5	81.2	85.0	78.2	77.4	93.6	95.6	113.1	141.6	145.1
Indirect taxation (10)	20.6	31.8	34.0	37.3	43.0	53.0	46.1	49.8	55.6	71.0	67.0
Less subsidies (11)	−0.6	−3.1	−4.6	−6.6	−11.8	−13.6	−11.5	−14.6	−9.4	−15.2	−15.0
Total taxation less subsidies^†	43.8	104.2	110.6	115.7	109.4	116.8	128.2	130.8	159.3	197.4	197.1
Total taxation as a percentage of private income	21.9	31.5	32.6	32.1	27.6	26.3	27.7	24.8	24.3	29.4	28.1

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 657–659.

Subsidies in this table are treated as negative indirect taxes and deducted from total taxation. Taxation less subsidies as a percentage of private income increased steadily throughout the war years from 21.9 per cent in 1938–39 to a peak of 32.6 per cent in 1944–45. Immediately following the war, with the reduction in the war loading on income tax from 33⅓ per cent to 15 per cent, and the removal of the national security charge, the percentage decreased steadily to 26.3 per cent of private income in 1947–48, but in the next three years fluctuated about this level. These fluctuations can largely be attributed to the fact that total taxation in any one year represents actual taxation receipts for that year. In the case of certain taxes—e.g., income tax—receipts for one year are in respect of income earned in the previous year. To this extent income earned is compared with tax paid from that income, and not with tax paid in respect of that income. Thus in 1948–49, although private income showed only a very small increase, taxation receipts increased considerably, due to increased revenue from income tax assessed on 1947–48 incomes which were substantially higher than the 1946–47 level; the result was that the percentage of taxation less subsidies to private income rose by 1.4 per cent to 27.7 per cent.

In 1949–50, when private income showed a considerable increase as compared with 1948–49, the increase in taxation (mainly assessed on income in 1948–49, when company income, a major source of taxation, showed a fall) is compared with a proportionately greater increased private income total. The result is a drop in the percentage to the relatively low figure of 24.8 per cent.

In 4950–51 there was an exceptionally rapid rise of private income owing to high wool prices. Taxation on the other hand was based mainly on incomes before the wool prices rose. This, combined with some concessions in tax rates, brought the percentage to its lowest post-war level of 24.3 per cent. On the other hand, in 1951–52 taxation receipts showed a substantial increase on account of the 1950–51 high wool prices, whereas some private incomes were reduced due to the lower prices in 1951–52. As a result the percentage of taxation to private income was higher than for any year since 1945–46. The latest year has been affected to a lesser extent by abnormal income fluctuations, and taxation as a percentage of private income has declined to 28.1 per cent.

Included in both income and taxation figures in the preceding table are certain transfer payments from the private sector to Government as taxation, and from the Government back to the private sector as social security benefits, pensions, and interest on the public debt. Taxation raised for such purposes is not a true indication of the contribution by the private sector as a whole to the cost of Government services. Therefore, in the next table such transfer items have been eliminated both from taxation and from incomes, the remainders then being compared to give the true picture of the real contribution made to the State from private income.

The accompanying diagram shows private income and its relation to taxation.

The payment of non-monetary social security benefits also has the effect of disturbing the comparison between taxation and private income in the years before and after their introduction. The aggregate of private income before taxation is not affected by the change, the only difference being that former direct payments for services rendered by doctors, etc., are now largely paid by the Government from the proceeds of taxation. For the purposes of the following table, payments of this nature by the Government are deducted from total taxation before obtaining a true comparison with total private income.

PRIVATE INCOME AND TOTAL TAXATION (EXCLUDING TRANSFER INCOMES AND PAYMENTS) £(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1944–45	1945–46	1946–47	1947–48	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53
* Provisional. † Excluding mental hospital benefits.
Private income before tax (26)	199.8	330.9	339.1	360.6	396.3	444.9	462.4	526.5	656.1	670.5	700.6
Less transfer payments (8 + 22)	−14.7	−27.1	−30.5	−34.7	−49.9	−52.9	−550	−58.8	−64.4	−70.9	−71.2
Private income (excluding transfer payments)	185.1	303.8	308.6	325.9	346.4	392.0	407.4	467.7	591.7	599.6	629.4
Total taxation (less subsidies)	43.8	104.2	110.6	115.7	109.4	116.8	128.2	130.8	159.3	197.4	197.1
Less—
Transfer payments (as above)	−14.7	−27.1	−30.5	−34.7	−49.9	−52.9	−55.0	−58.8	−64.4	−70.9	−71.2
Non-monetary social security benefits^†		−4.5	−5.0	−5.6	−6.2	−7.0	−7.9	−8.5	−8.7	−9.4	−10.4
Total taxation (excluding transfer payments and subsidies)	29.1	72.6	75.1	75.4	53.3	56.9	65.3	63.5	86.2	117.1	115.5
Total taxation as a percentage of private income (excluding transfer payments)	15.7	23.9	24.3	23.1	15.4	14.5	16.0	13.6	14.6	19.5	18.4

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 657–659.

The incidence of direct taxation on the various “factor income” groups comprising private income is shown in the next table. The balance in each case represents disposable income and the deduction of direct taxation from private income gives the concept of private disposable income.

PRIVATE INCOME AND INCIDENCE OF DIRECT TAXATION £(million)

—	1938–39	1943–44	1944–45	1945–46	1946–47	1947–48	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional. † Excludes direct taxes on Government trading profits.
Salary and wage payments (1)	111.1	140.4	147.0	161.8	186.3	210.1	226.9	251.4	278.8	325.2	345.7
Less direct taxes	4.9	23.4	24.3	26.6	23.8	23.6	24.7	26.5	32.5	36.8	37.4
Net totals	106.2	1170	122.7	135.2	162.5	186.5	202.2	224.9	246.3	288.4	308.3
Pay and allowances of Armed Forces (2)	0.9	57.9	48.3	40.0	8.2	6.4	4.3	4.6	6.1	9.5	12.0
Less direct taxes		3.5	3.8	3.3	1.2	0.4	0.5	0.5	0.6	0.9	1.1
Net totals	0.9	54.4	44.5	36.7	7.0	6.0	3.8	4.1	5.5	8.6	10.9
Social security benefits and pensions (22)	7.7	15.8	17.6	20.9	34.8	37.6	39.5	42.6	47.5	53.5	54.2
Other personal income (including rental value of owner-occupied houses) (3 + 4)	60.5	80.4	88.4	96.2	119.1	138.3	143.9	170.0	253.3	206.8	211.9
Less direct taxes	11.8	25.9	26.4	29.6	29.2	31.0	37.9	39.5	47.9	66.2	66.5
Net totals	48.7	54.5	62.0	66.6	89.9	107.3	106.0	130.5	205.4	140.6	145.4
Company income (before distribution) (5)	19.5	36.4	37.9	41.7	47.9	52.4	47.8	57.8	70.3	75.6	76.9
Less direct taxes	7.1	22.7	26.6	25.5	24.0	22.5	30.5	29.1	32.1	37.7	40.0
Net totals	12.4	13.7	11.3	16.2	23.9	29.9	17.3	28.7	38.2	37.9	36.9
Private income (26)	199.8	330.9	339.1	360.6	396.3	444.9	462.4	526.5	656.1	670.5	700.6
Less direct taxes (28)^†	23.8	75.5	81.2	85.0	78.2	77.4	93.6	95.6	113.1	141.6	145.1
Private disposable income	176.0	255.4	257.9	275.6	318.1	367.5	368.8	430.9	543.0	528.9	555.5

NOTE.—The numbers in parentheses after the items refer to items in the tables given on pages 657–659.

The effect of direct taxation in altering the distribution of the factor incomes is shown quite clearly by a comparison of the table given next with the table on page 664. Both show similar detail, the table presented earlier giving private income before tax and the table following after tax, expressed in value form, as percentages of total private disposable income, and as index numbers on base 1938–39 (= 100). For the purposes of the latter table it is necessary to group “rental value of owner-occupied houses” with “other personal income.”

PRIVATE DISPOSABLE INCOME

—	1938–39	1943–44	1944–45	1945–46	1946–47	1947–48	1948–49	1949–50	1950–51	1951–52	1952–53^*
* Provisional. NOTE.—The value totals given in this table are those derived in the table given above.
Salary and wage payments—
£m.	106.2	117.0	122.7	135.2	162.5	186.5	202.2	224.9	246.3	288.4	308.3
Per cent	60.3	45.8	47.6	49.1	51.1	50.7	54.8	52.2	45.4	54.5	55.5
Index No.	100	110	116	127	153	176	190	212	232	272	290
Pay and allowances of Armed Forces—
£m.	0.9	54.4	44.5	36.7	7.0	6.0	3.8	4.1	5.5	8.6	10.9
Per cent	0.5	21.3	17.3	13.3	2.2	1.6	1.0	1.0	1.0	1.6	2.0
Social security benefits and pensions—
£m.	7.7	15.8	17.6	20.9	34.8	37.6	39.5	42.6	47.5	53.5	54.2
Per cent	4.4	6.2	6.8	7.6	11.0	10.2	10.7	9.9	8.7	10.1	9.8
Index No.	100	205	229	271	452	488	513	553	617	695	704
Other personal income (including rental
value of owner-occupied houses)—
£m.	48.7	54.5	62.0	66.6	89.9	107.3	106.0	130.5	205.4	140.6	145.4
Per cent	27.7	21.3	24.0	14.7	28.3	29.2	28.7	30.3	37.8	26.6	26.2
Index No.	100	112	127	137	185	220	218	268	422	289	299
Company income (before distribution)—
£m.	12.4	13.7	11.3	16.2	23.9	29.9	17.3	28.7	38.2	37.9	36.9
Per cent	7.0	5.4	4.4	5.9	7.5	8.1	4.7	6.7	7.0	7.2	6.6
Index No.	100	110	91	131	193	241	140	231	308	306	298
Private disposable income—
£m.	175.9	255.4	258.1	275.6	318.1	367.3	368.8	430.9	543.0	528.9	555.7
Per cent	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0	100.0
Index No.	100	145	147	157	181	209	210	245	309	301	316

Reviewing the period given in these tables, the percentage increases in incomes before deduction of taxation compared with those after deduction (shown in parentheses) are as follows: salary and wages, 211 (190) per cent; other personal incomes, 261 (199) per cent; and company incomes, 294 (198) per cent.

Whereas “salary and wage payments” (including pay and allowances of the Armed Forces) formed 51.0 per cent of private income before tax in 1952–53, “other personal income” (including rental value of owner-occupied houses) 30.2 per cent, and “company income” 11.0 per cent, these proportions changed to 57.5 per cent, 26.2 per cent, and 6.6 per cent respectively after deduction of direct taxes, and expressed as a percentage of private disposable income. A factor of some importance which affects the comparability of these figures is the introduction of non-monetary social security benefits over the period. Taxation taken to pay for these benefits reduces private disposable income, but at the same time this income is indirectly increased by a reduction in private expenditure on the items covered by the benefits. It is not feasible to make any allowance for this factor at this point, but it should be borne in mind.

29 B—INDUSTRY SECTOR ACCOUNTS

INTRODUCTORY.—The most striking advance made in recent years in the presentation of economic statistics has been the growth, in most countries, of some form of social accounting. It involves a comprehensive and detailed accounting of the nation's economic transactions. An analysis of this nature provides a background of statistical data indispensable to a proper understanding of current economic trends and, perhaps even more important, it enables informed estimates of probable future trends to be made. Full information of the nature and a proposed schemata for the construction of social accounts appears in a publication by the United Nations Organization, wherein social accounting is briefly defined as follows:

“Instead of seeking to build up a single total, such as the national income, an investigation is first made of the classification of accounting entities, of the types of accounts that they keep, and of the transactions into which they enter. In this way all the transacting entities of an economic system are classified into broad sectors such as productive enterprises, financial intermediaries, and final consumers, and a series of accounts for each o. these sectors is set up, in which the separate entries represent economically distinct categories of transactions, actual or imputed, between accounts. The national income and other similar aggregates are obtained from the system by selecting and combining the constituent entries in the accounts”.

In the 1953 Year-Book accounts of three industrial sectors, Farming, Manufacturing, and Building and Construction, were published; the present issue enlarges the field by the publication “of the following four sectors: Mining, Forestry and Logging and Other Primary (which together with the Farming Sector complete that portion of the economy commonly called “Primary Industry”), and the Transport and Communications Industry Sector. Work on other accounts is being continued.

The present programme of work aims at showing a dissection of the economy into eighteen sectors based on the United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification. The following list shows the accounts which will be published:

Farming
Forestry and Logging
Other Primary
Mining
Manufacturing—
1. Primary Produce Processing Industries
2. Other Manufacturing
Building and Construction
Public Utilities (Electricity, Gas, Water, and Sanitary Services)
Transportation and Communications
Wholesale and Retail Trade
Banking and Insurance
Ownership of Dwellings
Government—
1. Administration
2. Defence
13. Services
14. Households
15. Rest of the World
16. Capital Account

In setting out the sector accounts the aim is to show—

On the income side, an analysis of the sales of goods and services produced by the sector according to whether they are sold for personal consumption, transferred to other industries for use as materials for further production, exported, or used for capital investment.
On the expenditure side, a split-up of this revenue to show the return to the factors of production (i.e., the earnings of labour, management, enterprise, and capital) which assisted in producing the goods and services, the cost and sources of materials operated on, the cost of services provided by the “servicing” sectors of the economy, and the amounts set aside as depreciation allowances.

Other items such as indirect taxation, subsidies, and changes in stocks fit into this approach quite readily, and are shown separately, as they are items in the national income estimates.

Each new sector account which is presented provides an analysis of a further portion of New Zealand's national product. It shows what proportion of the total of national production has been contributed by the industry, and indicates for that industry the relationship between its total output and various income and expenditure items which appear in the national income and national expenditure estimates. The expenditure side shows the source of some of the factor incomes which appear in the analysis of National Income in the table on page 657, and on the revenue side the destination of some of the expenditure items which appear in the same table.

When all sector accounts are completed, it will be possible to prepare a national product table side by side with those given for national income and national expenditure, but broken up to show the amount contributed to the national product by each industry sector. More important, it will be possible by tracing income and expenditure through the sector accounts to follow much more closely the inter-relationship between the various income and expenditure items given in the table on page 657.

Out of a net national output (net national income at factor cost) of £617m. in 1951–52, £389.5m. is accounted for in the following way:

INDUSTRY SECTOR	£m.
Farming	157.0
Forestry and logging	4.8
Mining	5.2
Other Primary	2.4
Manufacturing	138.1
Building and Construction	32.3
Transport and Communications	49.7
Total	389.5

The difference between this figure and net national income at factor cost—viz., £227m.—remains to be accounted for by the construction of further sector accounts.

Government Activities.—It should be noted that the General Government and local authorities account (page 658) and the private income and outlay account (page 658) are compiled on a different basis from that used for the industry sector accounts. The purpose of the subdivision between the Government and private sectors is to distinguish all Government current financial transactions from those of private enterprise and of households. The Government account thus relates to all current Government activities except those of a capital nature, irrespective of whether they relate to farming, to manufacturing, or to the provision of social or administrative services, etc. On the other hand, the industry sector accounts relate to all farming, or manufacturing, or building and construction activities, irrespective of whether they are carried out by Government or by private enterprise. When all industry sector accounts are completed, the whole range of Government activities will be accounted for in one or other of them. For this purpose the main function of Government, which can be taken as the provision of administrative and social services, will be regarded as a servicing industry, and will form a distinguishable sector similar to other servicing industries, such as transport or wholesale and retail trade. The figures shown in this Government administrative sector account (including local authorities) will exclude those portions of Government activities which can be regarded as farming, manufacturing, building and construction, transport, etc.

Companies.—Company activities are included in the sector accounts of the industries with which they are concerned, in the same way as Government activities.

Salary and Wages.—Some confusion may arise in relating salary and wages, as shown in the sector accounts, to the total of salary and wage payments, which forms item 1 on page 657. In the sector accounts it is considered advisable, in order to obtain a salary and wage payout which is comparable with the labour force engaged in the industry, to include an imputed amount for the equivalent salary and wages earned by the working proprietors. This amount is shown separately from the actual salary and wage payments made to employees because it is an arbitrary assessment. The purpose of the assessment is, of course, to separate out from the balance of income which remains after payment of expenses that portion which can be regarded as being a reward for the proprietors' own work, and is not therefore a true surplus or profit. The effect is to reduce the amount shown as surplus in the sector accounts. The salary and wage total given in item 1 will be roughly equivalent to the sum of the amounts shown as salary and wages paid to employees in the various sector accounts. The equivalence is not exact because part of the labour reward of working proprietors is drawn regularly in the same manner as salary and wages, and therefore cannot be distinguished from salary and wages in preparing the national income estimates.

Surplus.—In each sector account the surplus as shown includes rent and interest as well as what is usually understood as profit. On the other hand, as discussed above, an attempt is made to exclude the salary or wage equivalent of the work done by working proprietors. This surplus represents gross receipts, plus increases in stocks, less labour rewards, less costs of materials and services used in production, and less depreciation.

Sector Accounts are Provisional.—The relationship between sector account items and national income totals has already been referred to, but it should be understood that at this stage the sector accounts are provisional and have not been reconciled with national income estimates. This applies both to that portion of the accounts which shows “net output at factor cost” and to all other items which show gross transactions with other sectors of the economy.

It must be emphasized that substantial revisions must be expected in future. There are several reasons for this. The most important of these is that in the past year the Census and Statistics Department has changed over to the International Standard Industrial Classification, with the result that certain industries will have to be transferred from one sector to another. To quote an instance, electricity generation and distribution and gas supply, which now form part of the Manufacturing Industry Sector, will be transferred to Public Utilities. The same applies to one or two servicing industries now included in the Manufacturing Sector. Furthermore, it is intended—as shown earlier in the introductory notes—to re-institute a division between manufacturing industries processing farm products and other manufacturing industries. Also, as further accounts are being completed—estimates for each being